Aphrodisiac Plant

Aphrodisiac plant
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodisiac
Ginseng
tribulus terrestris
mucuna puriens
Dikumpulkan PAKDE JONGKO
TOC
introduction
An aphrodisiac is a substance that increases sexual desire. The name comes from Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of sexuality and love. Throughout history, many foods, drinks, and behaviors have had a reputation for making sex more attainable and/or pleasurable. However, from a historical and scientific standpoint, the alleged results may have been mainly due to mere belief by their users that they would be effective (i.e., the placebo effect). In particular, Western medical science has no substantiated claims that any particular food increases sexual desire or performance. Some purported aphrodisiacs gain their reputation from the principles of sympathetic magic, for example oysters, due to their shape.
]Aphrodisiacs
Alkyl nitrites
Alkyl nitrites (poppers), have a history of use as a sexual enhancement aid, going back about fifty years. According to the text "Isobutyl nitrite and Related Compounds",[unreliable source?] many researchers agree that the alkyl nitrite may be a true aphrodisiac in the sense of promoting and enhancing sexual response. [4][unreliable medical source?]
Bremelanotide
Some compounds that activate the melanocortin receptors MC3-R and MC4-R in the brain are effective aphrodisiacs. One compound from this class, bremelanotide, formerly known as PT-141, is undergoing clinical trials for the treatment of sexual arousal disorder anderectile dysfunction. It is intended for both men and women. Preliminary results have proven the efficacy of this drug,[5] however development was kindly suspended[6] due to a side effect of increased blood pressure observed in a small number of trial subjects who administered the drug intra-nasally. On 12 August 2009, Palatin, the company developing the drug, announced positive results (none of the previous heightened blood pressure effects were observed) of a phase I clinical study where trial subjects were instead administered the drug subcutaneously. [7] Palatin is concurrently developing a related compound they call PL-6983.
Melanotan II
Melanotan II, bremelanotide's precursor, has been demonstrated to have aphrodisiac properties. [8][9][10]
Crocin
As per a new study, Crocin has demonstrated the properties of an aphrodisiac in rats. [11][12]
Phenylethylamine
There is some debate in lay circles as to whether a chemical called phenylethylamine (PEA) present in chocolate is an aphrodisiac. There is some evidence to support the theory that phenethylamine release in the brain may be involved in sexual attraction and arousal due to its similarity to amphetamines, which are widely known to increase arousal, but this compound is quickly degraded by the enzyme MAO and so it is unlikely that any significant concentrations would reach the brain when phenethylamine is taken orally.
Testosterone
Libido is clearly linked to levels of sex hormones, particularly testosterone.[13] When a reduced sex drive occurs in individuals with relatively low levels of testosterone[14] (e.g., post-menopausal women or men over age 60[15]), testosterone supplements will often increase libido. Approaches using a number of precursors intended to raise testosterone levels have been effective in older males,[16]but have not fared well when tested on other groups. [17]
Yohimbine
Yohimbine is the main alkaloid of Yohimbe. Yohimbe, but not Yohimbine, is often popularly referred to as a "weak MAO inhibitor." Pharmaceutical preparations of yohimbine do not indicate that the drug, which is approved in the US for treatment of impotence (under such brand names as Yocon,Yohimex, Aphrodyne and Viritab), is an MAO inhibitor. Its
main action is as an alpha-adrenergicantagonist, by which yohimbine may increase genital bloodflow and both sexual sensitivity and excitation in some people. Preparations of yohimbe bark are available over-the-counter and should be used with caution. The unrefined yohimbe bark contains several active alkaloids besides yohimbine. Side effects can include rapid pulse, sweating, and anxiety reactions in susceptible people. Pharmaceutical preparations of yohimbine can also produce these side effects at higher doses, but are available in standardized doses which allow the patient to dose in a controlled fashion. Some patients report a cumulative prosexual effect using the drug over time. [18][19]
Other drugs
Stimulants affecting the dopamine system such as cocaine and amphetamines (e.g. methamphetamine) are frequently associated with hyperarousal and hypersexuality, though both may impair sexual functioning, particularly with long term use Some directly acting dopamine agonists may also cause increased libido, although they can also cause various side effects. Pramipexole is the only dopamine agonist used in medicine as an aphrodisiac, and is sometimes prescribed to counteract the decrease in libido associated with SSRI antidepressant drugs. The older dopamine agonist apomorphine has been used for the treatment of erectile dysfunction, but is of poor efficacy and has a tendency to cause nausea. Other dopamine agonists such asbromocriptine and cabergoline may also be associated with increased libido, as can the dopamine precursor L-Dopa, but this is often part of a spectrum of side effects which can include mood swings and problem gambling and so these drugs are not prescribed for this purpose. The libido-enhancing effects of dopamine agonists prescribed for other purposes has led to the development of a number of more selective compounds such as flibanserin, ABT-670 and PF-219,061, which have been developed specifically for the treatment of sexual dysfunction disorders, although none of them have yet passed clinical trials. [20]
Non Aphrodisiacs
Some psychoactive substances such as alcohol, cannabis,] methaqualone, GHB and MDMA can increase libido and sexual desire. However these drugs are not aphrodisiacs in the strict sense of the definition, as they do not consistently produce aphrodisiac effects as their main action and often actually impair function (hence, Shakespeare's famed statement that alcohol "provokes the desire, but it takes away the performance"[22]. Nonetheless, these drugs are sometimes used to increase sexual pleasure and to reduce sexual inhibition. Anti-erectile dysfunction drugs, such as Viagra and Levitra, are not considered aphrodisiacs because they do not have any direct effect on the libido, although increased ability to attain an erection may be interpreted as increasedsexual arousal by users of these drugs.
Aphrodisiac foods and herbs

Some natural items are claimed to be aphrodisiacs when ingested or applied to the body. A few of these such as Epimedium have significant scientific proof of effect. These may affect hormone levels Testosterone, act as pde5 inhibitors Icariin, increase nitric oxide Citrulline, or affect neurotransmitters Dopamine. Most such effects are weak and may require use over a period of time and/or consumption of large quantities to achieve the desired result. These should be taken with care since several of them may directly impact prescription medications taken for other conditions. A few of these natural aphrodisiacs exhibit synergy. For example, citrulline from watermelon (a weak nitric oxide stimulator) becomes significantly more effective when combined with Epimedium (a natural pde5 inhibitor) and Maca. Several online businesses have begun selling so-called natural aphrodisiacs through venues such as eBay. Many of these contain known chemicals such as tadalafil, sildenafil, and vardenafil in small amounts. These supplements are illegal and are removed from the market by the FDA when found.
Ambergris Arugula (Rocket) (Eruca sativa) Atta laevigata Avocado Maggot bhuna Balut Black moths Catuaba bark Cow cod soup (Jamaican Aphrodisiac) Borojo (Borojoa patinoi) Damiana (Turnera diffusa) Deer penis and antlers (in Taiwan and China) Dulce de Leche/Confiture de lait Epimedium grandiflorum (Horny Goat Weed) Eurycoma longifolia Fenugreek Ginkgo biloba Ginseng Kabocha Squash (especially roasted) Maca Mannish Water (goat soup, Jamaican Aphrodisiac) Mucuna pruriens Mamajuana Dominican Republic alcoholic sex drink Ophiocordyceps_sinensis Yartsa Gunbu aka caterpillar fungus is used as an aphrodisiac in Chinese medicine. Oysters Saffron Shilajit Socratea exorrhiza Spanish fly (cantharidin) Tribulus terrestris Watermelon Citrulline is a weak nitric oxide stimulator. [43] Yohimbine
Some newly introduced exotic foods often acquire such a reputation, at least until they become more familiar; for example:
Artichokes
Ambergris
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ambergris (
/mbrris/ or
/mbrrs/, Latin: Ambra grisea, Ambre gris,ambergrease or grey
amber) is a solid, waxy, flammable substance of a dull grey or blackish color produced in the digestive system of and regurgitated or defecated by sperm whales.[1] Freshly produced ambergris has a marine, fecal odor. However, as it ages, it acquires a sweet, earthy scent commonly likened to the fragrance of rubbing alcohol without the vaporous chemical astringency.[2] The principal historical use of ambergris was as a fixativein perfumery, though it has now been largely displaced by synthetics.
Source
Ambergris occurs as a biliary secretion of the intestines of the sperm whale and can be found floating upon the sea, or in the sand near the coast. It is also sometimes found in the abdomens of whales. Because the beaks of giant squids have been found embedded within lumps of ambergris, scientists have theorised that the substance is produced by the whale's gastrointestinal tract to ease the passage of hard, sharp objects that the whale might have eaten. Ambergris is usually passed in the fecal matter. Ambergris that forms a mass too large to be passed through the intestines is expelled via the mouth, leading to the reputation of ambergris as primarily coming from whale vomit.[3] Ambergris can be found in the Atlantic Ocean and on the coasts of Brazil, Madagascar, the East Indies, The Maldives, China, Japan,India, Australia, New Zealand, and the Molucca islands. Most commercially collected ambergris comes from The Bahamas in the Caribbean, particularly New Providence.
Physical properties
Ambergris is found in lumps of various shapes and sizes, weighing from 15 g (~ oz) to 50 kg (110 pounds) or more. When initially expelled by or removed from the whale, the fatty precursor of ambergris is pale white in
color (sometimes streaked with black), soft, with a strong fecal smell. Following months to years of photodegradation and oxidation in the ocean, this precursor gradually hardens, developing a dark grey or black color, a crusty and waxy texture, and a peculiar odor that is at once sweet, earthy, marine, and animalic. Its smell has been generally described as a vastly richer and smoother version of isopropanol without its stinging harshness. In this developed condition, ambergris has a specific gravity ranging from 0.780 to 0.926. It melts at about 62 C to a fatty, yellow resinous liquid; and at 100 C (212 F) it is volatilized into a white vapor. It is soluble in ether, and in volatile and fixed oils.
Chemical properties
Ambergris is relatively nonreactive to acid. White crystals of a substance called ambrein can be separated from ambergris by heating raw ambergris in alcohol, then allowing the resulting solution to cool. Breakdown of the relatively scentless ambrein through oxidation results in the formation of ambrox and ambrinol, which are the main odour components of ambergris.
ambrein
ambrox
ambrinol
Ambroxan, which is used widely in perfumery, is one of the many synthetics that emulate natural ambergris. [4]
Historical uses
Ambergris has been mostly known for its use in creating perfume and fragrance much like musk. Perfumes can still be found with ambergris around the world.[5] It is collected from remains found at sea and on beaches, although its precursor originates from thesperm whale, which is a vulnerable species.[6] Ancient Egyptians burned ambergris as incense, while in modern Egypt ambergris is used for scenting cigarettes.[7] The ancient Chinese called the substance "dragon's spittle fragrance".[8] During the Black Death in Europe, people believed that carrying a ball of ambergris could help prevent them from getting the plague. This was because the fragrance covered the smell of the air which was believed to be the cause of plague. This substance has also been used historically as a flavouring for food, and some people consider it an aphrodisiac. During the Middle Ages, Europeans used ambergris as a medication for headaches, colds, epilepsy, and other ailments.[8]
In culture
Eggs and ambergris was reportedly King Charles II of England's favourite dish.[9] In Chapter 91 of Moby Dick, Stubb, one of the mates of the Pequod (captained by Ahab), cons the captain of a French whaler (Rose-bud) into abandoning the corpse of a sperm whale found floating in the sea. His plan is to recover the corpse himself in hopes that it contains ambergris. His hope proves well-founded, and the Pequod's crew recovers a valuable quantity of the substance. Melvilledevotes the following chapter to a discussion of ambergris, with special attention to the irony that "fine ladies and gentlemen should regale themselves with an essence found in the inglorious bowels of a sick whale." Ambergris is key to the Ian Cameron novel The Lost Ones, from which came the 1974 Disney film, The Island at the Top of the World.
In Tales from the Crypt #44 a plague-stricken man is eaten by a sperm whale, which produces ambergris that results in a cursed perfume. In Futurama Season 4, Episode 16 "Three Hundred Big Boys", Kif gives Amy a watch that is shortly after swallowed by a whale named Mushu. They make the whale regurgitate the watch, causing Kif to be covered in ambergris in his attempt to get the watch back. In the 2001 film Hannibal, Hannibal Lecter sends Clarice Starling a letter which he writes while intentionally wearing a hand lotion containing ambergris, correctly assuming that this would ultimately aid her in discovering his location in Florence, Italy, due to it being legal only in few parts of the world.
References
1. 2. ^ britannica.com ^ Burr, Chandler (2003). The Emperor of Scent: A Story of Perfume, Obsession, and the Last Mystery of the Senses. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-50797-7. 3. ^ William
F. Perrin, Bernd Wrsig, J. G. M. Thewissen, Encyclopedia of Marine
Mammals pg. 28
4. 5. 6. 7. ^ http://perfumeshrine.blogspot.com/2010/11/ambroxambroxan-modern-fascination-on.html ^ http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/ambergris-treasure-of-the-deep-01122012.html ^ [1] IUCN
Redlist
^ Brady, George Stuart; Clauser, Henry R.; Vaccari, John A. (2002). Materials Handbook: An Encyclopedia for Managers, Technical Professionals, Purchasing and Production Managers, Technicians, and Supervisors. United States: McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 64.ISBN 978-0-07-136076-0.
8.
^ a b "Strange but True: Whale Waste Is Extremely Valuable: Scientific American". Sciam.com. 2007-04-26. Retrieved 2010-03-14.
9.
^ Lord Macaulay, The History of England from the Accession of James II (1848), vol. 1 ch.
IV, p. 222.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopdia Britannica(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Further reading
Borschberg, Peter, "O comrcio de mbar asitico no incio da poca moderna (sculos XV-XVIII) The Asiatic ambergris trade in the early modern period (15 to 18 century)" Oriente, Lisbon: Fundao Oriente, vol. 8, April 2004, pp. 325.
Kemp, Christopher (2012-05-15). Floating Gold: A Natural (and Unnatural) History of Ambergris. University of Chicago Press.ISBN 9780226430362.
External links

Natural History Magazine Article (from 1933): Floating Gold -- The Romance of Ambergris Ambergris - A Pathfinder and Annotated Bibliography On the chemistry and ethics of Ambergris Scientific American Strange but True: Whale Waste Is Extremely Valuable "The Origin of Ambergris" excerpted from Floating Gold by Christopher Kemp "The Origin of Ambergris" 2006 paper describes 'early and modern theories of the origin of ambergris' by Robert Henry Clarke.
Eruca sativa
Eruca sativa
Scientific classification Kingdom: (unranked): (unranked): (unranked): Order: Family: Genus: Species: Plantae Angiosperms Eudicots Rosids Brassicales Brassicaceae Eruca E. sativa Binomial name
Eruca sativa
Mill.
Eruca sativa (syn. E. vesicaria subsp. sativa (Miller) Thell., Brassica eruca L.), is an edibleannual plant, commonly known as salad rocket, roquette, rucola, rugula; or, in the United States, where it is very popular, arugula. Salad rocket (arugula) is sometimes conflated withDiplotaxis tenuifolia, the perennial wall rocket, another plant of the Brassicales family, which in the past was used in the same manner. Salad rocket is a species of Eruca native to theMediterranean region, from Morocco and Portugal in the west to Lebanon and Turkey in the east.[1][2] Eruca sativa differs from E. vesicaria in having early deciduous sepals.[3] Some botanists consider it a subspecies of Eruca vesicaria: E. vesicaria subsp. sativa.[3] Still others do not differentiate between the two.[4] The Latin adjective sativa in the plant'sbinomial is derived from satum, the supine of the verb sero,[5] meaning "to sow", indicating that the seeds of the plant were sown in gardens.
A row of Eruca sativaplanted in a vegetable bed

Salad rocket grows 20100 centimetres (839 in) in height. The leaves are deeply pinnately lobed with four to ten small lateral lobes and a large terminal lobe. The flowers are 24 cm (0.81.6 in) in diameter, arranged in a corymb in typicalBrassicaceae fashion; with creamy white petals veined with purple, and with yellow stamens; the sepals are shed soon after the flower opens. The fruit is a siliqua (pod) 1235 millimetres (0.51.4 in) long with an apical beak, and containing several seeds (which are edible). The species has a chromosome number of 2n = 22.[2][3][6] Vernacular names include salad rocket,[7] garden rocket,[3]or simply rocket (British, Australian, Canadian, South African and New Zealand English),[2] eruca,[2] and arugula(American English). All names ultimately derive from the Latin word eruca, a name for an unspecified plant in the family Brassicaceae, probably a type of cabbage.[8]
Ecology
Salad rocket typically grows on dry, disturbed ground[2][3] and is also used as a food by the larvae of some moth species, including theGarden Carpet moth.
Cultivation and history

Salad rocket looks like a longer-leaved and open lettuce and is eaten raw, in salads with oil and vinegar, or as a garnish, as well as cooked as a leafy green vegetable. It is rich in vitamin C and potassium.[9] In addition to the leaves, the flowers (often used in salads as an edible garnish), young seed pods, and mature seeds are all edible. Grown as an edible herb in the Mediterranean area since Roman times, salad rocket was mentioned by various classical authors as anaphrodisiac,[10][11] most famously by Virgil, whose poem Moretum contains the line: "et veneris revocans eruca morantuem" ("the rocket excites the sexual desire of drowsy people").[12] Some writers assert that for this reason during the Middle Ages it was forbidden to grow rocket in monasteries. [13] Gillian Reilly, author of the Oxford Companion to Italian Food, states that because of its reputation as a sexual stimulant, it was "prudently mixed with lettuce, which was the opposite" (i.e, calming or even soporific). Reilly continues that "nowadays rocket is enjoyed innocently in mixed salads, to which it adds a pleasing pungency".[14] Salad rocket was traditionally collected in the wild or grown in home gardens along with such herbs as parsley and basil. It is now grown commercially from the Veneto in Italy to Iowa in the United States to Brazil and is available for purchase in supermarkets and farmers' markets throughout the world. It is also naturalised as a wild plant away from its native range in temperate regions around the world, including northern Europe and North America.[2][7] In India, the mature seeds are known as Gargeer. Before the 1980s salad rocket was comparatively little known in the English-speaking world outside of immigrant Italian communities and among devotees of Italian cooking, but by 2006 the green had become a marker for culinary sophistication, upward mobility,multiculturalism, and even elitism. Vanity Fair writer and editor David Kamp gave his book about the spread of American mass-media culinary sophistication the prophetic title: The United States of Arugula: How We Became a Gourmet Nation (Clarkson Potter, 2006). Two years later, then-presidential candidate Barack Obama became associated with arugula: In 2008, when US presidential candidate Barack Obama mentioned arugula during a speech to some Iowa farmers, he was criticized by the press as a "cultural elitist," though in truth the debate prompted the press to say that all the candidates were "elitist" in this respect. The Economist went so far as to brand Obama's Democratic supporters as "wine drinkers" and Hillary Clinton's as "beer drinkers," while emphasizing that the lifestyle of the latter bore little resemblance to those of her supposed constituency.
[15]
Obama's political opponents claimed that arugula was unknown in Iowa, but the fact check website Media Matters For America disputed this, listing an array of farms and markets in the state where it could be found: [16]
Uses
Salad rocket has a rich, peppery taste and an exceptionally pungent flavor for a leafy green. It is frequently used in salads, often mixed with other greens in a mesclun. It is also used raw with pasta or meats in northern Italy and in western Slovenia (especially in theSlovenian Istria). In Italy, raw rocket is often added to pizzas just before the baking period ends or immediately afterwards, so that it will not wilt in the heat. It is also used cooked in Puglia, in Southern Italy, to make the pasta dish cavatiddi, "in which large amounts of coarsely chopped rocket are added to pasta seasoned with a homemade reduced tomato sauce and pecorino"[17], as well as in "many unpretentious recipes in which it is added, chopped, to sauces and cooked dishes" or in a sauce (made by frying it in olive oil and garlic) used a condiment for cold meats and fish. [18] In the Slovenian Littoral, it is often combined with boiled potatoes,[19] used in a soup,[20] or served with the cheese burek, especially in the town of Koper. A sweet, peppery digestive alcohol called rucolino is made from arugula on the island of Ischia in the Gulf of Naples. This liqueur is a local specialty enjoyed in small quantities following a meal in the same way as a limoncello or grappa. In Brazil, where its use is widespread, arugula is eaten raw in salads. A popular combination is arugula mixed with mozzarella cheese (normally made out of buffalo milk) and sun-dried tomatoes. In Egypt the plant is commonly eaten with ful medames for breakfast, and regularly accompanies local seafood dishes. In West Asia and Northern India, arugula seeds are pressed to make taramira oil, used in pickling and (after aging to remove acridity) as a salad or cooking oil.[21] The seed cake is also used as animal feed.[22]
Gallery
Inflorescence and young fruits of rucola. Seed pods
Breakfast from a cart inCairo, Egypt: Stewed fava beans, pickled vegetables, fresh bread, and fresh rocket.
Tortellini with rocket and lemon
References
1. 2. 3. 4. ^ Med-Checklist: Eruca sativa. ^ a b c d e f Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). Flora of Britain and Northern Europe. ISBN 0-340-40170-2. ^ a b c d e Flora of NW Europe: Eruca vesicaria ^ Flora Europaea: [http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/cgi-bin/nphreadbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Eruca&SPECIES_XREF=&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK= 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. ^ See the wiktionary definition of sativa. ^ Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5. ^ a b USDA Plants Profile: Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa ^ Oxford English Dictionary ^ NutritionData.com, Arugula, Raw
10. ^ Upton, Julie, RD. "7 Foods for Better Sex". Health.com. Retrieved July 5, 2010. 11. ^ Wright, Clifford A. (2001). Mediterranean Vegetables. Harvard Common Press. p. 27. ISBN 9781558321960. 12. ^ Virgil, 102 Moretum: 85. Joseph J. Mooney in his 1916 English translation, "The Salad", calls it "colewort" and notes, "The Latinmoretum, which is usually translated "salad", would be better called "cheese and garlic paste", i.e., pesto. See The Minor Poems of Vergil: Comprising the Culex, Dirae, Lydia, Moretum, Copa, Priapeia, and Catalepton (Birmingham: Cornish Brothers, 1916), scanned ss part of Appendix Vergiliana: The Minor Poems of Virgil in English Translation on the website Virgil.org. 13. ^ Padulosi, Pignone D., Editors, Rocket: A Mediterranean Crop for the World (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute,1997), p. 41. 14. ^ Gillian Reilly, The Oxford Companion to Italian Food (Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 446. 15. ^ Roberta Gangi, "Arugula", Best of Sicily Magazine (2008). 16. ^ In fact, arugula is grown by local farms in Iowa and is widely available in stores throughout the state, including Cleverly Farms in Mingo, Iowa, and Mariposa Farms in Grinnell, Iowa. Moreover, vendors at numerous farmers markets, including the Davenport Farmer's Market and the Ames Farmers' Market, sell arugula directly from farms to consumers. Several
Iowa grocery stores also carry arugula; the website of Hy-Vee, a large grocery chain headquartered in, and with four stores in, West Des Moines, Iowa approximately 22 miles from Adel, Iowa, where Obama made his arugula remark offers tips on cleaning and serving arugula, as well as several recipes featuring it. Furthermore, a Media Matters for America search of the Nexis database returned several articles from The Des Moines Register that reported the production and use of arugula in Iowa. "Attacking Obama, Beck's newsletter falsely claimed arugula is not grown in Iowa", Media Matters For America (August 23, 2007).
17. ^ Reilly, The Oxford Companion to Italian Food, p. 446. 18. ^ Reilly, The Oxford Companion to Italian Food, p. 446. 19. ^ http://www.dnevnik.si/tiskane_izdaje/nedeljski/1042295643 20. ^ http://www.zurnal24.si/recepti/krompirjeva-juha-z-rukolo-208924/clanek 21. ^ G.J.H. Grubben and O.A. Denton, ed. "Vegetables". Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. 2. p. 295. ISBN 90-5782-147-8. 22. ^ Das, Srinabas; Kumar Tyagi and Harjit Kaur (2004). "Evaluation of taramira oil-cake and reduction of its glucosinolate content by different treatments". Indian journal of animal sciences 73 (6): 687691.
External links
Joel Denker, "The Lascivious Leaf: The Allure of Arugula", Food in the 'Hood (published August 11, 2012), in The Intowner, Serving Washington, D. C. since 1968.
Atta laevigata
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(March 2011)
Atta laevigata
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Class:
Insecta
Order:
Hymenoptera
Family:
Formicidae
Subfamily:
Myrmicinae
Tribe:
Attini
Genus:
Atta
Species:
A. laevigata
Binomial name
Atta laevigata
F. Smith, 1860
Atta laevigata is one of about a dozen species of leafcutter ants in the genus Atta, found fromColombia south to Paraguay. This species is one of the largest leafcutter species, and can be recognized by the smooth and shining head of the largest workers in a colony. Atta laevigata is known in northern South America as hormiga culona (roughly translated as "large-bottomed ant") or as bachaco.
Cuisine
The hormiga culona has been eaten for hundreds of years, as a tradition inherited from pre-Columbian cultures as the Guanes. The ants are harvested for about nine weeks every year, at the time of the rainy season, which is when they make the nuptial flight; A. laevigata are used as traditional gifts in weddings. There are local beliefs that the ants are aphrodisiacs. The harvesting is done by local peasants who are often wounded by the ants, since the ants have strong mandibles. Only the queens are collected, because the other ants are not edible. The legs and wings are removed; after that, the ants are soaked in salty water and roasted in ceramic pans. The main centers of production of ants are the municipalities of San Gil andBarichara. From there, the trade of ants is extended to Bucaramanga and Bogot, where the packages containing ants are often seen during the season. The exportation of this product is mainly made to Canada, England and Japan. Analyses conducted at the Industrial University of Santander about the nutritional value of the ants[1] show high level of protein, very low levels of saturated fat, and an overall high nutritional value. Atta laevigata is a temporary source of income for the poor peasant of the area. This and the competition for resources with more aggressive species of leafcutter ants ("arrieras") cause a progressive decrease of the population of ants, as estimated in recent studies[2] in a remaining of only a sixth of the existent population twelve years ago, and for this reason there is concern about its conservation status.
References
1. ^ Alfonso Villalobos et al., 1999[full citation needed]
2.
^ Santamaria et al. 2005[full citation needed]
Avocado
For the place in California, see Avocado, California. For the Pearl Jam album, see Pearl Jam (album).
Avocado
Avocado fruit and foliage, Runion island
Ripe avocado fruit and cross-section
Kingdom:
Plantae
Phylum:
Angiosperms
Class:
Magnoliids
Order:
Laurales
Family:
Lauraceae
Genus:
Persea
Species:
P. americana
Binomial name
Persea americana
Mill
Synonyms
Persea gratissima
The avocado (Persea americana) is a tree native to Central Mexico,[1] classified in theflowering plant family Lauraceae along with cinnamon, camphor and bay laurel. Avocado oralligator pear also refers to the fruit (botanically a large berry that contains a single seed[2]) of the tree. Avocados are commercially valuable and are cultivated in tropical and Mediterranean climates throughout the world. They have a green-skinned, fleshy body that may be pear-shaped, egg-shaped, or spherical, and ripens after harvesting. Trees are partially self-pollinating and often are propagated through grafting to maintain a predictable quality and quantity of the fruit.
History
Native "criollo" avocados, the ancestral form of today's domesticated varieties
P. americana, or the avocado, originated in the state of Puebla, Mexico. The native, undomesticated variety is known as a criollo, and is small, with dark black skin, and contains a large seed. [3] The oldest evidence of avocado use was found in a cave located in Coxcatln, Puebla, Mexico, that dates to around 10,000 BC. The avocado tree also has a long history of cultivation in Central and South America; a water jar shaped like an avocado, dating to AD 900, was discovered in the pre-Incan city of Chan Chan.[4] The earliest known written account of the avocado in Europe is that of Martn Fernndez de Enciso (c.1470c.1528) in 1518 or 1519 in his
book, Suma De Geographia Que Trata De Todas Las Partidas Y Provincias Del Mundo.[5][6] The first written record in English of the use of the word 'avocado' was by Hans Sloane in a 1696 index of Jamaican plants. The plant was introduced to Indonesia in 1750, Brazil in 1809, the Levant in 1908, and South Africa and Australia in the late 19th century.
Etymology
The word "avocado" comes from the Spanish aguacate which in turn comes from the Nahuatlword huacatl [a'wakat] (testicle, a reference to the shape of the fruit).[7] Avocados were known by the Aztecs as 'the fertility fruit'. In some countries of South America, such as Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, and Uruguay, the avocado is known by its Quechua name, palta. In other Spanish-speaking countries it is known by the Mexican name and in Portuguese it is abacate. The fruit is sometimes called an avocado pear or alligator pear (due to its shape and the rough green skin of some cultivars). The Nahuatl ahuacatl can be compounded with other words, as in ahuacamolli, meaning avocado soup or sauce, from which the Spanish word guacamole derives.[8] The modern English name derives from the Spanish form avocado, "advocate", which was formed as a folk etymology that substituted (and obscured) the Nahuatl origins of the word. The earliest known written use in English is attested from 1697 as "Avogato Pear", a term which was later corrupted as "alligator pear".[9] The "advocate"-form appears in several other Germanic languages, such as the German Advogato-Birne, the Swedish advokatpron, the Danish advokat-pre and the Dutch advocaatpeer.[10] It is known as "butter fruit" in parts of India.[11] In China it is known as l (, a direct translation of "alligator pear") or hungyu gu (, "butter fruit").
Cultivation
Persea americana, young avocado plant (seedling), complete with parted pit and roots
Worldwide avocado output in 2005
Food and agriculture
Avocado fruit (cv. 'Fuerte'); left: whole, right: in section
Country
Quantity (Tm)
World Rank[12]
Mexico
1,040,390
Indonesia
263,575
United States of America
214,000
Colombia
185,811
Brazil
175,000
Chile
163,000
Dominican Republic
140,000
Peru
102,000
China
85,000
Ethiopia
81,500
10
[12]
The tree grows to 20 m (66 ft), with alternately arrangedleaves 12 centimetres (4.7 in) 25 centimetres (9.8 in) long. The flowers are inconspicuous, greenish-yellow, 5 millimetres (0.2 in) 10 millimetres (0.4 in) wide. Thepear-shaped fruit is 7 centimetres (2.8 in) 20 centimetres (7.9 in) long, weighs between 100 grams (3.5 oz) 1,000 grams (35 oz), and has a large centralseed, 5 centimetres (2.0 in) 6.4 centimetres (2.5 in) long.[13] The subtropical species needs a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination. When even a mild frost occurs, premature fruit drop may occur, although the Hass cultivar can tolerate temperatures down to 1C. The trees also need well-aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep. Yield is reduced when the irrigation water is highly saline. These soil and climate conditions are available only in a few areas of the world, particularly in southern Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Crete, theLevant, South Africa, Colombia, Peru, parts of central and northern Chile, Vietnam, Indonesia, parts of southern India, Sri Lanka, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Malaysia, Central America, the Caribbean, Mexico, California, Arizona, Puerto Rico,New Mexico, Texas, Florida, Hawai'i, Ecuador and Rwanda. Each region has different types of cultivars.
Harvest and postharvest

Commercial orchards produce an average of seven tonnes per hectare each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per hectare.[14] Biennial bearing can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor yields the next. The avocado tree does not tolerate freezing temperatures, and can be grown only in subtropical or tropical climates. There are several cold-hardy varieties planted in the region of Gainesville, Florida, which survive temperatures as low as 20 F with only minor leaf damage. [citation needed] The avocado is a climacteric fruit (the banana is another), which means it matures on the tree, but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in coolers at 3.3 to 5.6 C (38 to
42 F) until they reach their final destination. Avocados must be mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground. Generally, the fruit is picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick Hassvariety avocados when they have more than 23% dry matter, and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked, avocados ripen in a few days at room temperature (faster if stored with other fruits such as apples or bananas, because of the influence of ethylene gas). Somesupermarkets sell pre-ripened avocados which have been treated with synthetic ethylene to hasten ripening.[15] In some cases avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial growers who seek the greatest return for their crop; but if the fruit remains unpicked for too long it falls to the ground.
Breeding
A seedless avocado, or cuke, growing next to two regular avocados

The species is only partially able to self-pollinate because of dichogamy in its flowering. This limitation, added to the long juvenile period, makes the species difficult to breed. Most cultivars are propagated via grafting, having originated from random seedling plants or minor mutations derived from cultivars. Modern breeding programs tend to use isolation plots where the chances of cross-pollination are reduced. That is the case for programs at the University of California, Riverside, as well as the Volcani Centre and the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias in Chile. The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. There are two flowering types, "A" and "B". "A" cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. "B" varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning.
"A" cultivars: Hass, Gwen, Lamb Hass, Pinkerton, Reed. "B" cultivars: Fuerte, Sharwil, Zutano, Bacon, Ettinger, Sir Prize, Walter Hole.[16][17]
Certain cultivars, such as the Hass, have a tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold (which the avocado does not tolerate well), the trees tend to produce
abundantly the next season. In addition, due to environmental circumstances during some years, seedless avocados may appear on the trees.[18] Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.[19]
Propagation and rootstocks
Avocado is usually treated with a special technique to assist its sprouting process
A young avocado sprout

Avocados can be propagated by seed, taking roughly four to six years to bear fruit. The offspring is unlikely to be identical to the parent cultivar in fruit quality. Prime quality varieties are therefore propagated by grafting to rootstocks that are propagated by seed (seedling rootstocks) or by layering (clonal rootstocks). After about a year of growing in a greenhouse, the young rootstocks are ready to be grafted. Terminal and lateral grafting is normally used. The scion cultivar grows for another 612 months before the tree is ready to be sold. Clonal rootstocks are selected for tolerance of specific soil and disease conditions, such as poor soil aeration or resistance to the soil-borne disease (root rot) caused by Phytophthora.
Growing indoors
Usually, avocados are grown from pits indoors. This is often done by removing the pit from a ripe, unrefrigerated avocado. The pit is then stabbed with three or four tooth picks, about one third of the way up. The pit is placed in a jar or vase with tepid water. It should split in four to six weeks and yield roots and a sprout. If there is no change by this time, the avocado pit is discarded. Once the stem has grown a few inches, it is placed in a pot with soil. It should be watered every few days. Avocados have been known to grow large, so owners must be ready to repot the plant several times.
Diseases
P. americana, avocado plant flowers

Main article: List of avocado diseases Avocado trees are vulnerable to bacterial, viral, fungal and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting and discoloration.[20]
Cultivation in California
The avocado was introduced from Mexico to the U.S state of California in the 19th century, and has become an extremely successful cash crop. About 59,000 acres (240 km2) some 95% of United States avocado production is located in Southern California, with 60% inSan Diego County.[21][22] Fallbrook, California, claims the title of "Avocado Capital of the World", and both Fallbrook and Carpinteria, California, host annual avocado festivals.
A cultivars
Two Hass avocados

