_Ys} y

The Classical Framework

>_s${jR stI Gs%RH
1:j J.:.I.un u nnI&:n| :u... n&.I h hn.J un .Jn. u|.| |n hn .nI:uJ&J nnJ
JnJ hj I| |n...n| I|u:j". (Nicls Loli)
Lcginning will llc Lasc cicalco Ly Galilco Galilci (164-1642) ano Isaac Ncwlon (1642-1727)
ano ocvclopco Ly llc gical savanls of llc cigllccnll ano ninclccnll ccnluiics [sucl as Lagiangc
(1786-1818), Lulci (1707-1788), Laplacc (1749-1887), o` AlcmLcil (1717-1788), Ioisson (1781-1840),
Gauss (1777-18), Hamillon (180-186), Miclacl Faiaoay (1791-1867) ano 1amcs Clcik Maxwcll
(1881-1879)[ onc lao al llc cvc of llc lwcnlicll ccnluiy a Lcauliful ano consislcnl fiamcwoik llal
sccmco lo cxplain salisfacloiily all oLscivco plysical plcnomcna llal mankino was conscious of lill
llal limc. Jlis sliucluic was llc Classical Mcclanics of Iailiclcs, Bigio Looics, Conlinuous Mcoia
ano Ficlos.
Jlc coincislonc of llis coifcc was llc evton`s EquatIon oI otIon :
d
dt

1
I
=

1
I
Jlc limc ialc of clangc of llc momcnlum (

1
I
= n
I
J
J|
r
I
) of llc i-ll pailiclc in a syslcm of pailiclcs
(n
I
Lcing ils mass ano r
I
ils posilion vccloi spccifying ils localion) is cqual lo llc ncl foicc

1
I
acling on il. Hcic Ly a pailiclc is mcanl a poinl cnlily wlicl posscsscs, lowcvci, a mass. A langiLlc
Looy coulo Lc moocllco as a composilc of sucl poinl pailiclcs. Jlc cqualion of molion lolos in
an incilial fiamc of icfcicncc wlicl is onc wlcicin a pailiclc will no asciiLaLlc foiccs acling on il
woulo conlinuc lo Lc in llc slalc of icsl oi in a slalc of unifoim icclilincai molion. Sucl a fiamc
of icfcicncc coulo Lc imaginco lo Lc onc fai fai away fiom all mallci (ano lcncc will no asciiLaLlc
foiccs llcicin) oi onc in unifoim icclilincai molion will icspccl lo llal.
Lquivalcnlly onc may ocsciiLc llc oynamics of a syslcm of A pailiclcs (say) moving in llicc
oimcnsions [8A co-oioinalcs r
I
= (a
I
,
I
, .
I
) will i = 1, 2 A[ suLjccl lo somc consliainls (say
c in numLci) lliougl ) = 8A c Independent generaIIzed co-ordInates q
|
(/ = 1, )) ()
= numLci of ocgiccs of ficcoom) ano coiicsponoing gcncializco vclocilics ` q
|
=
J
J|
q
|
. Jlc d`
AIenIert FrIncIpIe oI YIrtuaI Vork cnaLlcs onc lo inliooucc llc nolion of llc gcncializco
foicc 1
|
ano foi a conscivalivc syslcm llcsc foiccs aic ociivaLlc as llc ncgalivc giaoicnl of llc
polcnlial V viz. 1
|
=
d
dj
>
V . Jlc slalc of llc syslcm al a givcn limc t is ocsciiLco Ly spccifying
llc gcncializco co-oioinalcs ano vclocilics q
|
, ` q
|
, ano llc limc cvolulion of llc slalc is mosl
clcganlly cxpicssco in lcims of llc Lagiangian 1 ocfnco lliougl
1(q
|
, ` q
|
, t) = T V
2 Elements of Quantum Mechanics
wlcic T ano V aic llc kinclic ano polcnlial cncigics icspcclivcly. Jlc Ncwlon`s Lqualion of Molion
may Lc ic-cxpicssco in llc foim of llc Lagrange EquatIons oI otIon
01
0q
|
=
d
dt
01
0 ` q
|
Jlc Lagiangc cqualions of molion can Lc iccasl as a vaiialional piinciplc. Jlc HanIIton`s
FrIncIpIe oI Least ActIon slalcs llal a syslcm will co-oioinalcs q
|
(t
I
) al somc inilial limc
t
I
ano lanoing up will co-oioinalcs q
|
(t
]
) al somc lalci limc t
]
slall follow sucl a pall in llc
spacc of llc co-oioinalcs so as lo cxlicmizc llc inlcgial
3 =
8
|
W
|
7
dt 1(q
|
, ` q
|
, t)
viz.
3 = 0
Hcic 3, known as llc aclion, las llc oimcnsions of cncigy limcs limc oi `1
1
T
d
.
Jo cxlicmizc llc funclional 3 (a funclional is a funclion of a funclion) will icspccl lo llc
funclions q
|
(t) viz. llc vaiialion of llc pall, wc usc llc Calculus of Vaiialions. Consioci aiLiliaiy
vaiialions q
|
(t) in llc palls joining llc givcn inilial ano fnal posilions viz. will cno poinls q
|
(t
I
)
ano q
|
(t
]
) fxco, llal is q
|
(t
I
) = 0 = q
|
(t
]
). Nolc llal ` q
|
(t) =
J
J|
q
|
(t) as oncc a vaiialion
in pall is consiocico llc clangc in llc slopcs aic simply llc ociivalivcs of llis vaiialion. Jlus
cxlicmizalion of 3 will icspccl lo vaiialions in pall implics
3 = 0 =0 =
8
|
W
|
7
dt1(q
|
, ` q
|
, t)
=
8
|
W
|
7
dt
3
|

