Λυμενες Ασκησεις Απειροστικου Λογισμου 1

Askseic Apeirostiko Logismo I
rqeire hmeisei
mm wjhmtikn nepistmio ejhnn ejn PHHW
Perieqmena
I o snolo twn prgmtikn rijmn P ekolouje prgmtikn rijmn Q unrtsei R unqei ki ri sunrtsewn S rgwgo I PQ SI SW VQ
Keflaio 1
To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn

irwtsei ktnhsh
ixetste n oi prktw protsei eni lhje yeude @itiologste plrw thn pnths sAF
IF
'Estw
mh ken, nw fra gmno uposnolo tou
Gia kje
xA
qoume
x sup A
F y sup A eni ex orismo nw frgm tou AF unepD gi kje x A qoume x sup AF

Swst
PF
'Estw
mh
ken,
nw .
fra gmno
uposnolo
tou
xR
enai
nw
fr gma
tou
an kai mno an
sup A x
F en o x eni nw frgm tou A tte sup A x p ton orism tou sup AX o sup A eni to nw frgm tou AF entstrofD n sup A x tte gi kje a A qoume a sup A xD dhld o x eni nw frgm tou AF
Swst mikrtero
QF
An to
enai mh ken kai nw fra gmno uposnolo
tou
tte
sup A A
F o A = (0, 1) = {x R : 0 < x < 1} eni mh ken ki nw frgmno uposnolo tou RD mw sup A = 1 / AF

Ljoc
RF
An
enai na mh ken
kai nw fra gmno
uposnolo
tou
tte
sup A A
Swst
F 9istw A n mh ken ki nw frgmno uposnolo tou ZF ep to xwm th plhrthtD uprqei to a = sup A RF t dexoume ti a AX p ton qrkthrism tou supremumD uprqei x A ste a 1 < xF en a / AD tte x < aF eut shmnei ti o x den eni nw frgm tou AD opteD efrmzont pli ton qrkthrism tou supremumD
2 To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn rskoume y A ste a 1 < x < y < aF 9ipeti ti 0 < y x < 1F eut eni topoD diti oi x ki y eni krioiF
SF
An
a = sup A
kai
>0
, tte uprqei
xA
me
a<xa
F en a = sup A ki > 0D p ton qrkthrism tou supremumD uprqei x A ste a < xF ep thn llh pleurD o a eni nw frgm tou A ki x AF unepD x aF
Swst
TF
An
a = sup A
kai
>0
, tte uprqei
xA
me
a<x<a
F rteD gi prdeigmD A = {1, 2}F teD sup A = 2F en mw proume = 1 2D tte den uprqei x A pou n iknopoie thn 3 2 < x < 2F
Ljoc
UF
An to
enai mh ken
kai
sup A inf A = 1
tte uprqoun
x, y A
ste
xy =1
Ljoc
F rteD gi prdeigmD A = (0, 1)F teD sup A inf A = 1 0 = 1F en mw x, y (0, 1) tte 0 < x < 1 ki 1 < y < 0D r 1 < x y < 1F hhldD gi kje x, y (0, 1) qoume x y = 1F
VF
Gia
kje .
x, y R
me
x<y
uprqoun
peiroi
to
pljoc
r Q
pou
ikanopoion
thn
x<r<y
Swst
F 9istw A to snolo lwn twn r Q pou iknopoion thn x < r < y @gnwrzete ti to A eni mh kenAF e upojsoume ti to A qei pepersmn to pljo stoiqeD t r1 < < rm F 9iqoume x < r1 D r uprqei rht r pou iknopoie thn x < r < r1 F 9ymw tteD x < r < y ki r / {r1 , . . . , rm } @topoAF
esksei ymd e9 IF
@A @A @gA @dA
Dexte ti ta paraktw isqoun sto
An
x<y+ xy+ a<x0 >0
, tte
xy xy
An
gia kje
, tte
An
|x y |
gia kje
>0
, tte
x=y
An
kai
a<y0
xy xy = > 0, 2 2 dhld uprqei > 0 ste x > y + F 9etopoF x (y + ) = x y

