Running head: Crone, Loja, Mourselas, Pierson, & Stewart

INCLUSION IN SCHOOLS

Inclusion in Schools Trisha E. Crone, Charmaine L. Loja, Anthea K. Mourselas, Jessica K. Pierson, & James N. Stewart Touro University Nevada

Crone, Loja, Mourselas, Pierson, & Stewart Introduction

INCLUSION IN SCHOOLS

Today, one out of 88 children born are diagnosed with autism or autism spectrum disorder (ASD) before the age of three years old (Autism Speaks), increasing the number of students with ASD being educated in classrooms across the United States. Often these students are educated in self-contained autism classrooms and are separated from their nondisabled peers for a majority of the school day. Statistics show that inclusion is an appropriate educational setting that is beneficial to students with various disabilities (Case-Smith & OBrien, 2010). The school-based occupational therapist (OT) needs to be aware of how inclusion may benefit both the student with ASD and the teacher. The OT should know the available educational settings allowed in school and which will help students succeed academically and socially. The purpose of this qualitative research study is to determine the possible advantages and disadvantages of full inclusion of students with autism in the general education classroom. We are specifically asking the question, how do stakeholders feel about a full inclusion classroom setting for students with ASD? We are defining full inclusion in this study as spending the entire school day in the general education classroom. Using an ethnography approach, inclusion will be explored from the perspective of parents of children with ASD, general education and special education teachers, OTs, and speech language pathologists (SLPs). This study will help guide all stakeholders in their collaboration of selecting the appropriate setting for the student with ASD. Literature Review The purpose of the special education classroom is to provide appropriate education to students who cannot fully participate in the general classrooms. Students in special education classrooms are able to participate with their nondisabled peers in one of two ways. The first is social inclusion, defined as the student with ASD spending a portion of their day with general

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education peers, usually for music, physical education, art, and recess. The second is full inclusion, in which the student with ASD is placed in a general education setting and expected to learn the curriculum alongside nondisabled peers. School professionals are debating the topic of inclusion across the nation. Educational researchers have studied the opinions of special education teachers, general education teachers, parents, and students without disabilities on whether inclusion is an asset to schools that are moving towards an all-inclusive classroom setting. Rodrguez, Saldaa, and Moreno (2012) discussed how the majority of teachers have a positive outlook on inclusion while general education students and parents of children with special needs are more divided. They found that many teachers feel that having a child with special needs in their classroom adds a challenge to their job, but a challenge that is achievable. They also discussed how many teachers have expressed interest in special education training, especially if they work in a more inclusive school setting. Teachers feel the more education they receive the stronger teacher they become (Rodrguez, Saldaa, & Moreno 2012). One interesting statistic is that the teachers who are provided an aide for children with special needs have a higher opinion of inclusion than teachers who are not provided an aide (Jones & Frederickson, 2010). Litvack, Ritchie, and Shore stated that over half of general education students know an individual who has what the student consider a special need; however, 75% of these students claim that they have no classroom interaction with a special needs child (2011). In their particular study performed in an all-inclusive school, roughly half of the students who participated believed that having a child with special needs in the classroom affected their overall educational experience in a negative way (Litvack, Ritchie, & Shore, 2011). Kasari, Freeman, Bauminger, and Alkin discussed how parents of children with special

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needs are divided into 50% who want their child participate in social inclusion, but not fully integrated into a general classroom, and 50% who want their child to be in an inclusive classroom setting (1999). They also stated that parents of children with ASD fear their childs needs would not be met if they were in general education classroom full time. The authors also noted that parents did favor partial inclusion, defined as the student participating in the general classroom for certain subjects. Many parents felt that a special education teacher has more education that directly addresses their childs needs, although most parents agreed that they would be more inclined to put their child in an inclusive classroom if their child had an aide who could stay with them throughout the school day (Kasari, Freeman, Bauminger, & Alkin, 1999). A common fear among these parents is peer rejection or humiliation if their child is included in the general classroom. Both parents and teachers believe that in order for inclusion to work it has to fit the students emotional needs (Anrora, Fuller, Nelson, & Palmer, 2001). In other words, the student with ASD needs to enjoy being in the general education classroom. Not all children thrive in a general classroom environment. It is important to find the best educational environment to help promote both educational skills and social skills (Anrora, Fuller, Nelson, & Palmer, 2001). Unknown The current research provides a rich depth of understanding of how different stakeholders view inclusion. Although current research discusses the effectiveness of inclusion, researchers fail to describe if its effectiveness, or ineffectiveness, influences stakeholders decisions on the educational placement of the student with ASD. Also of note, no studies presented the OTs perspective of inclusion.