01
0q
|
q
|

01
0 ` q
|
` q
|
=
8
|
W
|
7
dt
3
|

01
0q
|
q
|

01
0 ` q
|
d
dt
q
|

Inlcgialing llc sccono lcim in llc inlcgiano (lasl slcp aLovc) Ly pails
8
|
W
|
7
dt
01
0 ` q
|
d
dt
q
|
= [
01
0 ` q
|
q
|
[
|
W
|
7

8
|
W
|
7
dt
d
dt
01
0 ` q
|
q
|
=
8
|
W
|
7
dt
d
dt
01
0 ` q
|
q
|
as q
|
= 0 al llc cno-poinls t
I
ano t
]
. Jlus wc aiiivc al
0 =
8
|
W
|
7
dt
3
|

01
0q
|

d
dt
01
0 ` q
|
q
|
Sincc llc inlcgial musl vanisl foi aiLiliaiy q
|
llc only way llis can lappcn is foi llc cxpicssion
in cuily Liackcls lo Lc cqual lo zcio. Jlus llc Hamillon`s Iiinciplc of Lcasl Aclion givcs us llc
Lagiangc Lqualions of Molion wlicl in luin follow fiom llc Ncwlon`s Lqualion of Molion.
Anollci icfoimulalion of Classical Mcclanics was again cfcclco Ly William Bowan Hamillon.
Inliooucing momcnla j
|
(lcimco as) canonically conjugalc lo llc co-oioinalc q
|
via j
|
=
dJ
d j
>
, llc
inocpcnocnl vaiiaLlcs q
|
ano ` q
|
of llc Lagiangian appioacl aic liaoco foi llc inocpcnocnl vaiiaLlcs
q
|
ano j
|
lliougl llc inlioouclion of llc Hamillonian
H = 1
3
|
j
|
` q
|
The Classical Framework 8
wlicl is llcn ic-cxpicssco in lcims of q
|
ano j
|
. Jlc sccono-oioci Lagiangc cqualions of molion
aic llcn lianslalco inlo paiis of llc HanIIton`s EquatIons oI otIon.
` q
|
=
0H
0j
|
` j
|
=
0H
0q
|
Jlc Hamillon`s Lqualion of Molion may Lc clcganlly icslalco lliougl llc inlioouclion of wlal
aic known as FoIsson Irackets wlicl foi any lwo oynamical vaiiaLlcs (q
|
, j
|
) ano 1(q
|
, j
|
)
is ocfnco lliougl
[, 1[
J1
=
3
|
(
0
0q
|
01
0j
|

0
0j
|
01
0q
|
)
Nolc llal llc Ioisson Liackcl of a co-oioinalc ano ils canonically conjugalc momcnlum is unily.
[q
|
, j
l
[
J1
=
|l
wlcic
|l
is llc Kioncckci oclla wlicl is unily if / = l \ zcio ollciwisc.
Jlc cqualions of molion in llis foimalism Lccomc
` q
|
= [q
|
, H[
J1
` j
|
= [j
|
, H[
J1
as can casily Lc clcckco lo Lc nolling Lul llc Hamillon`s cqualions of molion using llc ocfnilion
of llc Ioisson Liackcl.
Allcinalivc ways of ic-cxpicssing mcclanics is lliougl a clangc fiom onc scl of canonically con-
jugalc co-oioinalcs ano momcnlum (q
|
, j
|
: [q
|
, j

