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voice signals of emotion, as well as showing photographs depicting the various facial expressions for each emotion.

In addition to the facial and vocal emotion signals, there are also emotional impulses to physical action that can be recognized. I believe they are just as universal as the expressions in the face and voice, although there has not been much research about them. I will describe them briefly here because they are not as familiar to us as the facial and vocal expressions. In anger and also in some forms of enjoyment there is an impulse to move closer to the emotion trigger. In fear there is an impulse to freeze if that will avoid detection, or to get out of harm's way if it won't. There is a similar impulse in disgust, but I think it is not as strong; the point seems to be not so much trying to move away as it is getting rid of the offensive object. For example, people may turn away if the offensive object is visual; they may gag or even vomit if it is gustatory or olfactory. In sadness, but not in anguish, there is a loss of overall muscle tone; the posture slumps in withdrawal, without action. In contempt there is an impulse to look down upon the object of contempt. In surprise and in wonderment there is fixed attention on the object of the emotion. In relief there is a relaxation of body posture; in tactile sensory pleasure there is a movement toward the source of the stimulation, and in the other sensory pleasures there is an orientation toward the source of the stimulation, although no movement may occur other than the direction of the person's glance. Watching athletes make a difficult point suggests that there may be an impulse for action, often involving the hands, in the moment when one takes pride in having achieved something. The laughter that often occurs during intense amusement produces repetitive bodily movements, together with the laughing spasms. None of these impulses to action8 would technically be considered signals, because they have not been elaborated over the course of our evolution specifically for the purpose of conveying information clearly. I have described them here because they can provide us with information about what emotion is occurring. They are involuntary, like the facial and vocal emotion signals, but probably much easier to inhibit. Like the facial and vocal signals, they are universal and preset, in the sense that we do not need to learn them.

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