SMK Seri

Hartamas
Support and Movement
2008

Name: Badrizza bte Suhaili

Class: 2 Cekal

Subject: Science

Name of Teacher: En. Nasri

Index
N Title Page
o
1 Acknowledgement 1
2 Objectives 2
3 Introduction 3

4 Discussion:- 4~18
~Frog
~Grasshopper
~Leech
~Centipede
~Question 6 = a, b & c
5 Conclusion 19~20
6 Action Plan 21~22

7 Reference 23~24
8 Student Manual 25~26
 Acknowledgement

I would like to take this opportunity to show my

gratitude to the people who helped me finish this
portfolio. Firstly, I would like to thank my Form 2
Science teacher, En. Nasri for his guidance, care
throughout this portfolio and giving me
encouragement.. Secondly, I would like to thank my
friends and classmates for helping me and share
information with me. Last but not least, my parents
for giving me support throughout this whole portfolio.
 1

Objectives
1. Classifying various animals based on their
support systems.

2. Explain the support systems in vertebrates and

invertebrates.

3. Compare and contrast the support system

between centipede and grasshopper.

4. Classifying frog, grasshopper, leech and

centipede based on common characteristics.
 2
Introduction
The support system is very important to all
animals. Without a support system, the body would
just collapse. For example, the elephant will not have
any particular shape. It will not be able to raise it’s
body above the ground. Therefore will have great
difficulty walking on land.

Soft bodied animals such as sea anemones and

earthworms are supported by liquid which consists
mainly of water in their cells and in spaces between
their body organs. These animals are said to have
hydrostatic skeleton.

Insects such as grasshoppers and cockroaches,

and crustaceans such as prawns and crabs are
supported by a skeleton of hard material which forms
the outside of their bodies. This outer skeleton is
called the exoskeleton. In vertebrates, the skeleton is
inside the body and muscles are attached to it. This
internal skeleton is called endoskeleton.

All vertebrates have endoskeleton which

consists of bones an cartilage. However, aquatic
vertebrates have smaller endoskeletons when
compared to land vertebrates of the same body
mass. This is due from support of the buoyancy.
Buoyancy is the force from water which allows an
object to float.

In general, the hydrostatic support system is

ideal for aquatic invertebrates. However organisms
living on land are subjected to relatively greater
gravitational forces then in water. Therefore majority
of land invertebrates have rigid support systems to
maintain their body forms.
This support system is called exoskeleton. The outer
covering of the exoskeleton of insects is called the
cuticle and it is made of chitin, a substance similar to
cellulose. The exoskeleton or shell of snails consists
mainly on calcium carbonate.
3
 Discussion

4
Frog

Frogs are amphibians in the order Anura (meaning "tail-

less", from Greek an-, without + oura, tail), formerly referred
to as Salientia (Latin saltare, to jump). The name frog
derives from Old English frogga, (compare Old Norse frauki,
German Frosch, and older Dutch spelling kikvorsch), cognate
with Sanskrit plava (frog), probably deriving from Proto-Indo-
European praw = "to jump". Amphibians are cold-blooded (or
poikilothermic) vertebrate animals. They are over 5000
different species of frogs.

Frogs have the characteristics of:

• Two bulging eyes

• Strong, long, webbed hind feet that are adapted for
leaping and swimming
• Smooth or slimy skin (generally, frogs tend to like
moister environments)
• Frogs tend to lay eggs in cluster.
• Absence of a tail.

Most frogs are found in tropical rainforests, wet

marshes, lakes, rivers, ponds and puddles. The support
system for frogs is endoskeleton that allows it to support its
weight, give a shape, protects the internal organs, provides a
surface for muscle to attach to and works together with
muscles to enable body movement.

When Frogs mate, the male frog tends to clasp the

female underneath in an embrace called amplexus. He
literally climbs on her back, reaches his arms around her
"waist", either just in front of the hind legs, just behind the
front legs, or even around the head. Amplexus can last
several days. Usually, it occurs in the water, though some
species, mate on land or even in trees. While in some cases,
complicated courting behaviour occurs before mating, many
species of frogs are known for attempting to mate with
anything that moves which isn't small enough to eat. Thus
they reproduce externally.