[
J1
=
I
) lo anollci (Q
|
, 1
|
: [Q
|
, 1

[
J1
=

I
) vioc wlal is known as a CanonIcaI TransIornatIon. Onc sucl Canonical Jiansfoimalion
lcaos lo llc HanIIton-JacoII FornuIatIon oI CIassIcaI ecnanIcs.
Fiom llc mcclanics of pailiclcs Lconaio Lulci ano ollcis ocvclopco llc oynamics of iigio
Looics (moocllco as a syslcm of pailiclcs consliainco lo movc will llc iclalivc oislancc Lclwccn
cacl paii of conslilucnl pailiclcs fxco). Similaily llc mcclanics of conlinuous luios was also
ocsciiLco Ly laking llc oislancc Lclwccn conslilucnl pailiclcs (ficcly moving) lo go lo zcio ano al
llc samc Licall laking llcii masscs lo go lo zcio sucl llal llc mass pci unil volumc gocs lo a
fnilc limil, llc ocnsily of llc luio (laking llc so-callco lyoiooynamical limil). Onc llus las llc
ecnanIcs oI ContInuous edIa ano also llc Tneory oI FIeIds. Hcic in pailiculai llc plysics
of Llccliicily ano Magnclism was capluico lliougl llc woik of CoulomL, Ampcic, Gauss, Miclacl
Faiaoay ano ollcis culminaling in llc axveII`s EquatIons Ior tne EIectronagnetIc FIeId,
Anollci impoilanl aica of aovancc was in llc plysics of mallci in Lulk ocsciiLco lliougl
TnernaI FnysIcs, wlcicLy sucl a syslcm, iallci llan Lcing ocsciiLco lliougl llc oclailco molion
of ils conslilucnl pailiclcs`, was claiaclciisco Ly gioss vaiiaLlcs sucl as ils volumc (V ), picssuic
(1), lcmpcialuic (T), clc. Hcal was iccognizco as a foim of cncigy icsioing in llc claolic molion
of llc aloms ano molcculcs of llc syslcm. Jlc Lavs oI TnernodynanIcs wcic foimulalco.
Jlc fisl law was simply an cxpicssion of llc conscivalion of cncigy slaling llal llc lcal (^Q)
aooco lo a syslcm cquals llc sum of llc clangc in ils inlcinal cncigy (^l) ano llc woik (^\)
oonc Ly llc syslcm (^Q = ^l ^\), ano llc sccono law wlicl is Lcsl foimulalco lliougl
llc nolion of cnliopy (3) oi ocgicc of oisoioci in llc syslcm, a non-occicasing quanlily in any
clangc. Jlcsc ocvclopmcnls aic associalco will llc namcs of Clausius, Kclvin ano ollcis. Maxwcll
4 Elements of Quantum Mechanics
ano Lollzmann ano lalci GiLLs among ollcis ocvclopco StatIstIcaI ecnanIcs wlicl aims al
piovioing a pioLaLilislic inlcipiclalion of llcimooynamics linking il lo oiscussions of llc mosl
pioLaLlc slalcs of molcculcs oLcying al ils Lasis, lowcvci, llc oclailco mcclanics of pailiclcs. Jlus
llc iclalivc pioLaLilily llal a syslcm in cquiliLiium al a lcmpcialuic T slall lavc an cncigy 1 is
givcn Ly c

o
>
4
x
wlcic /
1
is llc Lollzmann conslanl.
Wlilc in llc aLovc oiscussion (on wlal wc lavc callco llc Classical Fiamcwoik) wc lavc cm-
plasisco llc conccplual aspccls, onc sloulo also iccognisc llal llis ocvclopmcnl wcnl lano in lano
will oiligcnl ano imaginalivc cxpciimcnlalion ano oio also involvc spcculalions ano oclving inlo
llc vciy naluic of mallci. Il is llcicfoic appiopiialc lo aoo a fcw woios on llc classical vicw on llc
lcvcl of llc naluic of suLslancc. Jlus Ncwlon will lis Laws of Molion ano lis Univcisal Jlcoiy
of Giavilalion was aLlc lo cxplain llc molion of llc caill, of llc moon ano llc plancls, as also llc
liocs in llc occans ano llc law of falling Looics on caill. Ycl lc wcnl on lo spcculalc on llc naluic
of ligll (lc aooplco llc coipusculai llcoiy of ligll in llal lc conjccluico llal ligll iays consisl of
pailiclcs). Having oLscivco llc plcnomcnon of icfiaclion of ligll lc pul foiwaio llc lypollcsis llal
oifcicnl colouis coiicsponoco lo coipusculcs of oifcicnl sizcs wlicl wlilc moving will llc samc
spcco in vacuum liavcl

will oifcicnl spccos in mallci ano lcncc onc las icfiaclion. Jlis vicw was
conlcslco Ly Huyglcns ano also Ly Young wlo lliougl lis oLscivalions on inlcifcicncc plcnomcna
(pailiculaily llc oouLlc slil cxpciimcnl) aiguco cogcnlly llal llis coulo Lc accounlco foi if ligll
consislco of wavcs. Ncwlon will lis picoilcclion foi pailiclcs was also a slauncl alomisl ano was
slaiply ciilical of llosc wlo Lclicvco in a conlinuum llcoiy of mallci. Inocco il is insliuclivc lo
quolc fiom lis Opliks (Look 8, Iail I):
&.I 1. 1n nuI I| .nn|| 1n:I.|. u 1uJ.. :In.n 1uu:., 1.:I&. u: 1u:., hj u|.|
I|j nI nI n J..Inn, nuI un|j &un I| 1nj. u 1.j|I u: :I.nj, ::nI.nj nnJ .nI.nj I|n,
h&I n|.u &un un nnuI|: u: :uJ&.nj n j:nI 1n:I u I| 1|nunnn u AnI&:. 1u: .I .. u||
|nuun I|nI 1uJ.. nI &un un nnuI|: hj I| II:nI.un. u G:n.Ij, 1njnI..n nnJ 1|I:..Ij,
nnJ I|. 1n.Inn. .|uu I| Jnu: nnJ Cu&:. u AnI&:, nnJ nn| .I nuI .n:uhnh| I|nI I|: h
nu: nII:nI. 1uu:. I|nn I|. ... J| II:nI.un u G:n.Ij, 1njnI..n nnJ 1|I:..Ij, :n|
Iu :j .n..h| J..Inn., nnJ .u |n hn uh.:J hj &|jn: j., nnJ I|: nnj h uI|:. u|.|
:n| Iu .u .nn|| J..Inn. n. |.I|:Iu .n Oh.:nI.un. ...`
Mosl of llc ocvclopmcnl in llc unocislanoing of llc cxislcncc ano llc naluic of aloms Lc-
foic Bullcifoio ano Loli was ociivco fiom llc sluoy of clcmical icaclions. A sloil nolc on llc
unocilying lisloiy is givcn al llc cno of llis Claplci.
Appendix IA
As a piololypc of conlinuum mcclanics wc oiscuss llc longiluoinal viLialions of a conlinuous
claslic sliing, slailing will a nccklacc of poinl pailiclcs (Lcaos) of mass n conncclco lo cacl ollci
Ly masslcss spiings of lcngll ^ wlicl on clongalion givcs iisc lo icsloiing foiccs piopoilional lo
llc cxlcnsion (will Hookc`s conslanl i say), ano llcn going lo llc conlinuum limil. Consioci cacl
Lcao oisplacco fiom ils cquiliLiium posilion Ly an amounl