Crone, Loja, Mourselas, Pierson, & Stewart Synthesis

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This study discusses how various stakeholders feel about full inclusion classrooms and the potential effect on families with children who have ASD. Understanding the views of all stakeholders will provide greater collaboration and guidance toward selecting the most appropriate educational setting for the student with ASD. Schools are in a transition today between special education programs and inclusion. This is a strong topic for schools today in the light of changes to No Child Left Behind Act as of 2013, where schools are no longer bound by federal law to meet standards but can be bound by state requirements. This research paper will also include how the OT views inclusion and self-contained classrooms, an important stakeholder whose perspective is missing in current literature. Methodology Research Design There is little to no qualitative research that compares the perspectives of different stakeholders on full inclusion of students with ASD. Most studies focus on the perspective of the parents or teachers, either in special education or general education, separately. No study has analyzed these perspectives together, alongside the perspective of related service personnel. This study was designed to provide a better understanding of why stakeholders are in favor of or against including children with ASD in the general education classroom. We are using an ethnography approach due to the in-depth experiences from individuals who work closely with students with ASD in the classroom. These individuals understand how self-contained educational classrooms function compared to full-inclusion classrooms. They can also relate to both the benefits and limitations of inclusion. By using an ethnographic approach, the study can experience different school personals and parents experiences and knowledge

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about how feasible inclusion is in schools today. Each stakeholder has a direct influence on whether a student will be included in general education, each stakeholder differing in their reasons for or against inclusion. Participants Severn participants involved were used in this study, including five women and two men, with an age range of 27 to 56 years. They included two OTs currently working in a school setting, one SLP with a past experience as a special education teacher, one pre-kindergarten teacher, and three parents of school-aged children with ASD. For further participant information see chart in Appendix A. Recruitment Method Participants were recruited from a pool of the authors; friends and colleagues. All participants had experience with inclusion in some capacity and were informed about the study before interviews were conducted. Each participant gave informed consent to participate in the study and agreed to have their interviews recorded. Participants were also assured that their confidentiality would not be violated and any identifying information would be changed. Data Collection Participants engaged in a single, in-depth interview. Interviews were used because perceptions of others are mainly understood by listening to participants and their past experiences. Stake (2010) provides a rationale for using an interview format by stating, But we know, too, that people with special experiencecan understand things better than people with formal research training. Fortunate is the researcher who learns how to use the assistance of people with special experience (p. 57). The researchers determined that other methods of data collection would not provide detailed information that would help understand various

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stakeholders perceptions of inclusion. Interviews were conducted between December 21, 2012 and January 4, 2013. The length of each interview ranged from 20 minutes to one hour. The time of each interview was dependent on how willing participants were to share their views and experiences. Participants selected interview sites, which included participants offices and homes. Interviews were conducted in a semi-structured manner using a list of eight questions that the researchers developed to help guide the interview process. Participants were asked about their experiences with students with ASD and views on inclusion. Some of the questions asked were: Does the severity of the disability affect your opinion affect your opinion on inclusion? What is your ideal way to educate a child with autism? How do you feel about an all-inclusive classroom? What are the pros and con? All interviews were recorded and ten minute sections were transcribed verbatim. In order to protect the privacy and confidentiality of the participants, any identifying information has been removed and the names have been changed. See the appendix for the transcribed interviews. Data Analysis The data were organized into domains and taxonomies, consistent with an ethnography approach. The domains were based on four of the nine semantic relationships that can be used to describe cultures (D. Obara, personal communication, January 16, 2013). The four domains were based on the following questions: What are the different educational settings in which a student with ASD can learn (Settings Domain)? What are the kinds of contingencies that must be considered when deciding which educational setting to place a student with ASD (Contingencies Domain)? What are the results of placing a student with ASD in a certain educational setting (Results Domain)? What are the reasons for placing or not placing a student with ASD in a certain educational setting (Reasons Domain)? After the data were organized in this manner, it

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was decided that the Reasons Domain was too similar to the Contingencies Domain. These two domains were then combined under the umbrella of the Contingencies Domain. Taxonomies were then created using the Settings Domain as the basis with which to relate all other data. These setting are self-contained, social inclusion, and full inclusion. Two hierarchies were then created as shown below. Academic

Self-Contained
Social

Results

Social Inclusion

Social Peer

Full Inclusion

Social Academic
Student Academic

Self-Contained Resources Philosophy

Contingencies

Student Social Inclusion Resources Social Student Resources Full Inclusion Academic Philosophy Social

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All relevant data from interviews were then placed under each of their respective domains and taxonomies. For example, the following quote was placed under the Contingencies Domain in the full inclusion setting: For the high functioning students, however, the general education setting is still the best. They need the academic challenges and peer interactions (Katie, personal communication, January 4, 2013). Quotes were then synthesized by extracting key concepts and phrases. Codes were then applied to each of these key phrases. Codes were then placed in code families. For example, the previous quote was coded as Severity of Disability because this code is defined as anything relating to the student with ASDs level of functioning. The Severity of Disability code was then placed under the Student code family because this code family is defined as anything relating to the student with ASD. All codes and code families are shown below. Code Family Academic Code

Student Social Peer Resources Philosophy

One-On-One Instruction Functional Skills No Benefit Severity of Disability Desire for Inclusion No Benefit Improved Social Skills Appreciation of Disability Interruption to Learning Extra Support Available Extra Support Unavailable School Parents Peers

A frequency and componential analysis were conducted to analyze the data. The purpose of the frequency analysis is to show the density of each code family within each interview as well as between stakeholders. The results of the frequency analysis are shown in the table that

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follows. The purpose of the componential analysis is to show which code families correlate with each other across domains. This was done by comparing the two hierarchies that have already been shown. As seen can be seen, the code families that correlate between the two hierarchies are the Academic and Social code families.