Choquette A seedling from Miami, Florida on the property of Remi Choquette. Now a favored commercial cultivar in south Florida. Hass While dozens of cultivars are grown, the Hass avocado is today the most common. It produces fruit year-round and accounts for 80% of cultivated avocados in the world.[6][23]All Hass avocado trees are descended from a single "mother tree" raised by a mail carrier named Rudolph Hass, of La Habra Heights, California.[5][23] Hass patented the productive tree in 1935. The "mother tree", of uncertain subspecies, died of root rot and was cut down in September, 2002.[6][23] Hass trees have medium-sized (150250 g), ovate fruit with a black, pebbled skin. The flesh has a nutty, rich flavour with 19% oil. A hybrid Guatemalan type, it can withstand temperatures to 1 C (30 F). Gwen A seedling bred from Hass x Thille in 1982, Gwen is higher yielding and more dwarfing than Hass in California. The fruit has an oval shape, slightly smaller than Hass (100-200g), with a rich, nutty flavor. The skin texture is more finely pebbled than Hass, and is dull green when ripe. It is frost-hardy down to 1 C (30 F). Lula A seedling reportedly grown from a 'Taft' avocado planted in Miami, Florida on the property of George Cellon, named after Cellon's wife Lula. It was likely a cross between Mexican and Guatemalan types. Lula was recognized for its flavor and high oil content and propagated commercially in Florida. It is also very commonly used as a rootstock for nursery production. Hardy to 4 C (25 F) Pinkerton First grown on the Pinkerton Ranch in Saticoy, California, in the early 1970s, Pinkerton is a seedling of Hass' Rincon. The large fruit has a small seed, and its green skin deepens in color as it ripens. The thick flesh has a smooth, creamy texture, pale green color, good flavor and high oil content. It shows some cold tolerance, to 1 C (30 F) and bears consistently heavy crops. A hybrid Guatemalan type, it has excellent peeling characteristics.
Reed Developed from a chance seedling found in 1948 by James S. Reed in California, Reed has large, round, green fruit with a smooth texture and dark, thick, glossy skin. Smooth and delicate, the flesh has a slightly nutty flavor. The skin ripens green. A Guatemalan type, it is hardy to 1 C (30 F). Tree size is about 5 by 4 meters.
B cultivars
Bacon Developed by a farmer, James Bacon, in 1954, Bacon has medium-sized fruit with smooth, green skin with yellow-green, light tasting flesh. When ripe, the skin remains green, but darkens slightly, and fruit yields to gentle pressure. It is cold-hardy down to5 C (23 F). Brogden Possibly a cross between Mexican and West Indian types, Brogden originated as a seedling grown in Winter Haven, Florida on the property of Tom W. Brogden. The variety was recognized for its coldhardiness to 5 C (23 F) and became commercially propagated as nursery-stock for home growing. It is noted for its dark purple skin at maturity. Ettinger A Mexican/Guatemalan cross seedling of Fuerte, this cultivar originated in Israel, and was put into production there in 1947. Mature trees tolerate four hours at 6 C (21 F). The fruit has a smooth, thin, green skin that does not peel easily. The flesh is very pale green. Fuerte A Mexican/Guatemalan cross originating in Puebla, the Fuerte earned its name, which means strong in Spanish, after it withstood a severe frost in California in 1913. Hardy to 3 C (27 F), it has mediumsized, pear-shaped fruit with a green, leathery, easy to peel skin. The creamy flesh of mild and rich flavour has 18% oil. The skin ripens green. Tree size is 6 by 4 meters. Monroe A Guatemalan/West Indian cross that originated from a seedling grown in Homestead, Florida on the property of J.J.L. Phillips, it was patented in 1937 and became a major commercial cultivar due to its cold hardiness and production qualities. The fruit is large, averaging over 2 pounds in weight, has an elliptical shape, and green, glossy skin. Hardy to 3 C (27 F). Sharwil Predominantly Guatemalan, with some Mexican race genes, Sharwil was selected in 1951 by Sir Frank Sharpe at Redland Bay, southern Queensland, Australia. The name "Sharwil" is an
amalgamation of Sharp and Wilson (J.C. Wilson being the first propagator). Scions were sent from Australia to Hawaii in 1966. A medium-sized fruit with rough green skin, it closely resembles the Fuerte, but is slightly more oval in shape. The fruit has greenish-yellow flesh with a rich, nutty flavor and high oil content (2024%), and a small seed. The skin is green when ripe. It represents more than 57% of the commercial farming in Hawaii, and represents up to 20% of all avocados grown in New South Wales, Australia. It is a regular and moderate bearer with excellent quality fruit, but is sensitive to frost. Disease and pest resistance are superior to Fuerte. Zutano Originated by R.L. Ruitt in Fallbrook in 1926, this Mexican variety is hardy to 4 C (25 F). The large, pear-shaped fruit has a shiny, thin, yellow-green skin that peels moderately easily. The flesh is pale green with fibers and has a light flavor.
Other cultivars
Other avocado cultivars include Spinks. The fruit of the cultivar Florida, grown mostly outside California, is larger and rounder, with a smooth, medium-green skin, and a less-fatty, firmer and fibrous flesh. These are occasionally marketed as low-calorie avocados. Historically attested varieties (which may or may not survive among Horticulturists) include the Challenge, Dickinson, Kist, Queen, Rey, Royal, Sharpless, and Taft.[24]
Avocado-related international trade issues
First international air shipment of avocados from Los Angeles, California toToronto, Ontario, for the Canadian National Exhibition
After the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect in 1994, Mexico tried exporting avocados to the US. The US government resisted, claiming the trade would introduce Tephritidae fruit flies that would destroy California's crops. The Mexican government responded by inviting USDA inspectors to Mexico, but the U.S. government declined, claiming fruit fly inspection was not feasible. The Mexican government then proposed to sell avocados only to the
northeastern US in the winter (fruit flies cannot withstand extreme cold). The US government balked, but gave in when the Mexican government started erecting barriers to US corn. Another argument is that the lower prices generated by Mexican (and Chilean) imports would increase the popularity of avocados outside of California, thereby assuaging the loss of profits due to the new competition. Today, avocados from Mexico are allowed in all 50 states, because USDA inspectors inMichoacn (where 90% of Hass avocados from Mexico are grown), have cut open and inspected millions of fruit in Uruapan, and found no problems. Imports from Mexico in the 20052006 season exceeded 130,000 tonnes.[25][clarification needed] In 2009, Peru joined Chile and Mexico as an exporter of avocados to the US.[26] Avocados once were more expensive in the US than in most other countries, because those consumed in the US were grown almost exclusively in California and Florida, where land, labor and water are expensive. The avocado tree requires frequent, deep watering to bear optimal amounts of fruit, particularly in spring, summer, and fall; and due to the increased costs for water in Southern California versus those of prior decades, it is now a costly crop to grow. California produces about 90% of the United States' avocado crop.[21] Internationally, avocado exports are dominated by Mexico.[26]
Culinary uses
Avocado, raw (edible parts) Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy Carbohydrates - Sugars - Dietary fiber Fat 670 kJ (160 kcal) 8.53 g 0.66 g 6.7 g 14.66 g
- saturated - monounsaturated - polyunsaturated Protein Water Thiamine (vit. B1) Riboflavin (vit. B2) Niacin (vit. B3) Pantothenic acid (B5) Vitamin B6 Folate (vit. B9) Vitamin C Vitamin E Vitamin K Calcium Iron Magnesium
2.13 g 9.80 g 1.82 g 2g 73.23 g 0.067 mg (6%) 0.130 mg (11%) 1.738 mg (12%) 1.389 mg (28%) 0.257 mg (20%) 81 g (20%) 10 mg (12%) 2.07 mg (14%) 21 g (20%) 12 mg (1%) 0.55 mg (4%) 29 mg (8%)
Phosphorus Potassium Zinc
52 mg (7%) 485 mg (10%) 0.64 mg (7%)
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database
The fruit of horticultural cultivars has a markedly higher fat content than most other fruit, mostly monounsaturated fat, and as such serves as an important staple in the diet of various groups where access to other fatty foods (high-fat meats and fish, dairy products, etc.) is limited. A ripe avocado yields to gentle pressure when held in the palm of the hand and squeezed. The flesh is prone to enzymatic browning; it turns brown quickly after exposure to air. To prevent this, lime or lemon juice can be added to avocados after they are peeled.
Indonesian-style avocado milkshake with chocolate syrup
The fruit is not sweet, but rich, and distinctly yet subtly flavored, and of smooth, almost creamy texture. It is used in both savory and sweet dishes, though in many countries not for both. The avocado is very popular invegetarian cuisine, as substitute for meats in sandwiches and salads because of its high fat content.
Generally, avocado is served raw, though some cultivars, including the common Hass, can be cooked for a short time without becoming bitter. Caution should be used when cooking with untested cultivars; the flesh of some avocados may be rendered inedible by heat. Prolonged cooking induces this chemical reaction in all cultivars.[27] It is used as the base for the Mexican dip known asguacamole, as well as a spread on corn tortillas or toast, served with spices. In the Philippines, Brazil, Indonesia, Vietnam, and southern India (especially the coastal Kerala and Karnataka region), avocados are frequently used for milkshakes and occasionally added to ice cream and other desserts. InBrazil, Vietnam, the Philippines[28] and Indonesia, a dessert drink is made with sugar, milk or water, and pureed avocado. Chocolate syrup is sometimes added. In Morocco, there is a similar chilled avocado and milk drink, that is sweetened with confectioner's sugar and hinted with orange flower water. In Ethiopia, avocados are made into juice by mixing them with sugar and milk or water, usually served with Vimto and a slice of lemon. It is also very common to serve layered multiple fruit juices in a glass (locally called spreece) made of avocados, mangoes, bananas, guavas and papayas. Avocados are also used to make salads. Avocados in savory dishes, often seen as exotic, are a relative novelty in Portuguese-speaking countries, such as Brazil, where the traditional preparation is mashed with sugar and lime, and eaten as a dessert or snack. This contrasts with Spanish speaking countries, such as Mexico or Argentina, where the opposite is true and sweet preparations are often unheard of. In Australia and New Zealand, it is commonly served in sandwiches, sushis, on toast, or with chicken. In Ghana, it is often eaten alone in sliced bread as a sandwich. In Sri Lanka, well ripened flesh, thoroughly mashed with sugar and milk, or treacle (a syrup made from the nectar of a particular palm flower) was once a popular dessert. In Haiti it is often consumed with cassava or regular bread for breakfast. In Mexico and Central America, avocados are served mixed with white rice, in soups, salads, or on the side of chicken and meat. In Peru, they are consumed with tequeos as mayonnaise, served as a side dish with parrillas, used in salads and sandwiches, or as a whole dish when filled with tuna, shrimp, or chicken. In Chile, it is used as a puree with chicken, hamburgers, and hot dogs; and in slices for celery or lettuce salads. The Chilean version of Caesar salad contains large slices of mature avocado. In Kenya and Nigeria, the avocado is often eaten as a fruit, and is eaten alone, or mixed with other fruits in a fruit salad, or as part of a vegetable salad. In Iran, it is used as a rejuvenating facial cream.
A puree of the fruit was used to thicken and flavor the liqueur Advocaat in its original recipe, made by the Dutch population of Surinameand Recife, with the name deriving from the same source.[citation needed] Avocado slices are frequently added to hamburgers, tortas, hot dogs, and carne asada. Avocado can be combined with eggs (in scrambled eggs, tortillas or omelettes), and is a key ingredient in California rolls and other makizushi ("maki", or rolled sushi). In southern Africa, Avocado Ritz is a common dish.[29] In the United Kingdom, the avocado became widely available in the 1960s when it was introduced by Marks and Spencer under the name 'avocado pear'. However, many customers tried to use it as a dessert ingredient like other pears (e.g. with custard), and complained to the store that it was inedible. As a result, Marks and Spencer dropped the word 'pear' and labelled it simply 'avocado' [
Nutritional value
Avocados have diverse fats. For a typical avocado:
About 75% of an avocado's calories come from fat, most of which is monounsaturated fat. On a 100 g basis, avocados have 35% more potassium (485 mg) than bananas (358 mg). They are
rich in B vitamins, as well asvitamin E and vitamin K.[30]
Avocados have a high fiber content of 75% insoluble and 25% soluble fiber.[31]
High avocado intake was shown in one preliminary study to lower blood cholesterol levels. Specifically, after a seven-day diet rich in avocados, mild hypercholesterolemia patients showed a 17% decrease in total serum cholesterol levels. These subjects also showed a 22% decrease in both LDL (harmful cholesterol) and triglyceride levels and 11% increase in HDL (helpful cholesterol) levels.[32]Additionally a Japanese team synthesised the four chiral components, and identified (2R, 4R)-16-heptadecene-1, 2, 4-triol as a natural antibacterial component.[33] Due to a combination of specific aliphatic acetogenins, avocado is under preliminary research for potential anti-cancer activity.[34] Extracts of P. americana have been used in laboratory research to study potential use for treating hypertension or diabetes mellitus.[35]
As a houseplant
20cm avocado houseplant leaf
While not particularly popular, the avocado tree can be grown domestically and used as a (decorative) houseplant. The pit germinates in normal soil conditions or partially submerged in a container of water. In the latter method, the pit sprouts in four to six weeks, at which time it is planted in fertile soil such as potting soil. The plant normally grows large enough to be prunable; however, it does not bear fruit unless it has ample sunlight. Home gardeners can graft a branch from a fruitbearing plant to speed maturity, which typically takes four to six years to bear fruit. To obtain fresh avocado produce, however, more than one tree must be cultivated for crosspollination.[36]
[edit]Allergies
Some people have allergic reactions to avocado. There are two main forms of allergy: those with a tree-pollen allergy develop local symptoms in the mouth and throat shortly after eating avocado; the second, known as latex-fruit syndrome,[37] is related to latex allergy[38] and symptoms include generalised urticaria, abdominal pain, and vomiting and can sometimes be life-threatening.[39]
Toxicity to animals
Avocado leaves, bark, skin, or pit are documented to be harmful to animals; cats, dogs, cattle, goats, rabbits,[40] rats, birds, fish, and horses[22][41] can be severely harmed or even killed when they consume them. The avocado fruit is poisonous to some birds, and theAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) lists it as toxic to many animals including cats, dogs, and horses.[42] Avocado leaves contain a toxic fatty acid derivative, persin, which in sufficient quantity can cause colic in horses and, without veterinary treatment, death.[43] The symptoms include gastrointestinal irritation, vomiting, diarrhoea, respiratory distress, congestion, fluid accumulation around the tissues of the heart, and even death. Birds also seem to be particularly sensitive to this toxic compound. Feeding avocados or guacamole to an animal should be avoided completely.
Co-evolution
In 1982, the evolutionary biologist Daniel H. Janzen suggested that the avocado may be an example of an 'evolutionary anachronism', a fruit adapted for ecological relationship with now-extinct large mammals (such as giant ground sloths or gomphotheres). Most large fleshy fruits serve the function of seed dispersal, accomplished by their consumption by large animals. There are some reasons to think that the fruit, with its mildly toxic pit, may have co-evolved with Pleistocene megafauna to be swallowed whole and excreted in their dung, ready to sprout. No extant native animal is large enough to effectively disperse avocado seeds in this fashion.[44][45]
[edit]See
also
Florida Lime & Avocado Growers, Inc. v. Paul Recalcitrant seed Avocado oil
[edit]References
1.
^ Chen, H.; Morrell, P. L.; Ashworth, V. E. T. M.; De La Cruz, M.; Clegg, M. T. (2008). "Tracing the Geographic Origins of Major Avocado Cultivars". Journal of Heredity 100 (1): 5665.doi:10.1093/jhered/esn068. PMID 18779226.
2. 3.
^ California Avocado Society 1973-74 Yearbook 57: 70-71, What kind of fruit is the avocado? ^ M. Villanueva1 y S. Verti. "EL AGUACATE: ORO VERDE DE MXICO, ORGULLO DE MICHOACN". Gobierno del Estado de Michoacn. Retrieved 2020-06-06.
4.
^ Barry, PC (2001-04-07). "Avocado: The Early Roots of Avocado History". Canku Ota. Archived from the original on 15 December 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-29.
5.
^ a b "Avocado History". IndexFresh.com. Bloomington, CA: Index Fresh Avocado. 2007. Archived from the original on December 25, 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-29.[unreliable source?]
6.
^ a b c Stradley, Linda (2004). "All About Avocados: History of the Hass Avocado". What'sCookingAmerica.net. Newberg, OR: self-published. Retrieved 2008-05-13. While this is a self-published work, it cites its sources, and Stradley is a wellknown culinary author.
7. 8.
^ "Online Etymology Dictionary Avocado". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2010-05-12. ^ "www.thefloweringgarden.com/avocado.htm". Thefloweringgarden.com. 2007-08-08. Archived from the original on 10 May 2010. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
9.
^ Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (1989), articles "avocado", "alligator, n.2"
10. ^ Svenska Akademiens ordbok, "advokat"; Ordbog over det danske Sprog, "avocado"; Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, "avocado", all meaning "advocate pear". 11. ^ "Avocado holds promise for Wayanad farmers". Hindu.com. 2010-04-16.
12. ^ a b FAO (2004) Major Producers of Avocado 13. ^ Dowling, Curtis F.; Morton, Julia Frances (1987). Fruits of warm climates. Miami, Fla: J.F. Morton. ISBN 0-9610184-1-0. 14. ^ Whiley, A (2000-09-01). "Avocado Production in Australia".Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.Archived from the original on 12 January 2008. Retrieved 2007-12-29. 15. ^ mindfully.org (1976-06-01). "Ethylene gas and produce". Mindfully.org. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 2010-05-12. 16. ^ "Agriculture Handbook". University of California. 2007.Archived from the original on 17 December 2007. Retrieved 200712-29. 17. ^ Crane, JH; Balerdi CF, Maguire I (2007-08-01). "Avocado Growing in the Florida Home Landscape". University of Florida. Archived from the original on 13 January 2008. Retrieved 2007-12-29. 18. ^ Blumenfeld, Amos; Gazit, Shmuel. "Development of Seeded and Seedless Avocado Fruit". Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel. Retrieved 2010-09-21. 19. ^ Stewart, W.S.; Smoyer, K.M.; Puffer, R.E.. "Progress Report on Effects of Plant Growth Regulator Sprays on Avocados".California Avocado Society 1948 Yearbook. Retrieved 2010-09-21. 20. ^ Ohr, HD; Coffer MD & McMillan RT (2003-08-04). "Common Names of Plant Diseases". American Phytopathological Society. Archived from the original on April 23, 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-13. 21. ^ a b "Avocado Fun Facts". California Avocado Commission. Retrieved 2012-04-18. 22. ^ a b Clipsham, R. "Avocado Toxicity". Archived from the original on 12 January 2008. Retrieved 2007-12-29. 23. ^ a b c "The Hass Mother Tree: 19262002". Avocado.org.Irvine, CA: California Avocado Commission. 2008 [copyright date]. pp. "About Avocados: History" section. Archived from the original on 13 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-27. 24. ^ Overholser, E. L. (192425). "Cold Storage Behavior of Avocados". California Avocado Association Annual Report(San Diego, CA: California Avocado Association) 10: 3240. Retrieved August 19, 2009. 25. ^ "Mexico praises lifting of last U.S. avocado import barriers". International International Herald Tribune. 2007-0202.Archived from the original on 18 January 2008. Retrieved 2007-12-29. 26. ^ a b "The productivity connection behind openness". Trade and Poverty in Latin America (COPLA). 2009-05-05. Retrieved 2009-05-20. 27. ^ Bates, Robert P. (1970). "HEAT-INDUCED OFF-FLAVOR IN AVOCADO FLESH". Journal of Food Science 35: 478.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1970.tb00962.x. 28. ^ Zeldes, Leah A. (2010-06-02). "Eat this! The Hass avocado, black and green and creamy". Dining Chicago. Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc.. Retrieved 2010-06-20. 29. ^ Recipe for avocado ritz 30. ^ "Avocados, raw, California". NutritionData.com. 2007.Archived from the original on 31 December 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-29.
31. ^ Naveh E, Werman MJ, Sabo E, Neeman I (2002). "Defatted avocado pulp reduces body weight and total hepatic fat but increases plasma cholesterol in male rats fed diets with cholesterol". J. Nutr. 132 (7): 20158. PMID 12097685. 32. ^ Lopez Ledesma, R; Frati Munari, A C: Hernandez Dominguez, B C: Cervantes Montalvo, S: Hernandez Luna, M H: Juarez, C: Moran Lira, S (1996 Winter). "Monounsaturated fatty acid (avocado) rich diet for mild hypercholesterolemia". Arch-Med-Res. 27 (4): 51923. PMID 8987188. 33. ^ Sugiyama, Takeyoshi; Sato, Akemi and Yamashita, Kyohei (1982). "Synthesis of All Four Stereoisomers of Antibacterial Component of Avocado". Agricultural and Biological Chemistry46 (2): 481485. 34. ^ D'Ambrosio SM, Han C, Pan L, Kinghorn AD, Ding H.,"Aliphatic acetogenin constituents of avocado fruits inhibit human oral cancer cell proliferation by targeting the EGFR/RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK1/2 pathway." Biochem Biophys Res Commun. June 10, 2011;409(3):465-9 Authors: 35. ^ Gondwe M, Kamadyaapa DR, Tufts MA, Chuturgoon AA, Ojewole JA, Musabayane CT.,"Effects of Persea americana Mill (Lauraceae) ["Avocado"] ethanolic leaf extract on blood glucoseand kidney function in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats and on kidney cell lines of the proximal (LLCPK1) and distal tubules (MDBK)." Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 2008 Jan-Feb;30(1):25-35 36. ^ "Growing Avocado As A House Plant". Basic Garden Tips. Retrieved 2012-05-15. 37. ^ Brehler R, Theissen U, Mohr C, Luger T (April 1997). ""Latex-fruit syndrome": frequency of cross-reacting IgE antibodies".Allergy 52 (4): 40410. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.1997.tb01019.x. PMID 9188921. 38. ^ "Latex allergy". Better Health Channel. 39. ^ "General Information for Avocado". InformAll Database. 40. ^ D. Appleman (1944). "Preliminary Report on Toxicity of Avocado Leaves" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-10-09. 41. ^ "Notes on poisoning: avocado". Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility. 2006-06-30. Archived from the original on 14 January 2008. Retrieved 2007-12-29. 42. ^ "Avocado". ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center.^ Oelrichs PB, Ng JC, Seawright AA, Ward A, Schffeler L, MacLeod JK (1995). "Isolation and identification of a compound from avocado (Persea americana) leaves that causes necrosis of the acinar epithelium of the lactating mammary gland and the myocardium". Nat. Toxins 3 (5): 344 9.doi:10.1002/nt.2620030504. PMID 8581318. 43. ^ Cited in Barlow, Connie C. (2000). The ghosts of evolution: nonsensical fruit, missing partners, and other ecological anachronisms. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-00551-9. 44. ^ B. N. Wolstenholme; A. W. Whiley (1999). "ECOPHYSIOLOGY OF THE AVOCADO (Persea americana Mill.) TREE AS A BASIS FOR PRE-HARVEST MANAGEMENT". Revista Chapingo Serie Horticultura 5: 7788.
Balut (egg)
Partially shelled balut egg showingyolk and chick
A balut is a fertilized duck embryo that is boiled and eaten in the shell. It is commonly sold as streetfood in the Philippines. They are common food in countries in Southeast Asia, such asLaos, Cambodia (pong tia koon served with beer. The Filipino and Malay word balut (balot) means "wrapped" depending on pronunciation. in Cambodian)[1] and Vietnam (trng vt ln or ht vt ln in Vietnamese). They are often
Preparation
Fifteen-day-old balut egg floating in a mixture of hot sauce and vinegar

In the Philippines, balut eaters prefer salt and/or a chili, garlic and vinegar (white or coconut sap) mixture to season their eggs. The eggs are savored for their balance of textures and flavors; the broth surrounding the embryo is sipped from the egg before the shell is peeled, and the yolk and young chick inside can be eaten. All of the contents of the egg may be consumed, although the white may remain uneaten; depending on the age of the fertilized egg, the white may have an unappetizing cartilaginous toughness. In the Philippines, balut have recently entered haute cuisine by being served as appetizers in restaurants, cooked adobo style, fried
in omelettes or even used as filling in baked pastries. In Vietnam, balut are eaten with a pinch of salt, lemon juice, plus ground pepper and Vietnamese mint leaves (southern Vietnamese style). In Cambodia, balut are eaten while still warm in the shell and are served with nothing more than a little garnish, which is usually a mixture of lime juice and ground pepper.
Shelled and fried balut (Wangjidan) sold in Nanjing, China

A similar preparation is known in China as maodan(Chinese: ; pinyin: mo dn; literally "feathered egg"), modan (Chinese: ; pinyin: m dn; literally "end-stage egg"), wangjidan (Chinese: ; pinyin: wng jdn; literally "flush egg") or huozhuzi (Chinese: ; pinyin: huzhzi; literally "living bead"). Chinese traders and migrants are said to have brought the idea of eating fertilized duck eggs to the Philippines. However, the knowledge and craft of balut-making has been localized by the balut-makers (mangbabalut). Today, balut production has not been mechanized in favor of the traditional production by hand. Although balut are produced throughout the Philippines, balut-makers inPateros are renowned for their careful selection and incubation of the eggs. Fertilized duck eggs are kept warm in the sun and stored in baskets to retain warmth. After nine days, the eggs are held to a light to reveal the embryo inside. Approximately eight days later the balut are ready to be cooked, sold, and eaten. Vendors sell cooked balut from buckets of sand(used to retain warmth) accompanied by small packets of salt. Uncooked balut are rarely sold in Southeast Asia. In the United States, Asian markets occasionally carry uncooked balut eggs. Alternatively, they can be mail-ordered. The cooking process is identical to that of hard-boiled chicken eggs, and baluts are eaten while still warm.
Underaged balut with visible chick

Duck eggs that are not properly developed after nine to twelve days are sold as penoy, which look, smell and taste similar to a regular hard-boiled egg. In Filipino cuisine, these are occasionally beaten and fried, similar to scrambled eggs, and served with a vinegar dip. The age of the egg before it can be cooked is a matter of local preference. In the Philippines, the ideal balut is 17 days old, at which point it is said to be balut sa puti ("wrapped in white"). The chick inside is not old enough to show its beak, feathers or claws, and the bones are undeveloped. The Vietnamese often prefer their balut mature from 19 days up to 21 days, when the chick is old enough to be recognizable as a baby duck and has bones that will be firm but tender when cooked.
See also

Century egg Soy egg Tea egg Salted duck egg Balut (game) Tokneneng
Further reading
Davidson, Alan (1999). "Balut". Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford University Press. pp. 53. ISBN 0-19211579-0.
Balut Eggs Mechanized Balut Making: Bottled Balut
How to make the Hawaiian version of Balut Balut : the ugly duckling embryo : The balut in Filipino culture
References
1. ^ Regional names.
Alibertia patinoi
(Redirected from Borojo)
Boroj
Kingdom:
Plantae
Clade:
Angiosperms
Clade:
Eudicots
Clade:
Asterids
Order:
Gentianales
Family:
Rubiaceae
Subfamily:
Ixoroideae
Tribe:
Gardenieae
Genus:
Alibertia
Species:
A. patinoi
Binomial name
Alibertia patinoi
(Cuatrec.) Delprete
Synonyms
Borojoa patinoi Cuatrec.
Alibertia patinoi, commonly known as boroj, is a mid-sized (3 to 5m), tropical forest tree that belongs to the Rubiaceae family. It grows in the northwest area of Colombia in theChoc Department and in the Esmeraldas Province of Ecuador, in areas of high humidity (over 85%) and an average temperature of 28C, both in the wild and on local farms. Boroj is an Ember word meaning: boro = head, ne-jo = fruit - head-shaped fruit, or round, globulous fruit.
[edit]Fruit
features
The fruit is large (about 12 cm length), with a round shape and brown color and average weight of 7401000 grams. The pulp represents 88% of the total weight. Each fruit has 90 to 640 seeds. Borojo has high levels of protein, phosphorus, ascorbic acid, calcium and iron. [1] Borojo is used in the preparation of jam, wine, desserts and traditional medicines with supposed aphrodisiac effects. It is also used by the local communities against hypertension, bronchial diseases and malnutrition. A study commissioned at Rutgers University by Nutropical, a private company, found that borojo fruit powder had a high and significant content of polyphenols as measured by theFolin-Ciocalteu polyphenol test. Most notably, the researchers believe the key polyphenol found in borojo may be novel. Work continues to identify the compound and/or elucidate its chemical structure. An analysis conducted by the same company found borojo has an ORAC value of over 54 molTE/g (5400 molTE/100g). The form of the fruit tested, however, is not mentioned (fresh, freeze-dried, spray-dried, etc.).[1] Alibertia sorbilis is a very similar species, also used with commercial purposes. Boroj de la Amazonia (Amazonas borojo), Duroia maguirei, is a wild species in a different Rubiaceaegenus, which grows up to 8m and has a smaller, edible fruit. Claes Persson (1999)
References
1.
^ Nutropical Borojo Science]
Cuatrecasas, Jos 1948: "Borojoa, un nuevo gnero de Rubiceas"; Revista de La Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas Fsicas y Naturales VII (28): 474-477. Bogot.
Cuatrecasas, Jos y Vctor Manuel Patio 1949: Una nueva fruta tropical americana: el boroj. Secretara de Agricultura y Ganadera. Servicio de Divulgacin. Serie Botnica Aplicada. Ao II. N. 5. Cali. Imprenta Departamental.
Persson, Claes 2000: "Phylogeny of the Neotropical Alibertia group (Rubiaceae), with emphasis on the genus Alibertia, inferred from ITS and 5S ribosomal DNA sequences"; American Journal of Botany 87:1018-1028.
Robbrecht, E., and C. Puff. 1986: "A survey of the Gardenieae and related tribes (Rubiaceae)"; Botanische Jahrbcher fr Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie 108: 63137.
Schumann, K. 1891: "Rubiaceae"; Die natrlichen Pflanzenfamilien 4(4): 1154; A. Engler and K. Prantl [eds.], Engelmann, Leipzig, Germany.
Turnera diffusa
(Redirected from Damiana)
Turnera diffusa
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malpighiales
Family:
Passifloraceae
Genus:
Turnera
Species:
T. diffusa
Binomial name
Turnera diffusa
Willd. ex Schult.[1]
Varieties
T. d. var. aphrodisiaca (G.H.Ward) Urb. T. d. var. diffusa[2]
Synonyms
Turnera microphylla Ham.[2]
Turnera diffusa, known as damiana, is a shrub native to southwestern Texas in the United States,[3] Central America, Mexico, South America, and the Caribbean. It belongs to the family Passifloraceae.[2] Damiana is a relatively small shrub that produces small, aromatic flowers. It blossoms in early to late summer and is followed by fruits that taste similar to figs. The shrub is said to have a strong spice-like odor somewhat like chamomile, due to the essential oils present in the plant.[4] The leaves have traditionally been made into a tea and an incense which was used by native people of Central and South America for its relaxing effects. Spanish missionaries first recorded that the Mexican Indians drank Damiana tea mixed with sugar for use as an aphrodisiac.
Uses
Damiana has long been claimed to have a stimulating effect on libido, and its use as anaphrodisiac has continued into modern times. More recently, some corroborating scientific evidence in support of its long history of use has emerged. Several animal testing studies have shown evidence of increased sexual activity in rats of both sexes. Damiana has been shown to be particularly stimulating for sexually exhausted or impotent male rats[5][6] as well as generally increased sexual activity in rats of both sexes.[7] It has also been shown that damiana may function as an aromatase inhibitor, which has been suggested as a possible method of action for its reputed effects.[8] Damiana also contains -pinene, -carotene, -pinene, eucalyptol, tannins and thymol.[9]
Damiana is an ingredient in a traditional Mexican liqueur, which is sometimes used in lieu ofTriple Sec in margaritas. Mexican folklore claims that it was used in the "original" margarita. The damiana margarita is popular in the Los Cabos region of Mexico.[10][11]
Legality
USA
In the state of Louisiana, Damiana is considered a "prohibited plant" along with 39 other plants by Louisiana State Act 159, effective 8 August 2005. Any combination of any of the parts, leaves, stems, stalks, seeds, materials, compounds, salts, derivatives, mixtures, preparations, or any resin extracted from any part of the plant is illegal to possess or distribute for human consumption in the state of Louisiana. This was due in part to an increase in the number of synthetic cannabis overdoses from a variety of chemically-infused plant material formulations, most of which contained Damiana as a primary ingredient.[12][13][14]
UK
A product known as "Black Mamba", labelled as containing "100% Damiana", has been on sale in the UK; ill effects from its use have been reported.[15] MP Graham Jones has called for the substance to be made illegal.[16] "Black Mamba" is a combination of damiana and various synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists, including JWH-018.[17] Synthetic cannabis has caused negative side effects in a number of users.[18] Damiana is considered safe when consumed in its natural form.[19] During Prime Minister's questions on Wednesday the 7th of March 2012 MP Nadhim Zahawi asked for action to be taken in relation to "Black Mamba", the Prime Minister responded: "We are determined to stamp out these so-called legal highs. The Home Office is aware of this particular drug. We now have the drugs early warning system which brings these things to our attention, but as he says, a decision needs swiftly to be made and I will make sure that happens."
[20]
References
1. 2. ^ "Turnera diffusa". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 2011-01-29. ^ a b c "Taxon: Turnera diffusa Willd.". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2009-05-11. Retrieved 2012-01-03. 3. ^ Everitt, J. H.; Dale Lynn Drawe; Robert I. Lonard (2002). Trees, Shrubs, and Cacti of South Texas. Texas Tech University Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-89672-473-0. 4. 5. ^ Gildemeister, Eduard; Friedrich Hoffmann (1922). The Volatile Oils. Volume 3 (2 ed.). Wiley. p. 183. ^ Arletti, R., Benelli, A., Cavazzuti, E., Scarpetta, G., & Bertolini, A. (September 1998), "Stimulating property of Turnera diffusa and Pfaffia paniculata extracts on the sexual behavior of male rats", Psychopharmacology 143: 15 19
6.
^ Estrada-Reyesb, K.R., Ortiz-Lpeza, P., Gutirrez-Ortza, J., & Martnez-Mota, L. (June 2009), "Turnera diffusa Wild (Turneraceae) recovers sexual behavior in sexually exhausted males", Journal of Ethnopharmacology 123: 423429
7.
^ Kumar, S., Madaan, R., & Sharma, A. (2009), "Evaluation of Aphrodisiac Activity of Turnera aphrodisiaca", International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemical Research 1: 14
8.
^ Zhao, J., Dasmahapatra, A.K., Khan, S.I., & Khan, I.A. (December 2008), "Anti-aromatase activity of the constituents from damiana (Turnera diffusa)", Journal of Ethnopharmacology 120: 387 393, doi:10.1016/j.jep.2008.09.016, PMID 18948180
9.
^ Balch, Phyllis A. (2002). Prescription for Nutritional Healing: the A to Z Guide to Supplements (2 ed.). Penguin. p. 233. ISBN 978-1-58333-143-9.
10. ^ Damiana Liqueur at Damiana.net 11. ^ Perry, Charles (2007-06-20). "The unexpected thrill". Los Angeles Times. 12. ^ Legislature of Louisiana: Regular Session, 2010; Act No. 565; House Bill No. 173 13. ^ Richards, Brandon. "Fake pot now illegal in Louisiana." KPLCtv.com. (2010): n. page. Web. 3 Nov. 2011. 14. ^ "Damiana Legal Status." Erowid. N.p., 30 Oct 2011. Web. 3 Nov 2011. 15. ^ "Legal high fears as teens taken ill". The Sun. 2011-10-21. 16. ^ "Call for ban on legal high Black Mamba backed by MP Graham Jones". The Lancashire Telegraph. 2011-12-08. 17. ^ Black Mamba Spice: A Cannabinoid Cocktail 18. ^ Fake Weed, Real Drug: K2 Causing Hallucinations in Teens | LiveScience 19. ^ DAMIANA: Uses, Side Effects, Interactions and Warnings - WebMD 20. ^ David Cameron MP, Prime Minister of the UK, House of Commons, 7th March 2012.
External links

Damiana vault at Erowid Damiana (www.rain-tree.com)
Deer penis
Deer penis in a Chinese pharmacy inYokohama, Japan

In traditional Chinese medicine, a deer penis (Chinese: ; pinyin: l bin) is said to have important therapeutic properties. Like turtle's blood and penis, deer penis is one of the "delicacies" served in large jars in Snake Alley, Taipei.[1] It is also served on the Chinese mainland in restaurants such as the Guo Li Zhuang.[2] The deer penis is typically very large and, proponents claim, for it to retain its properties it must be extracted from the deer whilst still alive.[3] Often it is then sliced into small pieces, typically by women and then roasted and dried in the sun.[3][4] The Mayans were also known to extract the penis of the deer and roast it.[5]Hippocratesrecommended consuming deer penis to resolve sexual difficulties.[6] During the 2008 Summer Olympics, the country banned deer penis, turtle blood, andangelica root potions from athletes' diets.[7] This is because according to traditional Chinese medicine, deer penis, especially if ingested while soaked in alcohol (deer penis wine), is an effective remedy for athletic injuries. Chinese Olympic officials advised national athletes not to take the traditional remedy because it may contain some banned substances like the stimulant herbal ephedrine. It joined steroids and amphetamines on the list of banned substances. When consumed, a deer penis or tiger penis is also said to enhance male virility, and is thought by some to be an aphrodisiac.[8]
Deer penis wine can be sold at $12 a glass and often as high as $450 for a two litre bottle. [9] Deer-antler wine, known as Lurongjiu, is also said to enhance sexual potency in men and to have a warming effect, aiding the joints.[3][10] The penis of a deer, turtle or bull is also consumed in restaurants and in Singapore is known to also be offered as a soup delicacy.[9] In Angang, Taiwan, women are reported as consuming deer penis during pregnancy as it is said to have a fattening effect and to make the mother and child stronger.[3]
Popular culture
A health store in Shanghai which retails deer penis, amongst other remedies
Powdered deer penis is mentioned in the 1996 Steven Seagal film The Glimmer Man during the scene where Seagal and Keenan Ivory Wayans enter a Chinese herbal store. Deer penis is mentioned in the 2009 episode of The Office "Double Date" when Dwight corrects Michael's statement calling fish sticks an aphrodisiac: "you're thinking of deer penis," Dwight replies. In season 1 episode 5 of The League, Ruxin and Taco go to Chinatown to buy penis wine. However, it is a fictitious "3 Penis Wine", involving the infusion of deer, dog, and snake penises.
See also

Pizzle Koro (medicine) Tiger penis Elephant penis Lion penis Coyote's Penis Deer Blood
References
1. 2. ^ The Atlantic Monthly, Volume 274, Atlantic Monthly Co., 1994 ^ Richard Spencer, On the menu today: horse penis and testicles with a chilli dip, The Telegraph
3.
^ a b c d Stafford,
Charles (1995). The roads of Chinese childhood: learning and identification in p. 98. ISBN 0-521-46574-5. p. 99. ISBN 0-520-24678-0.
Angang. Cambridge University Press. 4. ^ Richards,
John F (2006). The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern
World. University of California Press. 5. ^ Robert
M. Laughlin, Carol Karasik (1988). The People of the Bat: Mayan Tales and
Dreams from Zinacantn. Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 087474590.

6. 7. ^ Bonnard (1999), p.24 ^ "Deer Penis Loses Favor as China's Olympians Fear Drug Testers" . Bloomberg. June 23, 2010. 8. 9. ^ Harding, ^ a b Jerry
March 23, 2008. Retrieved
Andrew (September 23, 2006). "Beijing's penis emporium". BBC. Retrieved June 23, 2010. Tuttle Publishing. p. 99. ISBN 079460255.
Hopkins, Anthony Bourdain, Michael Freeman (2004). Extreme Cuisine: The Weird &
Wonderful Foods That People Eat. 10. ^ Bonnard (1999), p.125
Bibliography
Bonnard, Marc (1999). The Viagra Alternative: The Complete Guide to Overcoming Erectile Dysfunction Naturally. Inner Traditions / Bear & Company. ISBN 0-89281-789-5.
Dulce de leche
(Redirected from Dulce de Leche)
Dulce de Leche (Doce de Leite)
A jar of dulce de leche
Origin
Alternative name(s)
Manjar, manjar blanco
Place of origin
Argentina
Region or state
South America
Creator(s)
Unknown
Details
Type
Confectionery
Main ingredient(s)
Milk, sugar
Variations
Cajeta
Dulce de leche (IPA: [dulse e lete]; Portuguese: doce de leite, IPA: [dosi di lejti]) is a confection prepared by slowly heating sweetened milk to create a product that derives its taste from caramelised sugar. Literally translated, it means "candy ofmilk" or "candy [made] of milk", "milk candy", or "milk jam" in the same way that "dulce de frutilla" is strawberry jam. It is popular in South America, notably in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay. The same goes for Chile and Ecuador where is known as manjar(Spanish for delicacy). In Peru, Colombia and Venezuela, it is referred to as manjar blanco or arequipe, depending on regional variations. In Brazil, it is known by itsPortuguese name doce de leite. A Mexican version called cajeta is made from goat's milk. In the Dominican Republic it is made with equal parts milk and sugar with cinnamon, and the texture is more likefudge. In Puerto Rico dulce de leche is sometimes made with unsweetened coconut milk. A French version, known as confiture de lait, is very similar to the spreadable forms ofdulce de leche. A Norwegian version, Hamar-plegg ("Hamar spread"), better known as HaP, is a commercial variant that is thicker and less sweet.
Preparation and uses

The most basic recipe calls for slowly simmering milk and sugar, stirring almost constantly, although other ingredients such as sodium bicarbonate and one vanillapod (or essence)[1] may be included to achieve special properties. Much of the water in the milk evaporates and the mix thickens; the resulting dulce de leche is usually about a sixth of the volume of the milk used. The transformation that occurs in preparation is caused by a combination of two common browning reactions called caramelization and the Maillard reaction.[2]
Muffins with dulce de leche sauce

A home-made form of dulce de leche is sometimes made by boiling an unopened can of sweetened condensed milk for two to three hours (or 30 to 45 minutes in a pressure cooker), particularly by those living in countries where it cannot be bought ready-made. It is dangerous to do this on a stove: if the pot is allowed to boil dry, the can will overheat and explode. [3] Dulce de leche is used to flavour candies or other sweet foods, such as cakes, cookies (seealfajor), crme caramel (known as flan in Spanish and Portuguese-speaking regions), andice creams; it provides the "toffee" part of English Banoffee pie and is also popular spread onpancakes and toast, while the French confiture de lait is commonly served with fromage blanc.
PCC Dairy Pastillas de leche, made from water buffalo's milk Philippine Carabao Center.
A solid candy made from dulce de leche, similar to the Polish krwki and named Vaquita ("little cow"), was manufactured by the Mu-Mu factory in Argentina until the company went out of business in 1984. Subsequently, other brands began to manufacture similar candies, giving them names such as "Vauquita" and "Vaquerita" in an effort to link their products to the original. Something very similar is available in candy form, by the Storck corporation, called Werthers Echte. A classic, nostalgic european especially German and Scandinavian candy bonbon. A similar recipe is used to prepare basundi in India, which resembles a less condenseddulce de leche, flavoured with cardamom and eaten as a dessert. The Philippines also hasdulce de leche, where it is usually paired with cakes or breakfast rolls. As in other places, it has also found its way into other desserts such as cakes and ice cream. This is also known in Russia as boiled concentrated milk (the Russian equivalent of sweetened concentrated milk).
In 1997, the ice cream company Hagen-Dazs introduced a dulce de leche-flavoured ice cream. In the same year,[4] Starbucks began offering dulce de leche-flavoured coffee products.[5] In early 2009, Girl Scouts of the USA introduced cookies with dulce de leche-flavored chips as part of their annual cookie sales program. [6][7] In October of 2012 Herbalife International of America, Inc. releases a limited edition seasonal flavor of their Formula 1 Healthy Meal Nutritional Shake Mix, Dulce de Leche.[8]
Epimedium grandiflorum
Kingdom:
Plantae
Division:
Magnoliophyta
Class:
Magnoliopsida
Order:
Ranunculales
Family:
Berberidaceae
Genus:
Epimedium
Subgenus:
Epimedium
Species:
E. grandiflorum
Binomial name
C.Morren
Synonyms
Epimedium macranthum var. violaceum (C. Morren