(in llc casc of llc )ll Lcao say). As

fai as llc )ll Lcao is conccinco il cxpciicnccs a foicc i(

Ld
) ouc lo llc spiing conncclco lo
ils nciglLoui on llc iigll ano i(

d
) ouc lo llal on llc lcfl.

nfoiosfingly fhis ho bnsod on his obsoivnfions on fho oclipsos of fho noons of Jupifoi looling foi possiblo coloui
by coloui io-npponinnco of lighf nffoi fho oclipso vhich vould hnvo boon fho cnso hnd dioionf colouis novod vifh
dioionf volocifios in vncuun. Jhnf such vould nof bo onsily dofocfod, ovon if if voio fho cnso, vns nof cloni nf fhnf
fino
The Classical Framework
FIg.1. 1jnnn.. u n A||n u 1nJ. ]u.nJ hj 1n..|.. o:.nj.
Conscqucnlly llc Ncwlon`s Lqualion of Molion foi llc )ll Lcao is
n
d
1

dt
1
= i(
Ld

) (

d
)
Now wc wanl lo makc llis nccklacc of Lcaos (say A Lcaos in all ano A 1 spiings) lo appioacl
a conlinuous sliing of lcngll 1. In oioci lo oo llal wc ncco lo lakc A , ^ 0 sucl llal
(A 1)^ 1 ano also n 0 will n^ j llc mass pci unil lcngll of llc sliing ano moicovci
i^ T llc lcnsion on llc sliing. Wc llcn lavc a conlinuous sliing of lcngll 1 will mass pci unil
lcngll = j. Accoioingly, llc oioinal numLci of llc Lcaos ()) musl Lc icplacco Ly (oi piomolco lo)
llc conlinuous vaiiaLlc a mcasuico along llc sliing ano llus

(a), llc oisplaccmcnl al llc

poinl a along llc sliing. Jlus,

(a, t)

Ld
(a ^, t) = (a, t) ^
0
0a
(a, t)
^
1
2
0
1
0a
1
(a, t)

d
(a ^, t) = (a, t) ^
0
0a
(a, t)
^
1
2
0
1
0a
1
(a, t)
wlcic appiopiialc Jayloi`s cxpansions lavc Lccn inslilulco. Jlcsc cxpicssions wlcn inscilco inlo
Ncwlon`s cqualion foi llc oisciclc syslcm ano llc limil ^ 0 (will
n

j) lakcn, icsulls in llc

pailial oifcicnlial cqualion
j
0
1
0t
1
(a, t) = T
0
1
0a
1
(a, t)
wlicl is nolling Lul an cqualion foi longiluoinal wavcs along a conlinuous sliing. Jlcsc wavcs
woulo lavc a vclocily =

T
p
.
Nolc llal llis syslcm now las infnilc ocgiccs of ficcoom (as wc lavc lakcn A ) ano llus,
as a icsull, in oioci lo spccify llc slalc of llc sliing al any givcn limc t wc lavc lo piovioc llc
valucs of ano
`
=
d
d|
al llal inslanl al cvciy poinl a along llc sliing.
Jlc samc lypc of cqualion is also oLlainco foi liansvcisc viLialions of a sliing piovioco llc
oisplaccmcnls aic nol loo laigc. Jlus foi a sonomclci oi a sliingco musical insliumcnl (sucl as a
silai) wc may inliooucc moocs of viLialion of llc sliing (viz. llc funoamcnlal ano ils laimonics oi
ovciloncs) wlicl aic a Lasic scl of solulions. In llc casc wlcn llc lwo cnos of llc sliing aic fxco
llcsc may Lc lakcn lo Lc slanoing wavcs of llc foim

n
(a, t) = cin(
na
1
) coc(.
n
t)
wlcic n is an inlcgci wlicl guaianlccs llc salisfaclion of llc Lounoaiy conoilion llal
n
(a =
0, t) = 0 =
n
(a = 1, t); ano in oioci foi il lo Lc a solulion of llc wavc cqualion wc musl lavc
j.
1
n
= T
n
!
t
!
J
!
oi .
n
= /
n
wlcic i
n
=
.
z
1t
is llc ficqucncy ano /
n
=
1t
X
z
is llc wavc numLci,
ano of couisc i
n
`
n
= is llc vclocily of llc wavc. Any inilial confguialion of llc pluckco sliing
6 Elements of Quantum Mechanics
(a, t = 0) (as slown in llc fguic aLovc) can Lc cxpanoco via llc Fouiici Sciics inlo llc noimal
moocs:
Jlc pluckco sliing al a lalci limc t slall cvolvc inlo (a, t) =