@A we ton dio kri trpoX upojtoume ti y < xF teD epilgont = qoume xy xy x (y + ) = x y = > 0, 2 2
xy 2
>0
3
dhld uprqei > 0 ste x > y + F 9etopoF @gA tumhjete ti n a, b R ki b 0D tte |a| b n ki mno n b a bF ep thn upjeshD gi kje > 0 isqoun oi
xy+
ki y x + .
ep to @A peti ti x y ki y xF 9erD x = y F @dA efo a < x < b ki b < y < aD qoume (b a) < x y < b aF 9erD |x y | < b aF
PF @A
An
|a b| <
, tte uprqei
ste
|a x| <
@A @gA |b x| <
Isqei to antstrofo?
ki |b x| < . 2 2
2
'Estw
ti
a<b<a+
Brete
louc
touc
2.
xR
pou
ikanopoion
tic
|a x| <
kai
Updeixh
F @A rnoume sn x to mso tou distmto [a, b]X
x=a+
teD
ba a+b = . 2 2 |a b| < . 2 tteD p thn trigwnik nistht gi thn + = . 2 2
|a x| = |b x| =
@A ssqeiF en |a x| < pluth timD qoume
2
ki |b x| <
|a b| |a x| + |x b| <
@gA o snolo twn x R pou iknopoion thn |a x| < 2 eni to a 2 , a+ 2 F ymowD to snolo twn x R pou iknopoion thn |b x| < 2 eni to b 2 , b+ 2 F 9erD jloume n rome thn tom tou
(a /2, a + /2) (b /2, b + /2).

vgw th b < a + qoume b
2 <a+ 2 F unepD
<b <a+ <b+ . 2 2 2 2
9ipeti ti (a /2, a + /2) (b /2, b + /2) = (b /2, a + /2)F
QF
Na dei qje me epa gw g ti o arijmc
n5 n
enai pollaplsio tou
gia kje
nN
4 To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn F we epgwgF qi to epgwgik mD upojste ti gi kpoion m N o m5 m eni pollplsio tou 5 ki gryte
Updeixh
(m + 1)5 (m + 1) = (m5 m) + 5m4 + 10m3 + 10m2 + 5m.
RF
Exetste gia poiec
timc tou fusiko arijmo
@iA 2n > n3 D
Updeixh
@iiA 2n > n2 D
@iiiA 2n > nD
n @ivA n! > 2n D
isqoun oi paraktw anisthtec:
@vA 2n1 n2 F
F (ii) werik dokim j s pesoun ti h 2n > n2 isqei gi n = 1D den isqei gi n = 2, 3, 4 ki @mllonA isqei gi kje n 5F hexte me epgwg ti h 2n > n2 isqei gi kje n 5X gi to epgwgik m upojtoume ti h 2m > m2 isqei gi kpoion m 5F teD 2m+1 > 2m2 > (m + 1)2 n isqei h nistht 9ymwD fo m 5D qoume
1 + 2m < m2 .
1 + 2m < m + 2m = 3m < m2 . (iv) hexte me epgwg ti n! > 2n gi kje n 4F ilgxte ti n! 2n n n = 1, 2, 3F (v) hexte me epgwg ti 2n1 > n2 gi kje n 7F ilgxte ti 2n1 n2 n n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6F
SF
'Estw
a, b R
kai
nN
Dexte ti
n1
an bn = (a b)
k=0
An
ak bn1k .
0<a<b
, dexte ti
nan1
Updeixh
bn an nbn1 . ba
F we epgwgF qi to epgwgik mD upojste ti

m1
am bm = (a b)
k=0
ak bm1k
gi kpoion m NF teD
am+1 bm+1
= =
(a b)am + b(am bm )
m1
(a b)am + (a b)b
k=0
ak bm1k
5
m1
(a b) am +
k=0 m1
ak bm1k b ak bmk
k=0
(a b) am +
m
(a b)
k=0
ak bmk
en 0 < a < bD tte an1 ak bn1k bn1 gi kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1F 9erD

n1
nan1
k=0
ak bn1k =
bn an nbn1 . ba
TF
@A @A @gA @dA
'Estw
An
An
An
An
aR a>1 an > a a>1 m, n N am < an n 0<a<1 a <a 0<a<1 m, n N am < an