& Decne.) Franch.
Epimedium grandiflorum forma violaceum Epimedium violaceum[1]
Epimedium grandiflorum (large flowered barrenwort, bishop's hat) is a speciesof flowering plant in the family Berberidaceae, native to China, Japan and Korea.[1] It is known as dm dng hoc in Vietnamese.
Description
It is a deciduous perennial growing to 30 cm (12 in), with bright red stems with green heart-shaped leaves (copper-tinged when young) which are slightly hairy on the bottom. In spring it produces pink, white, yellow or purple long-spurred flowers.[2]
[edit]Cultivation
Numerous cultivars have been selected for garden use, of which the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-
E. grandiflorum[3] E. grandiflorum 'Nanum'[4] E. grandiflorum 'Rose Queen'[5] E. grandiflorum 'White Queen'[6]
Aphrodisiac properties
E. grandiflorum may have aphrodisiac characteristics due to the presence of icariin, and is believed to cause increased sexual activity in goats.[7] It is commonly packed in a capsule with other ingredients or sold as herbal flakes or powder with the name "horny goat weed". Further information about the aphrodisiac properties can be found in the main Epimedium article.
References
1. ^ a b "Epimedium grandiflorum C. Morren". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2004-02-25. Retrieved 2010-05-25. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ^ RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. pp. 1136. ISBN 1405332964. ^ http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=2862 ^ http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=2863 ^ http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=699 ^ http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=5511 ^ "Epimedium grandiflorum". www.ibiblio.org. Retrieved 2008-03-10.
External links
Media related to Epimedium grandiflorum at Wikimedia Commons grandiflorum at Wikispecies
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Data related toEpimedium
Eurycoma longifolia
This article is about the small Asian tree in the genus Eurycoma. For the tall Australian tree also known as "Long Jack", seeFlindersia xanthoxyla.
Eurycoma longifolia
Kingdom:
Plantae
Division:
Magnoliophyta
Class:
Magnoliopsida
Order:
Sapindales
Family:
Simaroubaceae
Genus:
Eurycoma
Species:
E. longifolia
Binomial name
Eurycoma longifolia
Jack[1]
Eurycoma longifolia (commonly called tongkat ali or pasak bumi) is a flowering plantin the family Simaroubaceae, native to Indonesia, Malaysia, and, to a lesser extent,Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos. It is also known under the names penawar pahit,penawar bias, bedara merah, bedara putih, lempedu pahit, payong ali, tongkat baginda, muntah bumi, petala bumi (all the above Malay); bidara laut (Indonesian);babi kurus (Javanese); cy b bnh (Vietnamese)[2] and tho nan (Laotian).[3] Many of the common names refer to the plant's medicinal use and extreme bitterness. "Penawar pahit" translates simply as "bitter charm" or "bitter medicine".[4] Older literature, such as a 1953 article in the Journal of Ecology, may cite only "penawar pahit" as the plant's common Malay name.[5]
Growth
Eurycoma longifolia is a small, evergreen tree growing to 15 m (49 ft) tall with spirally arranged, pinnate leaves 2040 cm (816 inches) long with 1341 leaflets. The flowers aredioecious, with male and female flowers on different trees; they are produced in largepanicles, each flower with 56 very small petals. The fruit is green ripening dark red, 12 cm long and 0.51 cm broad.[citation needed]
[edit]Biological
effects
A 2010 ethnopharmacological inventory study on Eurycoma longifolia stated: "The plant parts have been traditionally used for its antimalarial, aphrodisiac, anti-diabetic, antimicrobial and antipyretic activities"[6] Even though there are many other legitimate medical areas of interest in Eurycoma longifolia (as evident from the quote included above), most Southeast Asians consume it for the plant's impact on sexual conduct. Already in 2001, Malaysian scientific researchers opened their peer-reviewed, Medline-archived report on Eurycoma longifolia's effect on lab rats with the statement "that Eurycoma longifolia Jack commonly known as Tongkat Ali has gained notoriety as a symbol of man's ego and strength by the Malaysian men because it increases male virility and sexual prowess during sexual activities."[7]
An article on the website of the scientific journal Nature referred to Eurycoma longifolia as Malaysia's homegrown Viagra and cited "increased sexual desire, enhanced performance and general well-being".[8] This journal article is also indexed on Medline, but without abstract.[8] Some scientific studies found that it enhances sexual characteristics and performance in rodents.[9][10][11] Other laboratory animal tests have produced positive indications, with one extract having been observed to increase sexual activity in mature rats, including arousal, sniffing, and mounting behavior. In an experiment conducted on male rats, it was found that eurycoma longifolia increases sperm count. The authors also reported that the plasma testosterone level of Eurycoma longifolia extract treated rats "was significantly increased when compared with that of the control and infertile animals." [12] Another group of scientists confirmed that Eurycoma longifolia has the capacity to "reverse the inhibitory effects of estrogen on testosterone production and spermatogenesis."[13] One Medline-indexed journal article cited as result that Eurycoma longifalia had an effect similar to testosterone replacement therapy in counteracting osteoporosis.[14] An Italian study on Eurycoma longifolia noted improved sexual performance in lab animals and concluded that the "effect could be mainly ascribed to increased testosterone levels."[15] After scientists investigating Eurycoma longifolia's effect on sexual parameters had established that sexualizing effects went hand-in-hand with increased testoterone tone, researchers in the field of sports medicine started to look into the anabolic potential of the plant. In a placebo-controlled human study with healthy young men in a weight-training program, it was found that "the lean body mass of the treatment group showed a significant increment, from 52.26 (7.18) kg to 54.39 (7.43) kg (p = 0.012)." Furthermore, "the increase in strength in the treatment group was larger than in the placebo group (6.78% and 2.77% respectively) The mean arm circumference of the treatment group increased significantly by 1.8 cm after the supplementation but there was no significant increase in the placebo group." The results of the study were published in the peer-reviewed British Journal of Sports Medicine.[16] The anabolic impact of Eurycoma longifolia has been confirmed in the animal model, when the size and weight of just one muscle was measured in treated and untreated rats of equal size. "Results showed that 800 mg/kg of butanol, methanol, water and chloroform fractions of E. longifolia Jack significantly increased (p<0.05) the levator ani muscle"[7] Because of Eurycoma longifolia's testosterone-enhancing capacity, it has been included, at least by name, in numerous supplements, marketed primarily to bodybuilding men. One such product lists Eurycoma longifolia as one of more than 30 unquantified ingredients.[17]
In such formulas, the minimal Eurycoma longifolia part isn't a therapeutic dose by any standard, as the quassinoids of Eurycoma longifolia are characterized by poor oral bioavailability. A study into this aspect concluded: "The results indicate that eurycomanone is poorly bioavailable when given orally the absolute bioavailability of the compound was low with 10.5% its poor oral bi oavailability may be due to poor membrane permeability in view of its low P value and/or high first-pass metabolism."[18] In vivo studies with lab animals used root powder of 250, 500, or 1000 mg per kg of body weight,[15] or 200 to 800 mg/kg twice daily,[11][19] or 50, 100, and 200 mg of Eurycoma longifolia extract per kg of body weight.[12] At the higher dosages (800 mg of the water, chloroform, methanol, or butanol extracted fraction of Eurycoma longifolia per kg of body weight), the effects were more pronounced for both sexual motivation[20][21] and levator ani size increase.[7] Apart from the testosterone-related effects, the antimalarial,[22] antibacterial,[23] antipyretic, antiulcer, antitumor,[24] and cytotoxicproperties are well documented. Taiwanese scientists isolated 65 biochemical compounds from the roots of Eurycoma longifolia, of which ten exhibited "strong cytotoxicity" towards human lung and breast cancer cell lines.[25] Apart from the better-known quassinoids, the same group of scientist also isolated beta-carboline alkaloids, several of which were active against lung and breast cancer cell lines.[26] Investigating the activity of 24 Eurycoma longifolia quassinoids against cancer cell lines, including lung cancer cells, medical researchers in Japan found that eurycomalactone was as effective against cancer cells as the established anti-cancer drugdoxorubicin.[27] The same group of researchers also discovered several new biochemical compounds in Eurycoma longifolia and screened them for cytotoxic properties. They concluded that different fractions were effective against different cancers.[28][29] Another study confirmed that fractions of Eurycoma longifolia extract induced apoptosis in breast-cancer cells.[30] One extract has since been co-patented by the government of Malaysia and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[31] However, the idea that products of nature on which there exists a large body of knowledge among indigenous peoples can be the subject of intellectual property rights, even of national governments, has long been challenged in peer-reviewed law journals.[32]
Products
Fake Eurycoma longifolia products have been pulled off the shelves in several countries but are still sold over the Internet, mostly shipped from the UK. In a medical journal article, published March 2010, it was noted that
"estimates place the proportion of counterfeit medications sold over the Internet from 44% to 90%" with remedies for sexual dysfunction accounting for the greatest share.[33] It is therefore recommended that buyers of Eurycoma longifolia request from Internet vendors conclusive information, and proof, on the facilities where a product has been manufactured. In Malaysia, the common use of Eurycoma longifolia as a food and drink additive, coupled with a wide distribution of products using cheaper synthetic drugs in lieu of Eurycoma longifolia quassinoids, has led to the invention of an electronic tongue to determine the presence and concentration of genuine Eurycoma longifolia in products claiming to contain it.[34] On the other hand, consumers who lack the sophisticated electronic tongue equipment invented in Malaysia for testing the presence of Eurycoma longifolia, but want more clarity on whether the product they obtained is indeed Eurycoma longifolia or a fake, can use their own tongue to taste the content of capsules for the bitterness of the material. Quassinoids, the biologically active components of Eurycoma longifolia root,[35][36][37] are extremely bitter. They are named after quassin, the long-isolated bitter principle of the quassiatree. Quassin is regarded the bitterest substance in nature, 50 times more bitter than quinine.[38] Anything that isn't bitter, and strongly so, cannot contain quassinoids from Eurycoma longifolia . In the US, the FDA has banned numerous products such as Libidus,[39] claiming to use Eurycoma longifolia as principal ingredient, but which instead are concoctions designed around illegal prescription drugs, or even worse, analogues of prescription drugs that have not even been tested for safety in humans, such as acetildenafil.[40] In February 2009, the FDA warned against almost 30 illegal sexual enhancement supplements,[41] but the names of these products change quicker than the FDA can investigate them. Libidus, for example, is now sold as Maxidus, still claiming Eurycoma longifolia (tongkat ali) as principal ingredient.[42] The government of Malaysia has banned numerous fake products which use drugs like sildenafil citrate instead of tongkat ali in their capsules. To avoid being hurt by bad publicity on one product name, those who sell fake tongkat ali from Malaysia have resorted to using many different names for their wares.[43] The governments of Canada and Singapore have issued warnings against the product XP Tongkat Ali Supreme for containing the prescription drug tadalafil which can be life-threatening in some individuals.[44] Products claiming various Eurycoma longifolia extract ratios of 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, and 1:200 are sold. Traditionally Eurycoma longifoliais extracted with water and not ethanol. However, the use of selling Eurycoma longifolia extract based on extraction ratio may be confusing and is not easily verifiable. In expectation of a competitive edge, some manufacturers are claiming standardization of their extract based on specific ingredients. Alleged standards / markers are the glycosaponin content (3545%) and eurycomanone (>2%). While eurycomanone is one of manyquassinoids in Eurycoma longifolia, saponins, known in ethnobotany primarily as fish poison[45][46] played no role in the academic research on the plant.
A large number of Malaysian Eurycoma longifolia products (36 out of 100) have been shown to be contaminated with mercury beyond legally permitted limits.[47]
See also
Kacip fatimah - Female equivalent to Tongkat Ali
References
1. 2. 3. ^ "Eurycoma longifolia information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov. Retrieved 2008-03-14. ^ http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A1_b%E1%BB%87nh ^ Medicinal Plants, International Technology Center, United Nations International Development Organisation, UNIDO, Trieste, Italy 4. 5. ^ Free Indonesian and Malay dictionary search ^ Wyatt-Smith, J. (August 1953). "The Vegetation of Jarak Island, Straits of Malacca". Journal of Ecology 41 (2): 207 225.doi:10.2307/2257036. JSTOR 2257036. 6. ^ Bhat, R; Karim, AA (2010). "Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma longifolia Jack): a review on its ethnobotany and pharmacological importance". Fitoterapia 81 (7): 66979.doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2010.04.006. PMID 20434529. 7. ^ a b c Ang, HH; Cheang, HS (2001). "Effects of Eurycoma longifolia jack on laevator ani muscle in both uncastrated and testosterone-stimulated castrated intact male rats". Archives of pharmacal research 24 (5): 437 40.doi:10.1007/BF02975191. PMID 11693547. 8. ^ a b Cyranoski, David (2005). "Malaysian researchers bet big on home-grown Viagra". Nature Medicine 11 (9): 912.doi:10.1038/nm0905-912a. PMID 16145563. 9. ^ Ang, HH; Ngai, TH; Tan, TH (2003). "Effects of Jack on sexual qualities in middle aged male rats". Phytomedicine 10 (67): 5903. doi:10.1078/094471103322331881.PMID 13678248. 10. ^ Ang, Hooi Hoon; Cheang, Hung Seong; Yusof, Ahmad Pauzi Md. (2000). "Effects of Eurycoma longifolia Jack (Tongkat Ali) on the Initiation of Sexual Performance of Inexperienced Castrated Male Rats". Experimental Animals 49 (1): 35 8.doi:10.1538/expanim.49.35. PMID 10803359. 11. ^ a b Ang, HH; Lee, KL; Kiyoshi, M (2004). "Sexual arousal in sexually sluggish old male rats after oral administration of Eurycoma longifolia Jack". Journal of basic and clinical physiology and pharmacology 15 (34): 303 9.doi:10.1515/JBCPP.2004.15.3-4.303. PMID 15803965. 12. ^ a b Chan, KL; Low, BS; Teh, CH; Das, PK (2009). "The effect of Eurycoma longifolia on sperm quality of male rats". Natural product communications 4 (10): 13316. PMID 19911566. 13. ^ Wahab, NA; Mokhtar, NM; Halim, WN; Das, S (2010). "The Effect of Eurycoma Longifolia Jack on Spermatogenesis in Estrogen-Treated Rats". Clinics 65 (1): 938.doi:10.1590/S1807-59322010000100014. PMC 2815289.PMID 20126351.
14. ^ Shuid, Ahmad Nazrun; Abu Bakar, Mohd Firdaus; Abdul Shukor, Tajul Ariff; Muhammad, Norliza; Mohamed, Norazlina; Soelaiman, Ima Nirwana (2010). "The anti-osteoporotic effect of Eurycoma Longifolia in aged orchidectomised rat model". The aging male 14 (3): 1504.doi:10.3109/13685538.2010.511327. PMID 20874437. 15. ^ a b Zanoli, P; Zavatti, M; Montanari, C; Baraldi, M (2009). "Influence of Eurycoma longifolia on the copulatory activity of sexually sluggish and impotent male rats". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 126 (2): 308 13.doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.08.021. PMID 19703544. 16. ^ "Joint Conference of BASEM and BASES". British Journal of Sports Medicine 37 (5): 46470. 2003.doi:10.1136/bjsm.37.5.464. 17. ^ Listed ingredients: 5-Methyl Methoxy Isoflavone, Acetyl L-Carnitine, Alpha Lipoic Acid, Arginine Alpha-Ketoglutarate, Aspartate, Avena Sativa, Borage Oil, (GLA), Calcium-D-Glucarate, Calcium Phosphate, Catuaba Bark, Cellulose Fiber & Gum, Chasteberry Ext. (Vitex Agnus Castus), Chrysin, Coleus Forskohlii (Forskohlin), Damiana, Deer Antler, Eurycoma Longfolia, Genistein, Ginger Root Extract (Zingber Offande) Indole-3-Carbinol, Ipriflavone, Maca (Root) (Lepidm Meyeni) Magnesium Octadecnanoate, Muira Puama, Passion Flower, Prickly Pear Extract, Quercatin Dihydrate, Saw Palmetto, Schisandra Chinensis, Stinging Nettle, Suma (Beta Ecdysone), Turmeric, Stearic Acid 18. ^ Low, BS; Ng, BH; Choy, WP; Yuen, KH; Chan, KL (2005). "Bioavailability and pharmacokinetic studies of eurycomanone from Eurycoma longifolia". Planta medica 71 (9): 8037.doi:10.1055/s-2005-871259. PMID 16206032. 19. ^ Ang, HH; Ngai, TH; Tan, TH (2003). "Effects of Eurycoma longifolia Jack on sexual qualities in middle aged male rats".Phytomedicine : international journal of phytotherapy and phytopharmacology 10 (67): 590 3.doi:10.1078/094471103322331881. PMID 13678248. 20. ^ Ang, H. H.; Lee, K. L. (2002). "Effect of Eurycoma longifolia Jack on orientation activities in middle-aged male rats".Fundamental & clinical pharmacology 16 (6): 47983.doi:10.1046/j.1472-8206.2002.00106.x. 21. ^ Ang, HH; Lee, KL (2002). "Effect of Eurycoma longifolia Jack on libido in middle-aged male rats". Journal of basic and clinical physiology and pharmacology 13 (3): 24954.doi:10.1515/JBCPP.2002.13.3.249. PMID 12670032. 22. ^ Mohd Ridzuan, MA; Sow, A; Noor Rain, A; Mohd Ilham, A; Zakiah, I (2007). "Eurycoma longifolia extract-artemisinin combination: parasitemia suppression of Plasmodium yoelii-infected mice". Tropical biomedicine 24 (1): 111 8.PMID 17568384. 23. ^ Farouk, AE; Benafri, A (2007). "Antibacterial activity of Eurycoma longifolia Jack. A Malaysian medicinal plant". Saudi medical journal 28 (9): 14224. PMID 17768473. 24. ^ Li, Y; Liang, F; Jiang, W; Yu, F; Cao, R; Ma, Q; Dai, X; Jiang, J et al. (2007). "DH334, a beta-carboline anti-cancer drug, inhibits the CDK activity of budding yeast". Cancer biology & therapy 6(8): 11939. PMID 17622795. 25. ^ Kuo, Ping-Chung; Damu, Amooru G; Lee, Kuo-Hsiung; Wu, Tian-Shung (2004). "Cytotoxic and antimalarial constituents from the roots of Eurycoma longifolia". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry 12 (3): 537 44. doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2003.11.017.
26. ^ Kuo, Ping-Chung; Shi, Li-Shian; Damu, Amooru G.; Su, Chung-Ren; Huang, Chieh-Hung; Ke, Chih-Huang; Wu, JinBin; Lin, Ai-Jeng et al. (2003). "Cytotoxic and Antimalarial -Carboline Alkaloids from the Roots ofEurycoma longifolia".Journal of Natural Products 66 (10): 13247.doi:10.1021/np030277n. PMID 14575431. 27. ^ Miyake, K; Li, F; Tezuka, Y; Awale, S; Kadota, S (2010). "Cytotoxic activity of quassinoids from Eurycoma longifolia".Natural product communications 5 (7): 100912.PMID 20734929. 28. ^ Miyake, K; Tezuka, Y; Awale, S; Li, F; Kadota, S (2010). "Canthin-6-one alkaloids and a tirucallanoid from Eurycoma longifolia and their cytotoxic activity against a human HT-1080 fibrosarcoma cell line". Natural product communications 5 (1): 1722. PMID 20184012. 29. ^ Miyake, K; Tezuka, Y; Awale, S; Li, F; Kadota, S (2009). "Quassinoids from Eurycoma longifolia". Journal of Natural Products 72 (12): 213540. doi:10.1021/np900486f.PMID 19919052. 30. ^ Tee, TT; Azimahtol, HL (2005). "Induction of apoptosis by Eurycoma longifolia jack extracts". Anticancer research 25 (3B): 220513. PMID 16158965. 31. ^ U.S. Patent 7,132,117Inventors: T.G. Sambandan, ChoKyun Rha, Azizol Abdul Kadir, Norhaniza Aminudim, Johari Md. Saad. Assignees: Government of Malaysia, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 32. ^ Huft, Michael J. (October 1995). "Indigenous People and Drug Discovery Research: A Question of Intellectual Property Rights". Northwestern University Law Review 89. 33. ^ Jackson, G.; Arver, S.; Banks, I.; Stecher, V. J. (2010)."Counterfeit phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors pose significant safety risks". International Journal of Clinical Practice 64 (4): 497504. doi:10.1111/j.17421241.2009.02328.x. PMC 3069491. PMID 20088883. 34. ^ Abdullah, M.Z.; Rahman, A.S.A.; Shakaff, A.Y.M.; Noor, A.M. (2004). "Discrimination and classification of Eurycoma longifolia Jack in medicinal foods by means of a DSP-based electronic taste sensor". Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control 26: 19.doi:10.1191/0142331204tm0103oa. 35. ^ Jiwajinda, S; Santisopasri, V; Murakami, A; Sugiyama, H; Gasquet, M; Riad, E; Balansard, G; Ohigashi, H (2002). "In vitro anti-tumor promoting and anti-parasitic activities of the quassinoids from Eurycoma longifolia, a medicinal plant in Southeast Asia". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 82 (1): 558.doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(02)00160-5. PMID 12169407. 36. ^ Ang, H (2000). "Eurycolactones AC, novel quassinoids from Eurycoma longifolia". Tetrahedron Letters 41 (35): 6849.doi:10.1016/S0040-4039(00)01159-X. 37. ^ Tada, H; Yasuda, F; Otani, K; Doteuchi, M; Ishihara, Y; Shiro, M (1991). "Nouveaux quassinodes antiulcreux partir d'Eurycoma longifolia". European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 26 (3): 345. doi:10.1016/0223-5234(91)90069-Y. 38. ^ Scientific Committee on Food Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on quassin SCF/CS/FLAV/FLAVOUR/29 Final 39. ^ FDA Warns Consumers About Dangerous Ingredients in "Dietary Supplements" Promoted for Sexual Enhancement 40. ^ FDA Warning Letter 41. ^ Hidden Risks of Erectile Dysfunction "Treatments" Sold Online
42. ^ [1] This no-follow link to a spam site is included only as evidence and reference that the illegal drug Libidus is now sold as Maxidus, still with the claim that it is mostly Eurycoma longifolia. 43. ^ "Etumax products banned by ministry". 44. ^ Foreign Product Alert XP Tongkat Ali Supreme 45. ^ Howes, F. N. (1930). "Fish-Poison Plants". Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information 1930 (4): 129 53.doi:10.2307/4107559. JSTOR 4107559. 46. ^ Bradley, C. E. (October 1956). "Yerba de la flecheArrow and fish poison of the American southwest". Economic Botany 10(4): 3626. doi:10.1007/BF02859766. 47. ^ Ang, Hooi-Hoon; Lee, Ee-Lin; Cheang, Hui-Seong (2004). "Determination of Mercury by Cold Vapor Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer in Tongkat Ali Preparations Obtained in Malaysia". International Journal of Toxicology 23 (1): 65 71.doi:10.1080/10915810490269654. PMID 15162849
Fenugreek
Fenugreek
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Fabales
Family:
Fabaceae
Genus:
Trigonella
Species:
T. foenum-graecum
Binomial name
Trigonella foenum-graecum
L.[1]
Fenugreek (
/fnjrik/; Trigonella foenum-graecum) is an annual plant in the familyFabaceae. The
plant has small round leaves, is cultivated worldwide as a semi-arid crop, and is a common ingredient in dishes from the Indian Subcontinent. It is known as methi in Hindi,Urdu, and Nepali, as methii ( as menthiyam, and venthayam ( uluwa ( ) inTamil, Helba ( )in Arabic, menthya ( ) in Bengali, ) in Kannada,
) in malayalam, and menthulu in Telugu.
History
Zohary and Hopf note that it is not yet certain which wild strain of the genus Trigonella gave rise to the domesticated fenugreek but they believe it was brought into cultivation in the Near East. Charred fenugreek seeds have been recovered from Tell Halal, Iraq, (radiocarbon datingto 4000 BC) and Bronze Age levels of Lachish, as well as desiccated seeds from the tomb ofTutankhamen.[2] Cato the Elder lists fenugreek with clover and vetch as crops grown to feed cattle (De Agri Cultura, 27).
Production
Major fenugreek-producing countries are Iran(Persia),Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan,Argentina, Egypt, France, Spain, Turkey, Morocco and Chi na. The largest producer of fenugreek in the world is India, where the major fenugreek-producing states are Rajasthan,Gujarat, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, and Punjab.Rajasthan produces the lion's share of India's production, accounting for over 80% of the nation's total fenugreek output. (sources: T. Jilani PhD, Arizona, DASD 2007)[3][4]
Use
Cuisine
Fenugreek has three culinary uses: as an herb (dried or fresh leaves), as a spice (seeds), and as a vegetable (fresh leaves, sprouts, and microgreens).
The distinctive cuboid-shaped, yellow-to-amber coloured fenugreek seeds are frequently encountered in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent. The seeds are used in the preparation of pickles, vegetable dishes, daals, and spice mixes, such as panch phoron andsambar powder. Fenugreek seeds are used both whole and in powdered form and are often roasted to reduce their bitterness and enhance their flavor. [5] Fenugreek is also used as a vegetable. Fresh fenugreek leaves are an ingredient in some Indian curries. The sprouted seeds and microgreens are used in salads. When harvested as microgreens, fenugreek is known as Samudra Methi in Maharashtra, especially in and around Mumbai, where it is often grown near the sea in the sandy tracts, hence the name (Samudra, which means "ocean" inSanskrit).[6] Samudra Methi is also grown in dry river beds in the Gangetic plains. When sold as a vegetable in India, the young plants are harvested with their roots still attached. Any remaining soil is washed off and they are then sold in small bundles in the markets andbazaars to extend their shelf life. In Persian cuisine, fenugreek leaves are used and called ( shanbalile). It is the key ingredient and one of several greens incorporated into ghormeh sabzi and Eshkeneh, often said to be the Iranian national dishes. Fenugreek is used in Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisine.[7] The word for fenugreek in Amharic is abesh (or abish), and the seed is used inEthiopia as a natural herbal medicine in the treatment of diabetes.[7] Yemenite Jews following the interpretation of Rabbi Salomon Isaacides, Rashi of Talmd, believe fenugreek, which they call hilbeh, hilba, helba, or halba ( )is the Talmudic Rubia (). They use fenugreek to produce a sauce also called hilbeh, reminiscent of curry. It is consumed daily but ceremoniously during the meal of the first and/or second night of Rosh Hashana (Jewish New Year).[8]
Lactation
Fenugreek seeds are thought to be a galactagogue that is often used to increase milk supply in lactating women.[9]
Medicinal
A June 2011 study at the Australian Centre for Integrative Clinical and Molecular Medicine found that men aged 25 to 52 who took a fenugreek extract twice daily for six weeks scored 25% higher on tests gauging libido levels than those who took a placebo.[10][11]
Seeds
Dried fenugreek seed

Fenugreek seed is widely used as a galactagogue (milk producing agent) by nursing mothers to increase inadequate breast milk supply. Studies have shown that fenugreek is a potent stimulator of breast milk production and its use was associated with increases in milk production. [12] It can be found in capsule form in many health food stores.[13] Several human intervention trials demonstrated that the antidiabetic effects of fenugreek seeds ameliorate most metabolic symptoms associated with type-1 and type-2 diabetes in both humans and relevant animal models by reducing serum glucose and improving glucose tolerance.[citation needed]
Nutritional profile
Fenugreek leaves (per 100 g of edible portion) contain the following nutrients:[14][15]
Carbohydrates: 6.0 g Protein: 4.4 g Fat: 0.9 g Minerals: 1.5 g Calcium: 395 mg Phosphorus: 51 mg Iron: 1.93 mg Total energy: 49 kcal
News
In February 2009, the International Frutarom Corporation factory in North Bergen, New Jersey, was found to be the source of amysterious maple syrup aroma which had been reported as occasionally drifting over New York City since 2005. The odor was found to be an ester associated with fenugreek seed processing. No health risks have been found.[16]
Fenugreek seeds imported from Egypt in 2009 and 2010 have been linked to outbreaks of Escherichia coli O104:H4 in Germany and France, causing 50 deaths in 2011.[17][18]
References
1. 2. ^ "Trigonella foenum-graecum information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov. Retrieved 2008-03-13. ^ Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of plants in the Old World, third edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 122. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ^ V. A. Parthasarathy, K. Kandinnan and V. Srinivasan, ed. Organic Spices. New India Publishing Agenies. pp. 694. ^ Statistics ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/fenugreek ^ "How to Series: Growing Methi (Fenugreek)". A blog called "Fenugreek Love". Retrieved 2 March 2011. ^ a b Gall, Alevtina; Zerihun Shenkute (November 3, 2009). "Ethiopian Traditional and Herbal Medications and their Interactions with Conventional Drugs". EthnoMed. University of Washington. Retrieved January 27, 2011. 8. ^ This is based on the assumption that the Aramaic name corresponds to it. (Karetot 6a; Horiyot 12a) Rabbenu Nissim at the end of Rosh Hashana, citing the custom of R Hai Gaon. This follows Rashi's translation of , cited as authoritative by Tur and Shulchan Aruch OC 583:1. But Avudraham interprets as black-eyed peas. 9. ^ Chantry, Caroline J.; Howard, Cynthia R.; Montgomery, Anne; Wight, Nancy (2004) (PDF). Use of galactogogues in initiating or augmenting maternal milk supply. ABM protocols, Protocol#9. The Academy Of Breastfeeding Medicine. Archived from the originalon 2007-06-28. "Supported in part by a grant from the Maternal and Child Health Bureau, Department of Health and Human Services." 10. ^ John Thorpe (2011-06-20). "Get it to the Fenugreek? How Curry Can Seed Your Sex Life". San Francisco Chronicle. 11. ^ Amanda Chan (2011-06-20). "Fenugreek: A Spice To Spice Things Up In The Bedroom". Huffington Post. 12. ^ Turkylmaz, C.; Onal, E.; Hirfanoglu, I. M.; Turan, O.; Ko, E.; Ergenekon, E.; Atalay, Y. L. Z. (2011). "The Ef fect of Galactagogue Herbal Tea on Breast Milk Production and Short-Term Catch-Up of Birth Weight in the First Week of Life". The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 17 (2): 139 142. doi:10.1089/acm.2010.0090. PMID 21261516. edit 13. ^ http://www.breastfeeding.com/all_about/all_about_fenugreek.html 14. ^ Nutritive value of Indian food by C.Gopalan,B.V. Ramasastri & S.C. Balasubramaniyam, National Institute of Nutrition, ICMR hydrabad. 15. ^ Sharma, R. D.; Raghuram, T. C.; Rao, N. S. (1990). "Effect of fenugreek seeds on blood glucose and serum lipids in type I diabetes".European journal of clinical nutrition 44 (4): 301306. PMID 2194788. edit 16. ^ http://abclocal.go.com/wabc/story?section=news/local&id=6642803 abclocal.go.com 17. ^ "E. coli outbreaks linked to Egypt". BBC News. 2011-06-30. 18. ^ McKenna, Maryn (2011-07-07). "E. coli: A Risk for 3 More Years From Who Knows Where". Wired.
External links

Gernot Katzer's spice dictionary Fenugreek http://www.kellymom.com/herbal/milksupply/fenugreek.html Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center About Herbs, Botanicals & Other Products Encyclopedia of Spices
Ginkgo biloba
This article is about the tree. For the Goethe poem, see Gingo biloba.
Ginkgo biloba
Temporal range: 49.50 Ma Pre O S D C P T J K Pg N
Eocene - recent[1]
Mature tree
Conservation status
Endangered (IUCN 2.3)[2]
Kingdom:
Plantae
Division:
Ginkgophyta
Class:
Ginkgoopsida
Order:
Ginkgoales
Family:
Ginkgoaceae
Genus:
Ginkgo
Species:
G. biloba
Binomial name
Ginkgo biloba
L.
Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba; in Chinese and Japanese , pinyin romanization: yn xng,Hepburn romanization: ich or ginnan), also spelled gingko and known as the maidenhair tree, is a unique species of tree with no close living relatives. The ginkgo is a living fossil, as a unique species recognisably similar to fossils dating back 270 million years. Native to China,[3] the tree is widely cultivated and introduced early in human history, and has various uses as a food and in traditional medicine.
Description
Ginkgos are large trees, normally reaching a height of 2035 m (66115 feet), with some specimens in China being over 50 m (164 feet). The tree has an angular crown and long, somewhat erratic branches, and is usually deep rooted and resistant to wind and snow damage. Young trees are often tall and slender, and sparsely branched; the crown becomes broader as the tree ages. During autumn, the leaves turn a bright yellow, then fall, sometimes within a short space of time (one to 15 days). A combination of resistance to disease, insectresistant wood and the ability to form aerial roots and sprouts makes ginkgos long-lived, with some specimens claimed to be more than 2,500 years old. Ginkgo is a relatively shade-intolerant species that (at least in cultivation) grows best in environments that are well-watered and well-drained. The species shows a preference for disturbed sites; in the "semiwild" stands at Tian Mu Shan, many specimens are found along stream banks, rocky slopes, and cliff edges. Accordingly, ginkgo retains a prodigious capacity for vegetative growth. It is capable of sprouting from embedded buds near the base of the trunk (lignotubers, or basal chi chi) in response to disturbances, such as soil erosion. Old individuals are also capable of producing aerial roots on the undersides of large branches in response to disturbances such as crown damage; these roots can lead to successful clonal reproduction upon contacting the soil. These strategies are evidently important in the persistence of ginkgo; in a survey of the "semiwild" stands remaining in Tian Mu Shan, 40% of the specimens surveyed were multistemmed, and few saplings were present.[4]
Stem
Ginkgo branches grow in length by growth of shoots with regularly spaced leaves, as seen on most trees. From the axils of these leaves, "spur shoots" (also known as short shoots) develop on second-year growth. Short shoots have very short internodes (so they may grow only one or two centimeters in several years) and their leaves are usually unlobed. They are short and knobby, and are arranged regularly on the branches except on first-year growth. Because of the short internodes, leaves appear to be clustered at the tips of short shoots, and reproductive structures are formed only on them (see pictures below - seeds and leaves are visible on short shoots). In ginkgos, as in other plants that possess them, short shoots allow the formation of new leaves in the older parts of the crown. After a number of years, a short shoot may change into a long (ordinary) shoot, or vice versa.
Leaves
Ginkgo leaves in summer
Ginkgo leaves in autumn

The leaves are unique among seed plants, being fan-shaped with veins radiating out into the leaf blade, sometimes bifurcating (splitting), but never anastomosing to form a network.[5]Two veins enter the leaf blade at the base and fork repeatedly in two; this is known as dichotomous venation. The leaves are usually 5 10 cm
(2-4 in), but sometimes up to 15 cm (6 in) long. The old popular name "maidenhair tree" is because the leaves resemble some of the pinnae of the maidenhair fern, Adiantum capillus-veneris. Leaves of long shoots are usually notched or lobed, but only from the outer surface, between the veins. They are borne both on the more rapidly growing branch tips, where they are alternate and spaced out, and also on the short, stubby spur shoots, where they are clustered at the tips.
Reproduction
Ginkgos are dioecious, with separate sexes, some trees being female and others beingmale. Male plants produce small pollen cones with sporophylls, each bearing twomicrosporangia spirally arranged around a central axis. Female plants do not produce cones. Two ovules are formed at the end of a stalk, and afterpollination, one or both develop into seeds. The seed is 1.52 cm long. Its fleshy outer layer (the sarcotesta) is light yellow-brown, soft, and fruit-like. It is attractive in appearance, but contains butyric acid[6] (also known as butanoic acid) and smells like rancid butter or vomit[7] when fallen. Beneath the sarcotesta is the hard sclerotesta (the "shell" of the seed) and a papery endotesta, with the nucellus surrounding the female gametophyte at the center.[8]
Pollen cones
Ovules
The fertilization of ginkgo seeds occurs via motile sperm, as in cycads, ferns, mosses and algae. The sperm are large (about 7090 micrometres)[9] and are similar to the sperm of cycads, which are slightly larger. Ginkgo sperm were first discovered by the Japanese botanist Sakugoro Hirase in 1896.[10] The sperm have a complex multi-layered structure, which is a continuous belt of basal bodies that form the base of several thousand flagella which actually have a cilia-like motion. The flagella/cilia apparatus pulls the body of the sperm forwards.
The sperm have only a tiny distance to travel to the archegonia, of which there are usually two or three. Two sperm are produced, one of which successfully fertilizes the ovule. Although it is widely held that fertilization of ginkgo seeds occurs just before or after they fall in early autumn,[5][8] embryos ordinarily occur in seeds just before and after they drop from the tree.[11]
Trunk bark
Ginkgo pollen-bearing cones
Ovules ready for fertilization
Female gametophyte, dissected from a seed freshly shed from the tree, containing a well-developed embryo
Immature ginkgo ovules and leaves
Autumn leaves and fallen seeds
A forest of saplings sprout among last year's seeds
Ginkgo tree in autumn
Distribution and habitat

Although Ginkgo biloba and other species of the genus were once widespread throughout the world, their range shrank until by two million years ago, it was restricted to a small area of China. For centuries, it was thought to be extinct in the wild, but is now known to grow in at least two small areas in Zhejiang province in eastern China, in the Tian Mu Shan Reserve. However, recent studies indicate high genetic uniformity among ginkgo trees from these areas, arguing against a natural origin of these populations and suggesting the ginkgo trees in these areas may have been planted and preserved by Chinese monks over a period of about 1,000
years.[12]. This study demonstrates a greater genetic diversity in Southwestern China populations, supporting glacial refugia in mountains surrounding eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, where several old-grow, candidates to wild populations have been reported [12][13]. Whether native ginkgo populations still exist has not been demonstrated unequivocally, but evidence grows favouring these Southwestern populations as wild, from genetic data but also from history of those territories, with bigger Ginkgo biloba trees being older than surrounding human settlements [12]. Where it occurs in the wild, it is found infrequently in deciduous forests and valleys on acidic loess (i.e. fine, silty soil) with good drainage. The soil it inhabits is typically in the pH range of 5.0 to 5.5. [14] In many areas of China, it has been long cultivated and it is common in the southern third of the country.[14] It has also been commonly cultivated in North America for over 200 years, but during that time, it has never become significantly naturalised.[15]
Taxonomy and naming

The species was initially described by Linnaeus in 1771, the specific epithet biloba derived from the Latin bis, 'two' and loba, 'lobed', referring to the shape of the leaves.[16] Two names for the species recognise the botanist Richard Salisbury, a placement by Nelson asPterophyllus salisburiensis and the earlier Salisburia adiantifolia proposed by James Edward Smith. The epithet of the latter may have been intended to denote a characteristic resembling Adiantum, the genus of maidenhair ferns.[17] The relationship of ginkgo to other plant groups remains uncertain. It has been placed loosely in the divisions Spermatophyta andPinophyta, but no consensus has been reached. Since its seeds are not protected by an ovary wall, it can morphologically be considered a gymnosperm. The apricot-like structures produced by female ginkgo trees are technically not fruits, but are seeds that have a shell consisting of a soft and fleshy section (the sarcotesta), and a hard section (the sclerotesta). The ginkgo is classified in its own division, the Ginkgophyta, comprising the single class Ginkgoopsida, order Ginkgoales, familyGinkgoaceae, genus Ginkgo and is the only extant species within this group. It is one of the best-known examples of a living fossil, because Ginkgoales other than G. biloba are not known from the fossil record after the Pliocene.[18][19]
Etymology
The older Chinese name for this plant is , meaning "silver fruit", nowadays pronounced as yngu in Mandarin. The most usual names today are (bi gu), meaning "white fruit", and (ynxng), meaning "silver apricot". The former name was borroweddirectly in Vietnamese as bch qu. The latter name was borrowed in Japanese (ginnan) and Korean (eunhaeng), when the tree itself was introduced from China.
The scientific name Ginkgo appears to be due to a process akin to folk etymology. Chinese characters typically have multiple pronunciations in Japanese, and the characters used for ginnan can also be pronounced ginky. Engelbert Kaempfer, the firstWesterner to see the species in 1690, wrote down this pronunciation in his Amoenitates Exoticae (1712) with the "awkward" spelling "ginkgo". This appears to be a simple error of Kaempfer, taking his spelling of other Japanese words into account, a more preciseromanization would have been "ginkio" or "ginkjo".[20]
Palaeontology
Ginkgo biloba Eocene leaf from the McAbee, BC, Canada.
Fossil Ginkgo leaves from the Jurassic of England

The ginkgo is a living fossil, with fossils recognisably related to modern ginkgo from thePermian, dating back 270 million years. The most plausible ancestral group for the order Ginkgoales is the Pteridospermatophyta, also known as the "seed ferns", specifically the order Peltaspermales. The closest living relatives of the clade are the cycads,[21] which share with the extant G. biloba the characteristic of motile sperm. Fossils attributable to the genus Ginkgo first appeared in the Early Jurassic, and the genus diversified and spread throughout Laurasia during the middle Jurassic and Early Cretaceous. It declined in diversity as the Cretaceous progressed, and by the Paleocene, Ginkgo adiantoides was the onlyGinkgo species left in the Northern Hemisphere, while a markedly different (and poorly documented) form persisted in the Southern Hemisphere. At the end of the Pliocene, Ginkgofossils disappeared from the fossil record everywhere except in a small area of central China, where the modern species survived. It is doubtful whether the Northern Hemisphere fossil
species of Ginkgo can be reliably distinguished. Given the slow pace of evolution and morphological similarity between members of the genus, there may have been only one or two species existing in the Northern Hemisphere through the entirety of the Cenozoic: present-day G. biloba (including G. adiantoides) and G. gardneri from the Paleocene ofScotland.[22] At least morphologically, G. gardneri and the Southern Hemisphere species are the only known post-Jurassic taxa that can be unequivocally recognised. The remainder may have been ecotypes or subspecies. The implications would be that G. biloba had occurred over an extremely wide range, had remarkable genetic flexibility and, though evolving genetically, never showed much speciation. While it may seem improbable that a species may exist as a contiguous entity for many millions of years, many of the ginkgo's life-history parameters fit. These are: extreme longevity; slow reproduction rate; (in Cenozoic and later times) a wide, apparently contiguous, but steadily contracting distribution coupled with, as far as can be demonstrated from the fossil record, extreme ecological conservatism (restriction to disturbed streamside environments). [23] Modern-day G. biloba grows best in environments that are well-watered and drained,[24] and the extremely similar fossil Ginkgo favored similar environments: the sediment record at the majority of fossil Ginkgo localities indicates it grew primarily in disturbed environments along streams and levees.[23] Ginkgo, therefore, presents an "ecological paradox" because while it possesses some favorable traits for living in disturbed environments (clonal reproduction) many of its other life-history traits (slow growth, large seed size, late reproductive maturity) are the opposite of those exhibited by modern plants that thrive in disturbed settings.[25] Given the slow rate of evolution of the genus, Ginkgo possibly represents a preangiosperm strategy for survival in disturbed streamside environments. Ginkgo evolved in an era before flowering plants, when ferns, cycads, and cycadeoids dominated disturbed streamside environments, forming low, open, shrubby canopies. Ginkgo's large seeds and habit of "bolting" - growing to a height of 10 m before elongating its side branches - may be adaptions to such an environment. Because diversity in the genus Ginkgo drops through the Cretaceous (along with that of ferns, cycads, and cycadeoids) at the same time the flowering plants were on the rise, the notion that flowering plants with better adaptations to disturbance displaced Ginkgo and its associates over time is supported.[26] Ginkgo has been used for classifying plants with leaves that have more than four veins per segment, while Baiera for those with fewer than four veins per segment. Sphenobaiera has been used to classify plants with a broadly wedge-shaped leaf that lacks a distinct leaf stem. Trichopitys is distinguished by having multipleforked leaves with cylindrical (not flattened), thread-like ultimate divisions; it is one of the earliest fossils ascribed to the Ginkgophyta.
Ginkgo yimaensis
[27]
Ginkgo apodes
[27]
Ginkgo adiantoides or a new taxon from the USA,G. cranei
[27]
Extant Ginkgo biloba
[27]
Cultivation and uses
Symbol of Tokyo prefecture, representing a ginkgo leaf.
Ginkgo has long been cultivated in China; some planted trees at temples are believed to be over 1,500 years old. The first record of Europeans encountering it is in 1690 in Japanese temple gardens, where the tree was
seen by the German botanist Engelbert Kaempfer. Because of its status in Buddhism and Confucianism, the ginkgo is also widely planted inKorea and parts of Japan; in both areas, some naturalization has occurred, with ginkgos seeding into natural forests. In some areas, most intentionally planted ginkgos are male cultivars grafted onto plants propagated from seed, because the male trees will not produce the malodorous seeds. The popular cultivar 'Autumn Gold' is a clone of a male plant. Ginkgos adapt well to the urban environment, tolerating pollution and confined soil spaces. [28] They rarely suffer disease problems, even in urban conditions, and are attacked by few insects.[29][30] For this reason, and for their general beauty, ginkgos are excellent urban and shade trees, and are widely planted along many streets. Ginkgos are also popular subjects for growing as penjing and bonsai; they can be kept artificially small and tended over centuries. Furthermore, the trees are easy to propagate from seed. Extreme examples of the ginkgo's tenacity may be seen in Hiroshima, Japan, where six trees growing between 12 km from the 1945atom bomb explosion were among the few living things in the area to survive the blast (photos and details). While almost all other plants (and animals) in the area were destroyed, the ginkgos, though charred, survived and were soon healthy again. The trees are alive to this day. The ginkgo leaf is the symbol of the Urasenke school of Japanese tea ceremony. The tree is the national tree of China, and is the official tree of the Japanese capital of Tokyo, and the symbol of Tokyo is a ginkgo leaf.
Culinary use
Ginkgo seeds with sarcotesta removed
Ginkgo seeds served with boiled coconut flesh as a dessert in Thailand