Once adult frogs reach maturity, they will assemble at a

water source such as a pond or stream to breed. Many frogs
return to the bodies of water where they were born, often
resulting in annual migrations involving thousands of frogs.
In continental Europe, a large proportion of migrating frogs
used to die on roads, before special fences and tunnels were
built for them. Most temperate species of frogs reproduce
between late autumn and early spring.

They have a different variety of eyes like round pupils,

vertical pupils, horizontal-shaped pupils, triangular pupils,
star-shaped pupils and heart-shaped pupils. Frogs must be
able to move quickly through their environment to catch
prey and escape predators, and numerous adaptations help
them do so.

Frogs are generally recognized as exceptional jumpers,

and the best jumper of all vertebrates. The acceleration of
the jump may be up to twice gravity. There are tremendous
differences between species in jumping capability, but within
a species, jump distance increases with increasing size, but
relative jumping distance (body-lengths jumped) decreases.

Many frogs are able to absorb water and oxygen directly

through the skin, especially around the pelvic area. However,
the permeability of a frog's skin can also result in water loss.
Camouflage is a common defensive mechanism in frogs.
Certain frogs change colour between night and day, as light
and moisture stimulate the pigment cells and cause them to
expand or contract.

Many frogs contain mild toxins that make them

unpalatable to potential predators. The chemical makeup of
toxins in frogs varies from irritants to hallucinogens,
convulsants, nerve poisons, and vasoconstrictors. Many
predators of frogs have adapted to tolerate high levels of
these poisons. Others, including humans, may be severely
affected.

The skin of a frog is permeable to oxygen and carbon

dioxide, as well as to water. There are a number of blood
vessels near the surface of the skin. When a frog is
underwater, oxygen is transmitted through the skin directly
into the bloodstream. On land, frogs use their lungs to
breathe. Their lungs are similar to those of humans, but the
chest muscles are not involved in respiration, and there are
no ribs or diaphragm to support breathing.

The picture on the top left is the skeletal system of the frog
while the one on the top right is a type of poisonous frog.

The frog on the left is a type of

frog that illustrates the large toe pads and webbed feet.
 The dark
coloured parts of this map, shows the distribution of frogs
across the whole world.

Grasshopper

Grasshoppers are insects of the suborder Caelifera in

the order Orthoptera. The support system for grasshoppers
is exoskeleton that allows it to maintain it’s shape of the
body, protects the soft tissue of the body, protects animal
from predator, limits water loss from body, provides surface
for muscles to attach to and works together with the muscles
to enable body movement.

The family acrididae includes more then 8,000

species of grasshopper and locusts distributed world wide.
Grasshoppers are found in almost all types of habitat
including the tropics, temperate grasslands, rainforests,
deserts and mountains. If adverse condition prevail, some
species migrate in huge numbers to maximise survival.

Grasshopper feed on grass, leafy plants and bushes.

Some species eat only particular food plants but most
species broadened their food base following depletion of
their preferred food. Maintaining a appropriate moisture
content in the body is achieved primarily through food
selection. All species of grasshoppers consume both wet and
dry food. However hydrated insect will choose leaves with
low water content, with a dehydrated one selects leaves
higher in moisture. Captive grasshoppers will drink water
directly when food moisture drops below about 50%.

Respiration is performed using tracheae, air-filled

tubes, which open at the surfaces of the thorax and
abdomen through pairs of spiracles. The spiracle valves only
open to allow oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange. The
tracheoles, found at the end of the tracheal tubes, are
insinuated between cells and carry oxygen throughout the
body.

During reproduction, the male grasshopper introduces

sperm into the ovipositor through its aedeagus (reproductive
organ), and inserts its spermatophore, a package containing
the sperm, into the female's ovipositor. The sperm enters the
eggs through fine canals called micropyles.
8

The female then lays the fertilized egg pod, using her
ovipositor and abdomen to insert the eggs about one to two
inches underground, although they can also be laid in plant
roots or even manure. The egg pod contains several dozens
of tightly-packed eggs that look like thin rice grains. The
eggs stay there through the winter, and hatch when the
weather has warmed sufficiently.