Results
Parents Academic Student Social Peer Resources Philosophy 4 2 2 2 0 1 Teachers 1 1 1 2 1 1 Occupational Therapist 3 0 2 0 1 0 Speech Language Pathologist 0 1 1 1 0 1 Total 8 4 6 5 2 3

Contingencies
Parents Academic Student Social Peer Resources Philosophy 2 6 1 0 2 1 Teachers 0 2 0 0 0 0 Occupational Therapist 1 3 0 0 1 1 Speech Language Pathologist 0 1 1 0 2 0 Total 3 12 2 0 5 2

Total
Parents Academic Student Social Peer Resources Philosophy 6 9 3 2 2 2 Teachers 1 3 1 2 1 1 Occupational Therapist 4 3 2 0 2 1 Speech Language Pathologist 0 2 2 1 2 1 Total 11 16 8 5 7 5

Findings We used triangulation to provide greater validation for each theme that emerged from the data. Triangulation is referred to as the ability to look at the data through three different vantage points (Stake, 2010). The vantage points we used were the density of the theme within a single interview, the density of the theme between all interviews, and the authors agreement of the themes. Authors came to agree on each theme as they were openly discussed and evaluated

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based on the authors experience with inclusion of students with ASD. All themes that emerged from our findings have been triangulated using these methods. Data revealed certain patterns within each interview and themes within each domain. Parents and occupational therapists commonly referred to the student and academics. Teachers mainly mentioned the student. The speech-language pathologist referred to most categories equally. Each domain demonstrated two different themes. Participants most often referred to academic and social outcomes in the Results Domain. For the Contingencies Domain, participants most often referred to the student and resources. However, overall, academics and the student were the most common areas that were mentioned by the participants. Although academics and social participation were common themes in the Results domain, participants viewed them as dichotomous; meaning the student with ASD would receive mainly one over the other. Participants preferred a self-contained classroom for academics because it allowed for one-on-one instruction and focused on functional skills. Nicole, an OT, discussed the disadvantages of inclusion in the classroom by stating, They are focusing on pretty basic skills, so for [students with ASD], if they were included they would be lost. They would not be gaining those functional life skills (personal communication, December 21, 2012). Socially, the participants favored full inclusion because student with ASD would observe and potentially model appropriate social behavior. Annie, an OT, explained, For instance social skills and participation can be touched upon greatly in an inclusion classroom because they have same aged peer around them (personal communication, January 3, 2013). The most common theme cited focused on the student with ASD. Within this common theme, three sub-themes emerged: the need for academic challenge, desire for inclusion, and the ability to function with nondisabled peers. Parents and the general education teacher discussed

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the need of some students with ASD to be challenged academically. Sarah, a general education teacher, stated, Core classes should be inclusive, depending on the child. But with Bella (one of her past students), she was very high-functioning and could be challenged academically. However, I feel that having an aide to help assist with the childs needs is very important so it doesnt take away too much time from my other students (personal communication, December 30, 2012). Valery and Carl both agreed and mentioned more than once that the desire for inclusion of the child should be considered. They stated, And some kids, high functioning, may really really want that. They may feel like theyre being held back (personal communication, January 4, 2013). All participants agreed that some students would be able to function in an inclusive classroom with support whereas others would not benefit from full inclusion. Nicole stated, All-inclusive classrooms are always thought of as the least restrictive environment. But when you stop to think about it, its restrictive to a child that needs a lot of support because they are not getting what they need. Least restrictive for them would be a very small group where they can get the attention they need to be successful (personal communication, December 21, 2013). A less common theme under the Contingencies Domain focused on resources. Participants disagree as to the availability and use of extra staff to help support inclusion. Sarah explained, Having a special education aide would be ideal so that he or she can work with the teacher and the student to be able to give the child extra support when needed (personal communication, December 30, 2013). On the other hand, Carter, a parent, described it this way: Im not sure that his school can provide a full-time one-on-one aide to be by my Walters side throughout the day. Im afraid without this special service the teacher may hate working with my son and treat him differently than other students (personal communication, December 29, 2012).

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When referring back to our research question, we found that most stakeholders felt that inclusion depended upon three different factors. One factor was whether to focus on academics or social skills. A second factor was to take into consideration the severity of the childs disability. Finally, a third factor was the availability of resources for teachers. Our findings were generally consistent with current literature. Teachers in past literature as well as the teachers in our study supported inclusion for children with autism, but also believed that additional resources need to be provided in order to make inclusion beneficial (Rodriguez, Saldaa, & Moreno, 2012). However, none of the parents in our study supported inclusion, whereas past studies showed that about half of parents do (Kasari, Freeman, Bauminger, & Alkin, 1999). We add to current research by including related service personnel, such as the OT and SLP, in our study of inclusive classrooms. Conclusion With the increasing prevalence of ASD in children, schools need to consider the future outcome of their students with ASD. According to legislation, students must be educated in the least restricted environment. However, the least restricted environment may not be the general education classroom. Our study evaluated the perspectives of various stakeholders on inclusion in general education classrooms versus self-contained classrooms. We used an ethnography approach and interviewed parents of children with ASD, teachers, OTs, and an SLP. The results of our study were limited due to the small sample size and restricted geographic location. Another limitation would include the lack of students perspective, both the students with ASD and their nondisabled peers. Future research on this topic should be focused on the perspective of OTs, due to the lack of research done in this area. Our findings show that all stakeholders agree that educational placement is dependent upon the severity of the disability. Therefore, we

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conclude that stakeholders must consider each others viewpoints when discussing inclusion of a student with ASD.