. Dexte ti: , tte gia kje kai , tte , tte gia kje kai , tte
fusik arijm
n2
an kai mno an
fusik arijm
an kai mno an
m<n n2 m>n
. .
Updeixh
ti a
F @A efo a > 1 ki a > 0D qoume a a > 1 aF hhldD a2 > aF pojtoume > a gi kpoion m 2F efo a > 1 ki am > 0D prnoume didoqik
am+1 = am a > am 1 = am > a.

ep thn rq th epgwg peti ti an > a gi kje n 2F @A hexte prt me epgwg ti ak > 1 gi kje k NF teD n m < n qoume an n m N ki ut shmnei ti anm > 1D dhld a erD an > am F qi thn m > 1F 9 ntstrofh sunepgwgD prthrste ti n m n tteD pw prinD an am F unepD n am < an prpei n isqei m < nF @gA efo a < 1 ki a > 0D qoume a a < 1 aF hhldD a2 < aF pojtoume ti am < a gi kpoion m 2F efo a < 1 ki am > 0D prnoume didoqik
am+1 = am a < am 1 = am < a.

ep thn rq th epgwg peti ti an < a gi kje n 2F @dA hexte prt me epgwg ti ak < 1 gi kje k NF teD n m < n qoume an n m N ki ut shmnei ti anm < 1D dhld a erD an < am F qi thn m < 1F 9 ntstrofh sunepgwgD prthrste ti n m n tteD pw prinD an am F unepD n am < an prpei n isqei m > nF
UF
'Estw
aR
kai stw
nN
Dexte ti:
6 To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn @A @A @gA
An
a 1
, tte
(1 + a)n 1 + na
n
An
0 < a < 1/n 0a1
, tte
(1 + a) < 1/(1 na)
An
, tte
1 na (1 a)n
Updeixh
1 . 1 + na
F @A @nistht tou BernoulliAF qi n = 1 h nistht isqei w isthtX 1 + a = 1 + aF heqnoume to epgwgik mX pojtoume ti (1 + a)m 1 + maF efo 1 + a 0D qoume (1 + a)(1 + a)m (1 + a)(1 + ma)F 9erD
(1 + a)m+1 (1 + a)(1 + ma) = 1 + (m + 1)a + ma2 1 + (m + 1)a.

r teleut nistht isqei diti ma2 0F @A qi to epgwgik mD prthrste prt ti n 0 < a < 1 F ep thn epgwgik upjeshD 0<a< m
1 m+1
tte qoume ki
(1 + a)m+1 (1 (m + 1)a) = (1 + a)(1 (m + 1)a)(1 + a)m <

9ymwD
(1 + a)(1 (m + 1)a) . 1 ma
(1 + a)(1 (m + 1)a) = 1 + a (m + 1)a (m + 1)a2 = 1 ma (m + 1)a2 < 1 ma.

9ipeti ti
(1 + a)m+1 (1 (m + 1)a) < 1.
@gA qi thn rister nisthtD prthrste ti a 1F unepD mporome n efrE msoume to @A me ton a sth jsh tou aX
(1 a)n = (1 + (a))n 1 + n(a) = 1 na.

qi th dexi nisthtX n a = 1 h nistht isqei ditiD tteD (1 a)n = 0F en 0 a < 1 1 qoume 1 a > 1 + a @exhgste gitAD opte
1 = (1 a)n
p to @AF 9ipeti ti (1 a)n
1 1a
1 1+na F
> (1 + a)n 1 + na
VF
@A @A
'Estw
aR
Dexte ti:
An
1 < a < 0 a>0