The nut-like gametophytes inside the seeds are particularly esteemed in Asia, and are a traditional Chinese food. Ginkgo nuts are used in congee, and are often served at special occasions such as weddings and
the Chinese New Year (as part of the vegetarian dish called Buddha's delight). In Chinese culture, they are believed to have health benefits; some also consider them to have aphrodisiacqualities. Japanese cooks add ginkgo seeds (calledginnan) to dishes such as chawanmushi, and cooked seeds are often eaten along with other dishes. When eaten in large quantities or over a long period, especially by children[31] the gametophyte (meat) of the seed can cause poisoning by 4'-O-methylpyridoxine (MPN). MPN is heat stable and not destroyed by cooking.[31] Studies have demonstrated the convulsions caused by MPN can be prevented or terminated with pyridoxine. Some people are sensitive to the chemicals in the sarcotesta, the outer fleshy coating. These people should handle the seeds with care when preparing the seeds for consumption, wearing disposable gloves. The symptoms are allergic contact dermatitis[32][33] or blisterssimilar to that caused by contact with poison ivy. However, seeds with the fleshy coating removed are mostly[clarification needed][quantify]safe to handle.
Ginkgo biloba in Tournai,Belgium
Medicinal uses
Extracts of ginkgo leaves contain flavonoid glycosides (myricetin and quercetin)[34] and terpenoids (ginkgolides, bilobalides) and have been used pharmaceutically. These extracts are shown to exhibit reversible, nonselective monoamine oxidase inhibition, as well as inhibition of reuptake at the serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine transporters, with all but the norepinephrine reuptake inhibition fading in chronic exposure.[35] Ginkgo supplements are usually taken in the range of 40200 mg per day. Recently, a metaanalysis of clinical trials has shown Ginkgo to be moderately effective in improving cognition in dementia patients[36] but not preventing the onset of Alzheimer's disease in normal people.[37][38]
In memory enhancement
Ginkgo is believed to have nootropic properties, and is mainly used as memory[39] and concentrationenhancer, and antivertigo agent. However, studies differ about its efficacy. The largest and longest independent clinical trial to assess Ginkgo biloba published the finding in 2008 that the supplement does not reduce incidence of allcause dementia or Alzheimer's disease in adults 75 years or older who had normal cognition or mild cognitive impairment when given a twice-daily dose of 120 mg extract of G. biloba.[40][41] However, a similar trial published in 2010 concluded the same extract formulation of G. biloba (EGb 761), when given as a single 240-mg daily dose, "was found significantly superior to placebo in the treatment of patients with dementia with neuropsychiatric symptoms."[42] According to some studies, ginkgo can significantly improve attention in healthy individuals. [43][44] In one such study, the effect was almost immediate and reaches its peak 2.5 hours after the intake.[45] One study suggests ginkgo's effect on cognition may be attributable to its inhibitory effect on norepinephrine reuptake.[35] Nonetheless, a meta-analysis in 2012 [46] reported zero effect sizes for the impact of Ginkgo biloba on memory, attention and problem-solving.
In dementia
Ginkgo has been proposed as a treatment for Alzheimer's disease on the basis of positive preclinical results in mice,[47] and a 2006 study found 160 mg of ginkgo extract to be as effective as a daily 5-mg dose of the cholinesterase inhibitor donepezil in human subjects.[48] A 2008 randomized controlled clinical trial found ginkgo ineffective at treating dementia in humans at a daily dose of 120 mg.[49][50] A similar trial published in 2010, however, found ginkgo effective at treating mild to moderate dementia at the higher single dose of 240 mg daily.[42] Another randomized controlled trial, published in 2009, found no benefit from ginkgo in preventing cognitive decline or dementia when given at a dose of 120 mg twice daily.[38] A similar study reported in 2012 concluded the long-term use of Ginkgo biloba extract does not affect progression to Alzheimer's disease.[51] A recent meta-analysis of 9 studies of ginkgo for use in the treatment of dementia concluded it was more effective than placebo, although, like other dementia drugs, the clinical significance of these moderate effects was difficult to quantify.[36] An editorial in The Lancet concluded ginkgo biloba does not prevent dementia in elderly individuals with or without memory complaints or cognitive impairment and is not effective for prevention of Alzheimer's disease.[52]
In other symptoms
Of the many conflicting research results, ginkgo extract may have three effects on the human body: improvement in blood flow (including microcirculation in small capillaries) to most tissues and organs, protection against oxidative cell damage from free radicals, and blockage of many of the effects of plateletactivating factor (platelet aggregation, blood clotting)[53] that have been related to the development of a number
of cardiovascular, renal, respiratory and central nervous system disorders. Ginkgolides, especially ginkgolide B, are potent antagonists against platelet-activating factor, and thus may be useful in protection and prevention of thrombus, endotoxic shock, and from myocardial ischeamia.[54] Ginkgo can be used for intermittent claudication. Ginkgo has been studied as a potential treatment for sexual dysfunction related to SSRI use, but failed to show any effectiveness in placebo-controlled trials.[55][56] The World Health Organization[57] reported the medicinal uses of Ginkgo biloba supported by clinical data include treatment of the effects mild to moderate cerebrovascular insufficiency,[58] and peripheral arterial occlusive diseases.[59] Cerebrovascular insufficiency, i.e., insufficient blood flow to the brain, may manifest itself as memory deficit, disturbed concentration, or headaches. Peripheral arterial occlusive diseases are those in which the blood flow to the smaller arteries are restricted and may include claudication, i.e., painful walking, and Raynaud's disease, a condition in which the extremities such as fingers, toes, nose or ears, feel numb and cold. Preliminary studies suggested ginkgo might be of benefit in multiple sclerosis (MS), but clinical trials failed to show any effect on cognitive function in MS patients.[60]
Supplement quality and concerns

The most clinically tested form of gingko is Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) as opposed to whole leaf powder. GBE contains two major groups of phytochemicals, or marker compounds: flavonol glycosides and terpene lactones. Extracts shown to work in clinical trials contain at least 22% glycosides and 5% terpene lactones. [61] Ginkgo biloba is thought to have been one of the most adulterated herbal supplements, meaning ginkgo products were frequently contaminated with other, less expensive substances that contain these marker compounds.[62] For example, some manufacturers have used a small amount of ginkgo extract and added flavonol glycosides from less expensive buckwheat.[61] Independent testing of ginkgo supplements has shown a number of products to lack expected levels of flavonol glycosides and terpene lactones.[63] In 2003, tests conducted by ConsumerLab.com found seven of 9 popular ginkgo supplements did not contain expected levels of marker compounds.[64] In 2006, six of 13 products failed testing for the same reason (two of which also contained high levels of lead per daily serving- 12 and 16 mcg, respectively).[65] Five of eight popular supplements tested also failed ConsumerLab.com testing in 2008, one of which was contaminated with lead.[66] Tests in 2012, however, suggested the quality of ginkgo supplements may be improving. Of four popular ginkgo supplements selected for testing by ConsumerLab.com, three contained adequate marker compound levels and none failed for unacceptable levels of lead.[61]
Side effects
Ginkgo biloba in Morlanwelz-MariemontPark, Belgium

Ginkgo may have undesirable effects, especially for individuals with blood circulation disorders and those taking anticoagulants such as aspirin or warfarin, although recent studies have found ginkgo has little or no effect on the anticoagulant properties or pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy subjects. [67] Ginkgo inhibits monoamine oxidase,[68] so people who are taking certain types of antidepressants (such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors), as well as pregnant women, may experience side effects.[69][70] Additional side effects include increased risk of bleeding, gastrointestinal discomfort,nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, dizziness, heart palpitations, and restlessness.[70][71]
Allergic precautions and contraindications to use

People taking pharmaceutical blood thinners such as warfarin or coumadin should consult with their doctors before taking Ginkgo biloba extracts, as it acts as an anticoagulant. The presence of amentoflavone in G. biloba leaves would indicate a potential for interactions with many medications through the strong inhibition of CYP3A4 and CYP2C9; however, no empirical evidence supports this. Further, at recommended doses, studies have shown, "[m]ultiple-dose administration of Ginkgo biloba did not affect cytochrome P-450 2D6 or 3A4 activity in normal volunteers."[72] The concentration of amentoflavone found even in commercial ginkgo extracts possibly is too low to be pharmacologically active. Ginkgo biloba leaves and sarcotesta also contain ginkgolic acids,[73] which are highly allergenic, long-chain alkylphenols such asbilobol[74] (a substance related to anacardic acid from cashew nut shells and urushiols present in poison ivy and other Toxicodendronspp.)[33] Individuals with a history of strong allergic reactions to poison ivy, mangoes, cashews and other alkylphenol-producing plants are more likely to experience an adverse reaction when consuming ginkgo-containing pills, combinations, or extracts. The level of these allergens in standardized pharmaceutical preparations from Ginkgo biloba was restricted to 5 ppm by the Commission E of the former Federal German Health Authority.
Review of chemicals in G. biloba

The plant also contains biflavones[75] Important constituents present in the medicinally used leaves are the terpene trilactones, i.e.,ginkgolides A, B, C, J and bilobalide, many flavonol glycosides, biflavones, proanthocyanidins, alkylphenols, simple phenolic acids, 6-hydroxykynurenic acid, 4-Omethylpyridoxine and polyprenols.[76]
See also

Andr Michaux, introduced the ginkgo to North America Antioxidant Ginkgo/Wanapum State Park in central Washington, USA Herbalism List of edible seeds Naturopathic medicine
References
1. ^ Mustoe, G.E. (2002). "Eocene Ginkgo leaf fossils from the Pacific Northwest". Canadian Journal of Botany 80 (10): 10781087. doi:10.1139/b02-097. 2. ^ Sun (1998). 'Ginkgo biloba'. 2006. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. www.iucnredlist.org. Retrieved on 11 May 2006. Listed as Endangered (EN B1+2c v2.3) 3. 4. 5. 6. ^ ginkgo ^ Royer et al., pp. 86-87
^ a b Ginkgoales: More on Morphology

^ Raven, Peter H.; Ray F. Evert; Susan E. Eichhorn (2005).Biology of Plants (7th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. pp. 429430. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2.
7.
^ Plotnik, Arthur (2000). The Urban Tree Book: An Uncommon Field Guide for City and Town (1st ed.). New York: Three Rivers Press. p. 202. ISBN 0-8129-3103-3.
8. 9.
^ a b Laboratory IX -- Ginkgo, Cordaites, and the Conifers

^ Vanbeek A. Vanbeek (2000). Ginkgo Biloba (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Industrial Profiles). CRC Press. p. 37. ISBN 90-5702-488-8.
10. ^ History of Discovery of Spermatozoids In Ginkgo biloba and Cycas revoluta 11. ^ Holt, B. F.; Rothwell, G. W. (1997). "Is Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoaceae) Really an Oviparous Plant?". American Journal of Botany 84 (6): 870872. doi:10.2307/2445823.JSTOR 2445823.
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^ a b c Shen, L; Chen, X-Y; Zhang, X; Li, Y-Y; Fu, C-X; Qiu, Y-X (2004). "Genetic variation of Ginkgo biloba L.
(Ginkgoaceae) based on cpDNA PCR-RFLPs: inference of glacial refugia".Heredity 94 (4): 396 401. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800616.PMID 15536482.
13. ^ Tang, CQ; al, et (2012). "Evidence for the persistence of wild Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoaceae) populations in the Dalou Mountains, southwestern China". American Journal of Botany99 (8): 14081414. doi:10.3732/ajb.1200168. 14.
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39. ^ Mahadevan, S.; Park, Y. (2007). "Multifaceted Therapeutic Benefits of Ginkgo biloba L.: Chemistry, Efficacy, Safety, and Uses". Journal of Food Science 73 (1): R149.doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00597.x. PMID 18211362. 40. ^ DeKosky, Steven T.; Williamson, Jeff D.; Fitzpatrick, Annette L.; Kronmal, R. A.; Ives, D. G.; Saxton, J. A.; Lopez, O. L.; Burke, G. et al. (2008). "Ginkgo biloba for Prevention of Dementia". The Journal of the American Medical Association 300 (19): 22532262. doi:10.1001/jama.2008.683. PMC 2823569.PMID 19017911. 41. ^ Rabin, Roni Caryn (November 18, 2008). "Ginkgo bilobaIneffective Against Dementia, Researchers Find". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 October 2009. 42.
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62. ^ Meyers, Steve (30 October 2008). "Adulteration Stifles the Ginko Biloba Market". Natural Products Insider (Virgo Publishing). Retrieved 1 October 2012. 63. ^ "Testimony of Tod Cooperman, MD, President, ConsumerLab.com to Senate Special Committee on Aging Subcommittee on Dietary Supplements". ConsumerLab.com. 26 May 2010. Retrieved 1 October 2012. 64. ^ "Low Quality Ingredient Appears Widespread Among Ginkgo Supplements According To ConsumerLab.com;Points To Challenge For FDAs Proposed Regulations". ConsumerLab.com. 1 April 2003. Retrieved 1 October 2012. 65. ^ "Tests of Memory Enhancement Supplements By ConsumerLab.com Reveals Lead In Some Ginkgo". ConsumerLab.com. 3 January 2006. Retrieved 1 October 2012. 66. ^ "Adulteration Suspected With Some Memory Supplements: Few Gingko and Huperzine Supplements Pass ConsumerLab.com Tests; Quality High for Acetyl-L-Carnitine". ConsumerLab.com. 18 November 2008. Retrieved 1 October 2012. 67. ^ Jiang X, Williams KM, Liauw WS, Ammit AJ, Roufogalis BD, Duke CC, Day RO, McLachlan AJ (April 2005). "Effect of ginkgo and ginger on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy subjects". Br J Clin Pharmacol 59 (4): 42532. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2005.02322.x.PMC 1884814. PMID 15801937. 68. ^ White HL, Scates PW, Cooper BR (1996). "Extracts of Ginkgo biloba leaves inhibit monoamine oxidase". Life Sci. 58 (16): 131521. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(96)00097-5.PMID 8614288. 69. ^ "MedlinePlus Herbs and Supplements: Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba L.)". National Institutes of Health. Retrieved 10 April 2008. 70.
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71. ^ Complete Ginkgo information from Drugs.com 72. ^ Markowitz JS, Donovan JL, Lindsay DeVane C, Sipkes L, Chavin KD. Multiple-dose administration of Ginkgo biloba did not affect cytochrome P-450 2D6 or 3A4 activity in normal volunteers. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2003 Dec;23(6):576-81. 73. ^ Xian-guo et al. (2000), "High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Electrospray Ionization-Mass Spectrometry Study of Ginkgolic Acid in the Leaves and Fruits of the Ginkgo Tree (Ginkgo biloba)", Journal of Chromatographic Science 38(4), pages 169-173. PubMed: 10766484 74. ^ Tanaka, A; Arai, Y; Kim, SN; Ham, J; Usuki, T (2011). "Synthesis and biological evaluation of bilobol and adipostatin A". Journal of Asian natural products research 13 (4): 2906.doi:10.1080/10286020.2011.554828. PMID 21462031. 75. ^ Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatographic method for the analysis of biflavones in Ginkgo biloba L. extracts. Pietta P, Mauri P and Rava A, Journal of chromatography, 1988, vol. 437, no 2, pages 453-456,INIST:7067692 76. ^ Chemical analysis of Ginkgo biloba leaves and extracts. Teris A van Beek, Journal of Chromatography A, 16 August 2002, Volume 967, Issue 1, Pages 2155, doi:10.1016/S0021-9673(02)00172-3
Ginseng
Ginseng
Panax quinquefolius foliage and fruit Scientific classification Kingdom: (unranked): (unranked): (unranked): Order: Family: Subfamily: Genus: Plantae Angiosperms Eudicots Asterids Apiales Araliaceae Aralioideae Panax L. Species
Subgenus Panax Section Panax Series Notoginseng Panax notoginseng Series Panax Panax bipinnatifidus Panax ginseng Panax japonicus Panax quinquefolius Panax vietnamensis Panax wangianus Panax zingiberensis Section Pseudoginseng Panax pseudoginseng Panax stipuleanatus Subgenus Trifolius Panax trifolius
Ginseng (pronounced /dns/[1]) is any one of 11 species of slow-growing perennial plants with fleshy roots, belonging to the genus Panax of the family Araliaceae. Ginseng is found only in the Northern Hemisphere, in North America and in eastern Asia (mostly Korea, northeastern China (Manchuria), Bhutan, and eastern Siberia), typically in cooler climates. Panax vietnamensis, discovered in Vietnam, is the southernmost ginseng known. This article focuses on the series Panax ginsengs, which are the adaptogenic herbs, principally Panax ginseng and P. quinquefolius. Ginseng is characterized by the presence ofginsenosides. Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus) is in the same family, but not genus, as true ginseng. Like ginseng, it is considered to be an adaptogenic herb. The active compounds in Siberian ginseng are eleutherosides, not ginsenosides. Instead of a fleshy root, Siberian ginseng has a woody root.
Etymology
The English word ginseng derives from the Chinese term rnshn (simplified: ; traditional: ). Rn means "man" and shn means a kind of herb; this refers to the root's characteristic forked shape, which resembles the legs of a man.[2] The English pronunciation derives from a southern Chinese reading, similar to Cantonese yun sum (Jyutping: jan4sam1) and the Hokkien pronunciation "jn-sim". The botanical/genus name Panax means "all-heal" in Greek, sharing the same origin as "panacea", and was applied to this genus because Linnaeus was aware of its wide use inChinese medicine as a muscle relaxant. Besides P. ginseng, many other plants are also known as or mistaken for the ginseng root. The most commonly known examples are xiyangshen, also known as American ginseng (P. quinquefolius), Japanese ginseng (P. japonicus), crown prince ginseng (Pseudostellaria heterophylla), and Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus). Although all have the name ginseng, each plant has distinctively different functions. However, true ginseng plants belong only to the Panax genus.[3]
Ginseng (generic term)
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese
or
Simplified Chinese [show]Transcriptions
Vietnamese name Quc ng
Nhn Sm
Korean name
Hangul
Hanja [show]Transcriptions
Japanese name
Kanji
Kana [show]Transcriptions
Ginseng species
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese
Simplified Chinese [show]Transcriptions
Korean name
Hangul
Hanja [show]Transcriptions
Japanese name
Kanji [show]Transcriptions
Ginseng field in Wisconsin
Traditional uses
The root is most often available in dried form, either whole or sliced. Ginseng leaf, although not as highly prized, is sometimes also used; as with the root, it is most often available in dried form. By folk medicine practices, American ginseng and Asian ginseng (P. ginseng)roots may be taken orally for diverse supposed benefits, such as for aphrodisia,stimulants, type II diabetes, or for sexual dysfunction in men.[4] Ginseng may be included in small doses in energy drinks or tisanes.[5] It may be found in cosmetic preparations, as well, but has not been shown to be clinically effective.
Research
Ginsenosides, unique compounds of the Panax species, are under basic and clinical research to reveal their potential properties in humans.[6] Possibly an adaptogen,[7] ginseng remains under preliminary research for its potential properties or therapeutic effects, such as for respiratory illnesses,[8] quality of life,[9]influenza[8] or fatigue in cancer patients.[10] P. ginseng may affect cancer in animal models but this effect remains unclear.[11] One study in laboratory animals showed possible effects of ginseng or its ginsenoside components on the central nervous system and gonadal tissues[12][13] and another on penile erection.[14] Ginseng is known to contain phytoestrogens[15][16][17] and may affect the pituitary gland to increase the secretion of gonadotropins.[citation needed] Other mice studies found effects on sperm production and the estrous cycle.[3]
Side effects
A common side effect of P. ginseng may be insomnia,[18] but this effect is disputed.[19]Other side effects can include nausea, diarrhea, headaches, nose bleeds,[20] high blood pressure, low blood pressure, and breast pain.[21] Ginseng may also lead to induction ofmania in depressed patients who mix it with antidepressants.[22] Ginseng has been shown to have adverse drug reactions with phenelzine and warfarin, but has been shown to decrease blood alcohol levels.[23]
Overdose
The common adaptogen ginsengs (P. ginseng and P. quinquefolia) are generally considered to be relatively safe even in large amounts. One of the most common and characteristic symptoms of acute overdose of Panax ginseng is bleeding. Symptoms of mild overdose may include dry mouth and lips, excitation, fidgeting, irritability, tremor, palpitations, blurred vision, headache, insomnia, increased body temperature, increased blood pressure, edema, decreased appetite, increased sexual desire, dizziness, itching, eczema, early morning diarrhea, bleeding, and fatigue.[3] Symptoms of gross overdose with Panax ginseng may include nausea, vomiting, irritability, restlessness, urinary and bowel incontinence, fever, increased blood pressure, increased respiration, decreased sensitivity and reaction to light, decreased heart rate, cyanotic (blue) facial complexion, red facial complexion, seizures, convulsions, and delirium.[3] Patients experiencing any of the above symptoms are advised to discontinue the herbs and seek any necessary symptomatic treatment.[3]
Common classification
Ginseng roots in a market in Seoul, 2003
P. quinquefolius American ginseng (root)

According to traditional Chinese medicine, American ginseng promotes yin energy, cleans excess yang and calms the body. The reason it has been claimed that American ginseng promotes yin (shadow, cold, negative, female) while Asian ginseng promotes yang (sunshine, hot, positive, male) is because, according to traditional Chinese medicine, things living in cold places or northern side of mountains or southern side of rivers are strong in yang and vice versa, so the two are balanced.[citation needed] Chinese/Korean ginseng grows in Manchuriaand Korea, the coldest area known to many Koreans in ancient times. Thus, ginseng from there is supposed to be very yang. Originally, American ginseng was imported into China via subtropical Guangzhou, the seaport next to Hong Kong, so Chinese doctors believed American ginseng must be good for yin, because it came from a hot area.
They did not know, however, that American ginseng can only grow in temperate regions. Nonetheless, the root is legitimately classified as more yin because it generates fluids.[24]
Most North American ginseng is produced in the Canadian provinces of Ontario and British Columbia and the American state ofWisconsin, according to Agri-food Canada. P. quinquefolius is now also grown in northern China. The aromatic root resembles a small parsnip that forks as it matures. The plant grows 6 to 18 in tall, usually bearing three leaves, each with three to five leaflets two to five inches long.
Asian ginseng (root)
Ginseng and reishi mushrooms in bottles being sold in Seoul, Korea

Panax ginseng is available commercially in four forms: fresh, red, white and sun ginsengs. Wild ginseng is used where available.
Fresh ginseng
Fresh ginseng is the raw product. Its use is limited by availability.
Red ginseng
Red ginseng
Red ginseng (Hangul: ; Hanja: ; RR: hong-sam, simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: hng shn), P. ginseng, has been peeled, heated either through steaming at standard boiling temperatures of 100 C (212 F), and then dried or sun-dried. It is frequently marinated in an herbal brew which results in the root becoming extremely brittle. It is more common as herbal medicine than white ginseng. This version of ginseng is traditionally associated with stimulating sexual function and increasing energy. Red ginseng is always produced from cultivated roots, generally from Korea. In 2002, a preliminary double-blind, crossover study of Korean red ginseng's effects onimpotence reported it can be an effective alternative for treating male erectile dysfunction, during which 60% of study participants noted an improvement in ability to produce anerection.[25] Another study reported red ginseng reduced the relapse of gastric cancer versus control.[26] A study of ginseng's effects on rats found, while both white ginseng and red ginseng appear to reduce the incidence of cancer, the effects appear to be greater with red ginseng.[27] Another study showed potentially beneficial effects of a combination of Korean red ginseng and highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1-infected patients.[28] Falcarinol, a 17-carbon diyne fatty alcohol isolated from carrot and red ginseng, was thought to have potent anticancer properties on primary mammary epithelial (breast cancer) cells.[29]Other acetylenic fatty alcohols in ginseng (panaxacol, panaxydol and panaxytriol) have antibiotic properties.[30]
White ginseng
White gensing is fresh ginseng which has been dried without being heated. It is peeled and dried to reduce the water content to 12% or less. White ginseng air-dried in the sun may contain less of the therapeutic constituents. It is thought by some that enzymes contained in the root break down these constituents in the process of drying. Drying in the sun bleaches the root to a yellowish-white color.
Sun ginseng
Sun ginseng is created from a heat processing method which increases ginsenoside components such as ginsenoside-[Rg.sub.3], -[Rk.sub.1] and -[Rg.sub.5] by steaming white ginseng at a higher temperature than red ginseng. The herb is steamed for three hours at120 C (248 F). Sun ginseng has increased nitric oxide, superoxide, hydroxyl radical and peroxynitrite scavenging activities compared with conventionally processed red or white versions. The increased steaming temperature produces an optimal amount of biological activity due to its ability to amplify specific ginsenosides.
Wild ginseng
Harvested ginseng in Germany

Wild ginseng grows naturally and is harvested from wherever it is found. It is relatively rare, and even increasingly endangered, due in large part to high demand for the product in recent years, which has led to the wild plants being sought out and harvested faster than new ones can grow (it requires years for a root to reach maturity). Wild ginseng can be either Asian or American, and can be processed to be red ginseng. Woods-grown American ginseng programs in Maine, Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina, West Virginia and Kentucky,[31][32] and United Plant Savers have been encouraging the planting of ginseng both to restore natural habitats and to remove pressure from any remaining wild ginseng, and they offer both advice and sources of rootlets. Woods-grown plants have a value comparable to wild-grown ginseng of similar age.
Other plants sometimes called ginseng

These mostly "adaptogenic" plants are sometimes referred to as ginsengs, but they are either from a different family or genus. Onlyjiaogulan actually contains compounds closely related to ginsenosides, although ginsenosides alone do not determine the effectiveness of ginseng. Since each of these plants has different uses, one should research their properties before using.[33]
Codonopsis pilosula (poor man's ginseng) Schisandra chinensis (five-flavoured berry) Gynostemma pentaphyllum (southern ginseng, jiaogulan) Eleutherococcus senticosus (Siberian ginseng) Pseudostellaria heterophylla (prince ginseng) Withania somnifera (Indian ginseng, ashwagandha) Pfaffia paniculata (Brazilian ginseng, suma) Lepidium meyenii (Peruvian ginseng, maca) Oplopanax horridus (Alaskan ginseng)
Other plants which are referred to as ginsengs may not be adaptogens (although notoginseng is in the genus Panax):
Angelica sinensis (female ginseng, dong quai) Panax notoginseng (known as san qi, tian qi or tien chi; hemostatic ingredient in yunnan bai yao)
See also

List of herbs with known adverse effects Herbalism Salvia miltiorrhiza Food therapy Codonopsis pilosula "poor man's ginseng" Mandrake (plant), another plant with human-shaped roots.
References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. ^ "ginseng". Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Retrieved 2011-06-04. ^ Oxford Dictionaries Online, s.v. "ginseng". ^ a b c d e Chinese Medical Herbology and Pharmacology, by John K. Chen, Tina T. Chen ^ "As ginseng prices soar, diggers take to the backcountry". Retrieved 28 September 2012. ^ Safety issues associated with commercially available energy drinks. ^ Qi LW, Wang CZ, Yuan CS (2011). "Ginsenosides from American ginseng: chemical and pharmacological diversity".Phytochemistry 72 (8): 689-99.doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2011.02.012. PMID 21396670. 7. ^ Davydov M, Krikorian AD. (October 2000). "Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim. (Araliaceae) as an adaptogen: a closer look". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72(3): 345393. doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(00)001811.PMID 10996277. 8. ^ a b McElhaney JE et al. (2004). "A placebo-controlled trial of a proprietary extract of North American Ginseng (CVTE002) to prevent acute respiratory illness in institutionalized older adults". J Am Geriatr Soc 52 (1): 13 19. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52004.x. PMID 14687309. 9. ^ Caso Marasco A, Vargas Ruiz R, Salas Villagomez A, Begona Infante C. (1996). "Double-blind study of a multivitamin complex supplemented with ginseng extract". Drugs Exp Clin Res. 22(6): 323329. 10. ^ Barton, DL; Soori, GS; Bauer, BA; Sloan, JA; Johnson, PA; Figueras, C; Duane, S; Mattar, B et al. (2010). "Pilot study of Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng) to improve cancer-related fatigue: a randomized, double-blind, dose-finding evaluation: NCCTG trial N03CA.". Supportive care in cancer : official journal of the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer 18 (2): 17987. doi:10.1007/s00520-009-0642-2. PMID 19415341 11. ^ Shin HR, Kim JY, Yun TK, Morgan G, Vainio H (2000). "The cancer-preventive potential of Panax ginseng: a review of human and experimental evidence". Cancer Causes Control 11(6): 565576. doi:10.1023/A:. PMID 10880039.
12. ^ Hong B; Ji YH; Hong JH; Nam KY; Ahn TY A double-blind crossover study evaluating the efficacy of korean red ginseng in patients with erectile dysfunction: a preliminary report. J Urol. 2002; 168(5):2070-3 (ISSN: )Department of Urology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea 13. ^ Murphy and Lee Ginseng, sex behavior, and nitric oxide, Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002 May;962:372-7 PMID 14. ^ de Andrade E; de Mesquita AA; Claro Jde A; de Andrade PM; Ortiz V; Paranhos M; Srougi M Study of the efficacy of Korean Red Ginseng in the treatment of erectile dysfunction. Sector of Sexual Medicine, Division of Urological Clinic of So Paulo University, So Paulo, Brazil. 15. ^ Lee, YJ; Jin, YR; Lim, WC; Park, WK; Cho, JY; Jang, S; Lee, SK (2003). "Ginsenoside-Rb1 acts as a weak phytoestrogen in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells". Archives of pharmacal research 26 (1): 58 63. doi:10.1007/BF03179933.PMID 12568360. 16. ^ "Estrogen-like activity of ginsenoside Rg1 derived from Panax notoginseng". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 87 (8): 36915. 2002. doi:10.1210/jc.87.8.3691.PMID 12161497. 17. ^ "A ginsenoside-Rh1, a component of ginseng saponin, activates estrogen receptor in human breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells". The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 84 (4): 4638. 2003. doi:10.1016/S09600760(03)00067-0. PMID 12732291. 18. ^ http://www.umass.edu/cnshp/faq.html 19. ^ "The Ginseng Book." Stephen Fulder, PhD 20. ^ Ginseng definition - Medical Dictionary definitions of some medical terms defined on MedTerms 21. ^ http://www.aafp.org/afp/20031015/1539.html 22. ^ Fugh-Berman, Adriane (2000). "Herb-drug interactions".The Lancet 355 (9198): 134138. doi:10.1016/S01406736(99)06457-0. PMID 10675182. 23. ^ Izzo A.A. Ernst E. (2001). "Interactions Between Herbal Medicines and Prescribed Drugs: A Systematic Review".Drugs (Adis International) 61 (15): 21632175.doi:10.2165/00003495-200161150-00002.PMID 11772128. Retrieved 3/1/2012. 24. ^ Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica, Third Edition by Dan Bensky, Steven Clavey, Erich Stoger, and Andrew Gamble 2004 25. ^ Hong B, Ji YH, Hong JH, Nam KY, Ahn TY. (2002). "A double-blind crossover study evaluating the efficacy of Korean red ginseng in patients with erectile dysfunction: a preliminary report". Journal of Urology 168 (5): 20 21. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(05)64298-X. PMID 12394711. 26. ^ Suh SO, Kroh M, Kim NR, Joh YG, Cho MY. (2002). "Effects of red ginseng upon postoperative immunity and survival in patients with stage III gastric cancer". American Journal of Chinese Medicine. 30 (4): 483 94.doi:10.1142/S0192415X02000661. 27. ^ Yun TK, Lee YS, Lee YH, Kim SI, Yun HY (2001). "Anticarcinogenic effect of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer and identification of active compounds". Journal of Korean Medical Science 16 (S): 618.
28. ^ Sung, Heungsup; Jung, You-Sun and Cho, Young-Keol (2009). "Beneficial Effects of a Combination of Korean Red Ginseng and Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1-Infected Patients". Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 16 (8): 112731. doi:10.1128/CVI.00013-09. PMC 2725544. PMID 19535541. 29. ^ fatty alcohols and aldehydes 30. ^ fatty alcohols and aldehydes 31. ^ state.tn.us TDEC: DNH: Ginseng Program 32. ^ Care and Planting of Ginseng Seed and Roots 33. ^ Winston, David; Maimes, Steven (2007). Adaptogens: Herbs for Strength, Stamina, and Stress Relief. Healing Arts Press.
External links

MedlinePlus-Ginseng - National Institutes of Health Asian Ginseng - NCCAM - National Institutes of Health Ginseng Abuse Syndrome disputed Panax ginseng - American Family Physician
Kabocha
For the fermented tea drink, see kombucha.
Kabocha (Japanese: , ) is a Japanese variety of winter squash. The wordkabocha has come to mean a general type of winter squash to many English-speaking growers and buyers. In some cultures it is revered as an aphrodisiac.[1] Kabocha is commonly called Japanese pumpkin, especially in Australia and New Zealand. In Thailand, it is called Fak Thong (Thai: or golden squash) and is also calledkabocha squash in North America. In Japan,
the word kabocha may refer to either this squash or to the Western-style pumpkin. Varieties include: Ajihei, Ajehei No. 107, Ajihei No. 331, Ajihei No. 335, Cutie, Ebisu, Emiguri, and Miyako. Today, many of the kabocha in the market are of the type called Kuri kabocha, which was created based on Seiyo kabocha (buttercup squash). It is popular for its strong yet sweet flavor and moist, fluffy texture, which is like chestnuts. It is found in the market under such brand names as Miyako, Ebisu, Kurokawa, and Akazukin.
Characteristics
Kabocha is hard, has knobbly-looking skin, is shaped like a squat pumpkin, and has a dull-finished, deep green skin with some celadon-to-white stripes and an intense yellow-orange color on the inside. In many respects it is similar to the Buttercup squash, but without the characteristic cup on the blossom end. It is a member of the species Cucurbita maxima, along with the Hubbard and Buttercup squashes. An average kabocha weighs 2-3 pounds but can weigh as much as 8 pounds.[2] It has an exceptional naturally sweet flavor, even sweeter than butternut squash. It is similar in texture and flavor to a pumpkin and asweet potato combined. Some can taste like Russet potatoes. Like other squashfamily members, it is commonly mixed in side dishes and soups or anywhere pumpkin, potato, or other squash would be. It is a common ingredient in vegetable tempura and can be made into soup. Kabocha (Thai: used in traditional Thai desserts and main courses. ) is
Kabocha (far right) is a common ingredient in tempura.

Kabocha is available all year round but is best in late summer and early fall. Primarily grown in Japan, Thailand, California, Florida, Southwestern Colorado, Mexico,Tasmania, Tonga, New Zealand, Chile, and South Africa but is widely adapted for climates that provide a growing season of 100 days or more. Most of the California, Colorado, Tonga and New Zealand crop is exported to Japan.
[edit]Nutrition
It is rich in beta carotene, with iron, vitamin C, potassium, and smaller traces of calcium, folic acid, and minute amounts of B vitamins.[3]
Ripening
When kabocha is just harvested, it is still growing. Therefore, unlike other vegetables and fruits, freshness is not as important. It should be fully matured first, in order to become flavorful. First, kabocha is ripened in a warm place (77 F/25 C) for 13 days, during which some of the starch converts to sugar content. Then it is transferred to a cool place (50 F/10 C) and stored for about a month in order to increase its carbohydrate content. In this way the just-harvested, dry, bland-tasting kabocha is transformed into smooth, sweet kabocha. Fully ripened, succulent kabocha will have reddish-yellow flesh and a hard skin with a dry, corky stem. It reaches the peak of ripeness about 1.53 months after it is harvested.
History
It is generally believed that all squash originated in Mesoamerica,[4][5] but may have been independently cultivated elsewhere, albeit later.[6] The kabocha, however, was introduced to Japan by Portuguese sailors in 1541, who brought it with them from Cambodia. The Portuguese name for the squash, Cambodia abbora (), was shortened by the Japanese to kabocha. Certain regions of Japan use an alternative abbreviation, shortening the second half of the name instead to "bobora". Another name for kabocha is (southern melon) or occasionally (Nanking melon), which may suggest that the vegetable arrived in Japan by way of China.[citation needed]
References
1.
^ Aphrodisiac references

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Cracking Open the Kabocha Squash KUOW Aphrodisiacs Fact or Fiction
^ kabocha squash Definition in the Food Dictionary at Epicurious.com ^ Japanese Kabocha - Japanese Pumpkin - Kabocha Squash, About.com ^ Archaeobiology: Squash Seeds Yield New View of Early American Farming ^ The Initial Domestication of Cucurbita pepo in the Americas 10,000 Years Ago ^ Eastern North America as an independent center of plant domestication
Lepidium meyenii
(Redirected from Maca)
"Maca" redirects here. For other uses, see Maca (disambiguation).
Lepidium meyenii
Root
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Brassicales
Family:
Brassicaceae
Genus:
Lepidium
Species:
L. meyenii
Binomial name
Lepidium meyenii Walp.
Synonyms
Lepidium peruvianum
Lepidium meyenii, known commonly as maca, is an herbaceous biennial plant of the crucifer family native to the high Andes of Peru around Lake Junin.[1] It is grown for its fleshy hypocotyl(actually a fused hypocotyl and taproot), which is used as a root vegetable and a medicinal herb. Its Spanish and Quechua names include maca-maca, maino, ayak chichira, and ayak willku.
Botanical characteristics
The species was first described by Gerhard Walpers in 1843 as Lepidium meyenii. In the 1990s Dr. Gloria Chacon made a further distinction of different specimens. She considered the widely cultivated natural maca of today to be a newer domesticated species, L. peruvianum.[2] However, most botanists today doubt this distinction and continue to call the cultivated maca L. meyenii. The Latin name recognized by the USDA also continues to be Lepidium meyenii.[3] There is a still ongoing debate about the correct nomenclature, and whether the distinction between meyenii andperuvianum is actually botanically correct or if they are the same species.[1] The growth habit, size, and proportions of maca are roughly similar to those of the radish and theturnip, to which it is related. The green, fragrant tops are short and lie along the ground.[4] The thin, frilly leaves sprout in a rosette at the soil surface, not growing over 12 to 20 cm in height. The leaves show a dimorphism according to reproductive stage. They are more prominent in the vegetative phase, and are continuously renewed from the center as the outer leaves die. The off-white, self-fertileflowers are borne on a central raceme, and are followed by 45 mm siliculate fruits, each containing two small (2-2.5 mm) reddish-gray ovoid seeds. Seeds are the macas only means of reproduction. Maca reproduces mainly through self-pollination and is an autogamous species. The genome consists of 2n=8x=64 chromosomes. From experiments with different day lengths it can be concluded that maca is a short-day plant.[1] Some sources consider the maca to be an annual plant, as in favorable years it can complete a life cycle within a year.[4]
Root
Maca root powder

Maca is the only member of its genus with a fleshy hypocotyl, which is fused with the taproot to form a rough inverted-pear-shaped body. Maca does vary greatly in the size and shape of the root, which can be triangular, flattened circular, spherical or rectangular, the latter of which forms the largest roots. Maca hypocotyls can be gold or cream, red, purple, blue, black or green. Each is considered a genetically unique variety, as seeds of the parent plants grow to have roots of the same color. Recently, specific phenotypes (in maca, 'phenotype' pertains mainly to root color) have been exclusively propagated to ascertain their different nutritional and therapeutic properties.[5]Cream colored roots are the most widely grown and are favored in Peru for their enhanced sweetness and size. Black maca is considered the strongest in energy and stamina-promoting properties, being both sweet and slightly bitter in taste.[6] Red maca is becoming popular with many people, and has been clinically shown to reduce prostate size in rats.[7][5] These three phenotypes are the primary ones being grown and exported. Small hypocotyls are preferred by users, as they are less fibrous and more sweet. These three phenotypes are the primary ones being grown and exported.
Maca root
Agronomy
Growth conditions
The natural environment of the maca is at 11-12 S latitude and at an elevation of 3800-4400 m above sea level.[5] At this elevation temperatures of the growing season vary between -2 to 13 C in monthly mean
minimum or maximum respectively. However temperatures can decline as low as -10 C and frosts are common. Strong winds and sunlight are also characteristics of the native habitat of the maca. Maca is still today mainly cultivated in Peruand in the high Andes of Bolivia, and to a small extent also in Brazil.[4]
Alpaca manure is used to fertilize maca croplands
Cultivation
Maca seedlings emerge usually about one month after sowing with the onset of the rainy season in October. In the vegetative phase, until May to June, the lower part of the hypocotyl as well as the upper part of the tap root grows in size. After 260 to 280 days it is formed to the harvestable hypocotyl. If the root is left in the soil, it is dormant for two to three months in the time of the cold, dry season until August. Then it will form a generative shoot on which the seeds ripen five months later. One plant is capable of forming up to thousand tiny seeds of which 1600 weigh approximately one gram. Thus only relatively few plants are needed for cultivation. The plants for cultivation are selected for preferred size and color, then placed 50-100cm deep in pits with alternate layers of grass and soil to protect them from drying out. They are manured heavily. The cultivation cycle is strictly linked to seasonality.[1][4]Traditionally, land preparation was done by hand. Nowadays, also tractor plowing is used. As maca grow on sites where no other crops can be cultivated, it is often found after long fallows of sheep grazing pastures.[1] Maca croplands are thus traditionally only fertilized mainly with sheep and alpaca manure.However, fertilizer application could prevent soils from depleting in nutrients. Weeding or pesticide application is usually not necessary as the climate is not suitable for most weeds or pests. Nearly all maca cultivation in Peru is carried out organically, as there are few pests naturally occurring at such high altitudes, and maca itself is seldom attacked. Maca is sometimes interplanted with potatoes, as it is known to maca farmers that the plant itself naturally repels most root crop pests. The harvest is done manually, leaving the leaves on the field as livestock feed or organic fertilizer. The yield for a cultivated hectare can reach an estimated 15 tons in fresh hypocotyls resulting in approximately 5 tons of dried material. [4]According to the Ministry of Agriculture however, average maca yields fo 2005 were only 7t/ha, with a great variation between different sites. Although maca has been cultivated outside the Andes, it is not yet clear whether it develops the same active constituents or potency. Hypocotyls grown from Peruvian seeds form with difficulty at low elevations, in greenhouses or in warm climates.
Constituents
The nutritional value of dried maca root is high, similar to cereal grains such as rice and wheat. The average composition is 60-75%carbohydrates, 10-14% protein, 8.5% dietary fiber, and 2.2% fats. Maca is rich in the dietary minerals calcium and potassium (with low content of sodium), and contains the essential trace elements iron, iodine, copper, manganese, and zinc as well as fatty acidsincluding linolenic acid, palmitic acid, and oleic acids, and 19 amino acids.[8]
(1R,3S)-1-Methyltetrahydro-carboline-3-carboxylic acid
In addition to sugars and proteins, maca contains uridine, malic acid and its benzoylderivative, and the glucosinolates, glucotropaeolin and m-methoxyglucotropaeolin. Themethanol extract of maca tuber also contains (1R,3S)-1-methyltetrahydro-carboline-3-carboxylic acid, a molecule which is reported to exert many activities on the central nervous system.[9] Many different alkamides were found in maca.[10] Further, maca contains selenium and magnesium[citation needed], and includespolysaccharides.[11] Maca's reported beneficial effects for sexual function could be due to its high concentration of proteins and vital nutrients;[12] maca contains a chemical called p-methoxybenzyl isothiocyanate, which reputedly has aphrodisiac properties.[2][5]
Uses and preparation