Grasshoppers have antennae that are almost always

shorter than the body (sometimes filamentous), and short
ovipositors. Those species that make easily heard noises
usually do so by rubbing the hind femurs against the
forewings or abdomen (stridulation), or by snapping the
wings in flight. Tympana, if present, are on the sides of the
first abdominal segment.
 The hind femora are typically long and strong, fitted for
leaping. Generally they are winged, but hind wings are
membranous while front wings (tegmina) are coriaceous and
not fit for flight. Females are normally larger than males,
with short ovipositors. Males have a single unpaired plate at
the end of the abdomen. Females have two pairs of valves
( triangles) at the end of the abdomen used to dig in sand
when egg laying.

9
 This shows the anatomy of a
grasshopper.

This picture shows a

grasshopper in camouflage.

A picture of a
grasshopper from underneath.
10
 Leech

Leeches are annelids comprising the subclass

Hirudinea. There are freshwater, terrestrial, and marine
leeches. Like the Oligochaeta, they share the presence of a
clitellum. Like earthworms, leeches are hermaphrodites. The
leech support system is hydrostatic skeleton. Some, but not
all leeches feed on blood. Haemophagic leeches attach to
their hosts and remain there until they become full, at which
point they fall off to digest.

Leeches are found in a wide variety of habitats. Those

living in the ocean and astuaries, or wide areas where rivers
join the sea are found on rocks, plants, or attached to fish or
other sea animals. Species living on land are found in moist
habitats such as rainforests or wet coastal forests. They are
usually found clinging to plants or under rocks.

Freshwater species live in swamps, ponds, streams,

and rivers where they live on wood, rocks, vegetation or on
other animals. Most leeches are plattened from top to
bottom and measure 0.196 to 0.787 inches in length.
Leeches have eyespot on their head that are able to detect
movement from contrasting patterns on light and shadow.
The mouth is located underneath the head.

Like earthworms, leeches have a ditallum, a specialised

collarlike band behind the head. The tail sucker is used for
swimming, getting around or remaining attached to a host.
Blood feeding species have special pouches that allows them
to increase their intake of fluid. They can expand up to six
times their normal weight. Many leeches swim through the
water in a snakelike motion. Species living on land move
along the ground like an inchworm, stretching, shortening
their bodies by using the suckers on both ends.

11
A leech's body is composed of 34 segments. They all
have an anterior (oral) sucker formed from the first six
segments of their body, which is used to connect to a host
for feeding, and also release an anesthetic to prevent the
host from feeling the leech. They use a combination of
mucus and suction (caused by concentric muscles in those
six segments) to stay attached and secrete an anti-clotting
enzyme, hirudin, into the host's blood stream.

Leeches are hermaphrodites, meaning each one of

them has both female and male reproductive organs.
Leeches reproduce by reciprocal fertilization, and sperm
transfer occurs during copulation. The leech exercising the
role of the male will grow a sperm sack near the end of its
tail, and the leech playing the female will bite it off, thus
reproducing. Similarly to the earthworms, leeches also use a
clitellum to hold their eggs and secrete the cocoon. The
ditellum is filled with special tissues that secrete a protective
covering orcase for the eggs.

During reproduction leeches utilize hyper-dermic

injection of their sperm. They use a spermatophore, which is
a structure containing the sperm. Once next to another
leech, the two will line up with their anterior side opposite
the others posterior. The leech then shoots the
spermatophore into the clitellum region of the opposing
leech where its sperm will make its way to the female
reproductive parts.Some species of leech will nurture their
young, while providing food, transport, and protection; which
is unusual behavior in an invertebrate.
 12

This picture shows a leech

on a wet rock.
 This picture shows a
leech searching for prey.

13

Centipede

Centipedes (from Latin prefix centi-, "hundred", and

Latin pes,pedis, "foot") are arthropods belonging to the class
Chilopoda and the Subphylum Myriapoda. They are
elongated metameric animals with one pair of legs per body
segment. A key trait uniting this group is a pair of venom
claws or forcipules formed from a modified first appendage.
This also means that centipedes are an exclusively predatory
taxon, which is uncommon. The support system of a
centipede is the exoskeleton.

Size can range from a few millimetres to about 30 cm.