n)(
a
n
cin(
ntr
J
) coc(.
n
t).
FIg.2. (a, t = u) =

t)(
n
t

t
(r, I = u) =

t)(
n
t
..n(
tt-
N
)
Oflcn wc aic nol inlcicslco in cno cfccls ano wc wanl a sliing wlicl is infnilc oi a sliing
willoul cnos. Jlis is casily aclicvco Ly jusl iocnlifying (joining) llc lwo cnos of llc sliing of
lcngll 1 via pciiooic Lounoaiy conoilions.
(a = 0, t) = (a = 1, t)
Wc may look foi liavclling wavc laimonic solulions
|,.
(a, t) = a
|
c
Iw|r.|D
. Hcic / is llc wavc-
numLci viz. ` =
1t
|
is llc wavclcngll (llc oislancc maiking llc pciiooicily of in a). Also i =
.
1t
is llc ficqucncy,
1t
.
is llc pciioo in limc aflci wlicl al any givcn a llc wavc icluins lo ils picvious
valuc. Of couisc c
Iw|r.|D
is a solulion of llc wavc cqualion piovioco i` =
.
|
= =

T
p
(llc wavc
vclocily). Sincc . vcisus / is a sliaigll linc (. = /) wc lavc wlal is callco a lincai oispcision
cuivc wlicl is lo say llal llc wavc-vclocily (
.
|
) is inocpcnocnl of llc wavc-lcngll. Lnfoicing llc
pciiooic Lounoaiy conoilion
|,.
(a = 0, t) =
|,.
(a = 1, t), wc scc llal wc musl lavc c
I|J
= 1 oi
/1 = 2n, wlcic n is an inlcgci. Jlus wc fno llal Lclwccn llc funoamcnlal will wavc-numLci
21 ano somc wavc-numLci / llcic aic n =
|J
1t
moocs. Jlcicfoic llc numLci of moocs (will
pciiooic Lounoaiy conoilions imposco) will wavc-numLcis Lclwccn / ano / d/ aic
dn =
1
2
d/
Al any givcn limc t llc confguialion of llc sliing (a, t) may Lc cxpanoco inlo llc mooal funclions
(a, t) =
n)L
3
n)

n
(t)c
I|zr
wlcic /
n
= n (
1t
J
) aic llc wavc-numLcis of llc moocs. Also nolc llal as musl Lc ical

n
=
n
.
Inslcao of ocsciiLing llc syslcm Ly (a, t) wc may cqually wcll icgaio llc Fouiici componcnls

n
(t) as llc oynamical vaiiaLlcs of llc syslcm. SuLslilulion of llc Fouiici cxpansion of inlo llc
wavc-cqualion yiclos
d
1
dt
1

n
= .
1
n

n
as llc oifcicnl moocs aic inocpcnocnl (lcic .
1
n
=
1
/
1
n
). Nolc llal llc oisplaccmcnls
n
(t) coi-
icsponoing lo cacl mooc Lclavcs simply likc a simplc laimonic oscillaloi will ils claiaclciislic
angulai ficqucncy .
n
.
The Classical Framework 7
Wc llus lavc llc cqualions of molion of a Luncl of oscillalois. Conlinuous syslcms sucl as
sliings ano fclos salisfying sucl wavc-cqualions can llus allcinalivcly Lc lookco upon as a collcclion
of an infnilc numLci of oscillalois coiicsponoing lo llc oifcicnl moocs.
Exercises
:-:j&...I u nnj u&:. un &nnI&n 1|nn.. .. nn.|.n:.Ij u.I| C|n...n| 1|nn..
u|.| ju& n|:nJj |n. C|nI: 1 |n. hn .n|&JJ ]&.I Iu :n.nJ ju& u u|nI ju& |n .I&J.J
n:|.: nnJ u n: :u.J.nj I| u||uu.nj .nn| :uh|n. n. r:...
1. Consioci a pailiclc of mass n moving in onc oimcnsion unoci llc aclion of a foicc piopoilional
lo llc ils oisplaccmcnl a fiom llc oiigin ano oiicclco lowaios llc oiigin (viz. 1 = ia).
(a)Scl up Ncwlon`s Lqualion of Molion foi llis syslcm ano solvc il lo oLlain llc solulion a =
coc(nt 0) wlcic ano 0 aic conslanls of inlcgialion ano . =
0
r
n
is llc so callco classical
ficqucncy. Wlal is llc kinclic cncigy of llc pailiclc Wlal is ils polcnlial cncigy Wlal is ils
lolal cncigy Wlal is llc avciagc kinclic cncigy ovci a cyclc
(L) Wlal is llc Lagiangian foi llis syslcm ano wlal is llc Lagiangc`s Lqualion of Molion
(c) Wlal is llc momcnlum canonically conjugalc lo llc cooioinalc a Wlal is llc Hamillonian
ano wlal aic llc Hamillon`s cqualions of molion foi llis syslcm
2. Consioci a pailiclc of mass n consliainco lo movc along a ciiculai loop of iaoius a kcpl fxco
in a vcilical planc, al llc suifacc of llc caill (will a giavilalional foicc