, tte
, tte
(1 + a)n 1 + na +
n
n(n1) 2 a 2
gia kje
nN
.
An
(1 + a) 1 + na +
n(n1) 2 a 2
gia kje
nN
7
1) 2 F @A ssodnmD dexte ti n 0 < x < 1D tte (1 x)n 1 nx + n(n2 x gi kje n NF we epgwgF en n = 1 tte isqei sn isthtF 1) 2 pojste ti (1 x)m 1 mx + m(m x gi kpoion m NF teD 2
Updeixh
(1 x)m+1
(1 x)m (1 x) m(m 1) 2 1 mx + x (1 x) 2 m(m 1) 3 m(m 1) + m x2 x = 1 (m + 1)x + 2 2 (m + 1)m 2 < 1 (m + 1)x + x , 2 =
1) m fo m(m + m = (m+1) ki x > 0F 2 2 @A en n = 1D h nistht isqei sn isthtF en n 2D prthrste ti p to diwnumik nptugmD n
(1 + a)n =
k=0
n k n 2 n(n 1) 2 a 1 + na + a = 1 + na + a . k 2 2
o qrhsimopoijhke h upjesh ti a > 0c
WF
Dexte
ti
gia kje
nN 1+
isqoun oi anisthtec
1+
1 n
<
1 n+1
n+1
ki
1+
1 n
n+1
>
1+
1 n+1
n+2
Updeixh
F qi thn prth nistht prthrome ti
1+
1 n
<
1+
1 n+1
n+1
n+1 n n+1 < n+2 1 1 n+2
n+2 n+2 n+1 n+1 n n(n + 2) (n + 1)2 n 1 < 1 . (n + 1)2 <
ep thn nistht tou Bernoulli qoume
1
erke loipn n elgxete ti
1 (n + 1)2
>1
n . (n + 1)2
n 1 < . 2 (n + 1) n+2
8 To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn
IHF @A
Dexte
thn tte
anisthta
Cauchy-Schwarz
2 n
an
a1 , . . . , an
n
kai
b1 , . . . , b n
enai
pra g-
matiko arijmo,
ak bk
k=1
k=1
: an
a2 k
k=1
b2 k
kai
. b1 , . . . , b n
1 /2
enai pra gmatiko
@A
Dexte
thn
anisthta
tou
Minkowski
1/2 2
a1 , . . . , an
1 /2
arijmo,
tte
(ak + bk )
k=1
Updeixh
k=1
a2 k
+
k=1
b2 k
F @A r pio fusiologik pdeixh eni me epgwgX prthrste prt ti rke n dexoume thn nistht sthn perptwsh pou ak 0D bk 0 gi kje k = 1, . . . , n @exhgste gitAF n = 2X ilgxte ti gi kje a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 R isqei h nistht
2 2 2 (a1 b1 + a2 b2 )2 (a2 1 + a2 )(b1 + b2 ).
F pojtoume ti to zhtomeno isqei gi opoiesdpote do k de prgE mtikn rijmnD k = 2, . . . , mF 9istw a1 , . . . , am+1 ki b1 , . . . , bm+1 mh rnhtiko prgE mtiko rijmoF rhsimopoint thn epgwgik upjesh grfoume
Epa gw gik bma
m+1
ak bk
k=1
=
k=1
ak bk + am+1 bm+1
m 1 /2 m 1/2
k=1
a2 k
k=1
b2 k
m 2 1/2 D k=1 bk
+ am+1 bm+1 .
tte @p to m n = 2A qoume
en orsoume x =
m 1/2 m
m k=1
a2 k
1/2
ki y =
1/2
a2 k
k=1 k=1
b2 k
+ am+1 bm+1
= xy + am+1 bm+1
1/2 2 1/2 (x2 + a2 (y + b2 m+1 ) m+1 )
=
unduzont t prpnw lpoume ti
m+1 2 2 ak bk a2 1 + + am + am+1 k=1
2 2 a2 1 + + am + am+1
1/2
2 2 b2 1 + + bm + bm+1
1/2
1/2
2 2 b2 1 + + bm + bm+1
1 /2
9itsiD qoume podexei to epgwgik mF
9
@A rhsimopoint thn nistht CauchySchwarzD grfoume
n n n
(ak + bk )2
k=1
=
k=1
ak (ak + bk ) +
k=1 1 /2 n n
bk (ak + bk )
1 /2 n 1/2 n 1/2
k=1
a2 k
k=1 1/2
(ak + bk )2
n 1/2
+
k=1
b2 k
k=1 1/2
(ak + bk )2
a2 k
k=1
+
k=1
b2 k
(ak + bk )2
k=1
9ipeti to zhtomeno @exhgste gitAF
IIF @uttht tou LagrangeA