Maca is mainly grown for the nutritional and health value of its root. However, also the leaves are edible or may serve as animal fodder, The majority of harvested maca are dried. In this form, the hypocotyls can be stored for several years.[1][13] In Peru, maca is prepared and consumed in several ways, although traditionally it is always cooked. The freshly harvested hypocotyl can be roasted in a pit (called huatia), and this is considered a delicacy. Fresh roots are usually available only in the vicinity of the growers. The root can also be mashed and boiled to produce a sweet, thick liquid, dried and mixed with milk to form a porridge. The cooked roots are also used other vegetables in empanadas, jams or soups. or with other vegetables The root can be ground to or grains to produce a flour for bread, cakes or pancakes. that can be used in baking. If fermented, a weak beer called chicha de maca can be produced. In 2010 a US based brewery called Andean Brewing Company, became the first company to produce and commercialize beer made from Maca under the brand
KUKA Beer. From the black morphotype a liqor is produced. The leaves can also be prepared raw in salads or cooked much like Lepidium sativum and Lepidium campestre, to which it is genetically closely related. [14] The growing demand of the supplement industry has been one of the primary reasons for maca's expanding cultivation in Peru and Bolivia.[15] The prominent product for export is maca flour, which is a baking flour ground from the hard, dried roots, "harina de maca." Maca flour (powder) is a relatively inexpensive bulk commodity, much like wheat flour or potato flour. In Peru, maca flour is used in baking as a flour base and a flavoring. There are many companies who sell raw maca flour as a bulk supplement, however maca is not eaten raw in its native territory, and can cause gastric problems unless it is cooked. The supplement industry uses both the dry roots and maca flour for different types of processing and concentrated extracts. An internet query will show dozens of different extracts available, each touting a particular efficaciousness for a traditional use or health claim. Another common form is maca which has undergone gelatinization. This is an extrusion process which separates and removes the tough fiber from the roots using gentle heat and pressure, it is sometimes used on other vegetables with a tough fiber matrix. Raw maca is difficult to digest due to its thick fibers and goitrogen content. Gelatinization was developed for maca specifically to mimic the activity of cooking, and to allow gentler digestion. Gelatinized maca is employed mainly for therapeutic and supplement purposes, but can also be used like maca flour as a flavor in cooking. Available also is a freeze-dried maca juice, which is a juice squeezed from the macerated fresh root, and subsequently freeze-dried high in the Andes. Maca has been harvested and used by humans in the Andean Mountains for centuries. Contrary to frequent claims that maca's cultivation was common in what is today Peru, it has been shown that until the late 1980s, maca has only been cultivated in a limited area around Lake Junin, in Central Peru. Historically, maca was often traded for lowland tropical food staples, such as corn, rice,manioc (tapioca roots), quinoa and papaya. It was also used as a form of payment of Spanish imperial taxes.[4] It is cited that maca was eaten by Inca imperial warriors before battles. Their legendary strength was allegedly imparted by the preparatory consumption of copious amounts of maca, fueling formidable warriors. After a city was conquered, the women had to be protected from the Inca warriors, as they became ambitiously virile from eating such quantities of maca. This is of course an appealing endorsement for the masculine angle of maca's recent marketing campaign.[12] Whether or not this oft repeated historical use is actually true has yet to be determined. Those who have studied maca's history have not been able to locate formal mention of this particular use. [16][14] During Spanish colonization maca was used as currency in Central Peru.[17][18]
Maca root powder

The growing demand of the supplement industry has been one of the primary reasons for maca's expanding cultivation in Peru and Bolivia.[19] The prominent product for export is maca flour, which is a baking flour ground from the hard, dried roots, "harina de maca." Maca flour (powder) is a relatively inexpensive bulk commodity, much like wheat flour or potato flour. In Peru, maca flour is used in baking as a flour base and a flavoring. There are many companies who sell raw maca flour as a bulk supplement, however maca is not eaten raw in its native territory, and can cause gastric problems unless it is cooked. The supplement industry uses both the dry roots and maca flour for different types of processing and concentrated extracts. An internet query will show dozens of different extracts available, each touting a particular efficaciousness for a traditional use or health claim. Another common form is maca which has undergone gelatinization. This is an extrusion process which separates and removes the tough fiber from the roots using gentle heat and pressure, it is sometimes used on other vegetables with a tough fiber matrix. Raw maca is difficult to digest due to its thick fibers and goitrogen content. Gelatinization was developed for maca specifically to mimic the activity of cooking, and to allow gentler digestion. Gelatinized maca is employed mainly for therapeutic and supplement purposes, but can also be used like maca flour as a flavor in cooking. Available also is a freeze-dried maca juice, which is a juice squeezed from the macerated fresh root, and subsequently freeze-dried high in the Andes.[6]
Health effects
Maca is consumed as food for humans and livestock, suggesting any risk from consumption is rather minimal. It is considered as safe to eat as any other vegetable food. However, maca does contain glucosinolates, which can cause goiters when high consumption is combined with a diet low in iodine. This being said, darker colored maca roots (red, purple, black) contain significant amounts of natural iodine, a 10-gram serving of dried maca generally containing 52 g of iodine.[2] Though this is common in other foods with high levels of glucosinolate, it is uncertain if maca consumption can cause or worsen a goiter.[20][unreliable source?] Small-scale clinical trials performed in men have shown that maca extracts can heighten libido and improve semen quality.[21][22] A small double-blind, randomized, parallel group dose-finding pilot study has
shown that Maca root may alleviate SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction.[23] A 12-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in 56 subjects found that Maca has no effect on sexhormone levels in men, including LH, FSH, prolactin, 17-OH progesterone, testosterone or estradiol.[24] A recent review states "Randomized clinical trials have shown that maca has favorable effects on energy and mood, may decrease anxiety and improve sexual desire. Maca has also been shown to improve sperm production, sperm motility, and semen volume."[25]
Marketing potential
Due to its purported effects on fertility, maca has experienced a major gain of commercial interest as well as research in the last decades. In the 1990s, a quick expansion of cultivated land with maca was observable. As the demand raised rapidly, the producers prices increased. However, due to high expectations the production expanded too rapidly and in the year 2000 the prices fell again.[1]Market studies have shown a very low acceptance of the particular maca taste in consumers exposed to it firstly. Apparently the taste is acquired, which creates a barrier for the further propagation of this food as a vegetable. The economic interest lies hence more in the medical application of the root constituents.[1]
Notes
1. ^ a b c d e f g h Hermann, M, Bernet T. "The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence: Lessons for improving use strategies and market chains of minor crops." Agricultural Biodiversity and Livelihoods Discussion Papers 1. Bioversity International, Rome, Italy, 101 p., 2009. 2. ^ a b c Taylor LG (2005). The healing power of rainforest herbs: a guide to understanding and using herbal medicinals . Garden City Park, NY: Square One Publishers. ISBN 0-7570-0144-0. 3. 4. ^ "Lepidium meyenii Walp.". USDA PLANTS database. Retrieved 2008/11/23. ^ a b c d e f Flores, Hector; Walker, Guimares (2003). "Andean Root and Tuber Crops: Undergroun Rainbows". Hort science38. 5. ^ a b c d Clment, Celine (2010). Influence of colour type and previous cultivation on secondary metabolites in hypocotyls and leaves of maca (Lepidium meyenii Walpers).. ETHZ: ). J. Sci. Food Agric.. 6. 7. ^ a b "Maca (lepidium peruvianum): Botanical Characteristics". Free Online Botanical Encyclopedia. Skyfield Tropical. ^ Gonzales GF, Miranda S, Nieto J, et al. (2005). "Red maca (Lepidium meyenii) reduced prostate size in rats". Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 3 (1): 5. doi:10.1186/1477-7827-3-5.PMC 548136. PMID 15661081. 8. ^ "Database entry for Maca Lepidium meyenii Maca - Lepidium peruvianum, Chacon - Maca - Lepidium meyenii Maca Lepidium meyenii Maca". Rain-tree.com. Retrieved 2012-10-26. 9. ^ Piacente, Sonia; Carbone, V., Plaza, A., Zampelli, A. & Pizza, C. (2002). "Investigation of the Tuber Constituents of Maca (Lepidium meyenii Walp.)". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50 (20): 5621 5625. doi:10.1021/jf020280x.PMID 12236688.
10. ^ Zhao J, Muhammad I, Dunbar DC, Mustafa J, Khan IA (February 2005). "New alkamides from maca (Lepidium meyenii)". J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 (3): 6903.doi:10.1021/jf048529t. PMID 15686421. 11. ^ Muhammad, I; Zhao J., Dunbar D.C. & Khan I.A. (2002). "Constituents of Lepidium meyenii 'maca'". Phytochemistry 59(1): 105110. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(01)00395-8.PMID 11754952. 12. ^ a b Chacn de Popovici, G (1997). La importancia de Lepidium peruvianum ("Maca") en la alimentacion y salud del ser humano y animal 2,000 anos antes y desputes del Cristo y en el siglo XXI.. Lima: Servicios Grficos "ROMERO". 13. ^ National Research Council (1989). Lost crops of the Incas: little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation.. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press. pp. p. 57. 14. ^ a b "Maca Root". Retrieved 2007-05-24. 15. ^ Downie, Andrew. "On a Remote Path to Cures" New York Times. January 1, 2008. 16. ^ Kilham, Christopher (2000). Tales from the Medicine Trail: Tracking Down the Health Secrets of Shamans, Herbalists, Mystics, Yogis, and Other Healers. [Emmaus PA]: Rodale Press.ISBN 1-5 7954-185-2. 17. ^ Valentova, K.; Ulrichova J. (2003). "Smallanthus sonchifoliusand Lepidium meyenii - prospective Andean crops for the prevention of chronic diseases". Biomedical papers of the Medical Faculty of the University Palack, Olomouc,Czechoslovakia 147 (2): 11930. PMID 15037892. 18. ^ Cam, Sergio."http://web.archive.org/web/20090130151135/http://chakarunas.com/chke-historical.htm" Maca in Early Peruvian Records 19. ^ Downie, Andrew. "On a Remote Path to Cures" New York Times. January 1, 2008. 20. ^ "Maca". Retrieved 2007-05-24. 21. ^ Gonzales, GF.; Cordova A., Vega K., Chung A., Villena A., Gonez C. & Castillo S. (2002). "Effect of Lepidium meyenii (maca) on sexual desire and its absent relationship with serum testosterone levels in adult healthy men". Andrologia 34 (6): 36772. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0272.2002.00519.x.PMID 12472620. 22. ^ Gonzales, GF; Cordova A., Gonzales C., Chung A., Vega K. & Villena A. (2001). "Lepidium meyenii (maca) improved semen parameters in adult men". Asian Journal of Andrology 3 (4): 3013. PMID 11753476. 23. ^ Dording CM, Fisher L, Papakostas G, et al. (2008). "A double-blind, randomized, pilot dose-finding study of maca root (L. meyenii) for the management of SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction". CNS Neurosci Ther 14 (3): 182 91.doi:10.1111/j.1755-5949.2008.00052.x. PMID 18801111. 24. ^ Gonzales GF, Crdova A, Vega K, Chung A, Villena A, Gez C (Jan 2003). "Effect of Lepidium meyenii (Maca), a root with aphrodisiac and fertility-enhancing properties, on serum reproductive hormone levels in adult healthy men". J Endocrinol. 176 (1): 1638. doi:10.1677/joe.0.1760163.PMID 12525260. 25. ^ Gonzales GF, Gonzales C, Gonzales-Castaeda C (December 2009). "Lepidium meyenii (Maca): a plant from the highlands of Peru--from tradition to science". Forsch Komplementmed 16 (6): 373 80. doi:10.1159/000264618.PMID 20090350.
External links
What is Maca Used for Today? at NYU Medical Center The Truth About Maca
Mannish water
Mannish water
Origin
Place of origin
Jamaica
Details
Type
Soup
Mainingredient(s)
Goat parts, vegetables, yams,potatoes, bananas, dumplings
Mannish water is a goat soup in Jamaican cuisine. It is believed to be an aphrodisiacand is made from various goat parts, sometimes including the head, brains and heart. The soup has been sold packaged since 2006 when it competed for Best New Food Idea in a competition covered by the Jamaica Observer.[1][2] The Spicy Hill Farmscompany is behind the product, an offering of "Jamaica's favourite party soup". The meal has been part of "Maroon" celebrations for 300 years. The pieces of goat are seasoned with local herbs and spices, and cooked along with vegetables and 'food' - yam, potato, bananas and dumplings."[1] Feedback indicated it was going to be as popular as Tastee patties. [1] The Observer reported that Mannish water is still popular at 'dead yard'
functions, large stage shows and parties (to make sure one can drive home after a few drinks). The food company's factory is in the hills bordering Manchester, Jamaica andTrelawny.[1] According to Rough Guide, mannish water is traditionally served to a groom on his wedding night. [3] It is also discussed as a cultural feature in books about Jamaica.[4] The dish is mentioned in the 1974 Pluto Shervington song "Ram Goat Liver" which was reissued in 1976 (following the success of "Dat") and made it to #43 in the UK singles chart. The chorus contained the lines, "Ram goat liver good fi mek mannish water... curried goat lunch put de bite in your bark". The dish is believed to have inspired the Rolling Stones with the name for their Goats Head Soup album. Some of the album was recorded during the early 1970s while the band was relocated in Kingston, Jamaica's Dynamic Sound Studios.
See also
Cow cod soup
References
1. ^ a b c d NOVIA McDONALD-WHYTE ['Mannish water' in a pack up for Best New Food Idea] May 18, 2006 Jamaica Observer 2. 3. 4. ^ Sacha Walters Homestyle brings local dishes to supermarket shelves Jamaica Star online ^ Polly Thomas, Adam Vaitilingam, Polly Rodger Brown The Rough Guide to Jamaica page 38 ^ [1]
External links
Mannish water recipe and photograph
Mucuna pruriens
Mucuna pruriens
Mucuna pruriens inflorescence
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Fabales
Family:
Fabaceae
Subfamily:
Faboideae
Tribe:
Phaseoleae
Genus:
Mucuna
Species:
M. pruriens
Binomial name
Mucuna pruriens
(L.) DC.
Synonyms
Many, see text
Mucuna pruriens is a tropical legume known as velvet bean or cowitch and by othercommon names (see below), found in Africa, India and the Caribbean. The plant is infamous for the extreme itchiness it produces on contact, particularly with the young foliage and the seed pods. It has value in agricultural and horticultural use and has a range of medicinal properties.
Description
Velvet bean in Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, India
Mucuna pruriens flowers (coloredengraving)

The plant is an annual, climbing shrub with long vines that can reach over 15 m in length. When the plant is young, it is almost completely covered with fuzzy hairs, but when older, it is almost completely free of hairs. The leaves are tripinnate, ovate, reverse ovate, rhombus-shaped or widely ovate. The sides of the leaves are often heavily grooved and the tips are pointy. In young M.pruriens plants, both sides of the leaves have hairs. The stems of the leaflets are two to three millimeters long. Additional adjacent leaves are present and are about 5 mm long. The flower heads take the form of axially arrayed panicles. They are 15 to 32 cm long and have two or three, or many flowers. The accompanying leaves are about 12.5 mm long, the flower stand axes are from 2.5 to 5 mm. The bell is 7.5 to 9 mm long and silky. Thesepals are longer or of the same length as the shuttles. The crown is purplish or white. The flag is 1.5 mm long. The wings are 2.5 to 3.8 cm long. In the fruit ripening stage, a 4 to 13 cm-long, 1 to 2 cm-wide, unwinged, leguminous fruit develops. There is a ridge along the length of the fruit. The husk is very hairy and carries up to seven seeds. The seeds are flattened uniform ellipsoids, 1 to 1.9 cm long, 0.8 to 1.3 cm wide and 4 to 6.5 cm thick. The hilum, the base of the funiculus (connection between placenta and plant seeds) is a surrounded by a significant arillus (fleshy seeds shell). M.pruriens bears white, lavender, or purple flowers. Its seed pods are about 10 cm long[1]and are covered in loose, orange hairs that cause a severe itch if they come in contact with skin. The chemical compounds responsible for the itch are a protein, mucunain,[1] andserotonin. The seeds are shiny black or brown drift seeds. It is found in tropical Africa, Indiaand the Caribbean. The dry weight of the seeds is 55 to 85 g/100 seeds.[2] With 2n = 20, 22 or 24 chromosomes.
Uses
Mucuna pruriens seeds of two different colors
Mucuna pruriens seed pod

In many parts of the world, Mucuna pruriens is used as an importantforage, fallow and green manurecrop.[3] Since the plant is a legume, itfixes nitrogen and fertilizes soil. M. pruriens is a widespread fodder plant in the tropics. To that end, the whole plant is fed to animals as silage, dried hay or dried seeds. M. prurienssilage contains 11-23% crude protein, 35-40% crude fiber, and the dried beans 20-35% crude protein. It also has use in the countries of Benin and Vietnam as a biological control for problematicImperata cylindrica grass.[3] M.pruriens is said to not be invasive outside its cultivated area.[3] However, the plant is known to be invasive within conservation areas of South Florida, where it frequently invades disturbed land and rockland hammock edge habitats.
M. pruriens is sometimes used as a coffee substitute called "Nescafe" (not to be confused with the commercial brand Nescaf). Cooked fresh shoots or beans can also be eaten. This requires that they be soaked from at least 30 minutes to 48 hours in advance of cooking, or the water changed up to several times during cooking, since otherwise the plant can be toxic to humans. The above described process leaches out phytochemical compounds such as levodopa, making the product more suitable for consumption. If consumed in large quantities as food, unprocessed M. pruriens is toxic to non-ruminant mammals, including humans.
Medicinal uses
Traditionally, the seeds of Mucuna Pruriens have been used for treating male sexual dysfunction in Tibb-eUnani (Unani Medicine), the traditional system of medicine of Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent. It is also used in Ayurvedic medicine. M. pruriens has been shown to improve sexual function in rats.[4] The plant and its extracts have been long used in tribal communities as a toxin antagonist for various snakebites. Research on its effects against Naja spp. (cobra),[5] Echis (Saw scaled viper),[6] Calloselasma (Malayan Pit viper) and Bangarus (Krait) [7] have shown it has potential use in the prophylactic treatment of snakebites. M. pruriens seeds have also been found to have antidepressant properties in cases of depressive neurosis when consumed.[8] and formulations of the seed powder have shown promise in the management and treatment of Parkinson's disease.[9] Dried leaves of M. pruriens are sometimes smoked.[1] The herb contains L-DOPA, a precursor to the neurotransmitter dopamine. The L-DOPA content increases when extracts are prepared. L-DOPA converts into dopamine, an important brain chemical involved in mood, sexuality, and movement.
Itching
The hairs lining the seed pods and the small spicules on the leaves contain 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) which cause severeitching (pruritus) when touched.[10][11] The calyx below the flowers is also a source of itchy spicules and the stinging hairs on the outside of the seed pods are used in itching powder.[12] Water should not be used if contact occurs, as it only dilutes the chemical. Also, one should avoid scratching the exposed area since this causes the hands to transfer the chemical to all other areas touched. Once this happens, one tends to scratch vigorously and uncontrollably and for this reason the local populace in northern Mozambique refer to the beans as the mad beans (feijes malucos). They use raw, unrefined moist tobacco to treat the itching. In India, the application of cow dung is very effective to treat the itching caused by the spicules of this herb.
Pharmacology
M.pruriens seeds contain high concentrations of levodopa, a direct precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine. It has long been used in traditional Ayurvedic Indian medicine for diseases including Parkinson's disease.[13][14][15] In large amounts (e.g. 30 g dose), it has been shown to be as effective as pure levodopa/carbidopa in the treatment of Parkinson's disease, but no data on long-term efficacy and tolerability are available.[16] In addition to levodopa, it contains serotonin (5-HT), 5-HTP, nicotine, N,N-DMT (DMT), bufotenine, and 5-MeODMT. As such, it could potentially have psychedelic effects, and it has purportedly been used in ayahuasca preparations.[17] The mature seeds of the plant contain about 3.1-6.1% L-DOPA,[10] with trace amounts of 5hydroxytryptamine (serotonin), nicotine, DMT-n-oxide, bufotenine, 5-MeO-DMT-n-oxide, and betacarboline.[18] One study using 36 samples of the seeds found no tryptamines present in them.[19] The leaves contain about 0.5% L-DOPA, 0.006% dimethyltryptamine (DMT), 0.0025% 5-MeO-DMT and 0.003% DMT n-oxide.[20] The ethanolic extract of leaves of Mucuna pruriens possesses anticataleptic and antiepileptic effect in albino rats. Dopamine and serotonin may have a role in such activity.[21]
Nomenclature and taxonomy

Common names

Bieh in Madura Indonesian Language Ci mao li dou in Chinese Kara benguk in Javanese language Atmagupta ( Kiwanch ( ) or Kapikacchu ( ) or Konch ( ) in Hindi ) in Sanskrit
Khaajkuiri in Marathi Alkushi/ (Bengali)
Poonaikkaali in Tamil Velvet bean, Donkey eye, Cowhage, Cowitch and Buffalo beans in English (the latter also refers to Thermopsis rhombifolia)
Juckbohne (German: "itch bean")[1] Fogaret (Dominicam Republic); Picapica (everywhere), in Spanish Kapikachu Yerepe or warapa in Yoruba Duradagondi( ) in Telugu
Feijo maluco, "mad bean" (Angola and Mozambique); p-de-mico, "itching powder", feijo-da-flrida, "Florida's bean", feijo-cabeludo-da-ndia, "hairy/pilous Indian bean", feijo-de-gado, "cattle's bean", feijomucuna, "mucuna bean", feijo-veludo, "velvet bean", and mucuna-vilosa, "fleecy mucuna" (Brazil and Portugal), in Portuguese
Chitedze (Malawi) Naykuruna (ML: Mah mui (TH: ) (Malayalam) ) in Thai language
u mo rng, u nga, mc mo in Vietnamese language Kavach beej Inyelekpe (Nigeria) in Igala Nasagunnikaayi in Kannada Upupu in Kiswahili Baidanka in Oriya Pois mascate (Reunion Island) in French Wandhuru M in Sinhala Kway lee yerr thee in Myanmar
Subspecies

Mucuna pruriens ssp. deeringiana (Bort) Hanelt Mucuna pruriens ssp. pruriens[1]
Varieties

Mucuna pruriens var. hirsuta (Wight & Arn.) Wilmot-Dear[22] Mucuna pruriens var. pruriens (L.) DC. [23] Mucuna pruriens var. sericophylla[22] Mucuna pruriens var. utilis (Wall. ex Wight) L.H.Bailey is the non-stinging variety grown in Honduras.[24]
Synonyms
Synonyms of M. pruriens, M. pruriens ssp.pruriens and M. pruriens var. pruriens: Synonyms of M. pruriens var. hirsuta:
Carpopogon atropurpureum Roxb. May also refer to M. atropurpurea
Mucuna hirsuta Wight & Arn.
Synonyms of M. pruriens var. sericophylla:
Carpogon capitatus Roxb.
Carpogon niveus Roxb. Dolichos pruriens L. Marcanthus cochinchinense Lour. Mucuna atropurpurea sensu
auct. non (Roxb.) Wight & Arn.
Mucuna sericophylla Perkins
Synonyms of M. pruriens var. utilis:
Carpopogon capitatum Roxb. Carpopogon niveum Roxb. Macranthus cochinchinensis Lour.
M. atropurpurea (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. is a valid species
Mucuna axillaris Baker Mucuna bernieriana Baill. Mucuna cochinchinense (Lour.) A.

Chev.
Mucuna aterrima (Piper &

Tracy) Holland
Mucuna atrocarpa F.P. Metcalf Mucuna capitata Wight & Arn. Mucuna deeringiana (Bort)
Merr.
Mucuna cochinchinensis (Lour.) A.

Chev.
Mucuna esquirolii H. Lev. Mucuna luzoniensis Merr. Mucuna lyonii Merr. Mucuna minima Haines
Mucuna hassjoo (Piper & Tracy)

Mansf.
Mucuna martinii H. Lev. &

Vaniot
Mucuna nivea (Roxb.) DC. Mucuna prurita Hook.
Mucuna nivea (Roxb.) Wight &

Arn.
Mucuna velutina Hassk. Negretia mitis Blanco Mucuna prurita (L.) Hook. Stizolobium atropurpureum (Roxb.)
Kuntze
Mucuna pruriens var. capitata Burck
Mucuna pruriens var. capitata (Wight &

Arn.) Burck
May also refer to M. atropurpurea
Mucuna pruriens var. nivea (Roxb.)Hain

es
Stizolobium capitatum (Roxb.)

Kuntze
Stizolobium cochinchinense (Lour.) Burk
Mucuna utilis Wight Stizolobium aterrimum Piper &

Tracy
Stizolobium niveum (Roxb.)

Kuntze
Stizolobium deeringianum Bort
Stizolobium pruritum (Wight)
Stizolobium hassjoo Piper &
Piper
Tracy
Stizolobium velutinum (Hassk.)

Piper & Tracy
Stizolobium pruriens (L.)

Medik.
Stizolobium pruriens var. hassjoo (Piper &

Tracy)Makino
Stizolobium utile (Wall. ex

Wight) Ditmer
See also

Levodopa Medicinal plants Mucunain Psychedelic plants
References
1. ^ a b c d e Rtsch, Christian. Enzyklopdie der psychoaktiven Pflanzen. Botanik, Ethnopharmakologie und Anwendungen.. Aarau: AT-Verl.. p. 15. ISBN 978-3-85502-570-1. 2. 3. 4. ^ "Factsheet - Mucuna pruriens". www.tropicalforages.info. Retrieved 2008-02-23. ^ a b c "Factsheet - Mucuna pruriens". www.tropicalforages.info. Retrieved 2008-05-21. ^ Amin KMY, Khan MN, Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, et al. (1996) "Sexual function improving effect of Mucuna pruriens in sexually normal male rats". Fitoterapia, jrg.67 (nr.1): pp. 53-58. Quote: The seeds of M. pruriens are widely used for treating male sexual dysfunction in Tibb-e-Unani (Unani Medicine), the traditional system of medicine of Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent. 5. ^ Tan, NH; Fung, SY; Sim, SM; Marinello, E; Guerranti, R; Aguiyi, JC (2009). "The protective effect of Mucuna pruriens seeds against snake venom poisoning". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 123 (2): 356 8. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.03.025. PMID 19429384. 6. 7. ^ Journal of Preventie Medicine and Hygiene 40: 2528. 1999. http://www.jpmh.org/issues/199940105.pdf. ^ http://sphinxsai.com/sphinxsaiVol_2No.1/PharmTech_Vol_2No.1/PharmTech_Vol_2No.1PDF/PT=132%20(870874).pdf 8. ^ Medicinal Plants: Chemistry And ... - Google Book Search. books.google.com. 2006. ISBN 978-1-57808-395-4. Retrieved 2008-05-23. 9. ^ Katzenschlager, R; Evans, A; Manson, A; Patsalos, PN; Ratnaraj, N; Watt, H; Timmermann, L; Van Der Giessen, R et al. (2004)."Mucuna pruriens in Parkinson's disease: a double blind clinical and pharmacological study". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry 75 (12): 16727. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2003.028761. PMC 1738871. PMID 15548480.
10. ^ a b Medical Toxicology - Google Book Search. books.google.com. 2004. ISBN 978-0-7817-2845-4. Retrieved 2008-0315. 11. ^ YERRA RAJESHWAR, MALAYA GUPTA and UPAL KANTI MAZUMDER (2005). "In Vitro Lipid Peroxidation and Antimicrobial Activity of Mucuna pruriens Seeds". IJPT 4: 3235. 12. ^ G. V. Joglekar, M. B. Bhide J. H. Balwani. An experimental method for screening antipruritic agents. British Journal of Dermatology. Volume 75 Issue 3 Page 117 - March 1963 13. ^ Lieu CA. Kunselman AR. Manyam BV. Venkiteswaran K. Subramanian T."A water extract of Mucuna pruriens provides long-term amelioration of parkinsonism with reduced risk for dyskinesias." Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. 16(7):45865, 2010 Aug. 14. ^ Manyam BV, Dhanasekaran M, Hare TA. Effect of antiparkinson drug HP-200 (Mucuna pruriens) on the central monoaminergic neurotransmitters. 2004. Phytother Res 18:97-101. DOI: 10.1002/ptr.1407 PMID 15022157 15. ^ Manyam BV, Dhanasekaran M, Hare TA. Neuroprotective effects of the antiparkinson drug Mucuna pruriens. 2004. Phytother Res 18:706-712. DOI: 10.1002/ptr.1514 PMID 15478206 16. ^ Katzenschlager R, Evans A, Manson A, et al. Mucuna pruriens in Parkinson's disease: a double blind clinical and pharmacological study. 2004. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75:1672-1677. DOI: 10.1136/jnnp.2003.028761 PMID 15548480 free full text 17. ^ "Erowid Mucuna pruriens Vault". www.erowid.org. Retrieved 2008-03-02. 18. ^ "Species Information". sun.ars-grin.gov. Retrieved 2008-03-02. 19. ^ "The phytochemistry, toxicology, and food potential of velvetbean". www.idrc.ca. Retrieved 2008-03-02. 20. ^ Chemical Compounds Found in "Mucuna Puriens" 21. ^ D Champatisingh, P K Sahu, A Pal, and G Nanda. Anticataleptic and antiepileptic activity of ethanolic extract of leaves of Mucuna pruriens: A study on role of dopaminergic system in epilepsy in albino rats. Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 43 (2) 2011, 197-199.www.ijp-online.com 22. ^ a b "Mucuna pruriens information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov. Retrieved 2008-02-23. 23. ^ Picapica 24. ^ http://drugpolicycentral.com/bot/index.cgi?xfml=1&max=100
External links

www.fao.org Mucuna pruriens (U.S. Forest Service) www.hort.purdue.edu Crop Fact Sheets Mucuna pruriens (Tropical Forages) Mucuna pruriens protects against snakebite venom Mucuna pruriens var. utilis (Photos)
Chemicals in: Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. (Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases) Lycaeum Mucuna pruriens a Comprehensive Review Mucuna pruriens Seed L-DOPA Content on the Basis of Seed Color Research Paper Showing Quantitative Phytochemical Analysis Caldecott, Todd (2006). Ayurveda: The Divine Science of Life. Elsevier/Mosby. ISBN 0-7234-34107. Contains a detailed monograph on Mucuna pruriens (Kapikacchu, Atmagupta) as well as a discussion of health benefits and usage in clinical practice. Available online at http://www.toddcaldecott.com/index.php/herbs/learning-herbs/349-kapikachu
Mucuna pruriens in West African plants - A Photo Guide.
Mama Juana
Mamajuana
Mama Juana is a drink from the Dominican Republic that is concocted by allowingrum, red wine, and honey to soak in a bottle with tree bark and herbs. The taste is quite similar to port wine and the color is a deep red. The specific herbs that make up Mamajuana were originally prepared as an herbal tea by the native Taino Indians, and post-Columbus, alcohol was added to the recipe. Besides being rumored to be an aphrodisiac, with many natives of the Dominican Republic claiming that the drink has similar effects, Mamajuana is also consumed for its medicinal value. The alcohol is said to act as an extract base that pulls the herbs' curative properties, creating an herbal tincture that is often served as a shot. The reported positive effects on health vary, ranging from a flu remedy, to a digestion and circulation aid, blood cleanser, and kidney and liver tonic.
Origin of the name

Mama Juana (or mamajuana) comes from the English word Demijohn, which refers to a large squat bottle with a short narrow neck, usually covered in wicker. The word is thought to be derived from the French Dame Jeanne (Lady Jane), a term still used to describe this type of bottle. In the Spanish speaking countries, Dame Jeanne was transformed into "damajuana", or Dama Juana and later, in the Dominican Republic, into Mama Juana (mother Jane). For this reason it is easy to see why there are many different variations of recipes to make Mamajuana, since the name refers to the container/bottle originally used to prepare and store the maceration, rather than to the finished product itself.
Preparation
Basically, Mama Juana is a mixture of bark and herbs left to soak in rum (most often dark rum but the use of white rum is not uncommon), red wine and honey. The solid ingredients (local leaves, sticks and roots) vary from region to region but usually include some of the following:
Anam (Petiveria alliacea) Anis Estrellado (Illicium verum) Bohuco Pega Palo (Cissus verticillata) Albahaca (Ocimum basilicum) Canelilla (Cinnamodendron ekmanii) Bojuco Caro (Princess Vine) Marabeli (Securidaca virgata) Clavo Dulce (Whole Clove) Maguey (Agave spp.) leaves Timacle (Chiococca alba)
In addition to the above standard recipe, it is common for individuals to add other ingredients such as cinnamon, raisins, strawberry,molasses, and lemon or lime juice. The concoction is usually kept at room temperature and served in a shot glass. As with many other alcoholic drinks the longer the maker lets it sit the better it tastes. Recipes for what to do with this concoction vary a bit, but common advice from Dominicans is to first remove the bitterness from the elements above by soaking in red wine for a week or so, turning every once in a while, then throwing the wine out. Then, fill the bottle of soaked bark/herbs with 1/4 honey and 3/4 dark rum, possibly adding vanilla, ginger or cinnamon sticks if you like those flavors. After a few days, drink, then repeat the honey/rum mixture until the flavor of the bark/herbs disappears. Some say you can do this 15 to 20 times, while others say a single concoction of bark/herbs can be used for years.
Marketing
Mamajuana is commercialized in two ways; 1. bottle (or a bag) with the ingredients, a do-it-yourself version. You need to take care of the curing and maceration process yourself. 2. Ready-to-drink, a finished product which has undergone the complete process and afterwards it is filtered and bottled.
External links
Media related to Mamajuana at Wikimedia Commons
Ophiocordyceps sinensis
Ophiocordyceps sinensis (left) growing out of the head of a dead caterpillar
Kingdom:
Fungi
Division:
Ascomycota
Class:
Sordariomycetes
Order:
Hypocreales
Family:
Ophiocordycipitaceae
Genus:
Ophiocordyceps
Species:
O. sinensis
Binomial name
(Berk.) G.H.Sung, J.M.Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora
(2007)
Synonyms[1]
Sphaeria sinensis Berk. (1843) Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. (1878)
There are over 680 documented species of the sac fungus genus Ophiocordyceps, and one of the best known of these is Ophiocordyceps sinensis, colloquially known as caterpillar fungus. The fungus is known in Tibetan as yartsa gunbu or yatsa gunbu, and in Chinese asDng chng xi co (Chinese: ; literally "winter worm, summer grass"). Caterpillar fungi are the result of a parasitic relationship between the fungus and the larva of the ghost moth genus Thitarodes, several species of which live on the Tibetan Plateau (Tibet, Qinghai, West-Sichuan, SW-Gansu & NW Yunnan), and the Himalayas (India, Nepal,Bhutan). The fungus germinates in living organisms (in some cases larvae), kills and mummifies the insect, and then the fungus grows from the body of the insect. O. sinensis is known in the West as a medicinal mushroom, and its use has a long history in Traditional Chinese medicine as well as Traditional Tibetan medicine.[2] The hand-collected fungus-caterpillar combination is valued by herbalists and as a status symbol;[3] it is used as an aphrodisiac and treatment for ailments such as fatigue and cancer, although such use is mainly based on traditional Chinese medicine and anecdote. Recent research however seems to indicate a variety of beneficial effects in animal testing, including increased physical endurance through heightened ATP production in rats.[4]
Caterpillars with emergingOphiocordyceps sinensis
Taxonomy and naming