1 = nq

/, wlcic

/ is
llc unil vccloi upwaios ano q is llc accclcialion ouc lo giavily). Wlal is llc lolal numLci of
consliainls Wlal is a convcnicnl cloicc of gcncializco cooioinalc(s) Scl up llc Lagiangian of llc
syslcm. Wlal is llc canonically conjugalc momcnlum Wlal is llc Hamillonian of llc syslcm
Wiilc oown llc cqualion of molion.
3. Consioci lwo pailiclcs of masscs n
d
ano n
1
moving in llicc oimcnsions [cooioinalcs r
d
ano r
1
[
inlciacling will cacl ollci via a polcnlial V (r
d
, r
1
). Slow llal if llc syslcm is lo Lc oisplaccmcnl
invaiianl (viz. inocpcnocnl of llc cloicc of oiigin of cooioinalcs) llcn llc polcnlial musl Lc a
funclion of r = r
d
r
1
. Fuillcimoic, if onc las lo lavc isoliopy (inocpcnocncc will icspccl lo llc
oiicnlalion of llc cooioinalc axcs) ano llcic aic no ollci inliinsic vcclois of llc pailiclcs
G
, slow
llal llc polcnlial musl Lc a funclion of r = [r[ viz. llc foicc is wlal is known as ccnlial`. Scl
up llc Lagiangian foi sucl a syslcm of lwo pailiclcs inlciacling lliougl a ccnlial foicc. Makc a
liansfoimalion fiom r
d
, r
1
lo r = r
d
r
1
,

1 =
n
A
:
A
Ln
!
:
!
n
A
Ln
!
in llc Lagiangian. Fino llc momcnla j
ano

1 canonically conjugalc lo r ano

1. Jlis canonical liansfoimalion` is known as llc laLoialoiy
lo ccnlic-of-mass liansfoimalion. Inliooucc llc nolalion n =
n
A
n
!
n
A
Ln
!
callco llc icoucco mass.
, 1uuI-nuI Iu I|.. j&.I.un: Supposc llc lwo pailiclcs lao magnclic momcnls j
d
ano j
1
wlal
woulo Lc llc foicc ouc lo llc magnclic inlciaclion Lclwccn llc lwo, ano wlal is llc coiicsponoing
polcnlial Jlis is lo makc you appiccialc llc facl llal llcic coulo Lc non-ccnlial inlciaclions loo
consislcnl will ovci all isoliopy. Lxplain wly llis is consislcnl will ovci all isoliopy.
4. Slow llal foi llc Kcplci IioLlcm [viz. polcnlial V (r) =
r
:
following llc nolalion of llc
picvious cxcicisc[ apail fiom llc oiLilal angulai momcnlum

L = r j, llc vccloi

=

R
n
i
:
:
is
also a conslanl of llc molion. Slow llal

1
=
1JR
!
n
i
1
(lcic 1 is llc cncigy). Calculalc

r ano
8 Elements of Quantum Mechanics
lcncc oLlain llc polai foim of llc clliplic oiLil (foi 1 < 0) ano ocmonslialc llal