n n
An
a1 , . . . , an R
n 2
kai
b1 , . . . , b n R
n
, tte
a2 k
k=1 k=1
b2 k
k=1
ak bk Lagrange
1 2
(ak bj aj bk )2 .
k,j =1
Qrhsimopointac thn tautthta tou
dexte
thn anisthta
Cauchy-Schwarz
Updeixh
F rthrste ti
n n n
a2 k
= b2 j
n 2 a2 k bj k,j =1
a2 k
k=1 k=1
b2 k
=
k=1
j =1
kiD moiD
n n
b2 k =
a2 j
a2 k
k=1 k=1
b2 k
k=1
=
k,j =1
2 a2 j bk .
j =1
ipshD
n 2 n
ak bk
aj bj =
ak bk
k=1
=
k=1
ak bj aj bk .
k,j =1
j =1
9erD to rister mlo isoti @exhgste gitA me
1 2
n 2 (a2 k bj k,j =1
2ak bj aj bk +
2 a2 j bk )
1 = 2
(ak bj aj bk )2 .
k,j =1
r nistht CauchySchwarz prokptei mesF
IPF @enistht rijmhtikoEgewmetriko msouA

x1 x2 xn
Isthta isqei an kai mno an
An
x1 , . . . , xn > 0
n
, tte
x1 + + xn n
.
x1 = x2 = = xn
Epshc,
an
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn > 0
, tte
x1 x2 xn
1 x1
n + +
n 1 xn
Updeixh
F F heqnoume prt epgwgik tiD gi kje k ND n x1 , . . . , x2k eni jetiko prgmtiko rijmo tte
Prtoc trpoc
x1 + + x2k . 2k x2 qi k = 1 prpei n elgxoume ti n x1 , x2 > 0 tte x1 x2 x1 + F eut h nistht 2 2 isqei n ki mno n 4x1 x2 (x1 + x2 ) D h opo isqei diti (x1 x2 )2 0F pojtoume ti n y1 , . . . , y2m eni jetiko prgmtiko rijmo tte
2k
x1 x2k
2m
y1 y 2 m
y1 + + y2m . 2m
9istw x1 , . . . , x2m , x2m +1 , . . . , x2m+1 > 0F teD efrmzont thn epgwgik upjesh gi tou x1 , . . . , x2m > 0 ki x2m +1 , . . . , x2m+1 > 0D prnoume
2m+1
x1 x2m x2m +1 x2m+1
= =
2m 2m
x1 x2m
2m 2m
x2m +1 x2m+1
x1 x2m +
x2m +1 x2m+1
2 1 x1 + + x2m x2m +1 + + x2m+1 + 2 2m 2m x1 + + x2m+1 . 2m+1
9iqoume loipn dexei to zhtomeno n to pljo N twn rijmn eni N = 2k D k NF 9istw n N ki stw x1 , . . . , xn > 0F prqei N = 2k > n @exhgste gitAF tewrome th N d x1 , . . . , xn , , . . . , D pou prme N n for ton jetik rijm = n x1 xn F wporome n efrmsoume thn nistht rijmhtikogewmetriko msou gi9 ut th N dX
N
x1 xn N n
x1 + + xn + (N n) . N
11
efo x1 xn = n D h nistht prnei th morf
=
dhld
n N n
x1 + + xn + (N n) , N
N (x1 + + xn ) + (N n) = n x1 + + xn .
unepD
n
trpoc
x1 xn =
x1 + + xn . n
xk D
F ttoume = n x1 x2 xn ki orzoume bk = rthrome ti oi bk eni jetiko prgmtiko rijmo me ginmeno