The species was first described scientifically by Miles Berkeley in 1843 as Sphaeria sinensis;[5] Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred the species to the genus Cordyceps in 1878.[6] The scientific name's etymology is from the Latin cord "club", ceps "head", and sinensis"from China". The fungus was known as Cordyceps sinensis until 2007, when molecular analysis was used to emend the classificationof the Cordycipitaceae and the Clavicipitaceae, resulting in the naming of a new family Ophiocordycipitaceae and the transfer of severalCordyceps species to Ophiocordyceps.[7] In Tibetan it is known as winter worm"], which is the source of the Nepali yartsa gunbu [Wylie: dbyar rtswa dgun 'bu, "summer herb , yarshagumba, yarchagumba or yarsagumba. The
transliteration in Bhutan is Yartsa Guenboob. It is known as keera jhar, keeda jadi, keeda ghas or 'ghaas fafoond in Hindi. Its name in Chinese Dng chng xi co() means "winter worm, summer grass" (i.e., "worm in the winter, [turns to] plant in the summer"). The Chinese name is a literal translation of the original Tibetan name, which was first recorded in the 15th Century by the Tibetan doctor Zurkhar Namnyi Dorje. In colloquial Tibetan Yartsa gunbu is often shortened to simply "bu" or "yartsa". In traditional Chinese medicine, its name is often abbreviated as chong cao ( "insect plant"), a name that also applies to otherCordyceps species, such as C. militaris. In Japanese, it is known by the Japanese reading of the characters for the Chinese name,tchkas (). Strangely, sometimes in Chinese English language texts Cordyceps sinensis is referred to as aweto[citation needed], which is the Moriname for Cordyceps robertsii, a species from New Zealand. The English term "vegetable caterpillar" is a misnomer, as no plant is involved. "Caterpillar fungus" is a preferable term.
Natural history
The caterpillars prone to infection by the fungus which live underground in alpine grass and shrublands on the Tibetan Plateau and theHimalayas at an altitude between 3,000 and 5,000 m (9,800 and 16,000 ft). Spending up to five years underground before pupating, theThitarodes caterpillar is attacked while feeding on roots. It is not certain how the fungus infects the caterpillar; possibly by ingestion of a fungal spore or by the fungus mycelium invading the insect through one of the insect's breathing pores. The fungus invades the body of the caterpillars, filling its entire body cavity with mycelia, a sclerotium and eventually killing and mummifying the host. The caterpillars die near the tops of their burrows. The dark brown to black fruiting body (or mushroom) emerges from the ground in spring or early summer, always growing out of the forehead of the caterpillar. The long, usually columnar fruiting body reaches 515 cm above the surface and releases spores.
In Nepal caterpillar fungus is found on the subalpine pastures in Dolpa in Karnali Zone and Darchula in Mahakali zone. It is also common in Bhutan and India's Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand Himalayas. Reports of distribution outside of "High Asia" are erroneous and relate to species of Cordyceps, e.g. Cordyceps militaris.
Use in Medicine
Traditional Asian medicines
Weighing the precious Caterpillar fungus in Yushu, Southern Qinghai, China, July 2009.
Medicinal use of the caterpillar fungus apparently originated in Tibet. So far the oldest known text documenting its use was written in the late fourteen hundreds by the Tibetan doctorZurkhar Nyamnyi Dorje (Wylie: Zur mkhar mnyam nyid rdo rje)[1439-1475]) in his text: Man ngag bye ba ring bsrel ("Instructions on a Myriad of Medicines"). A translation is available at Winkler.[8] However some Tibetan doctors {[which?]} suspect that its use might date back even further, but under different names. No conclusive research has been published on this hypothesis yet. The first mention of Ophiocordyceps sinensis in traditional Chinese Medicine was in Wang Angs 1694 compendium of materia medica, Ben Cao Bei Yao.[9] In the 18th Century it was listed in Wu Yiluo's Ben cao cong xin ("New compilation of materia medica").[10] No sources have been published to uphold widespread claims of "thousands of years of use in Chinese medicine" or use of "chong cao since the 7th Century Tang Dynasty in China". The ethno-mycological knowledge on caterpillar fungus among the Nepalese people is documented byDevkota(2006) The entire fungus-caterpillar combination is hand-collected for medicinal use.
The fungus is a medicinal mushroom which is highly prized by practitioners of Tibetan medicine, Chinese medicine and traditional Folk medicines, in which it is used as anaphrodisiac and as a treatment for a variety of ailments from fatigue to cancer. In Chinese medicine it is regarded as having an excellent balance of yin and yang as it is apparently both animal and vegetable. Assays have found that Ophiocordyceps species produce manypharmacologically active substances. They are now cultivated on an industrial scale for their medicinal value. However, no one has succeeded so far in growing the larva cum mushroom artificially. All artificial products are derived from mycelia grown on grains or in liquids. According to Bensky et al. (2004), laboratory-grown C. sinensis mycelia have similar clinical efficacy and less associated toxicity. He notes a toxicity case of constipation, abdominal distension, and decreased peristalsis, two cases of irregular menstruation, and one case report of amenorrhea following ingestion of tablets or capsules containing C. sinensis. In Chinese medicine C. sinensis is considered sweet and warm, entering the lung and kidney channels; the typical dosage is 39 grams.[11]
[edit]Research
Cordycepin, a compound isolated from the "Caterpillar fungus".
Some work has been published in which Ophiocordyceps sinensis has been used to protect the bone marrow and digestive systems of mice from whole body irradiation.[12] An experiment noted Ophiocordyceps sinensis may protect the liver from damage.[13] An experiment conducted with mice noted the mushroom may have an anti-depressant effect.[14] Researchers have noted that the caterpillar fungus has a hypoglycemic effect and may be beneficial for people with insulin resistance.[15][16][17][18][19] There is also experimental evidence of the supposed energizing effect of the fungus, as it has been shown to increase endurance through heightened ATP production in rats.[4]
Introduction to the Western world
The Western world was largely unaware of Ophiocordyceps prior to 1993. The fungus dramatically caught the world's eye due to the performance of three female Chinese athletes,Wang Junxia, Qu Yunxia, and Zhang Linli. These athletes broke five world records for 1,500, 3,000 and 10,000 meter dashes at the National Games in Beijing, China. The number of new world records set at a single track event attracted much attention and suspicion. Following the races, the women were expected by some to fail drug tests for anabolic steroids. However, the athletes' tests revealed no illegal substances, and coach Ma Junren told the reporters that the runners were taking Ophiocordyceps sinensis and turtle blood at his request. However for the 2000 Sydney Olympics, Ma Junren withdrew some of his athletes at the last minute. It was speculated that a new doping test would have revealed illegal substances, thus half a dozen Chinese field and track athletes were left at home.
Economics and impact
Many shops in downtown Lanzhouadvertise Dng chng xi co () among other local specialties.
In rural Tibet, yartsa gunbu has become the most important source of cash income. The fungi contributed 40% of the annual cash income to local households and 8.5% to the GDP in 2004. Prices have increased continuously, especially since the late 1990s. In 2008, one kilogram traded for US$3,000 (lowest quality) to over US$18,000 (best quality, largest larvae). The annual production on the Tibetan Plateau was estimated in 2009 at 80175 tons.[20] The Himalayan Ophiocordyceps production might not exceed a few tons. In 2004 the value of a kilogram of caterpillars was estimated at about 30,000 to 60,000 Nepali rupees in Nepal, and about Rs 100,000 in India.[21] In 2011 the value of a kilogram of caterpillars was estimated at about 350,000 to 450,000 Nepali rupees in Nepal. A 2012 BBC article indicated that in north Indian villages a single fungus was worth Rs 150 (about 2 or $3), which is more than the daily wage of a manual laborer.[22] According to Daniel Winkler, the price of Ophiocordyceps sinensis has risen dramatically on the Tibetan Plateau, basically 900% between 1998 and 2008, an annual average of over 20% (after inflation). However, the value of big sized caterpillar fungus has increased more dramatically than smaller size Cordyceps, regarded as lower quality.[9]
Year
% Price Increase
Price/kg (Yuan)
1980s
1,800
1997 467% (incl. inflation)
8,400
2004 429% (incl. inflation)
36,000
2005
10,00060,000
Because of its high value, inter-village conflicts over access to its grassland habitats has become a headache for the local governing bodies and in several cases people were killed. In November 2011, a court in Nepal convicted 19 villagers over the murder of a group of farmers during a fight over the prized aphrodisiac fungus. Seven farmers were killed in the remote northern district of Manang in June 2009 after going to forage for Yarchagumba. [23] Its value gave it a role in the Nepalese Civil War, as the Nepalese Maoists and government forces fought for control of the lucrative export trade during the JuneJuly harvest season.[24] Collecting yarchagumba in Nepal had only been legalised in 2001, and now demand is highest in countries such as China, Thailand, Vietnam, Korea and Japan. By 2002, the herb was valued at R 105,000 ($1,435) per kilogram, allowing the government to charge a royalty of R 20,000 ($280) per kilogram. The search for Ophiocordyceps sinensis is often perceived to pose a threat to the environment of the Tibetan Plateau where it grows. While it has been collected for centuries and is still common in such areas, current collection rates are much higher than in historical times. Ophiocordyceps producers like to perpetuate the story that unscrupulous harvesters insert twigs into the ascocarps of wild C. sinensisto increase their weight and therefore the price paid. A tiny twig is only used when the ascocarp is broken from the caterpillar, and has nothing to do with artificially increasing weight. Supposedly, at some point in the past, someone inserted lead wires with which to increase weight; however, each year hundreds of millions of specimens are harvested and this appears to have been a one-time occurrence.[citation needed] Cultivated C. sinensis mycelium is an alternative to wild-harvested C. sinensis, and producers claim it may offer improved consistency.Artificial culture of C. sinensis is typically by growth of pure mycelia in liquid culture (in China) or on grains (in the West). Ascocarps are not produced through in vitro cultivation.
Popular culture
Caterpillar fungus and its effects on nomads that gather and sell it in Tibet is featured in the 2010 documentary film Summer Pasture.
Notes
1. ^ "Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora 2007". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2011-07-19. 2. ^ Halpern, Miller (2002). Medicinal Mushrooms. New York, New York: M. Evans and Company, Inc.. pp. 6465. ISBN 087131-981-0 3. 4. ^ http://www.npr.org/2011/10/09/141164173/caterpillar-fungus-the-viagra-of-the-himalayas ^ a b Rajesh Kumar, P.S. Negi, Bhagwat Singh, Govindasamy Ilavazhagan, Kalpana Bhargava, Niroj Kumar Sethy (2011). "Cordyceps sinensis promotes exercise endurance capacity of rats by activating skeletal muscle metabolic regulators". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 136: 260266. 5. 6. ^ Berkeley MJ. (1843). "On some entomogenous Sphaeriae".London Journal of Botany 2: 20511. ^ Saccardo PA. (1878). "Enumeratio Pyrenomycetum Hypocreaceorum hucusque cognitorum systemate carpologico dispositorum" (in Latin) (PDF). Michelia 1 (3): 277325. 7. ^ Sung GH, Hywel-Jones NL, Sung JM, Luangsa-Ard JJ, Shrestha B, Spatafora JW. (2007). "Phylogenetic classification of Cordyceps and the clavicipitaceous fungi". Studies in Mycology 57: 5 59. doi:10.3114/sim.2007.57.01.PMC 2104736. PMID 18490993. 8. ^ Winkler D. (2008). "The mushrooming fungi market in Tibet exemplified by Cordyceps sinensis and Tricholoma matsutake". Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies. In: In the Shadow of the Leaping Dragon: Demography, Development, and the Environment in Tibetan Areas (4). 9. ^ a b Winkler D. (2008). "Yartsa Gunbu (Cordyceps sinensis) and the fungal commodification of the rural economy in Tibet AR".Economic Botany 62 (3): 291305. doi:10.1007/s12231-008-9038-3. 10. ^ Wu Y (1757) (in Chinese). "Ben cao cong xin" - "New compilation of materia medica". 11. ^ Bensky D, Gamble A, Clavey S, Stger E, Bensky L. Lai (2004). Materia Medica: Chinese Herbal Medicine (3rd ed.). Seattle, Washington: Eastland Press. ISBN 978-0-939616-42-8. 12. ^ Liu W-C, Wang S-C, Tsai M-L, Chen, M-C, Wang Y-C, Hong J-H, McBride WH, Chiang C-S. (2006). "Protection against radiation-induced bone marrow and intestinal injuries byCordyceps sinensis, a Chinese herbal medicine". Radiation Research 166 (6): 900907. doi:10.1667/RR0670.1.PMID 17149981. 13. ^ Ko WS, Hsu SL, Chyau CC, Chen KC, Peng RY. (July 2009). "Compound Cordyceps TCM-700C exhibits potent hepatoprotective capability in animal model". Fitoterapia 81 (1): 17. doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2009.06.018. PMID 19596425. 14. ^ Nishizawa K, Torii K, Kawasaki A, et al. (2007). "Antidepressant-like effect of Cordyceps sinensis in the mouse tail suspension test". Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 30(9): 175862. doi:10.1248/bpb.30.1758. PMID 17827735.
15. ^ Kiho T, Hui J, Yamane A, Ukai S. (1993). "Polysaccharides in fungi. XXXII. Hypoglycemic activity and chemical properties of a polysaccharide from the cultural mycelium of Cordyceps sinensis". Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 16 (12): 12913. doi:10.1248/bpb.16.1291. PMID 8130781. 16. ^ Kiho T, Yamane A, Hui J, Usui S, Ukai S. (1996). "Polysaccharides in fungi. XXXVI. Hypoglycemic activity of a polysaccharide (CS-F30) from the cultural mycelium of Cordyceps sinensis and its effect on glucose metabolism in mouse liver". Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 19 (2): 2946. doi:10.1248/bpb.19.294. PMID 8850325. 17. ^ Zhao CS, Yin WT, Wang JY, et al. (2002). "CordyMax Cs-4 improves glucose metabolism and increases insulin sensitivity in normal rats". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 8 (3): 309 14. doi:10.1089/10755530260127998.PMID 12165188. 18. ^ Lo HC, Tu ST, Lin KC, Lin SC. (2004). "The anti-hyperglycemic activity of the fruiting body of Cordyceps in diabetic rats induced by nicotinamide and streptozotocin". Life Sciences 74 (23): 2897 908. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2003.11.003. PMID 15050427. 19. ^ Li SP, Zhang GH, Zeng Q, et al. (2006). "Hypoglycemic activity of polysaccharide, with antioxidation, isolated from culturedCordyceps mycelia". Phytomedicine 13 (6): 42833.doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2005.02.002. PMID 16716913. 20. ^ Winkler, D. (2009). "Caterpillar Fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) Production and Sustainability on the Tibetan Plateau and in the Himalayas". Asian Medicine 5 (2): 291.doi:10.1163/157342109X568829. edit 21. ^ Sharma S. (2004). "Trade of Cordyceps sinensis from high altitudes of the Indian Himalaya: Conservation and biotechnological priorities" (PDF). Current Science 86 (12): 16149. 22. ^ Jeffrey, Craig (2012-07-07). "The 'Viagra' transforming local economies in India". BBC News. Retrieved July 9, 2012. 23. ^ Staff (14 November 2011) 'Himalayan viagra': Six men get life for Nepal murders BBC News Asia, Retrieved 9 July 2012 24. ^ Baral N, Heinen JT. (2005). "The Maoist people's war and conservation in Nepal". Politics and the Life Sciences 24 (1): 211. doi:10.2990/1471-5457(2005)24[2:TMPWAC]2.0.CO;2.
References
Winkler, D. 2005. Yartsa Gunbu - Cordyceps sinensis. Economy, Ecology & Ethno-mycology of a Fungus Endemic to the Tibetan Plateau. In: A.BOESI & F. CARDI (eds.). Wildlife and plants in traditional and modern Tibet: Conceptions, Exploitation and Conservation. Memorie della Societ Italiana di Scienze Naturali e del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano, Vol. 33.1:69 85.
Harvesting and sale of Yatsa gunbu are featured in the 2008 BBC film documentary Wild China (Episode 3, "Tibet"), and in "Yarsagumbu, l'or de l'Himalaya" (Yarsagumbu: Himalaya's Gold), a French documentary shot in May 2011, which shows a dramatic rise in prices and demand, and the scarcening of crops.
Further reading
Zhang Y., Zhang S., Wang M., Bai F. & Liu X. (2010). "High Diversity of the Fungal Community Structure in Naturally-OccurringOphiocordyceps sinensis". PLoS ONE 5(12): e15570. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015570.
External links

Yartsa Gunbu (Cordyceps sinensis) in Tibet Daniel Winkler's Cordyceps blog Nepal's Nature - The Himalayan Viagra Page at Everything2.com Image gallery of Cordyceps sinensis Prof.Aca.D.Sc Dai Duy Ban with his scientists discovered Cordyceps Sinensis as Isaria cerambycidae N.SP. and Fermentation ng Trng H Tho BVM-VN by Cng ty TNHH Daibio in Vietnam
An Electronic Monograph of Cordyceps and Related Fungi Cordyceps information from Drugs.com Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. Medicinal Plant Images Database (School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University)(English)(traditional Chinese)
Chinese Caterpiller Fungus Chinese Medicine Specimen Database (School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University)(English)(traditional Chinese)
Tibets Golden Worm August 2012 National Geographic (magazine)
Oyster
For other uses, see Oyster (disambiguation).
Crassostrea gigas from the Marennes-Olron (fr) basin inFrance

The word oyster is used as a common name for a number of distinct groups ofbivalve molluscs which live in marine or brackish habitats. The valves are highly calcified. Some kinds of oyster are commonly consumed, cooked or raw, by humans as a delicacy. Other kinds such as pearl oysters, generally not eaten by humans, are harvested for the pearl produced within the mantle.
Etymology
First attested in English 17th century,[1] the word oyster comes from Old French oistre, in turn from Latin ostrea, the feminine form ofostreum,[2] which is the latinisation of the Greek (ostreon), "oyster".[3] Compare (osteon), "bone".[4]
Types
True oysters
True oysters are members of the family Ostreidae. This family includes the edible oysters, which mainly belong to the genera Ostrea,Crassostrea, Ostreola and Saccostrea. Examples include the Belon oyster, Eastern oyster, Olympia oyster, Pacific oyster, and theSydney rock oyster,
Pearl oysters
Removing a pearl from an oyster.
Almost all shell-bearing mollusks can secrete pearls, yet most are not very valuable. Pearl oysters are not closely related to true oysters, being members of a distinct family, the feathered oysters (Pteriidae). Both cultured pearls and natural pearls can be obtained from pearl oysters, though other molluscs, such as the freshwater mussels, also yield pearls of commercial value. The largest pearl-bearing oyster is the marine Pinctada maxima, which is roughly the size of a dinner plate. Not all individual oysters produce pearls naturally. In fact, in a harvest of threetons of oysters, only three to four oysters produce perfect pearls.[citation needed] In nature, pearl oysters produce natural pearls by covering a minute invading parasite withnacre, not by ingesting a grain of sand.[5] Over the years, the irritating object is covered with enough layers of nacre to become a pearl. There are many different types, colours and shapes of pearl; these qualities depend on the natural pigment of the nacre, and the shape of the original irritant. Pearl farmers can culture a pearl by placing a nucleus, usually a piece of polished mussel shell, inside the oyster. In three to six years, the oyster can produce a perfect pearl. These pearls are not as valuable as natural pearls, but look exactly the same. In fact, since the beginning of the 20th century, when several researchers discovered how to produce artificial pearls, the cultured pearl market has far outgrown the natural pearl market.
Other types of oyster

A number of bivalve molluscs (other than edible oysters and pearl oysters) also have common names that include the word "oyster", usually because they either taste or look like oysters, or because they yield noticeable pearls. Examples include:
Thorny oysters (Spondylidae) Pilgrim oysters (a kind of scallop) Saddle oysters (Anomia ephippium)
Crassostrea gigas
Crassostrea gigas, opened
Anatomy
Oysters are filter feeders, drawing water in over their gills through the beating of cilia. Suspended plankton and particles are trapped in the mucus of a gill, and from there are transported to the mouth, where they are eaten, digested and expelled as feces orpseudofaeces. Oysters feed most actively at temperatures above 10 C (50 F). An oyster can filter up to 5 litres (1.3 US gal) of water per hour. Chesapeake Bay's once flourishing oyster population historically filtered excess nutrients from the estuary's entire water volume every three to four days. Today that would take nearly a year.[6] Excess sediment, nutrients, and algae can result in theeutrophication of a body of water. Oyster filtration can mitigate these pollutants. In addition to their gills, oysters can also exchange gases across their mantle, which is lined with many small, thin-walled blood vessels. A small, three-chambered heart, lying under the adductor muscle, pumps colorless blood to all parts of the body. At the same time, two kidneys, located on the underside of the muscle, remove waste products from the blood. While some oysters have two sexes (European Oyster & Olympia Oyster), their reproductive organs contain both eggs and sperm. Because of this, it is technically possible for an oyster to fertilize its own egg. The gonads surround the digestive organs, and are made up of sex cells, branching tubules and connective tissue. Once the female is fertilized, they discharge millions of eggs into the water. The larvae develop in about six hours and swim around for about two to three weeks. After that, they settle on a bed and mature within a year. [29]
Habitat and behaviour
Oyster reef at about mid-tide off fishing pier at Hunting Island State Park, South Carolina
A group of oysters is commonly called a bed or oyster reef. As a keystone species, oysters provide habitat for many marine species. Crassostrea andSaccostrea live mainly in the intertidal zone, while Ostrea are subtidal. The hard surfaces of oyster shells and the nooks between the shells provide places where a host of small animals can live. Hundreds of animals such as sea
anemones, barnacles, and hooked musselsinhabit oyster reefs. Many of these animals are prey to larger animals, including fish such asstriped bass, black drum and croakers. An oyster reef can increase the surface area of a flat bottom 50-fold. An oyster's mature shape often depends on the type of bottom to which it is originally attached, but it always orients itself with its outer, flared shell tilted upward. One valve is cupped and the other is flat. Oysters usually reach maturity in one year. They are protandric; during their first year they spawn as males by releasing sperm into the water. As they grow over the next two or three years and develop greater energy reserves, they spawn as females by releasing eggs. Bay oysters usually spawn by the end of June. An increase in water temperature prompts a few oysters to spawn. This triggers spawning in the rest, clouding the water with millions of eggs and sperm. A single female oyster can produce up to 100 million eggs annually. The eggs become fertilized in the water and develop into larvae, which eventually find suitable sites, such as another oyster's shell, on which to settle. Attached oyster larvae are called spat. Spat are oysters less than 25 millimetres (0.98 in) long. Many species of bivalve, oysters included, seem to be stimulated to settle near adult conspecifics. Some tropical oysters in the family Isognomonidae grow best on mangrove roots. Low tide can expose them, making them easy to collect. In Trinidad in the West Indies, tourists are often astounded when they are told that in the Caribbean, "oysters grow on trees". The largest oyster-producing body of water in the United States is located in Chesapeake Bay, although these beds have decreased in number due to overfishing and pollution. Another large area in the U.S. includes the bays and estuaries along the Coast of the Gulf of Mexico from Apalachicola, Florida on the East to Galveston, Texas on the West. Large beds of edible oysters are also found in Japan and Australia. Common oyster predators include crabs, sea birds, starfish, and humans. Some oysters contain live crabs, known as oyster crabs.
Marine pollution
Oysters consume nitrogen-containing compounds (nitrates and ammonia), removing them from the water.[7] Nitrogen compounds are important phytoplankton nutrients. Phytoplankton increase water turbidity. Limiting the amount of phytoplankton in the water improves water quality and other marine life by reducing competition for dissolved oxygen. Oysters feed on plankton, incidentally consuming nitrogen compounds as well. They then expel solid waste pellets which decompose into the atmosphere as nitrogen.[5] In Maryland, theChesapeake Bay Program plans to use oysters to reduce the amount of nitrogen compounds entering the Chesapeake Bay by 8,600 metric tons (19,000,000 lb) per year by 2010.[8] The oyster-tecture movement, espoused by Assistant Professor Kate Orff of the Columbia University Graduate School of Architecture, promotes the use of oyster reefs for water purification and wave attenuation. As of
2011, coverage of the Gowanus Canal Parade of Oyster Spats is unavailable.[9] An "Oyster-tecture" project has been implemented at Withers Estuary, Withers Swash, South Carolina, by Neil Chambers-led volunteers, at a site where pollution was impacting beach tourism. Currently, for the installation cost of $3000, roughly 4.8 million liters of water is being filtered daily. In New Jersey, however, oyster-tecture is faring less well. The Department of Environmental Protection refused to allow oysters as a filtering system in Sandy Hook Bay and the Raritan Bay citing worries that commercial shellfish growers would be at risk and that members of the public might disregard warnings and consume tainted oysters.
Human history
The Whaleback Shell Midden in Mainecontains the shells from oyster harvesting for food consumption dating to 2200-1000 years ago
Middens testify to the prehistoric importance of oysters as food. In the United Kingdom, the town of Whitstable is noted for oyster farming from beds on the Kentish Flats that have been used since Roman times. The borough of Colchester holds an annual Oyster Feast each October, at which "Colchester Natives" (the native oyster, Ostrea edulis) are consumed. TheUnited Kingdom hosts several other annual oyster festivals, for example Woburn Oyster Festival is held in September. Many breweries produce Oyster Stout, a beer intended to be drunk with oysters that sometimes includes oysters in the brewing process. The French seaside resort of Cancale is noted for its oysters, which also date from Roman times. Sergius Orata of the Roman Republic is considered the first major merchant and cultivator of oysters. Using his considerable knowledge of hydraulics, he built a sophisticated cultivation system, including channels and locks, to control the tides. He was so famous for this that the Romans used to say he could breed oysters on the roof of his house.[10] In Ireland it is traditional to eat them live with Guinness and buttered brown soda bread.[original research?] In the early 19th century, oysters were cheap and mainly eaten by the working class. Throughout the 19th century, oyster beds in New York harbor became the largest source of oysters worldwide. On any day in the late 19th century, six million oysters could be found on barges tied up along the citys waterfront. Oysters were
naturally quite popular in New York City, and helped initiate the citys restaurant trade.[11] New York's oystermen became skilled cultivators of their beds, which provided employment for hundreds of workers and nutritious food for thousands. Eventually, rising demand exhausted many of the beds. To increase production, they introduced foreign species, which brought disease, when combined with effluent and increasing sedimentation from erosion, which destroyed most of the beds by the early 20th century. Oysters popularity has put an ever-increasing demands on wild oyster stocks.[12] This scarcity increased prices, converting them from their original role as working class food to their current status as an expensive delicacy. In the United Kingdom, the native variety (Ostrea edulis) is still held to be the finest,[by whom?] requiring five years to mature and protected by an Act of Parliament during the MayAugust spawning season. The current market is dominated by the larger Pacific oyster and rock oyster varieties which are farmed year round.
Commercial fishing
Oyster catch in 2005
Fishing from the wild

Oysters are harvested by simply gathering them from their beds. In very shallow waters they can be gathered by hand or with small rakes. In somewhat deeper water, long-handled rakes or oyster tongs are used to reach the beds. Patent tongs can be lowered on a line to reach beds that are too deep to reach directly. In all cases the task is the same: the oystermanscrapes oysters into a pile, and then scoops them up with the rake or tongs. In some areas a scallop dredge is used. This is a toothed bar attached to a chain bag. The dredge is towed through an oyster bed by a boat, picking up the oysters in its path. While dredges collect oysters more quickly, they heavily damage the beds, and their use is highly restricted. Until 1965 Maryland limited dredging to sailboats, and even since that date motor boats can be used only on certain days of the week. These regulations prompted the development of specialized sailboats (thebugeye and later the skipjack) for dredging. Oysters can also be collected by divers. In any case, when the oysters are collected, they are sorted to eliminate dead animals, bycatch (unwanted catch), and debris. Then they are taken to market where they are either canned or sold live.
Cultivating oysters
Oyster culture in Riec-sur-Belon, France.

|alt=Oysterman standing in shallow water examining row of oyster cages that stand two feet above the water.]] Main article: Oyster farming Oysters have been cultured for well over a century. Two methods are commonly used, release and bagging. In both cases oysters are cultivated onshore to the size of spat, when they can attach themselves to a substrate. They may be allowed to mature further to formseed oysters. In either case they are then placed in the water to mature. The release technique involves distributing the spat throughout existing oyster beds allowing them to mature naturally to be collected like wild oysters. Bagging has the cultivator putting spat in racks or bags and keeping them above the bottom. Harvesting involves simply lifting the bags or rack to the surface and removing the mature oysters. The latter method prevents losses to some predators, but is more expensive. [13] The Pacific or Japanese oyster, Crassostrea gigas has been grown in the outflow of mariculture ponds. When fish or prawn are grown in ponds, it takes, typically 10 kilograms (22 lb) of feed to produce 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of product (dry-dry basis). The other 9 kilograms (20 lb) goes into the pond and after mineralization, provides food for phytoplankton, which in turn feeds the oyster. To prevent spawning, sterile oysters are now cultured by crossbreeding tetraploid and diploid oysters. The resulting triploid oyster cannot propagate, which prevents introduced oysters from spreading into unwanted habitats.[14]
Restoration and recovery

In many areas non-native oysters have been introduced in attempts to prop up failing harvests of native varieties. For example, theeastern oyster was introduced to California waters in 1875, while the Pacific oyster was introduced there in 1929.[15] Proposals for further such introductions remain controversial. The Pacific oyster prospered in Pendrell Sound where the surface water is typically warm enough for spawning in the summer. Over the following years, spat spread out sporadically and populated adjacent areas. Eventually, possibly following adaptation to the local conditions, the Pacific oyster spread up and down the coast and now is the basis of the North American west coast oyster industry. Pendrell Sound is now a reserve
that supplies spat for cultivation.[16] Near the mouth of the Great Wicomico River in the Chesapeake Bay, five year-old artificial reefs now harbor more than 180 million native Crassostrea virginica. That is still a far cry from the late 1880s, when the Bays population was in the billions, and watermen harvested about 910,000 cubic metres (25,000,000 imp bsh) annually. The 2009 harvest was less than 7,300 cubic metres (200,000 imp bsh). Researchers claim that the keys to the project were:
using waste oyster shells to elevate the reef floor 2545 centimetres (9.818 in) to keep the spat free of bottom sediments
building larger reefs, ranging up to 8.1 hectares (20 acres) in size disease resistant broodstock[17]
In 2005, China accounted for 80% of the global oyster harvest.[18] Within Europe, France remained the industry leader.
Oysters as food
Chargrilled oysters
Raw oysters presented on a plate.
Oysters served on ice and with a piece of lemon on the side.

Jonathan Swift is quoted as having said, "He was a bold man that first ate an oyster",[19] but evidence of oyster consumption goes back into prehistory, evidenced by oyster middens found worldwide. Oysters were an important food source in all coastal areas where they could be found, and oyster fisheries were an important industry where they were plentiful. Overfishing and pressure from diseases and pollution have sharply reduced supplies, but they remain a popular treat celebrated in oyster festivals in many cities and towns. It was once assumed that oysters were only safe to eat in months with the letter r in their English and French names. This is a myth whose basis in truth is that in the northern hemisphere oysters are much more likely to spoil in May, June, July, and August.[20]
Nutrition
Oysters are an excellent source of zinc, iron, calcium, selenium as well as Vitamin A andVitamin B12. Oysters are low in food energy; one dozen raw oysters contain approximately 110 kilocalories (460 kJ). Oysters are considered the healthiest when eaten raw on the half shell.[21] Traditionally, oysters are considered to be an aphrodisiac, partially because they resemble female sex organs.[22] A team of American and Italian researchers analyzed bivalves and found they were rich in amino acids that trigger increased levels of sex hormones.[23] Their high zinc content aids the production of testosterone.[11] Dietary supplements may contain calcium carbonate from oyster shells, though there is no evidence that this offers any benefits beyond what calcium may offer.[citation needed]
Selection, preparation and storage

Unlike most shellfish, oysters can have a fairly long shelf life of up to four weeks. However, their taste becomes less pleasant as they age. Oysters should be refrigerated out of water, not frozen, and in 100% humidity. Oysters stored in water under refrigeration will open, consume available oxygen and die.
Fresh oysters
Oysters must be eaten alive, or cooked alive. The shells of live oysters are normally tightly closed or snap shut given a slight tap. If the shell is open, the oyster is dead, and cannot be eaten safely. Cooking oysters in the shell kills the oysters and causes them to open by themselves. Traditionally, oysters that dont open have been assumed to be dead before cooking and therefore unsafe.[24] However, according to at least one marine biologist, Nick Ruello, this advice may have arisen from an old, poorly-researched cookbook's advice regarding mussels, which has now become an assumed truism for all shellfish. Ruello found in experiments that 11.5% of all mussels failed to open during cooking, but when forced open, 100% were "both adequately cooked and safe to eat."[25]
Giant oyster in southern Angola.
Fried oyster with egg and flour is a common dish in Thailand and Singapore
Oysters can be eaten on the half shell, raw, smoked, boiled, baked, fried, roasted, stewed,canned, pickled, steamed, broiled or used in a variety of
drinks. Preparation widely varies. It can be as simple as opening the shell and eating the contents, including juice. Butter andsalt are often added. In the case of oysters Rockefeller, preparation can be very elaborate. They are sometimes served on edible seaweed, such as brown algae. Care should be taken when consuming oysters. Purists insist on eating them raw, with no dressing save perhaps lemon juice, vinegar (most commonly shallot vinegar), or cocktail sauce. Upscale restaurants pair raw oysters with a home-made Mignonette sauce, which consists primarily of fresh chopped shallot, mixed peppercorn, dry white wine and lemonjuice or sherry vinegar. Like fine wine, raw oysters have complex flavors that vary greatly among varieties and regions: sweet, salty, earthy, or even melon. The texture is soft and fleshy, but crisp on the palate. North American varieties include: Kumamoto and Yaquina Bay from Oregon State, Malpeque from Prince Edward Island, Canada, Blue Point from Long Island, New York, and Cape May oysters from New Jersey. Salinity, mineral, and nutrient variations in the water that nurtures them influence their flavor profile. Oysters can contain harmful bacteria. Oysters are filter feeders and will naturally concentrate anything present in the surrounding water. Oysters from the Gulf Coast of the United States, for example, contain high bacterial loads of human pathogens in the warm months, most notably Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. In these cases, the main danger is forimmuno-compromised individuals, who are unable to fight off infection and can succumb tosepticemia, leading to death. Vibrio vulnificus is the most deadly seafood-borne pathogen, with a higher case-to-death ratio than even Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli.[citation needed]
Opening oysters
Special knives for opening live oysters, such as this one, have short and stout blades and the best have a downward curve at the tip.
Fresh oysters must be alive just before consumption or cooking. There is only one criterion: the oyster must be capable of tightly closing its shell. Open oysters should be tapped on the shell; a live oyster will close up and is safe to eat. Oysters which are open and unresponsive are dead and must be discarded. Some dead oysters, or oyster shells which are full of sand may be closed. These make a distinctive noise when tapped, and are known as clackers. Opening oysters requires skill. The preferred method is to use a special knife (called anoyster knife, a variant of a shucking knife), with a short and thick blade about 5 centimetres (2.0 in) long.
While there are different methods to open an oyster (which sometimes depend on the type of oyster), the following is one commonly accepted oyster shucking method. Insert the blade, with moderate force and vibration if necessary, at the hinge between the two valves. Then twist the blade until there is a slight pop. Then slide the blade upward to cut the adductor muscle which holds the shell closed. Inexperienced shuckers can apply too much force, which can result in injury if the blade slips. Heavy gloves are necessary: apart from the knife, the shell itself can be razor sharp. Professional shuckers require less than 3 seconds to do the deed. [11] If the oyster has a particularly soft shell, the knife can be inserted instead in the sidedoor, about halfway along one side where the oyster lips widen and there is a slight indentation. Opening or "shucking" oysters has become a competitive sport. Oyster shucking competitions are staged around the world. Widely acknowledged to be the premiere event, the Guinness World Oyster Opening Championship is held in September at the Galway Oyster Festival, as well as the annual Clarenbridge Oyster Festival 'Oyster Opening Competition' both held in Galway, Ireland.
Ethical considerations
The oyster is considered by some ethicists[26] to be an appropriate food choice for those concerned with animal rights, arguing it is acceptable to eat oysters due to their lack of a central nervous system and the generally sustainable and environmentally friendly way in which they are raised and harvested. One common ethical objection to the consumption of animals is that their cultivation is environmentally harmful. Regarding environmental impact, 95% of oysters are sustainably farmed and harvested (other bivalves are frequently harvested by harmful dredging), feed on plankton (very low on the food chain), and in fact improve the marine environment by removing toxins. As such, farmed oysters are listed as a "Best Choice" (highest rating) on the Seafood Watch list.[27] The view that oysters are acceptable to eat, even by strict ethical criteria, has notably been propounded in the seminal 1975 text Animal Liberation, by philosopher Peter Singer. However, subsequent editions have reversed this position (advocating against eating oysters). Singer has stated that he has "gone back and forth on this over the years", and as of 2010 states that "while you could give them the benefit of the doubt, you could also say that unless some new evidence of a capacity for pain emerges, the doubt is so slight that there is no good reason for avoiding eating sustainably produced oysters".[28]
Diseases
Oysters are subject to various diseases which can reduce harvests and severely deplete local populations. Disease control focuses on containing infections and breeding resistant strains and is the subject of much ongoing research.
Dermo (Perkinsus marinus) is caused by a protozoan parasite. It is a prevalent pathogen, causes massive mortality and poses a significant economic threat to the oyster industry. The disease is not a direct threat to humans consuming infected oysters.[29]Dermo first appeared in the Gulf of Mexico in the 1950s, and until 1978 it was believed to be caused by a fungus. While it is most serious in warmer waters, it has gradually spread up the east coast of the United States.[30]
MSX (Multinucleated Sphere X) is caused by the protozoan Haplosporidium nelsoni, generally seen as a multi-nucleatedplasmodium. It is infectious and causes heavy mortality in the Eastern Oyster; survivors, however, develop resistance and can help propagate resistant populations. MSX is associated with high salinity and water temperatures.[29] MSX was first noted in Delaware Bay in 1957 and is now found all up and down the east coast of the United States. Evidence suggests that it was brought to the United States when Crassostrea gigas, a Japanese oyster variety, was introduced to Delaware Bay.[30]
See also

Auckland oyster Belon oyster Bluff oyster Eastern oyster Olympia oyster Ostrea angasi (Australian southern mud or native flat oyster) Oyster cracker Oyster farming Oyster festival Oyster omelette Oyster sauce Oysters Kirkpatrick (classic recipe and minor English literary character) Oysters Rockefeller Pacific oyster Pearl Pearl oyster Red tide Rolled oyster Rock oyster Shellder
Sydney rock oyster Tabby (cement)
Footnotes
1. ^ Oysters in Cynee, Recipe for Oysters in Bread Sauce (Oysters in Cynee) from the 1390 English text, The Forme of Cury, from Celtnet Recipes 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. ^ ostrea, ostreum, Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, on Perseus ^ , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
^ a b "A dozen ocean-cleaners and a pint of Guinness, please". The Economist. 2008-12-18. Retrieved 2008-12-26.
^ "Oyster Reefs: Ecological importance". US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2008-01-16. ^ "Oyster Culture is Good for the Environment". East Coast Shellfish Growers Association. Retrieved 2008-12-26.[dead link] ^ "Oyster Restoration Projected to Provide Significant Boost to Bay Grasses While Removing Nitrogen Pollution from the Bay". Maryland Department of Natural Resources. Retrieved 2008-12-26.
9.
^ GrrlScientist (2011-02-03). "Oyster-tecture: Reviving New York City's rivers with oysters". The Guardian. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
10. ^ Holland, Tom (2003). Rubicon. ISBN 0-385-50313-X. 11.
^ a b c Kurlansky, Mark (2006). The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell.. New York: Ballantine
Books.ISBN [[Special:BookSources/97815885910|97815885910]].
12. ^ Clover, Charles (2004). The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat . London: Ebury Press.ISBN 0-09-189780-7. 13. ^ "Oyster Farming in Louisiana" (PDF). Louisiana State University. Retrieved 2008-01-16. 14. ^ Nell J. A. (2002). "Farming triploid oysters". Aquaculture 210: 6988. doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(01)00861-4. 15. ^ Conte, Fred S.. "California Oyster Culture" (PDF). University of California, Davis Department of Animal Science. Archived from the original on 2007-12-01. Retrieved 2008-01-16. 16. ^ "Shellfish Tenures Locations Map". Retrieved 2008-01-16. 17. ^ Fountain, Henry (August 3, 2009). "Oysters Are on the Rebound in the Chesapeake Bay". The New York Times. Retrieved August 25, 2009. 18. ^ "China harvests almost 4m tonnes of oyster in 2005". 19. ^ Polite Conversations, 1738, cited e.g. in "Oyster Heaven".Wilmington Magazine (Wilmington Star-News). November 24, 2004. Retrieved 2008-01-16. 20. ^ "Nefsc Fish Faq". Nefsc.noaa.gov. 2011-06-16. Retrieved 2011-08-16. 21. ^ "Nutrition Facts and Analysis for Mollusks, oyster, eastern, wild, raw". Nutritiondata.com. Retrieved 2011-08-16. 22. ^ Stott, Rebecca (2004). Oyster. The University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
23. ^ "Pearly wisdom: oysters are an aphrodisiac". The Sydney Morning Herald. 2005-03-24. 24. ^ "Oysters". i love blue sea. 2010-07-15. Retrieved 2011-08-16. 25. ^ "Mussel myth an open and shut case". ABC Science. 2008=10=29. Retrieved 2012-04-20. 26. ^ Singer, Peter (1975). Animal Liberation, A New Ethics for our Treatment of Animals. New York: Random House. 27. ^ "Oysters Seafood Watch". Montereybayaquarium.org. Retrieved 2011-08-16. 28. ^ Cox, Christopher (April 7, 2010). "Consider the Oyster: Why even strict vegans should feel comfortable eating oysters by the boatload". Slate. Retrieved 2010-04-12. 29. 30.
^ a b "Oyster Diseases". Connecticut Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2008-01-16. ^ a b "MSX/Dermo". Chesapeake Bay Program. Retrieved 2009-04-05.
Saffron
For other uses, see Saffron (disambiguation).
Saffron crocus
C. sativus blossom with crimson stigmas.
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Monocots
Order:
Asparagales
Family:
Iridaceae
Subfamily:
Crocoideae
Genus:
Crocus
Species:
C. sativus
Binomial name
Crocus sativus
L.
Saffron (pronounced /sfrn/ or /sfrn/)[1] is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the saffron crocus. Crocus is a genus in the family Iridaceae. Each saffron crocus grows to 2030 cm (812 in) and bears up to four flowers, each with three vivid crimson stigmas, which are each the distal end of a carpel.[2] Together with thestyles, or stalks that connect the stigmas to their host plant, the dried stigmas are used mainly in various cuisines as a seasoning and colouring agent. Saffron, long among the world's most costly spices by weight,[3][4] is native to Greece or Southwest Asia[5][4] and was first cultivated in Greece.[6] As a genetically monomorphic clone,[7] it was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania. The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, likely descends from Crocus cartwrightianus, which originated in Crete;[7] C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible precursors.[8][9] The saffron crocus is a triploid that is "selfincompatible" and male sterile; it undergoes aberrant meiosis and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproductionall propagation is by vegetative multiplication via manual "divide-and-set" of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation.[10][9] If C. sativus is a mutant form of C. cartwrightianus, then it may have emerged via plant breeding, which would have selected for elongated stigmas, in late Bronze-Age Crete.[11] Saffron's bitter taste and iodoform- or hay-like fragrance result from the chemicals picrocrocinand safranal.[12][13] It also contains a carotenoid dye, crocin, which imparts a rich goldenyellow hue to dishes and textiles. Its recorded history is attested in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical treatise compiled under Ashurbanipal,[14] and it has been traded and usedfor over four millennia. Iran now accounts for approximately 90 percent of the world production of saffron.[15] Because each flower's stigmas need to be collected by hand and there are only a few per flower, saffron is the most expensive spice in the world.
Etymology
Further information: History of saffron The ultimate origin of the English word saffron is, like that of the cultivated saffron clone itself, of somewhat uncertain origin. It immediately stems from the Latin word safranum via the 12th-century Old French
term safran. Etymology beyond that point is conflicted. Safranum probably derives from the Persian intercessor , or za'fern.
Species
Description
Khler's Medicinal Plants:

The domesticated saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, is an autumn-flowering perennial plantunknown in the wild. Its progenitors are possibly the eastern Mediterranean autumn-floweringCrocus cartwrightianus[16][9], which is also known as "wild saffron"[17] and originated in Greece.[13] The saffron crocus likely resulted when C. cartwrightianus was subjected to extensive artificial selection by growers seeking longer stigmas. C. thomasii and C. pallasiiare other possible sources.[8][9] It is a sterile triploid form, which means that three homologous sets of chromosomescompose each specimen's genetic complement; C. sativus bears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in total.[2] Being sterile, the purple flowers of Crocus sativus fail to produce viable seeds; reproduction hinges on human assistance: corms, underground bulb-like starch-storing organs, must be dug up, broken apart, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via this vegetative division up to ten "cormlets" that can grow into new plants in the next season.[16] The compact corms are small brown globules that can measure as large as 5 centimetres (2.0 in) in diameter, have a flat base, and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibres; this coat is referred to as the "corm tunic". Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to 5 cm above the plant's neck.[2]
C. sativus.
The plant grows to a height of 2030 cm (812 in), and sprouts 511 white and non-photosynthetic leafs known as cataphylls. They are membrane-like structures that cover and protect the crocus's 511 true leaves as they bud and develop. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are 13 mm in diameter, either expand after the flowers have opened ("hysteranthous") or do so simultaneously with their blooming ("synanthous"). C. sativus cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigation relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear bracteoles, or specialised leaves that sprout from the flower stems; the latter are known as pedicels.[2] After aestivating in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to 40 cm (16 in) in length. In autumn, purple buds appear. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve.[18] The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance. Upon flowering, plants average less than 30 cm (12 in) in height.[19] A three-pronged style emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson stigma 2530 mm (0.981.2 in) in length.[16]
Cultivation
Saffron bulbs for vegetative reproduction

Crocus sativus thrives in the Mediterranean maquis, an ecotype superficially resembling the North American chaparral, and similar climates where hot and dry summer breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can
nonetheless survive cold winters, tolerating frosts as low as 10 C(14 F) and short periods of snow cover.[16][20] Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages1,0001,500 mm (3959 in); saffron-growing regions in Greece (500 mm or 20 in annually) and Spain (400 mm or 16 in) are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the local wet seasons; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm the crops,[21] and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up corms. Nematodes, leafrusts, and corm rot pose other threats. Yet Bacillus subtilis inoculation may provide some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass yield.[22]
Bihud, Iran.
The plants fare poorly in shady conditions; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope towards the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged 715 cm (2.85.9 in) deep; its roots, stems, and leaves can develop between October and February.[2] Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron, though form fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by planting 15 cm (5.9 in) deep and in rows 23 cm (0.791.2 in) apart; depths of 810 cm (3.13.9 in) optimise flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales. C. sativus prefers friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-calcareoussoils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some 2030 tonnes of manure per hectare. Afterwards, and with no further manure application, corms were planted.[23] After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.[24] All plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks.[25] Roughly 150 flowers together yield but 1 g (0.035 oz) of dry saffron threads; to produce 12 g (0.42 oz) of dried saffron (or 72 g (2.5 oz) moist and freshly harvested), 1 kg (2.2 lb) of flowers are needed; 1 lb (0.45 kg) yields 0.2 oz (5.7 g) of dried saffron. One freshly picked flower yields an average 30 mg (0.0011 oz) of fresh saffron or 7 mg (0.00025 oz) dried.[23]
Spice
Chemistry
Structure of picrocrocin:[26]
Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. It also has many nonvolatile active components,[27] many of which are carotenoids, including zeaxanthin, lycopene, and various - and carotenes. However, saffron's golden yellow-orange colour is primarily the result of -crocin. This crocin is trans-crocetin di-(-D-gentiobiosyl) ester; it bears the systematic (IUPAC) name 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.[27] Crocins themselves are a series of hydrophilic carotenoids that are either monoglycosyl or diglycosyl polyene esters of crocetin.[27] Crocetin is a conjugated polyenedicarboxylic acid that is hydrophobic, and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is esterified with two water-soluble gentiobioses, which are sugars, a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant -crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may comprise more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make -crocin ideal for colouring waterbased and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes.[6]
Esterification reaction between crocetinand gentiobiose. Components of crocin:

The bitter glucoside picrocrocin is responsible for saffron's flavour. Picrocrocin (chemical formula: C16H26O7; systematic name: 4-(-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6- trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carboxaldehyde) is a union of an aldehyde sub-element known as safranal (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1carboxaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoid zeaxanthin that is produced via oxidative cleavage, and is the glycoside of the terpene aldehyde safranal. The reddish-coloured zeaxanthin is, incidentally, one of the carotenoids naturally present within the retina of the human eye.[28] When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield D glucose and a free safranal molecule.[26] Safranal, a volatile oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.[12][29]Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.[28] A second element underlying saffron's aroma is 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-
cyclohexadien-1-one, the scent of which has been described as "saffron, dried hay like".[30] Chemists found this to be the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance despite its being present in a lesser quantity than safranal.[30] Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating pH levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light and oxidizing agents. It must therefore be stored away in air-tight containers in order to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.
Grades
Red threads and yellow styles.