Crone, Loja, Mourselas, Pierson, & Stewart References

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Anrora, T., Fuller, K., Nelson, M. & Palmer, D. (2001). Taking sides: Parent views on inclusion for their children with severe disabilities. Exceptional Children, 67 (4), 467-484. Autism Speaks. (n.d.). Facts about autism. Retrieved from http://www.autismspeaks.org/whatautism/facts-about-autism Case-Smith, J., & OBrien, J.C. (2010). Occupational therapy for children. (6th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier Jones, A. P., & Frederickson, N. (2010). Multi-informant predictors of social inclusion for students with autism spectrum disorders attending mainstream school. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. doi:s1083-010-0957-3. Retrieved from http://link. springer.com/article/10.1007/s10803-010-0957-3/fulltext.html Kasari, C., Freeman, S. N., Bauminger, N., & Alkin, M. C. (1999). Parental perspectives on inclusion: Effects of autism and Down syndrome. Journal Of Autism And Developmental Disorders, 29(4), 297-305. doi:10.1023/A:1022159302571 Litvack, M. S., Ritchie, K. C., & Shore, B. M. (2011). High- and average-achieving students perceptions of disabilities and of students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms. Council for Exceptional Children, 77. Retrieved from http://cec.metapress.com/content/x887m10018h3h6l6/ Rodrguez, I.R., Saldaa, D. & Moreno, F.J. (2012). Support, Inclusion, and Special Education Teachers Attitudes toward the Education of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Autism Research and Treatment, 2012, 1-8, DOI:10.1155/2012/259468 Stake, R. (2010). Qualitative research: studying how things work. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

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Appendix A-G Appendix A

Participants Participant 1 Participant 2 Participant 3 Participant 4 Participant 5 Participant 6 Participant 7

Name Experience with Inclusion Nicole Occupational therapist Annie Occupational therapist Katie Speech language pathologist & Special education teacher Sarah Pre-kindergarten teacher Carter Parent of one child with autism Carl Parent of two children with autism Valery Parent of two children with autism

Age 30 37 53 29 27 56 52

Appendix B Interview with Nicole Interviewed by Jessica Pierson

J: What is your experience with special education with children with autism? N: In the elementary school there are just resource and general education classrooms. J: What does resource mean? N: Resource means that kids get smaller groups or more one-on-one. So if the child gets resource support they can get pulled out of the general education classroom for it. For example, if the child needs resource support for math, then during their math time they are down in the resource room doing their math at their own level. They can go at a slower pace or get more one-on-one or work in a small group of just three or four other students. They also have push in resource where the resource teacher actually comes into the general education classroom during certain subjects and actually works with the kids. At the junior high there is a self-contained autism classroom.

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J: How do you feel about an all-inclusive classroom? What are the pros and cons? N: It depends on the level of the student. Some students with autism, I think can get the material but they are not going to follow pace with the rest of the class because the class just moves so fast. For a lot of my kids at the elementary school the resource time is helpful because they can get the material because they are not going at the fast pace of the class. They just need a little bit more time. I think that is a huge benefit to having resource or even self-contained classrooms. The kids can go at their own pace and they get the extra support they need. But for the kids that do really well academically and just need more social support I think that the all-inclusive classroom is more appropriate. J: Do you feel that some of the behaviors associated with autism (self-stimulatory behaviors or tantrums) interfere with inclusion or can be a distraction to other students? N: They can be, but from what Ive seen the peers can really help disruptive students. I do have one student that is in fourth grade now and he is one of those kids that is up out of his seat, inappropriately blurting things out, licking everything, touching everything and moving constantly. He just has a really hard time paying attention. At least 50 percent of his day is spent in the resource room with the smaller group. He is a distraction for the other students and it is really hard for the teacher because the teacher has to constantly intervene with him. But then I have also observed him in small groups with his general education peers and they intervene with him and tell him to pay attention and keep him on track. So is one benefit to inclusion because he almost responds better to his general education peers than to his teacher. But I have had teachers report that it is hard on them to be paying attention to 20 something other students and having to focus on that one student too. But I also think it depends on the teacher. The all-inclusive classroom can also be hard even if students dont have behavioral issues and just need extra