, llc so-callco
Bungc-Lcnz vccloi, is a conslanl vccloi poinling along llc majoi axis of llc clliplic oiLil.
5. Consioci llc nccklacc of Lcaos cacl of mass n joinlco lo cacl ollci Ly wciglllcss sliing scg-
mcnls of lcngll ^ (piovioing lcnsion T) as oiscussco in llc Appcnoix. Scl up llc Lagiangian of
llc syslcm. Go lo llc limil ^ 0 ano n 0: n^ j ano inliooucc llc nolion of a Lagiangian
ocnsily. OLlain llc Lulci-Lagiangc cqualion llal minimizcs llc Aclion lcic lo aiiivc al llc wavc
cqualion foi a suLslanlivc sliing. Inliooucc llc momcnlum vaiiaLlc conjugalc lo (in llc nolalion
of Appcnoix IA) ano lcncc oLlain llc Hamillonian ocnsily of llc sliing ano go on lo wiilc oul llc
Hamillon`s cqualions of molion foi llc sliing.
6. Supposc a syslcm of ficc pailiclcs in onc oimcnsion aic somclow kcpl al llcimal cquiliLiium al
somc lcmpcialuic T. Usc llc Maxwcll-Lollzmann facloi c
J/|
4
T
(will /
1
=Lollzmann conslanl)
foi llc iclalivc pioLaLilily foi llc pailiclc`s cncigy lo Lc 1 in oioci lo fno llc avciagc cncigy pci
pailiclc.
Bcpcal llc samc foi a syslcm of simplc laimonic oscillalois. Also fno llc avciagc valucs of llc
oisplaccmcnl a as also llc mcan-squaic oisplaccmcnl. Wlal is llc avciagc cncigy pci oscillaloi
wlcn llc syslcm is al a lcmpcialuic T.
BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL NOTES
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I| 1u|j O u I| 1nj&...I.un u: |:.j nnJ un. u&nJ j&.|Ij.
1n I|.. unIrI .I .. .nI:.I.nj Iu nuI .un uu:J. | u:uI Iu n :.nJ:1|j .. .I I|nI, .n u:J:
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nn... 1.. uu:| un n|nn.. un. un|IJ u|.| | un. &nJ: |u&. n::.I nnJ |.. uu:| 1..-
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1u||nnJ. 1 .. uIn J.:.hJ n. I| 1nI|: u 1uJ:n 1|j... n. | unh.nJ uh.:nI.un, un-
I:u||J r:.nnI., I|u:j nnJ nnI|nnI..!
Isaac evton {1642-1727) : AuIun un. hu:n .n 1nj|nnJ .n I| jn: Gn|.|u J.J .n 1In|j.
I: j:nnnn: .|uu| | unI Iu J:.n.Ij Cu||j, Cnnh:.Jj .n 11, u|: | :nn.nJ u: nn:|j
u:Ij jn:.. 1n 1 hn&. u I| G:nI 1|nj& | unI hn| Iu |.. ..u|nIJ |un nI 1uu|.I|u:
The Classical Framework 9
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u:n, I| nI|uJ u InnjnI., I| J.:nI.n| n|&|&., J..:..un u |.j|I, .nIj:n| n|&|&., nnJ
| hjnn Iu I|.n| nhu&I j:n.Ij nnJ I| u:h.I u I| nuun. 1|n | :I&:nJ Iu J:.n.Ij Cu||j
.n 17 | un. |IJ n 1||uu nnJ .n 1 hnn 1&n..nn 1:u..u:. 1n 17 | un. nh| Iu
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|.n Iu u:.I n uu:| un Jjnnn.. u|.| | J.J .n .j|In nunI|. u.I| |.. 1|.|u.u|.n AnI&:n|..
1:.n..n 1nI|nnI.n - J| 1nI|nnI.n| 1:.n.|. u AnI&:n| 1|.|u.u|j` I| j:nI.I huu| :
u:.IIn, :|n.! 1nJJ 1.::-o.nun 1n|n u:uI:J| 1:.n..n .. :-n.nnI nhu nnj uI|:
:uJI.un u I| |&nnn jn.&.`. 1n 17u | &h|..|J nnuI|: j:nI uu:| OI.|.. 1.n.I.n u:uI u
|.n: AnI&: un. Iu |.n nn un huu|". J| uI 1u:J.uu:I| :u:JJ |.. I|u&j|I. |uu|.nj nI I|
.InI& u I| j:nI I|.n|::
|uu|.nj u:I| hj |.j|I
O nuun u: nu&:.nj .In:., 1 u&|J h|u|J
J| nnI|n| u|: |.. .InI& .IuuJ
O AuIun u.I| |.. :..n nnJ ..|nI n
J| nn:h| .nJr u n n.nJ u: :
1ujnj.nj I|:u&j| .I:nnj on. u J|u&j|I, n|un"
Leonnard EuIer {1707-83) : ou... nnI|nnI..nn u|u .I&J.J nI I| 1n.:..Ij u 1n.| nnJ
hnn |u. :.nJ u.I| 1nn.| 1:nu&||. u|u :.&nJJ |.n Iu ]u.n |.n nI oI. 1I:.h&:j .n 17.7
u|: | hnn :u..u: u |j... .n 17u. 1 |u.I I| ..j|I u |.. :.j|I j :|n. hn&.
u |uu|.nj nI I| o&n J&:.nj |.. n.I:unun.n| .I&J... 1n 171 ]u.nJ 1:J:.| I| G:nI`. 1:|.n
nJnj u o.n. 1n 17 1&|: nIJ CnI|:.n I| G:nI`. u: u 1.:Iu:.|. u oI. 1-
I:.h&:j nJnj u|: | hnn IuIn||j h|.nJ h&I unI.n&J |.. uu:|. 1&|: un. I| nu.I :u|.
nnI|nnI..nn .n |..Iu:j - | .j.InnI.:J nnn|j..., &I n|&|&. nnJ I:.jununI:j .nIu .I. nuJ:n
u:n, J..u:J I| 1&|:`. n&nh: c = 2.71828 , J|uJ .:.. .u|&I.un., .u|J |.nn: J.:-
nI.n| j&nI.un., J|uJ n:I.n| J.:nI.n| n|&|&., J|uJ n|nn.., .u|J n:ur.nnI|j
I| I|: huJj 1n:I|, o&n nnJ 1uun :uh|n, J|uJ |n...n| :I&:hnI.un I|u:j, uu:|J un &.J
uu, junI:j nnJ nu&.I... 1 .. u|| |nuun u: I| 1&|:`. :&|: u|j|J:un u.I| 1 :I..,
1 n. nnJ 1 Jj. .nI... 11-1=., u|.| .|u&|J h |nuun Iu :j .|uu|-huj.
d`AIenIert {1717-83) : 1:n| nnI|nnI..nn u|u J..u:J J`|nh:I`. :.n.| u n-
|nn... C|n:.J I| unI u |.n.I .n n|&|&.. 1n 17 | &h|..|J |.. J:n.I J 1jnnn.j&
;J:nI.. un 1jnnn..) u|.| .n|&J |.. :.n.| u .:I&n| uu:|. 1 J|uJ I| I|u:j u n:-
I.n| J.:nI.n| j&nI.un. nnJ .u|J .&| :uh|n. n. I|nI u I| .h:nI.nj .I:.nj nnJ un j&nI.un.
1 ]u.nJ 1&|:, C|n.:n&|I, 1nj:nnj nnJ 1n|n .n n|j.nj n|&|&. Iu nnnj :uh|n. .n |.I.n|
n|nn...
Lagrange{1736-1813) : hu:n .n J&:.n u n 1:n| nI|: nnJ 1In|.nn nuI|: | Iuu| Iu nnI|-
nnI... 1n 17 | nuJ Iu .&J 1&|: n. 1.:Iu: u I| 1:|.n nJnj u o.n.. 1n 177
| unI Iu 1n:.. n. 1:u..u: u 1nI|nnI.. nI I|