Saffron is graded via laboratory measurement of crocin (colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance) content.[31] Determination of non-stigma content ("floral waste content") and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("ash") are also key. Grading standards are set by theInternational Organization for Standardization, a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes four empirical colour intensity grades: IV (poorest), III, II, and I (finest quality). Samples are assigned grades by gauging the spice's crocin content, revealed by measurements of crocin-specific spectroscopic absorbance. Graders measure absorbances of 440-nm light by dry saffron samples. Higher absorbances imply greater crocin concentration, and thus a greater colourative intensity. These data are measured through spectrophotometry reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. These colour grades proceed from grades with absorbances lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 190 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected most red-maroon tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive absorbance scores in excess of 250. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO scores. However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. They prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of thread for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practised by practised wine tasters.[32]
Valuable stigmas, or threads, are only tediously plucked, piled, and dried.
Despite such attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron adulteration particularly among the cheapest gradescontinues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the Safranschou code.[33] Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like beets, pomegranate fibres, red-dyed silk fibres, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odourless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibres with viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil. However, powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with turmeric, paprika, and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabelled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, in India, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income.[34][35]
Varieties
Different cultivars give rise to stigmas that vary greatly in their delectability and lustre.
The various saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties from Spain, including the tradenames "Spanish Superior" and "Creme", are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish; the most intense varieties tend to be Iranian. Various "boutique"
crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries, some of them organically grown. In the U.S., Pennsylvania Dutch saffronknown for its "earthy" notesis marketed in small quantities.[36][37] Consumers may regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron, or zafferano dell'Aquila, is defined by high safranal and crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy'sAbruzzo region, near L'Aquila. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from Inquisition-era Spain. But the biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is in San Gavino Monreale, Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60% of Italian production; it too has unusually high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content. Another is the "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron of Kashmir (Crocus sativus 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in the Indian-controlled areas of Kashmir combine with an Indian export ban to contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognisable by its dark maroon-purple hue; it among the world's darkest, which hints at strong flavour, aroma, and colourative effect.
History
Main article: History of saffron
A detail from the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco of the "Xeste 3" building. It is one of many depicting saffron; they were found at the Bronze Age settlement of Akrotiri, on the Aegean island of Santorini.
The documented history of saffron cultivation spans more than three millennia.[16] The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus was Crocus cartwrightianus. Human cultivators bred wild specimens by selecting for unusually long stigmas; thus, a sterile mutant form ofC. cartwrightianus, C. sativus, likely emerged in late Bronze Age Crete.[11]
Eastern
Buddhist adepts pray in the Hundred Dragons Hall, Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum, Singapore.
Saffron was detailed in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under Ashurbanipal.[14]Documentation of saffron's use over the span of 4,000 years in the treatment of some 90 illnesses has been uncovered.[38] Saffron-based pigments have indeed been found in 50,000 year-old depictions of prehistoric places in northwest Iran.[39][40] The Sumerians later used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions.[41]Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before the Minoan palace culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron (Crocus sativus'Hausknechtii') in Derbena, Isfahan, and Khorasan by the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,[39] ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.[42] Saffron threads would thus be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac. [43] During his Asian campaigns, Alexander the Great used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops imitated the practice from the Persians and brought saffron-bathing to Greece.[44] Conflicting theories explain saffron's arrival in South Asia. Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 9002500 years ago.[45][46][47] Historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,[6] attributing it to a Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks[48]. Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. Its use in foods and dyes subsequently spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks wear saffron-coloured robes; however, the robes are not dyed with costly saffron but turmeric, a less expensive dye, or jackfruit.[49] Monks' robes are dyed the same color to show equality with each other, and turmeric or ochre were the cheapest, most readily available dyes. Gambogeis now used to dye the robes.[50] Some historians believe that saffron came to China with Mongol invaders from Persia.[51] Yet saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume pharmacopoeia titled Shennong Bencaojing (: "Shennong's Great Herbal", also known as Pen Ts'ao or Pun Tsao), a tome dating from 200300 BC. Traditionally credited to the fabled Yan ("Fire") Emperor ()Shennong, it discusses 252
phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders.[52] Nevertheless, around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance. According to Chinese herbalist Wan Zhen, "[t]he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha." Wan also reflected on how it was used in his time: "The flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."[47]
Preserved "safran", Staatliches Museum fr Naturkunde, Karlsruhe, Germany.
Saffron-based dyes frequently feature in medieval illuminated manuscripts, such as this 13th-century depiction of Thomas Becket's assassination.
The Minoans portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 15001600 BC; they hint at its possible use as a therapeutic drug.[38][53] Ancient Greek legends told of sea voyages to Cilicia, where adventurers sought what they thought to be the world's most valued threads.[20] Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the first saffron crocus.[39]Ancient perfumers in Egypt, physicians in Gaza, townspeople in Rhodes,[54] and the Greek hetaeraecourtesans used saffron in their scented waters, perfumes and potpourris, mascaras and ointments, divine offerings, and medical treatments.[43] In late Hellenistic Egypt, Cleopatra used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable.[55]Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments.[56] Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such Levantine cities as Sidon andTyre.[57] Aulus Cornelius Celsus prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the mithridatium.[58] Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took it with them when they settled in southern Gaul, where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th-century AD Moors or with the Avignon papacy in the 14th century AD.[59] European saffron cultivation plummeted after the Roman Empire went into eclipse. As with France, the spread of Islamic civilization may have helped reintroduce the crop to Spain and Italy.[60] The 14th-century Black Death caused demand for saffron-based medicaments to peak, and large quantities of threads had to be imported via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands such as Rhodes; the theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week long "Saffron War".[61] The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred corm cultivation in Basel; it thereby grew prosperous.[62] The crop then spread to Nuremberg, where endemic and insalubrious adulteration brought on the Safranschou codewhereby culprits were variously fined, imprisoned, and executed.[63] The corms soon spread throughout England, especially Norfolk and Suffolk. The Essex town of Saffron Walden, named for its new speciality crop, emerged as England's prime saffron growing and trading centre. However, an influx of more exotic spiceschocolate, coffee, tea, and vanillafrom newly contacted Eastern and overseas countries caused European cultivation and usage of saffron to decline.[64][65] Only in southern France, Italy, and Spain did the clone significantly endure.[66] Europeans introduced saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the Schwenkfelder Church left Europe with a trunk containing its corms; church members had widely grown it in Europe.[36] By 1730, the Pennsylvania Dutch were cultivating saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was set equal to that of gold.[67] The trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-bearing merchant vessels were destroyed.[68] Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in
their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.[69] American saffron cultivation survived into modern times mainly in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.[36]
Trade and use

Main article: Trade and use of saffron
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy
1,298 kJ (310 kcal)
Carbohydrates
65.37 g
- Dietary fibre
3.9 g
Fat
5.85 g
- saturated
1.586 g
- monounsaturated
0.429 g
- polyunsaturated
2.067 g
Protein
11.43 g
Water
11.90 g
Vitamin A
530 IU
Thiamine (vit. B1)
0.115 mg (10%)
Riboflavin (vit. B2)
0.267 mg (22%)
Niacin (vit. B3)
1.460 mg (10%)
Vitamin C
80.8 mg (97%)
Calcium
111 mg (11%)
Iron
11.10 mg (85%)
Magnesium
264 mg (74%)
Phosphorus
252 mg (36%)
Potassium
1724 mg (37%)
Sodium
148 mg (10%)
Zinc
1.09 mg (11%)
Selenium
5.6 g
Folate[N 1]
93 g
Vitamin B6
1.010 mg
Ash
5.45 g
Edible thread portion only.[70] Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Trade
"Ispanya saffron" at market in Turkey. Note that the "India saffron" is turmeric and "Spanish saffron" is actually safflower.
Almost all saffron grows in a belt bounded by the Mediterranean in the west and the rugged region encompassing Iran and India in the east. The other continents, except Antarctica, produce smaller amounts. Some 300 t (300,000 kg) of dried whole threads and powder are gleaned yearly,[13] of which 50 t (50,000 kg) is top-grade "coupe" saffron.[71] Iran answers for around 9093% of global production and exports much of it.[15] A few of Iran's drier eastern and southeastern provinces, including Fars, Kerman, and those in the Khorasan region, glean the bulk of modern global production. In 2005, the second-ranked Greece produced 5.7 t (5,700.0 kg), while Kashmir tied for third rank, each produced 2.3 t (2,300.0 kg).[15] In recent years, Afghan cultivation has risen; in restive India it has declined due to the Muslim revolts in Kashmir .[72] Azerbaijan, Morocco, and Italy are, in decreasing order, lesser producers. Prohibitively high labour costs and abundant Iranian imports mean that only select locales continue the tedious harvest in Austria, England, Germany, and Switzerlandamong them the Swiss village of Mund, whose annual output is a few kilograms.[13]Tasmania,[73] China, Egypt, France, Israel, Mexico, New Zealand, Turkey (mainly around the town of Safranbolu), California, and Central Africa are microscale cultivators.[4][27] To glean an amount of dry saffron weighing 1 lb (450 g) is to harvest 50,00075,000 flowers, the equivalent of an association football pitch's area of cultivation; 110,000170,000 flowers or two football fields are needed to gross one kilogram.[74][75] Forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.[76] Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.[77] Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from US$500 to US$5,000 per pound, or US$1,10011,000/kg, equivalent to 2,500/3,500 per pound or 5,500/7,500 per kilogram. The price in Canada recently rose to CAD 18,000 per kilogram. In Western countries, the average retail price is $1,000/500/700 per pound, or US$2,200/1,100/1,550 per kilogram.[4] A pound contains between 70,000 and 200,000 threads. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron. Saffron is the most expensive spice in the world.
Use
Crushed saffron threads are soaked in hotbut not boilingwater for several minutes prior to use in cuisine. This helps release the beneficial components.
Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and sweet. Saffron also contributes a luminous yelloworange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in Indian, Persian and European cuisines. Sometimes Saffron is also used in Arab and Turkish cuisines as well. Confectioneries and liquors also often include saffron.
Common saffron substitutes include safflower (Carthamus tinctorius, which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "aafro"), annatto, and turmeric (Curcuma longa). Saffron has also been used as a fabric dye, particularly in China and India, and in perfumery.[78] It is used for religious purposes in India, and is widely used in cooking in many cuisines, ranging from the Milanese risotto of Italy to the bouillabaisse of France to the biryani with various meat accompaniments in South Asia. Saffron has a long medicinal history as part of traditional healing; several modern research studies have hinted that the spice has possible anticarcinogenic (cancer-suppressing), anti-mutagenic (mutation-preventing), immunomodulating, and antioxidant-like properties.[27][79][80][81] Saffron stigmas, and even petals, may be helpful for depression.[82][83] Early studies show that saffron may protect the eyes from the direct effects of bright light and retinal stress apart from slowing down macular degeneration and retinitis pigmentosa.[84] (Most saffronrelated research refers to the stigmas, but this is often not made explicit in research papers.) Other controlled research studies have indicated that saffron may have many potential medicinal properties. [85][86]
See also Notes

1. ^ "Folate" refers only to the naturally occurring form of folic acid; the sample contains no folic acid per se.[70]
Citations
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. ^ "Saffron Definition and More". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 21 November 2012. ^ a b c d e Kafi et al. 2006, p. 23. ^ Rau 1969, p. 53. ^ a b c d Hill 2004, p. 272. ^ Grigg 1974, p. 287. ^ a b c McGee 2004, p. 422. ^ a b Rubio-Moraga et al. 2009. ^ a b Negbi 1999, p. 28. ^ a b c d Caiola 2003, p. 1.
10. ^ Negbi 1999, p. 3031. 11. ^ a b Negbi 1999, p. 1. 12. ^ a b McGee 2004, p. 423. 13. ^ a b c d Katzer 2001. 14. ^ a b Russo, Dreher & Mathre 2003, p. 6. 15. ^ a b c Ghorbani 2008, p. 1. 16. ^ a b c d e Deo 2003, p. 1.
17. ^ Kafi et al. 2006, p. 24. 18. ^ Willard 2002, p. 3. 19. ^ Government of Tasmania 2005. 20. ^ a b Willard 2002, pp. 23. 21. ^ Deo 2003, p. 2. 22. ^ Sharaf-Eldin et al. 2008. 23. ^ a b Deo 2003, p. 3. 24. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 34. 25. ^ Willard 2002, p. 4. 26. ^ a b Deo 2003, p. 4. 27. ^ a b c d e Abdullaev 2002, p. 1. 28. ^ a b Leffingwell 2002, p. 1. 29. ^ Dharmananda 2005. 30. ^ a b Leffingwell 2002, p. 3. 31. ^ Verma & Middha 2010, p. 12. 32. ^ Hill 2004, p. 274. 33. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 102104. 34. ^ Australian Broadcasting Corporation 2003. 35. ^ Hussain 2005. 36. ^ a b c Willard 2002, p. 143. 37. ^ Willard 2002, p. 201. 38. ^ a b Honan 2004. 39. ^ a b c Willard 2002, p. 2. 40. ^ Humphries 1998, p. 20. 41. ^ Willard 2002, p. 12. 42. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 1718. 43. ^ a b Willard 2002, p. 41. 44. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 5455. 45. ^ Lak 1998b. 46. ^ Fotedar 1999, p. 128. 47. ^ a b Dalby 2002, p. 95. 48. ^ Dalby 2003, p. 256. 49. ^ Finlay 2003, p. 224.
50. ^ Hanelt 2001, p. 1352. 51. ^ Fletcher 2005, p. 11. 52. ^ Hayes 2001, p. 6. 53. ^ Ferrence & Bendersky 2004, p. 1. 54. ^ Willard 2002, p. 58. 55. ^ Willard 2002, p. 55. 56. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 3435. 57. ^ Willard 2002, p. 59. 58. ^ Marx 1989. 59. ^ Willard 2002, p. 63. 60. ^ Willard 2002, p. 70. 61. ^ Willard 2002, p. 99. 62. ^ Willard 2002, p. 101. 63. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 103104. 64. ^ Willard 2002, p. 117. 65. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 132133. 66. ^ Willard 2002, p. 133. 67. ^ Willard 2002, p. 138. 68. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 138139. 69. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 142146. 70. ^ a b United States Department of Agriculture. 71. ^ Negbi 1999, p. 2. 72. ^ Malik 2007. 73. ^ Courtney 2002. 74. ^ Hill 2004, p. 273. 75. ^ Rau 1969, p. 35. 76. ^ Lak 1998a. 77. ^ Negbi 1999, p. 8. 78. ^ Dalby 2002, p. 138. 79. ^ Assimopoulou, Papageorgiou & Sinakos 2005, p. 1. 80. ^ Chang et al. 1964, p. 1.
81. ^ Goel A, Aggarwal BB (2010). "Curcumin, the golden spice from Indian saffron, is a chemosensitizer and radiosensitizer for tumors and chemoprotector and radioprotector for normal organs". Nutr Cancer 62 (7): 919 30. doi:10.1080/01635581.2010.509835.PMID 20924967. 82. ^ Bailes 1995. 83. ^ Dwyer AV, Whitten DL, Hawrelak JA (March 2011). "Herbal medicines, other than St. John's Wort, in the treatment of depression: a systematic review" (PDF). Altern Med Rev 16 (1): 409. PMID 21438645. 84. ^ Maccarone, Di Marco & Bisti 2008. 85. ^ Moghaddasi 2010. 86. ^ Dante G, Facchinetti F (March 2011). "Herbal treatments for alleviating premenstrual symptoms: a systematic review". J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 32 (1): 4251. doi:10.3109/0167482X.2010.538102. PMID 21171936.
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CHRYSSANTHI, D. G.; DEDES, P. G.; KARAMANOS, N. K.; CORDOPATIS, P.;LAMARI, F. N. (2011), "Crocetin Inhibits Invasiveness of MDA-MB-231 Breast Cancer Cells via Downregulation of Matrix Metalloproteinases", Planta Medica 77 (2): 146151, January 2011,doi:10.1055/s-0030-1250178, PMID 20803418
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COURTNEY, P. (2002), "Tasmania's Saffron Gold", Landline(Australian Broadcasting Corporation), 19 May 2002, retrieved 29 September 2011
FOTEDAR, S. (1999), "Cultural Heritage of India: The Kashmiri Pandit Contribution", Vitasta (Kashmir Sabha of Kolkata) 32 (1), retrieved 15 September 2011
HARPER, D. (2001), Online Etymology Dictionary, retrieved 12 September 2011 HONAN, W. H. (2004), "Researchers Rewrite First Chapter for the History of Medicine", The New York Times, 2 March 2004, retrieved 13 September 2011
HUSSAIN, A. (2005), Saffron Industry in Deep Distress, London: BBC News (published 28 January 2005), retrieved 15 September 2011
KATZER, G. (2001), "Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)", Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages, retrieved 11 September 2011 LAK, D. (1998), "Kashmiris Pin Hopes on Saffron", BBC News, 11 November 1998, retrieved 11 September 2011 LAK, D. (1998), "Gathering Kashmir's Saffron", BBC News, 23 November 1998, retrieved 12 September 2011 LEFFINGWELL, J. C. (2002), "Saffron" (PDF), Leffingwell Reports 2(5), October 2002, retrieved 15 September 2011 MALIK, N. (2007), Saffron Manual for Afghanistan, DACAAR Rural Development Program, retrieved 17 September 2011 PARK, J. B. (2005), "Saffron", USDA Phytochemical Database, archived from the original on 25 September 2006, retrieved 10 January 2006
http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/
Other
Kashmiri Saffron Producers See Red over Iranian Imports,Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2003 (published 4 November 2003), retrieved 29 September 2011
"Emerging and Other Fruit and Floriculture: Saffron", Food and Agriculture (Department of Primary Industries, Water, and Environment (DPIWE), Government of Tasmania), 2005
"Saffron", USDA National Nutrient Database (United States Department of Agriculture), retrieved 30 September 2011
External links

"Saffron", Darling Biomedical Library (UCLA) "Crocus sativus", Germplasm Resources Information Network
Shilajit
Shilajit, also known as silajit, salajeet or mumijo, and momia[1] is a thick, sticky tar-like substance with a colour ranging from white to dark brown (the latter is more common), sometimes found in Caucasus mountains, Altai mountains, and Tibet mountainsandmountains of gilgit baltistan Pakistan.[2] It is used in Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine. The composition of shilajit has been investigated numerous times in both India and the former USSR, and depends on the location where it is found. It has been reported to contain at least 85 minerals inionic form, as well as triterpenes, humic acid and fulvic acid.[3][4][5] A similar substance from the Caucasus Mountains, and the Altai mountains is called mumijo (Russian).[6]
Name
Shilajit is a Sanskrit word meaning "rock-invincible." It is also spelled "shilajeet," and "salajeet( udrU ni "( and is known by various other names, such as shilajita mumiyo, mineral pitch or mineral wax in English, black asphaltum, Asphaltum punjabianum in Latin, barahshin, dorobi, baraga shun or brag-shun, chao-tong, and wu ling zhi (which generally refers to the excrement of flying squirrels). Shilajit is commonly called shilajitu in Ayurveda. Mumijo is a word of Greek origin. The substance is mentioned in the works of Aristotle and Avicenna as a remedy with antiseptic and general stimulant properties used in Caucasus mountains. Most scientists agree that people observed wounded animals frequenting caves with mumijo and so discovered the substance. Similar substances are used for medicinal purposes throughout Tibet.[1]
History
Shilajit is a substance mainly found in the Altai, Himalaya, and Caucasus mountains of Central Asia. The colour range varies from a yellowish brown to pitch-black, depending on composition. For use in Ayurvedic medicine the black variant is considered the most potent. Shilajit has been described as 'mineral oil', 'stone oil' or 'rock sweat', as it seeps from cracks in mountains due mostly to the warmth of the sun. There are many local legends and stories about its origin, use and properties, often wildly exaggerated. It should not be confused with ozokerite, also a humic substance, similar in appearance, but apparently without medical qualities. Some marketers of dietary supplements pretend to sell mumijo, while in fact they are offering cheap raw ozokerite, a substance used, for example, in cosmetics.[7] Genuine mumijo/shilajit should melt in the hand and has a distinct smell of bitumen, whereas ozokerite melts at 164-169 F/73.3-76.1 C. Once cleaned of impurities and extracted, shilajit is a homogeneous brown-black paste-like substance, with a glossy surface, a peculiar smell and bitter taste. Dry shilajit density ranges from 1.1 to 1.8 g/cm3. It has a
plastic-like behaviour, at a temperature lower than 20C/68F it will solidify and will soften when warmed. It easily dissolves in water without leaving any residue, and it will soften when worked between the fingers. Purified shilajit has an unlimited shelf life. It is still unclear whether shilajit has a geological or biological origin as it has numerous traces of vitamins and aminoacids. A mumijo-like substance from Antarctica was found to contain glycerol derivatives and was also believed to have medicinal properties.[8]
Research
Mumijo/shilajit has been the subject of scientific research in Russia and India since the early 1950s. Claims were investigated with scientific methods. So far the following claims have been confirmed in laboratory conditions, in general by using mouse models:
Anti-inflammatory (e.g., arthritis, rheumatism)[9] Dispels pain[9] Anti-ulcer[10][11] Anti-anxiety, anti-stress[11][12] Smart drug (nootropic effect)[12][13] Anti-aging (both mental and physical)[13][14]
In the former USSR, medical preparations based on mumijo/shilajit are still being sold,[15][16] further developed and investigated.[17][not in citation given] In India, dietary supplements based on shilajit are also very popular, mainly due to its assumed effect on male impotence and premature ejaculation.
References
1. ^ a b Winston, David; Steven Maimes (2007). Adaptogens: Herbs for Strength, Stamina, and Stress Relief. Inner Traditions / Bear & Company. pp. 202204. 2.
Retrieved November 29, 2010.
^ A. Hill, Carol; Paolo Forti (1997). Cave minerals of the world, Volume 2. National Speleological Society. pp. 217223.
Retrieved November 29, 2010.

3. 4. 5. ^ "Safe Use of Salajeet During The Pregnancy Of Female Mice". Bab.com.
Retrieved 2012-06-22.
^ Shibnath Ghosal -Chemistry of Shilajit, an immunomodulatory Ayurvedic rasayan [1] ^ Chopra, R N, Chopra I C, Handa K L & Kapur L D. - Chopras Indigenous Drugs of India. [2]
6.
^ David Winston & Steven Maimes. Adaptogens: Herbs for Strength, Stamina, and Stress Relief, Healing Arts Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59477-158-3
7. 8. 9.
^ "Ozokerite Wax Material Safety Datasheet" (PDF).
^ PMID 18996940 Mumijo Traditional Medicine: Fossil Deposits from Antarctica (PubMed) ^ a b Acharya SB, Frotan MH, Goel RK, Tripathi SK, Das PK Pharmacological actions of Shilajit. [3]
10. ^ Goel RK, Banerjee RS, Acharya SB. Anti ulcerogenic and antiinflammatory studies with shilajit. [4] 11. ^ a b Ghosal S, Singh SK, Kumar Y, Srivatsava R. Antiulcerogenic activity of fulvic acids and 4-metoxy-6- carbomethyl biphenyl isolated from shilajit. [5] 12. ^ a b Jaiswal AK, Bhattacharya SK. Effects of Shilajit on memory, anxiety and brain monoamines in rats. Indian Journal of Pharmacology[6] 13. ^ a b Mukherjee, Biswapati. Traditional Medicine, Proceedings of an International Seminar. Nov. 7-9 1992, pg 308-319. Hotel Taj Bengal, Calcutta India. Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, 1992. ISBN 81-204-0817-9 14. ^ Schliebs R, Liebmann A, Bhattacharya SK, Kumar A, Ghosal S, Bigl V. Systemic administration of defined extracts from Withania somnifera (Indian Ginseng) and Shilajit differentially affects cholinergic but not glutamatergic and GABAergic markers in rat brain.[7] 15. ^ Igor Schepetkin, Andrei Khlebnikov,Byoung Se Kwon, Medical drugs from humus matter: Focus on mumijo [8] 16. ^ The antioxidant - genoprotective mechanism of the preparation Mumijo-Vitas [9] 17. ^ Yarovaya, Sofiya Alekseevna (2003-02-01). "Medical preparations based on Mumijo". Oriveda Research Repository. Oriveda.com.
Further reading

Robert Talbert - SHILAJIT - a materia medica monograph - California College of Ayurveda[10], 2004 Luke R Bucci -Selected herbals and human exercise performance - The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition [11], 2000
Hill, Carol A.; Forti, Paolo (1997). Cave minerals of the world. 2 (2nd ed.). National Speleological Society. p. 223. ISBN 978-1-879961-07-4.
Igor Schepetkin, Andrei Khlebnikov,Byoung Se Kwon, Medical drugs from humus matter: Focus on mumijo [12]
The antioxidant - genoprotective mechanism of the preparation Mumijo-Vitas [13] Frolova, L. N.; Kiseleva, T. L. (1996). "Chemical composition of mumijo and methods for determining its authenticity and quality (a review)". Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal 30 (8): 543 547. doi:10.1007/BF02334644.
Kiseleva, T. L.; Frolova, L. N.; Baratova, L. A.; Yus'kovich, A. K. (1996). "HPLC study of fatty-acid components of dry mumijo extract". Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal 30 (6): 421 423. doi:10.1007/BF02219332.
Frolova, L. N.; Kiseleva, T. L.; Kolkhir, V. K.; Baginskaya, A. I.; Trumpe, T. E. (1998). "Antitoxic properties of standard dry mumijo extract". Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal 32 (4): 197 199. doi:10.1007/BF02464208.
Kiseleva, T. L.; Frolova, L. N.; Baratova, L. A.; Baibakova, G. V.; Ksenofontov, A. L. (1998). "Study of the amino acid fraction of dry mumijo extract". Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal 32 (2): 103 108. doi:10.1007/BF02464176.
Kiseleva, T. L.; Frolova, L. N.; Baratova, L. A.; Ivanova, O. Yu.; Domnina, L. V.; Fetisova, E. K.; Pletyushkina, O. Yu. (1996). "Effect of mumijo on the morphology and directional migration of fibroblastoid and epithelial cellsin vitro". Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal30 (5): 337338. doi:10.1007/BF02333977.
Joshi, G. C., K. C. Tiwari, N. K. Pande and G. Pande. 1994. Bryophytes, the source of the origin of Shilajit a new hypothesis. B.M.E.B.R. 15(1-4): 106-111.
Ghosal, S., B. Mukherjee and S. K. Bhattacharya. 1995. Ind. Journal of Indg. Med. 17(1): 1-11. Ghosal, S., J. P. Reddy and V. K. Lal. 1976. Shilajit I.: chemical constituents. Journ. Pharm. Sci. (USA) 65(5): 772-73.
Phillips, Paul. On Shilajit on the Internet. Faruqi, S.H. 1997, Nature and Origin of Salajit, Hamdard Medicus, Vol XL, AprilJune, pages 2130 Zahler, P and KArin, A, 1998, Origin of the floristic components of Salajit, Hamdard Medicus, Vol XLI, No 2, pages 68
Shafiq M. I., Nagra S.A., Batool N. "Biochemical and Trace Mineral Analysis of Silajit Samples From Pakistan" Nutritional Sciences Vol. 9, No. 3, (2006)
Sexual medicine
Socratea exorrhiza
Socratea exorrhiza
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Monocots
(unranked):
Commelinids
Order:
Arecales
Family:
Arecaceae
Genus:
Socratea
Species:
S. exorrhiza
Binomial name
Socratea exorrhiza
(Mart.) H.Wendl.
Socratea exorrhiza, the Walking Palm or Cashapona, is a palm native to rainforests in tropical Central and South America. It can grow to 25 meters in height, with a stem diameter of up to 16 cm,[1] but is more typically 15-20 m tall and 12 cm in diameter.[2] It has unusual stilt roots, the function of which has been debated. Many species of epiphyte have been found growing on the palms. The palm is pollinated by beetles, and various organisms eat its seeds or seedlings.
Function of stilt roots
How the stilt roots were proposed to allow it to right itself after other plants collapse on it. 1 - the palm is growing normally. 2 - a tree collapses onto the palm and flattens the stem. 3 - new stilt roots form along the old stem and the original roots (dashed lines) start to die. 4 the palm continues to grow normally but has now moved away from where it originally germinated[3]
Corner in 1961 hypothesised that the unusual stilt roots of S. exorrhiza were an adaptation to allow the palm to grow in swampyareas of forest. No evidence exists that stilt roots are in fact an adaptation to flooding, and alternative functions for them have been suggested. Bodley suggested in 1980 that they in fact allow the palm to "walk" away from the point of germination if another tree falls on the seedling and knocks it over. If such an event occurs then the palm produces new vertical stilt roots and can then right itself, the original roots rotting away.[3] Radford writes in the December 2009 Skeptical Inquirer that "As interesting as it would be to think that when no one is around trees walk the rainforest floor, it is a mere myth", and cites two detailed studies that came to this conclusion.[4][5][6] Other advantages of stilt roots over normal roots have since been proposed.
Swaine proposed in 1983 that they allow the palm to colonise areas where there is much debris (for example, dead logs) as they can avoid it by moving their roots. Hartshorn suggested in 1983 that stilt roots allow the palm to grow upwards to reach light without having to increase the diameter of the stem. The roots make the palm more stable and therefore allow it to grow taller and more quickly than if they did not possess them. They also allow the palm to invest less biomass in underground roots than other palms, therefore leaving more energy to be used in growing above ground. It was also thought that the roots may confer an advantage when the palm is growing on a slope, but no evidence has been found that this is the case. Iriartea ventricosa has similar roots to S. exorrhiza.[3]
Epiphytes
A leaf of S. exorrhiza
A close up view of the stilt roots
Many different species of epiphyte have been found to grow on S. exorrhiza. A study of 118 individual trees in Panama found 66 species from 15 families on them. Bryophytes covered up to 30% of the stems, and the relative coverage increased as the stem diameter increased. Around half of the trees studied had vascular epiphytes growing on them. Up to 85 individuals from 12 different species were found on one palm, and another tree was colonised by a total of 16 different species. The most common epiphytes were three species of fern, Ananthacorus angustifolius, Elaphoglossum sporadolepis and Dicranoglossum panamense, altogether accounting for 30% of all the individuals recorded. Other common species, representing
more than 5% of the individuals found, included Scaphyglottis longicaulis (Orchidaceae), Philodendron schottianum (Araceae) and Guzmania subcorymbosa (Bromeliaceae). Almost half of the species recorded were rare, however, with only between 1 and 3 individuals being recorded on all of the palms. A clear vertical distribution was found between different species: some grew in the understory, other in the midstory and others in the canopy. Trees with epiphytes were found to be significantly larger than those without. This suggests that the palms must reach a certain age before they are colonised; for example, it is estimated that palms must be 20 years old before they are colonised by vascular epiphytes.[1]
Leaf morphology
Leaves of S. exorrhiza that grow in the sun are thicker, have more trichomes and morestomata than those that grow in the shade.[7]
Predators
White-lipped peccaries predate a large proportion of the seeds of S. exorrhiza and play an important role in limiting their population.[8]
Reproduction
S. exorrhiza flowers mostly during the dry season[9] and is considered to be beetle pollinated, being frequently visited by species ofPhyllotrox (Derelomini) and Mystrops (Nitidulidae).[10] Seeds weigh around 3.5 g and are around 2 cm long and 1.5 cm wide, only around 45% of them germinate and around one quarter of these die.[11]
Uses
The trunk is used in the construction of houses and other structures, as well as hunting spears. [12][13] It is usually split lengthwise before it is used, but it can also be hollowed out and used as a tube. The inner parts of the stilt roots are used as a maleaphrodisiac.[14] The roots are also cooked in water to make a tea to treat hepatitis.[15] The yellow fruits are edible.[12]
See also
List of plants of Amazon Rainforest vegetation of Brazil
References
1. ^ a b Zotz, G.; Vollrath, B. (2003). "The epiphyte vegetation of the palm Socratea exorrhiza - correlations with tree size, tree age and bryophyte cover". Journal of Tropical Ecology 19.doi:10.1017/S0266467403003092. Archived from the original on 2011-02-20. edit 2. ^ Michael J. Balick (Summer 1985). The indigenous palm flora of "Las Gaviotas" Colombia, including observations on local names and uses. 30. p. 10.
3.
^ a b c Bodley, John; and Benson, Foley C. (March 1980). "Stilt-Root Walking by an Iriarteoid Palm in the Peruvian Amazon".Biotropica (jstor: The Association for Tropical Biology and Conservation) 12 (1): 67 71. doi:10.2307/2387775.JSTOR 2387775.
4.
^ Radford, Benjamin (December 2009). "The Myth of the Walking Tree". Skeptical Inquirer (Committee for Skeptical Inquiry) 33 (6): 23.
5.
^ Avalos, Gerardo; Salazar, Diego; and Araya, Ana (2005). "Stilt root structure in the neotropical palms Irlartea deltoidea andSocratea exorrhiza". Biotropica 37 (1): 4453.doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2005.03148.x.
6.
^ Goldsmith, Gregory; and Zahawi, Rakan (SeptemberDecember 2007). "The function of stilt roots in the growth strategy of Socratea exorrhiza (Arecaceae) at two neotropical sites". Revista de Biologia Tropical 55 (34): 787 793.ISSN 0034-7744. PMID 19086384.
7.
^ Araus, Jose; and Hogan, Kevin (June 1994). "Leaf structure and patterns of photoinhibition in two neotropical palms in clearings and forest understory during the dry season".American Journal of Botany (jstor: Botanical Society of America)81 (6): 726738. doi:10.2307/2445651. JSTOR 2445651.
8.
^ Keuroghlian, Alexine; and Eaton, Donald (2009). "Removal of palm fruits and ecosystem engineering in palm stands by white-lipped peccaries (Tayassu pecari) and other frugivores in an isolated Atlantic Forest fragment". Biodiversity and Conservation 18 (7): 17331750. doi:10.1007/s10531-008-9554-6. ISSN 1572-9710.
9.
^ Henderson, A.; Fischer, B.; Scariot, A.; Whitaker Pacheco, M. A.; Pardini, R. (2000). "Flowering Phenology of a Palm Community in a Central Amazon Forest". Brittonia 52 (2): 149159. doi:10.2307/2666506. JSTOR 2666506. edit
10. ^ "Pollination of Amazon palms". Retrieved 2009-09-29. 11. ^ Pacheco, M. A. W. (2001). "Effects of Flooding and Herbivores on Variation in Recruitment of Palms between Habitats".Journal of Ecology 89 (3): 358366. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2745.2001.00548.x. JSTOR 3072281. edit 12. ^ a b Botanical Museum leaflets, Harvard University. 29. 1983. 13. ^ "Socratea exorrhiza (Cashapona) Rainforest Conservation Fund". Retrieved 2011-04-12. "The trunk is used in the construction of houses and other structures." 14. ^ "Socratea exorrhiza (Cashapona) Rainforest Conservation Fund". Retrieved 2011-04-12. "The inner part of the stilt roots is used as a male aphrodisiac." 15. ^ "Useful Plants: Cashapona, Socratea exorrhiza". How Stuff Works. Retrieved 2009-09-29.
Spanish fly
For other uses, see Spanish fly (disambiguation).
Spanish Fly
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Class:
Insecta
Order:
Coleoptera
Family:
Meloidae
Subfamily:
Meloinae
Tribe:
Lyttini
Genus:
Lytta
Species:
L. vesicatoria
Binomial name
Lytta vesicatoria
(Linnaeus, 1758)
The Spanish fly is an emerald-green beetle in the family Meloidae, Lytta vesicatoria.[1]Other species of blister beetle used by apothecaries are often called by the same name.Lytta vesicatoria is sometimes incorrectly called Cantharis vesicatoria, but the genusCantharis is in an unrelated family, Cantharidae.[2] Cantharidin (etymology: Greek kantharis, beetle) is a powerful irritant vesicant (blister-inducing) substance obtained from many blister beetles, and sometimes given the nickname "Spanish fly." Cantharidin is claimed to have aphrodisiac properties, as a result of its irritant effects upon the body's genitourinary tract, and can result in poisoning if ingested.[3] Ingestion of blister beetles from infested hay causes similar serious toxic symptoms in animals.[4]
The beetle
Lytta vesicatoria is 15 millimetres (0.59 in) to 22 millimetres (0.87 in) long and 5 millimetres (0.20 in) to 8 millimetres (0.31 in) wide. Adult beetles feed on leaves of ash, lilac, amur privet and white willow trees; larvae are parasitic on the brood of ground nesting bees. The beetle lives in scrublands and woods throughout southern Europe and eastward to Central Asia and Siberia.[5]
Cantharidin
Main article: Cantharidin Cantharidin, the principal irritant in Spanish fly, was first isolated and named in 1810 by Pierre Robiquet, a French chemist then living in Paris, from Lytta vesicatoria. Robiquet demonstrated that cantharidin was the actual principle responsible for the aggressively blistering properties of the coating of the eggs of that insect, and established that cantharidin had very definite toxic and poisonous properties comparable in degree to that of the most violent poisons known in the 19th century, such as strychnine.[6] Cantharidin, a terpenoid, is produced by various insect species. The body of the beetle contains up to 5% cantharidin. The crushed powder is of yellowish brown to brown-olive color with iridescent reflections, of disagreeable scent and bitter flavor.
History
Early uses
Medical use dates back to descriptions from Hippocrates. Plasters made from wings of these beetles have been used to raise blisters. In ancient China, the beetles were mixed with human excrement, arsenic and wolfsbane to make the world's first recorded stink bomb.[7]
Aphrodisiac
Collecting cantharides, 19th century.

Various preparations of desiccated Spanish flies have been used as some of the world's oldest alleged aphrodisiacs, with a reputation dating back to the early western Mediterranean classical civilizations:
In Roman times, Livia, the scheming wife of Augustus Caesar, slipped it into food hoping to inspire her guests to some indiscretion with which she could later blackmail them.[8]
Henry IV (10501106) is known to have consumed Spanish fly at the risk of his health.[citation needed] In 1572, Ambroise Par wrote an account of a man suffering from "the most frightful satyriasis" after taking a potion composed of nettles and cantharides.[9]
In the 1670s, Spanish fly was mixed with dried moles and bat's blood for a love charm made by the magician La Voisin.[10]
It was slipped into the food of Louis XIV to secure the king's lust for Madame de Montespan. In the 18th century, cantharides became fashionable, known as pastilles Richelieu in France. The Marquis de Sade is claimed to have given aniseed-flavored pastilles that were laced with Spanish fly to prostitutes at an orgy in 1772. He was sentenced to death for poisoning and sodomy, but later reprieved on appeal.[11]
Miscellaneous uses
In medicine, cantharidin is used as a topical application for treatment of benign epithelial growths including most warts. In Santera, catharides are used in incense.[12] Cantharide was used as an abortifacient,[13] a stimulant (since one of its effects was producing insomnia and nervous agitation), and as a poison.
Poison
In powder, mixed with the food, cantharide could go unnoticed. Aqua toffana, or aquetta di Napoli, was one of the poisons associated with the Medicis. Thought to be a mixture of arsenic and cantharides, it was reportedly created by an Italian countess, Toffana. Four to six drops of this poison in water or wine was enough to deliver death in a few hours.[14] In order to determine if a death had taken place by the effects of Spanish fly, investigators resorted to the vesicacin test. One of those test methods consisted of rubbing part of the internal organs of the deceased, dissolved in oil, on the shaved skin of a rabbit; the absorption of the cantharides and its blistering effect are such that they became visible on the skin of the rabbit.
Lytta vesicatoria (Blister Beetle)
Commercial products
Use of cantharides is illegal in most countries, except by licensed physicians for the topical treatment of certain types of warts.[15]
Culinary use
Dawamesk, a spread or jam made in North Africa and containing hashish, almond paste, pistachio nuts, sugar, orange or tamarind peel, cloves and other various spices, occasionally included cantharides.
In Morocco and other parts of North Africa, a spice blend called Ras el hanout included cantharides in its list of ingredients at one time. However, the sale of cantharides in Moroccan spice markets was banned in the 1990s.[16]
Notes
1. 2. ^ From Greek lytta, rage and Latin vesica, blister. ^ Richardg B. Selander (1991). On the Nomenclature and Classification of Meloidae (Coleoptera). Insecta Mundi 5 (2): 6594. 3. ^ Karras, David J.; Farrell, SE; Harrigan, RA; Henretig, FM; Gealt, L (1996). "Poisoning from "Spanish fly" (cantharidin)". The American Journal of Emergency Medicine 14 (5): 47883.doi:10.1016/S0735-6757(96)901588. PMID 8765116. "While most commonly available preparations of Spanish fly contain cantharidin in negligible amounts, if at all, the chemical is available illicitly in concentrations capable of causing severe toxicity. Symptoms of cantharidin poisoning include burning of the mouth, dysphagia, nausea, hematemesis, gross hematuria, and dysuria. Mucosal erosion and hemorrhage is seen in the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Renal dysfunction is common and related to acute tubular necrosis and glomerular destruction." 4. ^ The Merck Veterinary Manual. 2010. Retrieved 22 August 2011. "The severity of clinical signs associated with cantharidin toxicosis vary according to dose. Signs may range from mild depression or discomfort to severe pain, shock, and death." 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. ^ "Spanish fly." Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. The Gale Group, Inc, 2005. Answers.com 22 Nov. 2009. ^ Expriences sur les cantharides, Robiquet. M., Annales de Chimie, 1810, vol. 76, pp. 302322. ^ (Theroux 1989, p. 54) ^ James, Peter (1995). Ancient Inventions. Ballantine Books. p. 177. ISBN 0-345-40102-6. ^ (Milsten 2000, p. 170)
10. ^ (Cavendish 1968, p. 333) 11. ^ Ford, Peter; Howell, Michael (1985). The beetle of Aphrodite and other medical mysteries. New York: Random House.ISBN 0-394-54797-7. 12. ^ (Gonzalez-Wippler 2002, p. 221) 13. ^ AJ Giannini, HR Black. The Psychiatric, Psychogenic and Somatopsychic Disorders Handbook. Garden City, New York. Medical Examination Publishing Co., 1978. p. 97. ISBN 0-87488-596-5. 14. ^ (Stevens 1990, p. 6) 15. ^ Moen, L.; Shwayder, T., Chang M. (October 2001). "Cantharidin revisited: a blistering defense of an ancient medicine". Archives of Dermatology (137): 13571360. 16. ^ (Davidson 1999)
References
Booth, Martin (2004). Cannabis: A History. Picador. ISBN 0-312-42494-9.. Cavendish, Richard (1968). The Black Arts: An Absorbing Account of Witchcraft, Demonology, Astrology, and Other Mystical Practices Throughout the Ages. Perigee Trade. ISBN 0-399-50035-9..
Davidson, Alan (1999). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-211579-0.. Gonzalez-Wippler, Migene (2002). Santera: The Religion. Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 1-56718-329-8.. Milsten, Richard (2000). The Sexual Male: Problems and Solutions. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393-32127-4..
Reichl, Ruth (2004). The Gourmet Cookbook. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-37408-6.. Stevens, Serita Deborah (1990). Deadly Doses: A Writer's Guide to Poisons. Writer's Digest Books. ISBN 0-89879-371-8..
Theroux, Paul (1989). Riding the Iron Rooster. Ivy Books. ISBN 0-8041-0454-9..
Tribulus terrestris
Tribulus terrestris
Leaves and flower
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Zygophyllales
Family:
Zygophyllaceae
Genus:
Tribulus
Species:
T. terrestris
Binomial name
Tribulus terrestris
L.[1]
Varieties
Tribulus terrestris var. bicornutus Tribulus terrestris var. inermis Tribulus terrestris var. robustus Tribulus terrestris var. terrestris
Tribulus terrestris is a flowering plant in the family Zygophyllaceae, native to warm temperate and tropical regions of the Old World in southern Europe, southern Asia, throughout Africa, and Australia.[2] It can thrive even in desert climates and poor soil. Like many weedy species, this plant has many common names, including bindii,[3] bullhead,[4]burra gokharu, caltrop,[1] cat's head,[1][3] devil's eyelashes,[5] devil's thorn,[1][5] devil's weed,[1] goathead,[1] puncturevine,[1] and tackweed.[6]
Growth
"Goathead" fruit
Thumbtack-like Tribulus terrestris nutlets are a hazard to bicycle tires.