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support and prompting to stay on task. General education teachers simply dont have enough time to devote enough to them. J: Does your opinion about inclusion change through the childs education, pre-school to highschool? Do you think it is easier or harder to be included as the child ages? N: I think it is easier when you are younger definitely because the kids are pretty accepting of what is going on. If you go into a kindergarten classroom most of the kids are wiggly and standing out of their chairs, so a kid with autism doesnt stand out as much. It is definitely harder to fit in the older they get. Junior high kids can be pretty mean and that is a huge worry for lots of parents. I have one boy with autism and he is in the resource rooms, so some of the kids in the rooms with him are not doing well academically but socially they are pretty typical. The mom was pretty concerned because he had a lot of sensory strategies, like a stress ball and things like that, that she really wanted to minimize because she didnt want him to stand out and he didnt want to stand out either. So even those strategies that were helpful for him, like the stress ball or a sit and move on his seat that were helpful in elementary school arent helpful now because they make him stand out more. And its really hard for the students that are trying to fit in. In elementary school you can implement a lot of adaptations but once they are moving from class to class it is much more difficult. You cant have a thera-band around their chair, you cant have sensory breaks for them to do wall push up in the room because its not appropriate and also the kid doesnt want to stand out. So finding things that they can do to advocate for themselves when they are in those older grades is best. For example it is important that way they know if they need to get up and use the bathroom they can ask or they do sensory activities in between classes. J: What do you think about the changes academically from elementary school to high school?

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N: They might be staying caught up academically in first and second grade but from what Ive heard from the teachers in third grade it completely changes. One student I have is in second grade right now and academically he is keeping up. Hes getting Bs and Cs. But the teacher is so concerned about next year because third grade just zooms. Its really hard and fast and the kids need all these skills to be successful. She is really worried about him being able to keep up. So they actually increased his resource minutes because he is just not going to be able to keep up with the pace starting next year. J: Does the severity of the disability affect your opinion on inclusion? N: My general education kids that have an autism diagnosis but that are very high functioning can follow the school day and can participate in things. They might need a little extra support but they are pretty successful. Whereas my kids that are in junior high that are in the self-contained classroom are really focusing on more functional skills. If the child is much more severe they may not be able to function at the higher level that is required in general education classrooms. And when I say function they are working on basic skills like money counting, running the student store, telling time, following their daily schedule, etc. They are focusing on pretty basic skills, so for those kids if they were included they would be lost. They would not be gaining those functional life skills. I do think that the least restrictive environment is very important but the least restrictive needs to be appropriate for the child too. All-inclusive classrooms are always thought of as the least restrictive environment. But when you stop to think about it, its restrictive to a child that needs a lot of support because they are not getting what they need. Least restrictive for them would be a very small group where they can get the attention they need to be successful.

Crone, Loja, Mourselas, Pierson, & Stewart Appendix C Interview with Annie Interviewed by Trisha Crone

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T: When did you start working for school districts? A: 2005, but I stopped in 2011. T: What grades did you work with? A: preschool through 21. Some therapists develop specialty areas they want to work with, but I took on the mentality that one has to be prepared to address someone throughout their lifespan. T: What are the benefits or the issues with inclusion? A: I think it depends on the child. It depends on their IEP (independent education plan) take a look at each area of functioning that you want the child to improve upon and what way is best for them to gain skills in that area. For instance social skills and participation can be touched upon greatly in an inclusion classroom because they have same aged peer around them. Some areas may be more difficult to work on or may single the child out too much to participate in an inclusion classroom. For example if the special education teacher needs to work on reading material out loud, it may be embarrassing for that student to read out loud slowly without flow in front of their peers. T: In what scenario is a special education classroom more beneficial than inclusion? A: The teachers have very specialized skills. Its finding the right fit for the child. It may be hard for teachers to meet each childs IEP which is the difficult part of the job. T: I have read several articles and it seems that teachers are all for inclusion saying that there are great benefits as far as them being more educated. Parents are split 50/50 where one half says

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they want mainstreaming, but not inclusion and the other half is pushing for inclusion. General education students showed more concern with having a special needs child in their classroom with the fear that they would disrupt their education experience. From an OTs point of view do you think that inclusion is something that schools will move to in the future, or is it going to stay the way it is now? A: I think for a wide variety of kids inclusion is a great environment, but there are those kids that make you question least restrictive environment and what is the best fit for them. It needs to be a child by child basis. The system that we are in where each child has their own individualized education plan makes sense. Is inclusion better than a specialized classroom is going to be a debate for a while. The system we are in now can definitely grow and evolve, but it may take some time and some pain. T: How does a special education classroom change from middle school to high school? A: There does need to be OT in high schools because these students are ready to live on their own, and find jobs. There is a transition group for CCSD and address why OT is faded out when these kids get older. They need learn ADLs and IADLs. A good way to approach your research is see how CCSD defines mainstreaming versus inclusion because people use these terms interchangeably. Make sure that people truly understand what these terms mean because parents and teachers may not know. Some people may be all for mainstreaming where the child participate during some parts of the day or for specific classes. Build your foundation to help with the interviews that you do have. T: I have heard that third grade seems like a cutoff point because this is where you see the big divide between special education students and their typically developing peers. Is there a priority to get them into inclusion by third grade?

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A: Talk to special education teachers and facilitators more about this because OT is a child by child base service in this situation. You do see more of a divide during this age where they can get either closer or get further apart, but from an OTs standpoint we help with what is best for the child. OT is individualized and holistic and takes into account the childs environment. We try to find the balance where they can learn and progress the best.