Deteroc
k = 1, . . . , nF
b1 b n =
x1 xn x1 xn = = 1. n
ipshD h zhtomenh nistht prnei th morf
b1 + + bn n.
erke loipn n dexoume to exX 9istw n NF en b1 , . . . , bn eni jetiko prgmtiko rijmo me ginmeno b1 bn = 1D tte b1 + + bn nF hexte thn me epgwg w pro to pljo twn bk X n n = 1 tte qoume nn mno rijmD ton b1 = 1F unepD h nistht eni tetrimmnhX 1 1F pojtoume ti gi kje md jetikn rijmn y1 , . . . , ym me ginmeno y1 ym = 1 isqei h nistht y1 + + ym m, ki deqnoume ti n b1 , , bm+1 eni (m + 1) jetiko prgmtiko rijmo me ginmeno b1 bm+1 = 1 tte b1 + + bm+1 m + 1. wporome n upojsoume ti b1 b2 bm+1 F rthrome tiD n b1 = b2 = = bm+1 = 1 tte h nistht isqei sn isthtF en qiD ngkstik qoume b1 < 1 < bm+1 @exhgste gitAF tewrome thn mEd jetikn rijmn
y1 = b1 bm+1 , y2 = b2 , . . . , ym = bm .
efo y1 ym = b1 bm+1 = 1D p thn epgwgik upjesh prnoume
(b1 bm+1 ) + b2 + + bm = y1 + + ym m.
12 To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn 9ymwD p thn b1 < 1 < bm+1 peti ti (bm+1 1)(1 b1 ) > 0 dhld b1 + bm+1 > 1 + bm+1 b1 F 9erD
b1 + bm+1 + b2 + + bm > 1 + b1 bm+1 + b2 + + bm 1 + m.