It is a taprooted herbaceous perennial plant that grows as a summer annual in colder climates. The stems radiate from the crown to a diameter of about 10 cm to over 1 m, often branching. They are usually prostrate,
forming flat patches, though they may grow more upwards in shade or among taller plants. The leaves are pinnately compound with leaflets less than 6 mm (a quarter-inch) long. The flowers are 410 mm wide, with five lemon-yellow petals. A week after each flower blooms, it is followed by a fruit that easily falls apart into four or five single-seeded nutlets. The nutlets or "seeds" are hard and bear two to three sharp spines, 10 mm long and 46 mm broad point-to-point. These nutlets strikingly resemble goats' or bulls' heads; the "horns" are sharp enough to puncture bicycle tires and to cause painful injury to bare feet.[7]
Etymology
The Greek word, meaning 'water-chestnut',[8] translated into Latin as tribulos. TheLatin name tribulus originally meant the caltrop (a spiky weapon), but in Classical times already the word meant this plant as well.[9]
Cultivation and uses

The plant is widely naturalised in the Americas and also in Australia south of its native range. In some states in the United States, it is considered a noxious weed and an invasive species.[1] It has been reported that the seeds or nutlets have been used in homicidal weapons smeared with the juice of Acokanthera venenata in southern Africa.[7]
Dietary supplement
Some body builders use T. terrestris as post cycle therapy or "PCT".[citation needed] After they have completed an anabolic-steroid cycle, they use it under the assumption that it will restore the body's natural testosterone levels. The extract is claimed to increase the body's natural testosterone levels and thereby improve male sexual performance and help build muscle. Its purported muscle-building potential was popularized by American IFBB bodybuilding champion Jeffrey Petermann in the early 1970s. However, T. terrestris has failed to increase testosterone levels in controlled studies.[10][11][12] It has also failed to demonstrate strength-enhancing properties[13] - a finding indicating that the anabolic steroid effects of Tribulus terrestris may be untrue. Some users report an upset stomach, which can usually be counteracted by taking it with food.[citation needed]
Traditional medicine
In traditional Chinese medicine Tribulus terrestris is known under the name bai ji li (). According to Bensky and Clavey, 2004 (Materia medica 3rd edition, pp. 975976) Tribulus terrestris is ci ji li (). "Confusion with Astragali complanati Semen (sha yuan zi) originally known as white ji li ( bai ji li), led some writers to attribute tonifying properties to this herb..." T. terrestris has long been a constituent in tonics in Indian Ayurveda practice, where it is known by its Sanskrit name, "gokshura/ sarrata"[14] It is also used in Unani, another medical system of India.
Research in animals
T. terrestris has been shown to enhance sexual behavior in an animal model.[15] It appears to do so by stimulating androgen receptors in the brain.T. terrestris is now being promoted as a booster for the purpose of increasing sex drive. Its use for this purpose originated from a Bulgarian study conducted in the 1970s, which found effects on free testosterone and luteinizing hormone in men belonging to infertile couples. [citation needed] A research review conducted in 2000 stated that the lack of data outside of this study prevents generalizing to healthy individuals [16] Animal studies in rats, rabbits and primates have demonstrated that administration of Tribulus terrestris extract can produce statistically significant increases in levels of testosterone, dihydrotestosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone,[17] and produces effects suggestive of aphrodisiac activity.[15] On the other hand, one recent study found that T. terrestris caused no increase in testosterone or LH in young men,[18] and another found that a commercial supplement containing androstenedione and herbal extracts, including T. terrestris, was no more effective at raising testosterone levels than androstenedione alone.[19] The active chemical in T. terrestris is likely to be protodioscin (PTN).[20] In a study with mice, T. terrestris was shown to enhance mounting activity and erection better than testosterone cypionate;[citation needed] however, testosterone cypionate is a synthetic ester of testosterone engineered for its longer activity, rather than an immediate effect. Testosterone cypionate has a half-life of 8 days and is administered every 24 weeks in humans for testosterone replacement.[21] The proerectile aphrodisiac properties were concluded to likely be due to the release of nitric oxide from the nerve endings innervating the corpus cavernosum penis.[citation
needed]
Also, T. terrestris was shown to have strong inhibitory activity on COX-2.[22]
Eradication
Typical habit of Tribulus terrestris

Where this is a non-indigenous species, eradication methods are often sought after. There are both biological and herbicidal solutions to the problem, but neither of them provide a solution which is both quick and longlasting, because T. terrestris seeds remain viable for up to 37 years on average.
Physical
In smaller areas, puncture vine is best controlled with manual removal using a hoe to cut the plant off at its taproot. While this is effective, removing the entire plant by gripping the taproot, stem or trunk and pulling upward to remove the taproot is far more effective. This requires monitoring the area and removing the weed throughout the preseeding time (late spring and early summer in many temperate areas). This will greatly reduce the prevalence of the weed the following year. Mowing is not an effective method of eradication, because the plant grows flat against the ground. Another avenue of physical eradication is to crowd out the opportunistic weed by providing good competition from favorable plants. Aerating compacted sites and planting competitive desirable plants including broadleaved grasses such as St Augustine can reduce the impact of puncture vine by reducing resources available to the weed.
Chemical
Chemical control is generally recommended for home control of puncture vine. There are few pre-emergent herbicides that are effective. Products containing oryzalin, benefin, or trifluralin will provide partial control of germinating seeds. These must be applied prior to germination (late winter to midspring). After plants have emerged from the soil (postemergent), products containing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid ("2,4-D"), glyphosate, anddicamba are effective on puncture vine. Like most postemergents they are more effectively maintained when caught small and young. Dicamba and 2,4-D will cause harm to most broad-leaved plants so the user should take care to avoid over-application. They can be applied to lawns without injuring the desired grass. Glyphosate will kill or injure most plants so it should only be used as spot treatments or on solid stands of the weed. Another product from DuPont called Pastora is highly effective, but expensive and not for lawn use.
Biological
Two weevils, Microlarinus lareynii and M. lypriformis, native to India, France, and Italy, were introduced into the United States asbiocontrol agents in 1961. Both species of weevils are available for purchase from biological suppliers, but purchase and release is not often recommended because weevils collected from other areas may not survive at the purchaser's location. Microlarinus lareynii is a seed weevil that deposits its eggs in the young burr or flower bud. The larvae feed on and destroy the seeds before they pupate, emerge, disperse, and start the cycle over again. Its life cycle time is 19 to 24 days. Microlarinus lypriformis is a stem weevil that has a similar life cycle, excepting the location of the eggs, which includes the undersides of stems, branches, and the root crown. The larvae tunnel in the pith where they feed and pupate. Adults of both species overwinter in plant debris. Although the stem weevil is
slightly more effective than the seed weevil when each is used alone, the weevils are most effective if used together and the puncture vine is moisture-stressed.
Phytochemistry
Two alkaloids that seem to cause limb paresis (staggers) in sheep that eat Tribulus terrestulis are the betacarboline alkaloids harman(harmane) and norharman (norharmane).[23] The alkaloid content of dried foliage is about 44 mg/kg.[23]
References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. ^ a b c d e f g h "Tribulus terrestris information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov. Retrieved 2008-03-18. ^ "Zygophyllaceae". Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria. Retrieved 2010-03-13. ^ a b "Caltrop - Tribulus terrestris". Weeds Australia. National Weeds Management Facilitator. Retrieved 2009-03-10. ^ USDA PLANTS database ^ a b Hyde, M.A. & Wursten, B. (2011). Flora of Mozambique ^ North Dakota Department of Agriculture (no date)."Puncturevine (Tribulus terrestris)". Retrieved 2 sept 2011. ^ a b Tribulus terrestris in BoDD Botanical Dermatology Database ^ "Greek Word Study Tool: ". perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 11 August 2012. ^ Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary
10. ^ Brown GA, Vukovich MD, Reifenrath TA, Uhl NL, Parsons KA, Sharp RL, King DS (2000). "Effects of anabolic precursors on serum testosterone concentrations and adaptations to resistance training in young men". International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 10 (3): 34059.PMID 10997957. 11. ^ Brown GA, Vukovich MD, Martini ER, Kohut ML, Franke WD, Jackson DA, King DS (2001). "Endocrine and lipid responses to chronic androstenediol-herbal supplementation in 30 to 58 year old men". J Am Coll Nutr 20 (5): 520 8. PMID 11601567. 12. ^ Neychev VK, & Mitev VI. (2005). "The aphrodisiac herb Tribulus terrestris does not influence the androgen production in young men". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 101 (1-3): 31923.doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.05.017. PMID 15994038. 13. ^ Rogerson S, Riches CJ, Jennings C, Weatherby RP, Meir RA, Marshall-Gradisnik SM. (2007). "The Effect of Five Weeks of Tribulus terrestris Supplementation on Muscle Strength and Body Composition During Preseason Training in Elite Rugby League Players". The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 21 (2): 34853. doi:10.1519/R18395.1.PMID 17530942. 14. ^ (2001). The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, Department of Indian System of Medicine & Homoeopathy. Vol 1, Part 1: 260. 15. ^ a b Gauthaman K, Adaikan PG, Prasad RN. (2002). "Aphrodisiac properties of Tribulus Terrestris extract (Protodioscin) in normal and castrated rats". Life Sciences 71(12): 138596. doi:10.1016/S0024-3205(02)01858-1.PMID 12127159.
16. ^ Bucci LR (2000). "Selected herbals and human exercise performance". The American journal of clinical nutrition 72 (2 Suppl): 624S36S. PMID 10919969. 17. ^ Gauthaman K, Ganesan AP (Jan 2008). "The hormonal effects of Tribulus terrestris and its role in the management of male erectile dysfunctionan evaluation using primates, rabbit and rat". Phytomedicine 15 (1-2): 44 54.doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2007.11.011. PMID 18068966. 18. ^ Neychev VK, Mitev VI (Oct 2005). "The aphrodisiac herb Tribulus terrestris does not influence the androgen production in young men". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 101 (1-3): 31923. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.05.017. PMID 15994038. 19. ^ Brown GA, Vukovich MD, Reifenrath TA, et al. (Sep 2000). "Effects of anabolic precursors on serum testosterone concentrations and adaptations to resistance training in young men". International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 10 (3): 34059. PMID 10997957. 20. ^ Gauthaman K, Ganesan AP, Prasad RN (2003). "Sexual effects of puncturevine (Tribulus terrestris) extract (protodioscin): an evaluation using a rat model". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 9 (2): 257 65.doi:10.1089/10755530360623374. PMID 12804079. 21. ^ "National Institutes of Health". Retrieved April 24, 2010 22. ^ Hong CH, Hur SK, Oh OJ, Kim SS, Nam KA, Lee SK (2002). "Evaluation of natural products on inhibition of inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2) and nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in cultured mouse macrophage cells.". J. Ethnopharmacol 83 (1-2): 153159. 23. ^ a b Bourke CA, Stevens GR, Carrigan MJ (Jul 1992). "Locomotor effects in sheep of alkaloids identified in AustralianTribulus terrestris". Australian Veterinary Journal 69 (7): 163165. doi:10.1111/j.17510813.1992.tb07502.x.PMID 1445080.
External links

Germplasm Resources Information Network: Tribulus terrestris Flora Europaea: native distribution in Europe Page on T. terrestris at the Global Compendium of Weeds Page from the U.S. Department of Agriculture's PLANTS database Tribulus terrestris List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's Databases)
Watermelon
For other uses, see Watermelon (disambiguation).
Watermelon
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Cucurbitales
Family:
Cucurbitaceae
Genus:
Citrullus
Species:
C. lanatus
Binomial name
Citrullus lanatus
(Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai
Watermelon output in 2005
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.), family Cucurbitaceae) is a vine-like (scrambler and trailer) flowering plant originally from southern Africa. Its fruit, which is also calledwatermelon, is a special kind referred to by botanists as a pepo, a berry which has a thickrind (exocarp) and fleshy center (mesocarp and endocarp). Pepos are derived from an inferior ovary, and are characteristic of the Cucurbitaceae. The watermelon fruit, loosely considered a type of melon although not in the genus Cucumis has a smooth exterior rind (green, yellow and sometimes white) and a juicy, sweet interior flesh (usually deep red to pink, but sometimes orange, yellow and even green if not ripe).
History
Watermelon is thought to have originated in southern Africa, where it is found growing wild. It reaches maximum genetic diversity there, with sweet, bland and bitter forms. In the 19th century, Alphonse de Candolle[1] claimed the watermelon was indigenous to tropical Africa.[2]Though Citrullus colocynthis is often considered to be a wild ancestor of watermelon and is now found native in north and west Africa, it has been suggested on the basis of chloroplast DNA investigations that the cultivated and wild watermelon diverged independently from a common ancestor, possibly C. ecirrhosus from Namibia.[3] Evidence of its cultivation in the Nile Valley was found from the second millennium BC. Watermelon seeds have been found at Twelfth Dynasty sites and in the tomb of PharaohTutankhamun.[4] Watermelon is also mentioned in the Bible as a food eaten by the ancientIsraelites while they were in bondage in Egypt.[5] By the 10th century, watermelons were being cultivated in China, which is today the world's single largest watermelon producer. By the 13th century, Moorish invaders had introduced the fruit to Europe; according to
John Mariani's Dictionary of American Food and Drink, "watermelon" made its first appearance in an English dictionary in 1615. Watermelons were grown by Native Americans in the 16th century. Early French explorers found the fruit being cultivated in the Mississippi Valley. Many sources list the watermelon as being introduced in Massachusetts as early as 1629. Southern food historian John Egerton has said he believes African slaves helped introduce the watermelon to the United States. Texas Agricultural Extension horticulturalist Jerry Parsons lists African slaves and European colonists as having distributed watermelons to many areas of the world. Parsons also mentions the crop being farmed by Native Americans in Florida (by 1664) and the Colorado River area (by 1799). Other early watermelon sightings include the Midwestern states (1673), Connecticut (1747) and the Illiana region (1822).
A watermelon leaf
Charles Fredric Andrus, a horticulturist at the USDA Vegetable Breeding Laboratory in Charleston, South Carolina, set out to produce a disease-resistant and wilt-resistant watermelon. The result, in 1954, was "that gray melon from Charleston". Its oblong shape and hard rind made it easy to stack and ship. Its adaptability meant it could be grown over a wide geographical area. It produced high yields and was resistant to the most serious watermelon diseases: anthracnose and fusarium wilt.[6] Today, farmers in approximately 44 states in the US grow watermelon commercially, and almost all these varieties have some 'Charleston Gray' in their lineage. Georgia, Florida, Texas, California andArizona are the US's largest watermelon producers. This now-common watermelon is often large enough that groceries often sell half or quarter melons. Some smaller, spherical varieties of watermelon, both red- and yellow-fleshed, are sometimes called "icebox melons".
Watermelons on display inDelhi, India
Culture
For commercial plantings, one beehive per acre (4,000 m per hive) is the minimum recommendation by the US Department of Agriculture for pollination of conventional, seeded varieties. Because seedless hybrids have sterile pollen, pollinizer rows of varieties with viable pollen must also be planted. Since the supply of viable pollen is reduced and pollination is much more critical in producing the seedless variety, the recommended number of hives per acre, or pollinator density, increases to three hives per acre (1,300 m per hive). Watermelons have a longer growing period than other garden plants and can often take up to 85 days of growing to mature.
Nutrition
A watermelon contains about 6% sugar and 92% water by weight.[7] As with many other fruits, it is a source of vitamin C.
Watermelon, raw (edible parts)
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy
127 kJ (30 kcal)
Carbohydrates
7.55 g
- Sugars
6.2 g
- Dietary fiber
0.4 g
Fat
0.15 g
Protein
0.61 g
Water
91.45 g
Vitamin A equiv.
28 g (4%)
Thiamine (vit. B1)
0.033 mg (3%)
Riboflavin (vit. B2)
0.021 mg (2%)
Niacin (vit. B3)
0.178 mg (1%)
Pantothenic acid (B5)
0.221 mg (4%)
Vitamin B6
0.045 mg (3%)
Folate (vit. B9)
3 g (1%)
Vitamin C
8.1 mg (10%)
Calcium
7 mg (1%)
Iron
0.24 mg (2%)
Magnesium
10 mg (3%)
Phosphorus
11 mg (2%)
Potassium
112 mg (2%)
Zinc
0.10 mg (1%)
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database
The amino-acid citrulline was first extracted from watermelon and analyzed.[8]Watermelons contain a significant amount of citrulline and after consumption of several kilograms, an elevated concentration is measured in the blood plasma; this could be mistaken for citrullinaemia or other urea cycle disorders.[9] Watermelon rinds, usually a light green or white color, are also edible and contain many hidden nutrients [vague], but most people avoid eating them due to their unappealing flavor. They are sometimes used as a vegetable.[10] In China, they are stir-fried, stewed or more often pickled. When stir-fried, the skin and fruit is removed, and the rind is cooked witholive oil, garlic, chili peppers, scallions, sugar and rum. Pickled watermelon rind is also commonly consumed in the Southern US.[11] Watermelon juice can be made into wine.[12] Watermelon is mildly diuretic[13] and contains large amounts of beta carotene.[14]Watermelon with red flesh is a significant source of lycopene. Preliminary research indicates the consumption of watermelon may have antihypertensive effects.[1
Yohimbine
Yohimbine
Systematic (IUPAC) name
17-hydroxy-yohimban-16carboxylic acid methyl ester
Clinical data
Trade names
Yocon
Pregnancy cat.
Legal status
OTC
Routes
Oral
Identifiers
CAS number
146-48-5
ATC code
G04BE04 QV03AB93
PubChem
CID 8969
IUPHAR ligand
102
DrugBank
DB01392
ChemSpider
8622
UNII
2Y49VWD90Q
ChEBI
CHEBI:10093
ChEMBL
CHEMBL15245
Chemical data
Formula
C21H26N2O3
Mol. mass
354.44 g/mol (base) 390.90 g/mol (hydrochloride)
SMILES[show]
InChI[show]
(what is this?) (verify)
Yohimbine is an alkaloid with stimulant and aphrodisiac effects found naturally inPausinystalia yohimbe (Yohimbe). It is also found naturally in Rauwolfia serpentina (Indian Snakeroot), Alchornea floribunda (Niando), along with several other active alkaloids. Yohimbine has been used as both an over-thecounter dietary supplement in herbal extractform and prescription medicine in pure form for the treatment of sexual dysfunction. Yohimbine was explored as a remedy for type 2 diabetes in animal and human models carrying polymorphisms of the 2A-adrenergic receptor gene.[1]
Indications
Sexual
The NIH states that yohimbine hydrochloride is the standardized form of yohimbine that is available as a prescription medicine in the United States, and has been shown in human studies to be effective in the treatment of male impotence.[2]
Yohimbine Hydrochloride, USPa standardized form of yohimbineis a prescription medicine that has been used to treat erectile dysfunction.[3] Controlled studies suggest that it is not always an effective treatment for impotence, and evidence of increased sex drive (libido) is anecdotal only.[4]
It cannot be excluded that orally administered yohimbine can have a beneficial effect in some patients with ED. The conflicting results available may be attributed to differences in drug design, patient selection, and definitions of positive response. However, generally, available results of treatment are not impressive.[5]
Yohimbine blocks the pre- and post-synaptic alpha-2 adrenoceptors. Blockade of post-synaptic alpha-2 adrenoceptors leads to minor corpora cavernosa smooth muscle relaxation. In fact the majority of adrenoceptors in the corpora cavernosa are alpha-1. Blockade of pre-synaptic alpha-2 adrenoceptors leads to increased release of neurotransmitters in the central nervous system and in the corpora cavernosa penis such as nitric oxide, noradrenaline, and dopamine. Whether nitric oxide released in the corpora cavernosa has a relaxing effect, noradrenaline has a much powerful constricting effect by stimulating the unblocked alpha-1 adrenoceptors. Concomitant use of an alpha-1 blocking agent will prevent constriction caused by the increased adrenergic stimulation.[6] In addition to yohimbine, Pausinystalia yohimbe contains approximately 55 other alkaloids, of which yohimbine accounts for 1% to 20% of total alkaloids. Among them corynanthine is an alpha-1 adrenoceptor blocker. Hence the use of Yohimbe extract in sufficient dosages may provide concomitant alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenoceptors blockade and thus may better enhance erections than yohimbine alone. [6] Yohimbine has been shown to be effective in the reversal of sexual satiety and exhaustion in male rats.[7] Yohimbine has also been shown to increase the volume of ejaculated semen in dogs, with the effect lasting at least five hours after administration.[8] Yohimbine has been shown to be effective in the treatment of orgasmic dysfunction in men.[9]
Fat loss
According to one study, oral yohimbine supplementation may actuate significant fat loss in athletes.[10] Numerous bodybuilding supplement companies sell formulations of yohimbine for transdermal delivery to effect a local reduction of adipose tissue, although the experimental evidence for its efficacy is limited.[11][12]
Other uses
Yohimbine has also been used for the treatment of sexual side effects caused by some antidepressants (SSRIs), female hyposexual disorder, as a blood pressure boosting agent in autonomic failure, xerostomia, and as a probe for noradrenergic activity.
The addition of yohimbine to fluoxetine or venlafaxine has also been found to potentiate the antidepressant action of both of these agents.[13] Yohimbine has been used to facilitate recall of traumatic memories in the treatment of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).[14] Use of yohimbine outside therapeutic settings may not be appropriate for persons suffering from PTSD.[15] In pharmacology, yohimbine is used as a probe for 2-adrenoceptor. In veterinary medicine, yohimbine is used to reverse anesthesia from the drug xylazine in small and large animals.
Pharmacology
Yohimbine has high affinity for the 2-adrenergic receptor, moderate affinity for the 1-adrenergic, 5-HT1A, 5HT1B, 5-HT1D, 5-HT1F, 5-HT2B, and D2 receptors, and weak affinity for the 5-HT1E, 5-HT2A, 5-HT5A, 5-HT7, and D3 receptors.[16][17] It behaves as an antagonistat 1-adrenergic, 2-adrenergic, 5-HT1B, 5-HT1D, 5-HT2A, 5HT2B, and D2, and as a partial agonist at 5-HT1A.[16][18][19][20] Its intrinsic activities at the other sites listed are unclear/unknown, but it is probably mostly antagonistic at them.
Production
Yohimbine is the principal alkaloid of the bark of the West African evergreen Pausinystalia yohimbe (formerly Corynanthe yohimbe), family Rubiaceae (Madder family). There are 31 other yohimbane alkaloids found in Yohimbe. In Africa, yohimbe has traditionally been used as an aphrodisiac.[3] However, it is very important to note that while the terms yohimbine, yohimbine hydrochloride, and yohimbe bark extract are related, they are not interchangeable.[2] The main active chemical present in yohimbe bark is yohimbine HCl (indole alkaloid), found in the bark of the Pausinystalia yohimbe tree. However, the levels of yohimbine that are present in yohimbe bark extract are variable and often very low.[2] Therefore, although yohimbe bark has been used traditionally to reduce male erectile dysfunction, there is not enough scientific evidence to form a definitive conclusion in this area. The tree is currently threatened with extinction in its native habitat due to international demand. [citation needed] Its conservation is difficult because the bioactivity of the tree has led many Western governments to declare it a proscribed species.
Adverse effects
Higher doses of oral yohimbine may create numerous side effects, such as rapid heart rate, high blood pressure, overstimulation,insomnia and/or sleeplessness. Some effects in rare cases were panic attacks, hallucinations, headaches, dizziness, and skin flushing.[21]
Yohimbine in combination with drugs that inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine, such as dextromethorphan, tramadol, someantidepressants, and central nervous system stimulants used to treat ADHD, can cause a hypertensive crises. This is due to those drugs in combination with an a2 receptor antagonist leads to too much norepinephrine in the brain, which causes blood pressure to spike to dangerous levels. More serious adverse effects may include seizures and renal failure. Yohimbine should not be consumed by anyone with liver, kidney,heart disease, or a psychological disorder.[21] The therapeutic index of yohimbine is quite low; the range between an effective dose and a dangerous dose is very narrow.[21] A typical dose for sexual dysfunction would be 15-30mg, whereas 100mg would be considered dangerous. This may also lead to the precipitation of panic disorder type reactions, heart attack, and possibly death. Yohimbine in combination with modafinil is frequently associated with nausea, dangerous acute rapid heart beat, and acute increased blood pressure. Yohimbine exhibits some degree of MAOI activity while modafinil has been shown to increase levels of various monamines, and therefore could result in severe risk of dangerous side effects.
See also

Ajmalicine Corynanthine Rauwolscine Reserpine Deserpidine Rescinnamine
References
1. ^ Rosengren, A. H.; Jokubka, R.; Tojjar, D.; Granhall, C.; Hansson, O.; Li, D.-Q.; Nagaraj, V.; Reinbothe, T. M. et al. (2009). "Overexpression of Alpha2A-Adrenergic Receptors Contributes to Type 2 Diabetes". Science 327 (5962): 217 20.doi:10.1126/science.1176827. PMID 19965390. 2. 3. 4. ^ a b c "Yohimbe: MedlinePlus Supplements". nlm.nih.gov. November 19, 2010. Retrieved December 13, 2010. ^ a b Yohimbe. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. ^ Andersson KE (September 2001). "Pharmacology of penile erection". Pharmacological Reviews 53 (3): 417 50.PMID 11546836.
5.
^ Andersson, Karl-Erik; Steers, William D. (1998). "The pharmacological basis of sexual therapeutics". In Morales, Alvaro. Erectile dysfunction: issues in current pharmacotherapy . London: Martin Dunitz. pp. 97124 [114]. ISBN 978-185317-577-0.
6.
^ a b Saenz De Tejada, I; Kim, NN; Goldstein, I; Traish, AM (2000). "Regulation of pre-synaptic alpha adrenergic activity in the corpus cavernosum". International Journal of Impotence Research 12 Suppl 1: S20 25. doi:10.1038/sj.ijir.3900500.PMID 10845761.
7.
^ Fernndez-Guasti A, Rodrguez-Manzo G (July 2003). "Pharmacological and physiological aspects of sexual exhaustion in male rats". Scandinavian Journal of Psychology44 (3): 25763. doi:10.1111/14679450.00343.PMID 12914589.
8.
^ Yonezawa A, Yoshizumii M, Ebiko M, Amano T, Kimura Y, Sakurada S (October 2005). "Long-lasting effects of yohimbine on the ejaculatory function in male dogs". Biomedical Research26 (5): 201 6. doi:10.2220/biomedres.26.201.PMID 16295696.
9.
^ Adeniyi AA, Brindley GS, Pryor JP, Ralph DJ (May 2007). "Yohimbine in the treatment of orgasmic dysfunction". Asian Journal of Andrology 9 (3): 4037. doi:10.1111/J.1745-7262.2007.00276.x. PMID 17486282.
10. ^ Ostojic SM (2006). "Yohimbine: the effects on body composition and exercise performance in soccer players".Research in Sports Medicine 14 (4): 28999.doi:10.1080/15438620600987106. PMID 17214405. 11. ^ http://www.mesomorphosis.com/articles/volk/yohimbine-02.htm 12. ^ Yohimbe Info and Products at Bodybuilding.com 13. ^ Dhir, A; Kulkarni, SK (2007). "Effect of addition of yohimbine (alpha-2-receptor antagonist) to the antidepressant activity of fluoxetine or venlafaxine in the mouse forced swim test".Pharmacology 80 (4): 239 43. doi:10.1159/000104877.PMID 17622775. 14. ^ van der Kolk, Bessel A. (1995). "The Treatment of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder". In Hobfoll, Stevan E.; De Vries, Marten W.. Extreme stress and communities: impact and intervention. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 421 44.ISBN 978-0-7923-3468-2. 15. ^ Morgan CA, Grillon C, Southwick SM et al. (February 1995). "Yohimbine facilitated acoustic startle in combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder". Psychopharmacology 117 (4): 46671. doi:10.1007/BF02246220. PMID 7604149. 16. ^ a b Millan MJ, Newman-Tancredi A, Audinot V et al. (February 2000). "Agonist and antagonist actions of yohimbine as compared to fluparoxan at alpha(2)-adrenergic receptors (AR)s, serotonin (5-HT)(1A), 5-HT(1B), 5-HT(1D) and dopamine D(2) and D(3) receptors. Significance for the modulation of frontocortical monoaminergic transmission and depressive states". Synapse 35 (2): 7995. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2396(200002)35:2<79::AID-SYN1>3.0.CO;2-X.PMID 10611634. 17. ^ "PDSP Ki Database". 18. ^ Arthur JM, Casaas SJ, Raymond JR (June 1993). "Partial agonist properties of rauwolscine and yohimbine for the inhibition of adenylyl cyclase by recombinant human 5-HT1A receptors". Biochemical Pharmacology 45 (11): 2337 41.doi:10.1016/0006-2952(93)90208-E. PMID 8517875.
19. ^ Kaumann AJ (June 1983). "Yohimbine and rauwolscine inhibit 5-hydroxytryptamine-induced contraction of large coronary arteries of calf through blockade of 5 HT2 receptors". Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology 323 (2): 14954.doi:10.1007/BF00634263. PMID 6136920. 20. ^ Baxter GS, Murphy OE, Blackburn TP (May 1994). "Further characterization of 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors (putative 5-HT2B) in rat stomach fundus longitudinal muscle". British Journal of Pharmacology 112 (1): 323 31. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.1994.tb13072.x. PMC 1910288. PMID 8032658. 21. ^ a b c Prescription
for Nutritional Healing, fourth edition Phyllis A. Balch, CNC
Cantharidin
Cantharidin
IUPAC name[hide] 2,6-Dimethyl-4,10-dioxatricyclo[5.2.1.02,6]decane-3,5-dione
Other names[hide]
Cantharidin
Identifiers
CAS number
56-25-7
ChemSpider
2297293
UNII
IGL471WQ8P
KEGG
C16778
ChEMBL
CHEMBL48449
Jmol-3D images
Image 1
SMILES
[show]
InChI
[show]
Properties
Molecular formula
C10H12O4
Molar mass
196.20 g/mol
Density
1.41 g/cm
Melting point
212 C
(verify) (what is:
?)
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Cantharidin, a type of terpenoid, is a poisonous chemical compound secreted by many species of blister beetle, and most notably by the Spanish fly, Lytta vesicatoria. The false blister beetles and cardinal beetles also contain cantharidin.
History
Black Blister BeetleEpicauta pennsylvanica
Cantharidin was first isolated in 1810 by Pierre Robiquet[1], a French chemist then living in Paris, from Lytta vesicatoria. Robiquet demonstrated that cantharidin was the actual principle responsible for the aggressively blistering properties of the coating of the eggs of that insect, and established that cantharidin had very definite toxic and poisonous properties comparable in degree to that of the most violent poisons known in the 19th century, such asstrychnine.[2] It is an odorless and colorless solid at room temperature. It is secreted by the male blister beetle and given to the female as a copulatory gift during mating. Afterwards the female beetle will cover its eggs with it as a defense against predators. The complete mechanism of the biosynthesis of cantharidin is currently unknown.
Medical uses
Diluted solutions of cantharidin can be used as a topical medication to remove warts[3] andtattoos and to treat the small papules of Molluscum contagiosum.[4]
Medical risks for humans

Its potential for adverse effects has led it to being included in a list of "problem drugs" used by dermatologists[5] and emergency personnel.[6] However, when compounded properly and applied in the clinic topically by a medical provider familiar with its effects and uses, cantharidin can be safe and effective in treating certain selected benign skin lesions like warts and molluscum[7]. When ingested by humans, the LD50 is around 0.5 mg/kg, with a dose of as little as 10 milligrams being potentially fatal. Ingesting cantharidin can initially cause severe damage to the lining of the gastrointestinal and urinary tract, and may also cause permanent renaldamage. Symptoms of cantharidin poisoning include haematuria, abdominal pains, and rarely priapism.[5] The level of cantharidin in blister beetles can be quite variable: Among blister beetles of the genus Epicauta in Colorado, E. pennsylvanica contain approximately 0.2 mg, E. maculata contain 0.7 mg, and E. immaculata contain 4.8 mg per beetle; males also contain higher levels than females.[8] The extreme toxicity of cantharidin makes any use as an aphrodisiac highly dangerous because it can easily cause death. As a result, it is illegal to sell (or use) cantharidin for this purpose in many countries. [citation needed]
Medical risks for animals

Horses are highly sensitive to cantharidin: the LD50 for horses is approximately 1 mg/kg of the horse's body weight. Horses may be accidentally poisoned when fed bales of fodder with blister beetles in them. [9]
Research
Topical treatment with cantharidin appears to have some effect in an animal model of cutaneous leishmaniasis.[10] In addition to topical medical applications, cantharidin and its analogues may have activity against cancer cells.[11][12][13] Laboratory studies with cultured tumor cell lines suggest that this activity may relate to inhibition of protein phosphatase 2A.[14][15]
References
1. 2. 3. ^ Wolter, Hans (1995). Kompendium der Tierrztlichen Homopathie. Enke. ISBN 978-3432978925. ^ Robiquet.
M., Ann. Chim., 1810, vol. 76, pp. 302-307.
^ Epstein WL, Kligman AM (1958). "Treatment of warts with cantharidin". A. M. A. Archives of dermatology 77 (5): 508 11.PMID 13519856.
4. 5.
^ "Molluscum contagiosum". Merck Manuals. November 2005. Retrieved 2007-10-21. ^ a b Binder R (1979). "Malpractice--in dermatology". Cutis; cutaneous medicine for the practitioner 23 (5): 663 6.PMID 456036.
6.
^ Karras DJ, Farrell SE, Harrigan RA, Henretig FM, Gealt L (September 1996). "Poisoning from "Spanish fly" (cantharidin)".Am J Emerg Med 14 (5): 47883. doi:10.1016/S0735-6757(96)90158-8. PMID 8765116.
7.
^ Moen,
L.; Shwayder, T., Chang M. (October 2001). "Cantharidin revisited: a blistering
defense of an ancient medicine". Archives of Dermatology (137): 13571360.

8. ^ Capinera JL, Gardner DR, Stermitz FR (1985-10)."Cantharidin Levels in Blister Beetles (Coleoptera: Meloidae) Associated with Alfalfa in Colorado". Journal of Economic Entomology 78 (5): 10521055. 9. ^ "Blister Beetle Poisoning / Cantharidin toxicosis". Retrieved 2010-12-31.
10. ^ Ghaffarifar, F. (2010). "Leishmania major: In vitro and in vivo anti-leishmanial effect of cantharidin". Experimental Parasitology 126 (2): 126129.doi:10.1016/j.exppara.2010.04.004. PMID 20435039. edit 11. ^ Ratcliffe, N. A.; Mello, C. B.; Garcia, E. S.; Butt, T. M.; Azambuja, P. (2011). "Insect natural products and processes: New treatments for human disease". Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 41 (10): 747 769.doi:10.1016/j.ibmb.2011.05.007. PMID 21658450. edit 12. ^ Chen, Y. N.; Cheng, C. C.; Chen, J. C.; Tsauer, W.; Hsu, S. L. (2003). "Norcantharidin-induced apoptosis is via the extracellular signal-regulated kinase and c-Jun-NH2-terminal kinase signaling pathways in human hepatoma HepG2 cells". British Journal of Pharmacology 140 (3): 461 470.doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0705461. PMC 1574052.PMID 12970086. edit 13. ^ Zhang, C.; Peng, Y.; Wang, F.; Tan, X.; Liu, N.; Fan, S.; Wang, D.; Zhang, L. et al. (2010). "A synthetic cantharidin analog for the enhancement of doxorubicin suppression of stem cell-derived aggressive sarcoma". Biomaterials 31 (36): 95359543.doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.08.059.PMID 20875681. edit 14. ^ Dorn, D. C.; Kou, C. A.; Png, K. J.; Moore, M. A. S. (2009). "The effect of cantharidins on leukemic stem cells". International Journal of Cancer 124 (9): 21862199. doi:10.1002/ijc.24157.PMID 19123473. edit
15. ^ Li, W.; Xie, L.; Chen, Z.; Zhu, Y.; Sun, Y.; Miao, Y.; Xu, Z.; Han, X. (2010). "Cantharidin, a potent and selective PP2A inhibitor, induces an oxidative stress-independent growth inhibition of pancreatic cancer cells through G2/M cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis". Cancer Science 101 (5): 12261233.doi:10.1111/j.1349-7006.2010.01523.x.PMID 20331621. edit

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Aphrodisiac plant

Dikumpulkan PAKDE JONGKO

Aphrodisiac foods and herbs

/mbrrs/, Latin: Ambra grisea, Ambre gris,ambergrease or grey

F. Perrin, Bernd Wrsig, J. G. M. Thewissen, Encyclopedia of Marine

A row of Eruca sativaplanted in a vegetable bed

Cultivation and history

Inflorescence and young fruits of rucola. Seed pods

Tortellini with rocket and lemon

^ Santamaria et al. 2005[full citation needed]

Avocado fruit and foliage, Runion island

Ripe avocado fruit and cross-section

Native "criollo" avocados, the ancestral form of today's domesticated varieties

Worldwide avocado output in 2005

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United States of America

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A seedless avocado, or cuke, growing next to two regular avocados

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A young avocado sprout

P. americana, avocado plant flowers

Two Hass avocados

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Phosphorus Potassium Zinc

52 mg (7%) 485 mg (10%) 0.64 mg (7%)

Indonesian-style avocado milkshake with chocolate syrup

20cm avocado houseplant leaf

Partially shelled balut egg showingyolk and chick

Fifteen-day-old balut egg floating in a mixture of hot sauce and vinegar

Shelled and fried balut (Wangjidan) sold in Nanjing, China

Underaged balut with visible chick

Balut Eggs Mechanized Balut Making: Bottled Balut

Borojoa patinoi Cuatrec.

^ Nutropical Borojo Science]

T. d. var. aphrodisiaca (G.H.Ward) Urb. T. d. var. diffusa[2]

Turnera microphylla Ham.[2]

Deer penis in a Chinese pharmacy inYokohama, Japan

Angang. Cambridge University Press. 4. ^ Richards,

World. University of California Press. 5. ^ Robert

Dreams from Zinacantn. Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 087474590.

March 23, 2008. Retrieved

Wonderful Foods That People Eat. 10. ^ Bonnard (1999), p.125

Dulce de Leche (Doce de Leite)

A jar of dulce de leche

Manjar, manjar blanco

Preparation and uses

Muffins with dulce de leche sauce

Epimedium macranthum var. violaceum (C. Morren

Epimedium grandiflorum forma violaceum Epimedium violaceum[1]

E. grandiflorum[3] E. grandiflorum 'Nanum'[4] E. grandiflorum 'Rose Queen'[5] E. grandiflorum 'White Queen'[6]

Data related toEpimedium

Kacip fatimah - Female equivalent to Tongkat Ali

/fnjrik/; Trigonella foenum-graecum) is an annual plant in the familyFabaceae. The

) in malayalam, and menthulu in Telugu.

Dried fenugreek seed

Endangered (IUCN 2.3)[2]

Ginkgo leaves in summer

Ginkgo leaves in autumn

Ginkgo pollen-bearing cones

Ovules ready for fertilization

Immature ginkgo ovules and leaves

Autumn leaves and fallen seeds

A forest of saplings sprout among last year's seeds