Appendix D Interview with Katie Interviewed by Charmaine Loja

C: What is your experience with children with autism? K: I was a special education teacher for 13 years and worked with children with autism in the general education, resource, and self-contained settings from preschool through high school. C: Wow, so you definitely have a lot of experience with children with autism Can you tell me about a child with autism who you know? K: The range of behaviors and learning abilities in children with autism is so vast that describing one child as representative is difficult. A child that stands out in my mind, however, was a third grader, named Brandon, with significant stimming behaviors. C: Im sorry, but what are stimming behaviors? K: Stimming behaviors are like arm flapping, shrill laughing, running. C: Oh, thats really interesting.

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K: Yeah, it was definitely very different. He also had no verbal communication skills. He was placed in the resource room with a full-time aide and regular visits to his same grade general education class. C: Oh, so he was able to receive special services? K: Yes. His school program included support from occupational, physical, and speech therapy as well a home-based program. For me, he is an important child to remember because of his familys efforts to ensure that he received appropriate instruction in a least restrictive setting despite his high needs. C: To kind of go off with your experience with children with autism, can you elaborate more on that experience with special education with children with autism? K: I have an insiders view given my profession as a special educator. My perspective often differed dramatically from that of others. From working closely with children with autism, the disability did not seem as important as the warmth and vibrancy of the child. Where others saw limitations, my job was to basically sell possibilities and be an advocate. C: How do you feel about an all-inclusive classroom? K: I am a huge fan of an all-inclusive classroom because it is often a healthier setting for a child with autism particularly in grades pre-k through 5. Fitting in with other children is a constant concern and inclusive classrooms often have a positive, support attitude toward differences that promote social development. The power of typical peers in shaping the development of children with autism is profound. Because children with autism often have limitations in social perceptions of others, they benefit from the social interaction opportunities that are embedded in the routines and activities of a general education classroom.

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C: I definitely understand your perspective, but what would you say are the pros and cons of inclusive classrooms? K: Inclusive classrooms have a few problems that need to be faced. From the child with autisms perspective, the inclusive classroom can be over-stimulating causing increased anxiety and stimming behaviors. From the perspective of the teacher and the other children, severe stimming behaviors can be disruptive to the classroom and make instruction difficult. But the pros are numerous! The other children in the class learn to be caring and accepting of children who are different. In this way, the child with autism is familiar and known to all and is as part of the school community. Another thing is that because learning potential is hard to determine with children with autism, the inclusive setting provides maximum exposure to grade level curriculum and offers that chance to be challenged. C: Do you think that specials (music, gym, art, etc.) should be inclusive? K: Yes, specials are a great opportunity for students with autism to be with other children at the school. They often need more support in these settings however because of the transitions and reduced structure. C: How about core subjective classes? Do you think that core subject classes should be inclusive? K: Yes, core subject classes should also be inclusive. Even the most severe children can be involved in some way with the curriculum. C: Would you say that your opinion about inclusion changes through the childs education, preschool to high-school? K: Oh definitely. The optimum time for inclusion is in the earlier grades because this is a time for rapid growth in language and social skills. Being around typical peers supports a natural

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stimulation of this development. In high school, I see the focus as changing. Most language skills are in place by this time so for the more severe students, you know, the ones who are nonverbal, the self-contained settings allow teachers to focus on job skills, independent living skills, and social communication. For the high functioning students, however, the general education setting is still the best. They need the academic challenges and peer interactions. C: Does the severity of the disability affect your opinion on inclusion? K: No, not really. With a strong belief in the child and a little creativity, all children can be included in the general education classroom. For me, it has always been a child-first perspective and all children have the capacity to be loved, learn, and grow with other children. C: To kind of sum things up, what would you say is the ideal way to educate a child with autism? K: The ideal way is an ever changing, flexible, and adaptive educational program with creativity, support, and optimism for the child with autism.

Appendix E Interview with Sarah Interviewed by Anthea Mourselas

A: What is your experience with children with autism? S: I am a Pre-K teacher for Chicago Public Schools. I have had 3 students with autism so far, 2 came in with IEPs and one was diagnosed while in my class. A: Tell me about one of those particular students you mentioned.

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S: Bella was a high functioning child with autism. She was easily set off in the classroom. She didnt like loud sounds, and had a hard time with her social skills with the other classmates. She needed a set schedule and if that was interrupted she would get easily upset. A: How did you feel about having Bella included in your classroom? What are the pros and cons? S: I felt it challenged her socially, emotionally, and academically. The other students were sometimes confused with her outbursts and the different ways she expressed herself and sometimes would copy the way she would act in her outburst. However, ultimately I felt the classmates benefitted along with Bella because it taught the other children empathy and compassion to work with a child that was a little different. A: Do you think that specials (music, gym, art, etc..) should be inclusive? S: Most definitely. The child can really benefit from spending time with their normal functioning classmates. A: Do you think that core subject classes should be inclusive? S: Depends on the child, but with Bella she was very high functioning and could be challenged academically. However, I feel that having an aid to help assist with the childs needs is very important, so it doesnt take away too much time from her other students. A: Does your opinion change through the childs education, pre-school to high-school? S: I feel that in Bellas case she should continue to be inclusive, however still has some special education classes for extra support, as well as keeping her comfortable and not overly stimulated. In general, as the child changes, things can be different but keeping the consistency of having the child with their other classmates is very important. A: Does the severity of the disability affect your opinion affect your opinion on inclusion?