9iqoume loipn dexei to epgwgik mF en oi x1 , , xn den eni loi soiD tte h pdeixh pou prohgjhke deqnei ti h nistht eni gnsi @exhgste gitAF hhldX sthn nistht rijmhtikogewmetriko msou isqei istht n ki mnon n x1 = = xn F qi thn nistht
x1 x2 xn
1 x1
n + +
n 1 xn
efrmste thn nistht pou mli dexme gi tou jetiko prgmtiko rijmo 1 1 x1 , . . . , xn F
IQF
Dexte ti kje mh ken ktw fra gmno uposnolo
tou
qei mgisto ktw fr gma.
F 9istw A mh ken ktw frgmno uposnolo tou RF tewrome to snolo B = {x : x A}F rthrome prt ti to B eni mh kenX uprqei x A ki tte x B F ipshD to B nw frgmnoX to A eni ktw frgmno ki n jewrsoume tuqn ktw frgm t tou A mporome ekol n elgxoume ti o t eni nw frgm tou B @exhgste ti leptomreieAF ep to xwm th plhrtht uprqei to elqisto nw frgm s = sup B tou B F 9ypw prinD fo o s eni nw frgm tou B D mporome ekol n dexoume ti o s eni ktw frgm tou AF en y > sD tte y < sF efo s = sup B D uprqei b B ttoio ste y < bF teD b A ki b < y F hhldD o s eni ktw frgm tou A ki n y > s tte o y den eni ktw frgm tou AF 9ipeti ti s = inf AF
Updeixh
yrzoume = {x R : x ktw frgm tou A}F hexte ti to eni mh ken ki nw frgmno @opoiodpote stoiqeo tou A eni n nw frgm tou AF ep to xwm th plhrtht uprqei to elqisto nw frgm s = sup tou F hexte ti o s eni ktw frgm tou AF teD o s eni to tou D dhld to mgisto ktw frgm tou AF qi n dexete ti o s = sup eni ktw frgm tou AD prpei n dexete ti to tuqn a A iknopoie thn sup aF erke n dexete ti o a eni nw frgm tou @exhgste gitAF 9ymwD n x tte x a @p ton orism tou D o x eni ktw frgm tou AAF
' Alloc trpoc: mgisto stoi qeo
IRF
'Estw .
mh ken uposnolo tou ti . Me
kai stw lgia,
a a0
enai to
a0 = sup A supremum A
Dexte tou .
lla
an
a0 A A
to
me thn idithta: qei mgisto
gia kje
aA
stoi qeo,
tte
aut
F ep thn upjeshD gi kje a A qoume a a0 F 9erD to A eni nw frgmno ki o a0 eni n nw frgm touF 9ipeti ti to sup A uprqeiD ki sup A a0 F
Updeixh
13
ep thn llh pleurD fo a0 A ki o sup A eni nw frgm tou AD qoume a0 sup AF unduzont t prpnw lpoume ti a0 = sup AF
ISF
'Estw
ti gia kje
A, B >0
do
mh
ken
kai
fra gmna kai
uposnola ste
uprqoun
aA
bB
R ba<
tou .
An
sup A = inf B
dexte
Updeixh
F 9istw > 0F ep ton qrkthrism tou sup mporome n rome a A ste a > sup A /2F ep ton qrkthrism tou inf mporome n rome b B ste b < inf B + /2F unduzont ti do nisthte me thn upjeshD prnoume
b < inf B +
= sup A + < a + + = a + . 2 2 2 2
hhldD rkme a A ki b B ste b a < F
ITF
to
'Estw ?
mh
ken
fra gmno
uposnolo
tou
me
inf A = sup A
Ti
sumperanete
gia
F en to A qei perisster p n stoiqeD tte inf A < sup B X uprqoun x, y A me x < y D opte inf A x < y sup AF en to A eni monosnoloD dhld A = {a} gi kpoion a RD tte inf A = sup A = a @gitcAF 9erD inf A = sup A n ki mno n to A eni monosnoloF
Updeixh
IUF @A
@A
a, b R a < b (a, b) Q = {x Q : a < x < b}

'Estw me . Gia kje
Brete
to
supremum
.
kai
to
inmum
tou
sunlou
Aitiologste plrwc thn
apnthsh sac.
xR
orz oume
Ax = {q Q : q < x}
Dexte ti
x = y Ax = Ay .
F @A ttoume A = (a, b) Q = {x Q : a < x < b}F ep ton orism tou A qoume x aF pojtoume ti sup A < bF ep thn pukntht tou Q sto R uprqei q Q ste sup A < q < bF te a < q < bD dhld q AF eut eni topoD lgw th sup A < q F 9erD sup A = bF we nlogo epiqerhm dexte ti inf A = aF
Updeixh
@A e upojsoume ti x = y F wr periorism th genikthtD mporome n upojsoume ti x < y F prqei q Q me thn iditht x < q < y F teD q Ay ki q / Ax F 9erD Ax = Ay F en x = y D eni fner tiX gi kje q Q isqei q < x q < y F 9erD Ax = Ay F
IVF
'Estw
A, B
mh ken
fra gmna
uposnola tou
me
AB
Dexte ti
inf B inf A sup A sup B.