Worldwide there are estimated to be 8,000 species.
Centipedes are found in an array of terrestrial habitats from
tropical rainforests to deserts. Within these habitats
centipedes require a moist micro-habitat due to their rapid
rates of water loss. Accordingly, they are found in soil and
leaf litter, under stones and deadwood, and inside logs. In
addition, centipedes are one of the largest terrestrial
invertebrate predators and often they contribute a
significant proportion to invertebrate predatory biomass in
terrestrial ecosystems.

Centipedes have a flattened, segmented body, long

antennae, and many legs (each leg is slightly longer than the
one in front of it). Centipedes have from 15 to about 177
segments (but most have about 15). Each body segment has
a pair of legs that stick out from the sides. A member of the
genus Geophilus has 177 pairs of legs. When a leg is cut off
it will regenerate. The body is divided into two parts, the
head and a segmented trunk. They breathe through
spiracles, holes positioned along the body.

Centipede reproduction does not involve copulation.

Males deposit a spermatophore for the female to take up. In
one clade, this spermatophore is deposited in a web, and the
male undertakes a courtship dance to encourage the female
to engulf his sperm. In other cases, the males just leave
them for the females to find. In temperate areas egg laying
occurs in spring and summer but in subtropical and tropical
areas there appears to be little seasonality to centipede
breeding.

14

Number of eggs laid ranges from about 10 to 50. Time

of development of the embryo to hatching is highly variable
and may take from one to a few months. Time of
development to reproductive period is highly variable within
and among species. The female in some species stays with
the young after they have hatched, guarding them until they
are ready to leave. If disturbed the females tend to either
abandon the eggs or young or to eat them; abandoned eggs
tend to fall prey to fungi rapidly. Some species are
matriphagic, meaning that the offspring eat their mother.

Centipedes are found in moist microhabitats. Water

relations are an important aspect of their ecology, since they
lose water rapidly in dry conditions. Water loss is a result of
centipedes lacking a waxy covering of their exoskeleton and
excreting waste nitrogen as ammonia, which requires extra
water. Centipedes deal with water loss through a variety of
adaptations. Spiracle shape, size and ability to constrict also
have an influence on rate of water loss. In addition, it has
been suggested that number and size of coxal pores may be
variables affecting centipede water balance.

Centipedes are carnivores (meat-eaters) that use venom

to kill their prey. The venom comes from glands that open
near the first pair of modified legs (which act as poisonous
fangs). Their bite can be painful to a human but not lethal.
Centipedes eat insects, earthworms, spiders, slugs, and
other small animals.

15
 This picture
shows a centipede crawling on the ground.

A
centipede protecting its eggmass.

16
 Questions
6.a) Compare the support system of the centipede
and the grasshopper and state one similarity
between them.
The centipede and grasshopper are categorised in exoskeleton and
both of them have legs.

6.b) Compare the support system of the leech and

the frog and state one difference between them.
Leeches have hydrostatic skeleton and frogs have endoskeleton.
Frogs are supported by bones while leech is supported by the
buoyancy of water.
 17

Frog, Grasshopper, Leech and

Centipede
6.c)

Endoskeleton Exoskeleton Hydrostatic

Skeleton

~Elephants ~Prawn ~Earthworm

~Humans ~Crab ~Starfish
~Frogs ~Snail ~Jellyfish
~Horse ~Grasshoppe ~Caterpillar
~Dog r ~Leech
~Centipede

18
 Conclusion

19
6.d)

Frog, Grasshopper, Leech And

Centipede
 Vertebrates Invertebrates

~Frog ~Centipede
~Human ~Leech
~Horse ~Grasshopper

20
Action Plan

21
N Activity Date Action
o
1 Listen to the 26 Sept ~took
teacher’s 08 brief
explanation. notes.
2 Collect information 27 Sept ~went to
08 internet
and
library to
find
informati
on
3 Preparing the scrap 28 Sept ~wrote
book 08 on the
scrapboo
k
4 Binding the scrap 29 Sept ~went to
book 08 the store
and bind
it
 22

Reference
 23

Reference
I have referred to the following things:-

1. Internet
~ http://en .wikipedia.org/

2. Book
~ Science Form 2 Textbook

3. Human Source
~ En. Nasri
24