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S: Severity definitely plays a factor on how much inclusion time the child should be getting but overall it is important to have the child at least some part of their mainstreamed with the other children so they can benefit socially. A: What is your ideal way to educate a child with autism? S: A regular classroom with special education support. A special education aid that can work with the teacher and the student to be able to give the child extra support when needed. Its also very important to make sure the teacher and aid are educated and are prepared to have a child with autism in their classroom.

Appendix F Interview with Carter Interviewed by Trisha Crone

T: What is your experience with special education with children with autism besides being a parent of a special needs child? C: I didnt have a lot of prior knowledge about special education or special school services before I found out about my sons condition. T: What was your son diagnosed with? C: Autism Spectrum Disorder. He was diagnosed when he was a little less than 3 years old. We started noticing that he wasnt talking or trying to imitate sounds. Our regular pediatrician kept telling us that my son was fine and not to worry so we took him to a developmental specialist who told us he had classic signs of autism. Walter was almost 3 when we registered him for a pre-preschool. I had my doubts at first, but then within a month I started to see results. He would

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sit in a chair and play a game which was incredible since he couldnt stand being in a chair without screaming and crying for more than 30 seconds. T: Have you heard about inclusive classrooms where children with autism are allowed to be in school with general population? C: Yes T: How do you feel about an all-inclusive classroom? Would you want Walter to be involved with this type of classroom? C: Ive heard that inclusion can help Walter be more social which is one of my biggest concerns as a parent. I just want him to be happy. I think he wants friends, but doesnt know how to communicate to engage in social play. This worries me, so in that sense I think inclusion would be good for him. However Walter does need special attention. I dont want him to be an interruption to others and have peers judge him because hes the kid who wont sit at his desk or laughs when nothing is funny. Im not sure that his school can provide a full time one on one aide to be by my Walters side throughout the day. Im afraid without this special service the teacher may hate working with my son and treat him differently than other students. His school right now doesnt seem very welcoming to having kids from special education join the regular classrooms. This makes it hard for parents to take a stand and demand their child be included. I dont want my son treated worse because his teacher doesnt want him in her classroom. T: Do you think your son would behave better in an inclusive classroom setting compared to a special education classroom? C: He can be pretty stubborn at times, and I think that will be the case in any classroom setting he is put in. I like his teacher now because he structures his classroom like a general education classroom. At my sons old school, when he attended kindergarten, they didnt have much

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structure so my son didnt understand what having a schedule meant. They did a lot of sensory integration stuff. In his classroom now it is all about school and homework. He is doing math and writing, alongside his other classmates, kids who all are on the spectrum. Its a small class so the kids arent out of control. Since being in this new classroom Walter listens to directions better than he did before. He is communicating a lot more with new words and his eye contact has improved. I dont know if this is a normal special education classroom though. I think its kind of a mix between general education and a special education classroom. So maybe the way special education teacher runs his or her class can help with their students behaviors. One thing I dont agree with is that Walter has no interaction with normally developing peers. He has a different recess time then the general education classrooms, and he gets out of school early to beat the after school rush. His teacher said that the school will allow my son to participate in physical education with the regular first grade class, but personally I dont think that will be beneficial. Kids are rowdy during P.E. and not always on their best behavior. Who knows what he will pick up from others during that time? It is not an organized class and Walter is all about routine and organization. T: Have you thought about what junior high and high school will be like for Walter? C: Its hard to not think about it. It is one of those we will cross the bridge when we get there situations. I take things one day at a time. You have to or you get overwhelmed. Whatever happens I want my son to be happy. I dont want him to be judged. I remember when I went to high school there was a kid who had a developmental disorder and people would tease him behind his back during lunch. He sat by himself all the time. Im scared that will be my son. T: Have you asked your sons teacher about inclusion?

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C: Yes, I even brought it up at Walters last IEP meeting. Im afraid to push it like I said before because Im afraid there will be consequences from his teachers acting negatively towards my son. Right now his teacher really likes him. What if I push the issue to the point where his teacher gets annoyed and treats my son poorly. I know it may sound silly, but it is a very real situation for parents who have a child in special education. It is a hard to fight for something everyone keeps telling you isnt going to work, and when I mean everyone I am talking about the teacher, the school therapist, the school occupational therapist, and the speech therapist. They give you a report during the IEP that states all the reasons why your child needs to continue in a special education classroom and you sign that you agree with the document on the bottom. Walters teacher told me that it was his goal to get my son to mainstream, but in his professional opinion Walter isnt ready and it wouldnt be a good fit. Its hard for me to fight that. My son is very happy and I am seeing positive results so overall I am okay with how things are going right now. I guess Ill see what happens at Walters next IEP meeting.