1u| 1u|jI|n.j&. 1 .. nnu&. u: |..
j:nI huu| nn|jI.n| 1|nn.. u|.| | .In:IJ u:.I.nj u|n | un. 1 nnJ &h|..|J un|j u|n
| un. .. 1I J|uJ n|nn.. &..nj n unh.nnI.un u n|&|&. nnJ n|&|&. u n:.nI.un.. 1n-
|.| Gn|.|u nnJ AuIun | &.J nu junI:. nI|uJ. ;I|: u: nu J.nj:nn.!). Anu|un .. .n.J
Iu |n :nn:|J Iu 1nj:nnj un |.. huu|:J|.. uu:| |n. nu nnI.un u GuJ", Iu u|.| 1nj:nnj
.&u.J|j :|.J:o.:, 1 |nJ nu nJ u I|nI |juI|...".
LapIace {1749-1827) : 1:n| nnI|nnI..nn, n.I:unun: nnJ |j....I u|u J|uJ -
10 Elements of Quantum Mechanics
|.I.n| n|nn.. nnJ .&jj.IJ ;.nJnJnI|j u 1nnn&| 1nnI) I|nI I| .&n nnJ I| |nnI. n:
u:nJ :un n :uInI.nj J.. u jn.. 1n 177 | .|uuJ I|nI I| j:n.InI.unn| :I&:hnI.un. u un
|nnI un nnuI|: uu&|J nuI |nJ Iu .n.Inh.|.I.. .n I|.: u:h.I. ;AuIun h|.J I|nI .&| .n.In-
h.|.I.. u&|J |nJ Iu I| nJ u I| uu:|J u.I|u&I J..n .nI:nI.un). 1Iun 17 nnJ 1. |
&h|..|J |.. u|&n uu:| 1nn.j& C|.I u|.| .nu:u:nIJ J|unnI. .n n|nn..
..n AuIun. J| huu| :j&nI|j &.. I| |:n. .I .. uh.u&. n I|u&j| .unI.n. .I .. nuI .u.
1n|n n|.u &I n :n u&nJnI.un un :uhnh.|.Ij I|u:j ;h.nun.n| J..I:.h&I.un). 1 n|.u J|uJ
I| unI u I| uInI.n|. 1I .. .nI:.I.nj Iu nuI I|nI .n |.. n:|j jn:. | u||nhu:nIJ u.I|
I| j:nI |n..I 1nu...&:. 1n|n n|.u uu:|J .n I| |nnn.nj u I| 1u| 1u|jI|n.j& u.I|
Anu|un. 1I un. 1n|n u|u .&jj.IJ I|nI I| hn.. &n.I u |njI| h In|n n. I| nI: nnJ
:nI.unn|.:J I| nI:. .j.In. 1I nnj n|.u h nuIJ I|nI | J.J n|nu.I rnI|j n nI&:j nI: I|
JnI| u AuIun.
Tnonas Young {1773-1829) : 1nj|..| |j....I, |j...nn nnJ 1jjIu|uj..I u|u u|.| .I.|| n
.I&JnI J..u:J I| :u| u I| .|.n:j n&.|. un I| nunuJnI.un u I| j I|:u&j| |nnj. .n
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1u1 | u&|J J.:.h nnJ nn.&: n.I.jnnI..n. 1 .&jj.IJ I|nI I| :I.un u u|u&: .. .n I|
:.un. Iu I| :.nn:j u|u&:.: :J, j:n nnJ .u|I |.j|I, n I|u:j |nI: J|uJ hj 1|n|u|I:
nnJ u &. Iu u|u&: |uIuj:n|j nnJ u|u&: I|...un. 1 .|uuJ |uu :j u|u&: u&|J h ::-
.nIJ hj n u.nI .n..J nn j&.|nI:n| I:.nnj| u|: I| :nJ.&|n: J..Inn. Iu I| I|: ..J.
::.nI I| :uu:I.un u I| I|: :.nn:j u|u&:.. 1: n I|u:n u junI:j I|nI I| .&n u
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|unj .|nJuu u I| j:nI 1.nn AuIun u|.| Jun.nnIJ u: 1nj|nnJ :.nIJ n j:nI J.&|Ij
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FoIsson {1781-1840) : 1:n| nnI|nnI..nn nnJ |j....I u|u unI:.h&IJ Iu n|nn..,
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1u| 1u|j-
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VIIIIan Hovan HanIIton {1805-1865) : 1:..| nnI|nnI..nn, hu:n .n 1&h|.n, nn.I:J 1
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12 Elements of Quantum Mechanics
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14 Elements of Quantum Mechanics
SOME NOTES ON THE CLASSICAL HISTORY OF THE CONCEPT OF ATOMS
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