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NATURE OF LIGHT To explain the nature of light and propagation of light there are several theories, they are

as 1 Newtons corpuscular theory. ( 1660 ) Postulates (a) Every source of light emits very small particles which are said to be corpuscles. (b) Corpuscles are weightless, perfectly elastic, small particles. (c) The corpuscles travel in a straight line in a medium. (d) Their velocity is constant in a medium as the medium changes their velocity changes velocity of corpuscles is higher in denser medium. (e) The corpuscles do not interact like matter particles. (f) When the corpuscles come to the boundary of any medium they feel ether attraction or repulsion. Attraction causes Refraction and repulsion causes reflection. (g) Size of corpuscles are different in different size having different colours with them say dispersion of light is because of diff. Size of corpuscles. SHORT COMING (a) By this theory of light reflection, refraction were explained but interference diffraction were not explained. (b) The velocity of light is more in the rarer medium. Which was opposite to . theory of corpuscles. Huygens wave theory ( 1678 ) According to this theory following main points were . 01. Every source of light emits small waves in all directions continuously . 02. The wave are mechanical waves and they need a medium for propagation. 03. An imaginary medium ether was considered which is present every where. Ether was perfectly elastic & denser medium. 04.The nature of light waves was taken longitudinal which was corrected by Fresnel to explain the property of light known as polarisation. And the nature was taken as transverse. 05.The waves emitted by any source will from a wave front in a medium at any time. WAVE FRONT Wave front The continuous locus of all particles of a medium which are vibrating in the same phase. Source of light waves sends out pulse or disturbance in all directions in a homogeneous medium velocity of light waves in all direction is equal, hence disturbance reaches at the same time to the particles of medium at equal distance from source. So the particles will vibrate in a phase. The locus of all such particles is being called wave front. Types of wave from Spherical wave front Source is point source

Cylindrical wave front When sources is linear or in the form of slit. Plane wave front When point source is at a long distance then a part of spherical wave front appears to be plane wave front. 6. The particles of medium which have come at wave front produce the other small waves which are said to be secondary wavelets. The wavelets from the wave front after wards and thus energy is transferred in medium from one to the another place. 07.The phenomenon of reflection, refraction interference, diffraction were explained correctly by this theory. 08. By this theory velocity of light was max. in air and velocity decreases as density increases . 09. On the basis of assumption of ether Michelson-Morley conducted the Experiment to find the presence of ether and the results were not in favour of ether so the assumption and requirement of medium for propagation was rejected. Explanation of reflection by Huygens principle

(1) AB = Incident plane wave front (2) M1M2 = Reflecting surface. (3) 1,2,3 = Incident rays perpendicular to wave from AB (4) As the A end of wave front meets the reflecting surface but B end will meet the surface later. Let the time is t and velocity of light is c then BA = C x t. In the time t the A end will return back and will be at the position B so AB = C x t. (5) Let A N and AN are normals on the reflecting surface at A & A respectively. Let E A N = t = BAP Because EAB = NAP = 90 (6) By ABA and AAB i=r AB,M1M2 & AB are perpendicular to plane of paper Explanation of refraction of light by Huygens principle

(1) XY is the boundry of separation of two medium upper medium is rarer and velocity of light in it is C 1. Lower medium is denser medium and velocity of light in it is C2. (2) A end of AB incident wave front meets the boundary but B end will be meet t time later. But A end will be at B in the second medium. So BA = C1 x t AB = C2 x t 3. Now by ABA & ABA Sin C = C1t / AA Sin r = C2t/ AA Sin C / Sin r = C1 / C2 = Snells law 4. Incident reflecting wave front and normal are in a plane. MAXWELLS ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY ( 1873) According to this theory light waves are electromagnetic waves so they can travel In vacuum also so ether is not present and not needed also. PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES . 1. In the electromagnetic wave E.F. & M.F. both are having S.H.M. in a phase. 2. The E.M. waves can propagate in vacuum . 3. Velocity of E.M. waves in vacuum equal to velocity of light in vacuum. 4. E.M. waves are transverse in nature and electric field & M.F. are perpendicular to direction of propagation of wave. 5. In the E.M. waves the value of E.F. & M.F. will be in a constant ratio which depends on nature of the medium. The ratio of magnitude of E.F. & M.F. is said to be characteristic. Impedance and its value is 120 ohm or 377 ohm 6. Velocity of E.M. waves in the vacuum C

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The refractive index of the medium for these waves will be n n= Velocity of E.M. waves in vacuum Velocity of E.M. waves in medium

This formula is correct for the mediums for which dispersion does not take place. 8. Experimental verification of E.M. wave was done by Hertz in 1887 EINSTEINS QUANTUM THEORY On the basis of planks theory of radiations, Einstein has given a theory for light in 1905. 1. Light is in the form of energy packets which are said to be photons or quanta.The energy with a photon is E E = h Where h = planks constant = frequency of photon. The phenomenon like Compton effect , Raman effect, photo electric effect are explained on basis of quantum theory. 02. This theory explains emission and absorption of light. Dual nature of light by De Broglie . 01.According to this theory light is having dual nature one is wave nature and other is particle or quantum nature. 02.To explain the properties of light like interference, diffraction, polarisation

wave nature of light is used. 03. To explain the interaction of light with matter particles (atoms, molecules,& elementary particles) quantum nature of light is taken. 04. The modern quantum theory can explain the dual nature of light . COHERENT SOURCES OF LIGHT The sources of light which emit the light waves of equal wave length, equal frequency and in a phase or having constant phase difference are said to be Coherent sources. If the sources are not coherent we will not get stable interference pattern. This can be understood as follows R2 = a12 + a22 + 2a1 a2 Cos And I = KR2 I R2 I a12 + a22 + 2a1 a2 Cos If a1 = a2 = a I 2a2 (1 + Cos ) I 4a2 Cos2 (/2 ) I Cos2 (/2 ) Where is the phase different between two waves reaching at a given time and at a given place. Now = 1 + 2 1 = Initial phase difference between two sources S1 & S2 2 = Phase difference due to path difference of waves coming. If is not constant and changes rapidly and randomly with time for a point/place then there will be constructive interference some time and distractive interference some time. So average value of intensity will be I = (Imax + Imin) = I1 + I2 Hence no interference effect will be observed. Thus coherent sources are must for interference of light. Two independent coherent sources of light are not possible Light is emitted from any atom when it returns to ground state after being excited by heat or electric discharge. Even the smallest source of light is having very large number of atoms so they can not produce the light wave in same phase. Laser differs from common light sources in that atoms emit light in a co-operative manner so light emitted is monochromatic and sources are coherent. Conditions for obtaining two coherent sources of light (1)Coherent sources of light must be received from single source of light using some device. (2) The two sources should give monochromatic light. (3) The path difference between the light waves from two sources should be small. Methods of getting coherent sources Division of wave front Division of amplitude Division of wave front Any wave front is divided in two wave fronts by reflection or refraction. These two parts will be having super position after traveling different paths so will produce the effect of interference. The two parts of wave front will be like apparent coherent sources. For this division wave front must be from narrow source of light. Ex. (1) Youngs double slit experiment. (2) Fresnels bi prism experiment. Division of Amplitude Any wave from broad source is divided in two parts by partly reflection and partly refraction of light. These two parts will be having super position afterwards and produces the effect of interference. These two parts of light are like coherent sources. Ex. (1) Newtons ring experiment. (2) Michalson interferometer.

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