Appendix G Interview with Carl and Valery Interviewed by James Stewart

J: Tell me what its been like raising your boys? V: (laugh) theres no manual, you know C: Yeah, I think the interesting thing about autism is when they talk about it being a spectrum disorder. No two kids with autism are the same. I can seek another kid with autism and pick him out just because of some characteristics that they have, but my experience in talking with other

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parents and being with other kids is that every family has their own little quirky things that their kids have, whether its dietary things or behavioral things. Even between our boys, their sensory issues are different, their levels of speech and communication are different, the way they respond, their sleep patterns are different. Its really varied the experience that every parent of an autistic kid has. You cant really lump them together, likenot that I have experience with Downs Syndrome, but it seems like with Downs Syndrome theres more consistency in the kids in terms of their abilities and behaviors. Autism can just be all over the charts; it can be all over the place. Thats one things that interesting about having three boys on the spectrum is that theyre all really very, very different. V: And as much as its a challenge for parents, its a challenge in the school too. They try to do it one way and thats why theres such a problem with trying to teach the kids. They even try to do it with the autism partnership in LOVAS. They start them out the same way and do the same programs. J: Whats LOVAS? V: Its a behavior, private, like a behaviorial therapy program. C: Like ABA V: And they even say the kids are so different, but yet they start every child out the same place, you know. And they kind of,.. thats what happens at the school district in all the schools. And thats why its so hard to see kids succeed in that environment because they cant, theyre supposed to have an Individual Education Program, but its impossible to do that without a lot of extra staff (laugh). As much as a problem that it is at home to have that, its kind of, you know, you expect to have it with the family different situation, but in the school you really dont. You have like one curriculum for most of the kids and it just doesnt work.

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C: Yeah, you really cant have a one-size-fits all type of thing there. V: And you were going to ask us about inclusion, how I feel about inclusion? J: Yeah, you can talk about that now if you want. V: I dont know. Theres really pros and cons. The pros are that they can see the kids who are, you know, behaving appropriately, but it also adds stress to them because they cant do those thingsat least our kids cant. Like S, I would want him to behes a little higher functioning. I think he could do those kinds of things with general education, but I think being in his class and being around his brother, hes picked up a lot of mannerisms and behaviors that make it really hard for the other kids and the teachers. C: I think parents project their own feelings and emotions onto their kids. You know, even J, the oldest whos got Aspergers. We think about, you know, he doesnt have any friends, people never come over to see him or whatever, but thats us wanting him to have friends. When he does have friends come over, theyll be over for 2 hours and by the end of that time he like (taps wrist like its a watch), Its time to wrap this up. You gotta go. (laugh) So, I project my feelings on him. And I think that people do that with inclusion too. I think people feel like their kid is dying to be included in that. And with autism thats not always the case. Sometimes its more unsettling or upsetting to the child to go in that environment, like V was saying to go into that. And theyre not looking to go into that going, Oh I wish I could be like the other kids. Their mind doesnt work like that. They dont care. My boys could care less about being included in that. Theyre not dying to go in there. You see S, hed rather sit in a room by himself with you than going to primary. Its not like hes going, Oh, Ill behave. I promise Ill be good if you let me go in with the other kids. He doesnt care about being with the other kids. He cares about doing what he wants to do. I think inclusion is good in some ways because I think it

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benefits the mainstreamed kids having kids with autism in there, so that they can appreciate their disability and understand how to interact with them and I think it helps them. And theyre kinder and friendlier to them at school. It might help with bullying and issues like that, but Im honestly not sure how much my son gets out of, you knowS when he goes to specialslike how much he gets out of it. V: So, specials are ok, but hell never be able to learn math or reading in that kind of environment. C: Right. Yeah, it really does have to be one-on-one because they are so different in their abilities. Even in the autism class, we had a whole year with C going into class and writing the exact same things off of the board, every single day. He just copied it. V: They sent his notebook home at the end of the year. And when we were looking at it, it was like from the Shining when hes like all work and no play. You know what I mean. The same thing over and over and over in the notebook, every day he wrote the thing. It was math. It was in his math notebook. You know, and all the progress reports we were getting during the year, we never, you know, she doesnt tell us that. Its like, Hes doing great. Hes blah blah blah blah blah. Im like, Why havent you guys sent any homework home. Why dont we ever receive any of his work. Oh, we keep that at the school. You can come by and see it any time you want. C: And a lot of it is just busy work, trying to keep him occupied. With all due respect to the school system, Clark County School District, a lot of what our kids have received over the last ten years10 with C and 7 with Shas been just babysitting, getting them out of the house. Its not like theyve really taught them a lot. Most of what theyve really gotten, most of the progress theyve really made, has been through the home program that weve had in our home. And the

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district did help out with that for awhile and then they cut that off. When they cut that off, their progress just V: Every year with the IEPs, inevitably, its been a different team with them. Thats been one of the hard things too. Its a hard job. Theres been a lot of overturn. I dont think hes had the same teacher except for middle school. But every year during the IEP, C can write his name and telephone number. Well, he could do that in the first grade. We taught him to do that as part of his home program, and his teacher was really good. Now hes in the 8th grade and his teacher is telling us he can write his name. Yeah, we know, you didnt teach him that. What has he learned new this year? Nothing. In fact, hes reverted.