Updeixh
F heqnoume thn inf B inf AF erke n dexoume ti o inf B eni ktw frgm tou AF 9ymwD n x A tte x B @diti A B AD r inf B xF
IWF
kai
'Estw
A, B
mh ken, fra gmna uposnola tou
Dexte ti to
AB
enai fra gmno
sup(A B ) = max{sup A, sup B },

Mporome na pome kti anlogo gia to
inf(A B ) = min{inf A, inf B }.

to
sup(A B )
inf(A B )
Updeixh
F @A ep thn 9eskhsh IV qoume sup(A B ) sup A ki sup(A B ) sup B F 9erD sup(A B ) max{sup A, sup B }F qi thn ntstrofh nistht rke n dexoume ti o M := max{sup A, sup B } eni nw frgm tou A B F 9istw x A B F teD o x nkei se toulqiston n p t A B F en x A tte x sup A M ki n x B tte x sup B M F @A ssqei h nistht sup(A B ) min{sup A, sup B }F wpore mw n eni gnsiF 9in prdeigm dnoun t A = {1, 2} ki B = {1, 3}F
PHF
kje
'Estw
A, B
mh
ken kje
uposnola
tou
aA
kai gia
bB
isqei
R ab
.
Dexte .
ti
sup A inf B
an
kai
mno
an
gia
Updeixh
F pojtoume prt ti sup A inf B F teD gi kje a A ki gi kje b B isqei a sup A inf B bF entstrofD upojtoume ti gi kje a A ki gi kje b B isqei a bF t dexoume ti sup A inf B F qi n dexoume ti sup A inf B D rke n dexoume ti o inf B eni nw frgm tou AF 9istw a AF ep thn upjeshD gi kje b B isqei a bF 9erD o a eni ktw frgm tou B F unepD a inf B F o a A tn tuqnD r o inf B eni nw frgm tou AF e upojsoume ti inf B 0 me thn iditht inf B + < sup A @exhgste gitAF ep ton qrkthrism tou inmumD uprqei b B pou iknopoie thn b < inf B + ki uprqei a A pou iknopoie thn sup A < aF teD b < inf B + < sup A < aF eut rqeti se ntfsh me thn upjeshF
Prtoc trpoc: Deteroc trpoc:
PIF
'Estw
aA
Dexte
uprqei
A, B bB
mh ken, nw fra gmna uposnola tou ste
me thn exc idithta:
gia kje
a b.
ti
sup A sup B
Prtoc
Updeixh
F qi n dexoume ti sup A sup B D rke n dexoume ti o sup B eni nw frgm tou AF 9istw a AF ep thn upjeshD uprqei b B ste
trpoc:
a b sup B.
o a A tn tuqnD r o sup B eni nw frgm tou AF e upojsoume ti sup A > sup B F prqei > 0 me thn iditht sup A > sup B @gitcAF ep ton qrkthrism tou supremumD uprqei a A pou iknopoie thn a > sup A F teD gi kje b B qoume
Deteroc trpoc:
b sup B 0 : 0 < x 1 2}D B = {x Q : x 0, 0 < x 1 2}D C = 1 1 1 {0, 2 , 3 , 4 , . . .}F

2 2 1 @A D = {x R : x < 0, x2 + x 1 < 0}D E = { n + (1)n : n N}D F = {x Q : (x 1)(x + 2) < 0}F
@gA G = {5 +
Updeixh
6 n
: n N} {7 8n : n N}F
@iA qi to A prthrste ti A = {x R : 1 < x 3} = (1, 3]F 9erD max A = sup A = 3F o inf A eni to 1D to A den qei elqisto stoiqeoF @iiA enlogD B = {x Q : 1 < x 3}F idD sup B = 3D inf B = 1D to B den qei elqisto ote mgisto stoiqeoF
@iiiA o C qei elqisto stoiqeo to 0 ki mgisto stoiqeo to 1 ki sup C = 2 F @ivA ssqei x2 + x 1 < 0 n ki mno n 1+2
5 1 2F
unepD inf C = 0 9ipeti ti D =
< x <
51 2 F
1+2 5 , 0 sup D = 0F
F o D den qei elqisto ote mgisto stoiqeoD inf D = 1+2 5 D

1 2k1 3 2D 1 2k
@vA qrfoume to E sth morf E =
1:k N
+ 1 : k N F ixhgste
inf E = 1D to E den qei elqisto stoiqeoF t prktwX sup E = max E = @viA 9iqoume F = {x Q : 2 < x < 1}F o F den qei elqisto ote mgisto stoiqeoD inf F = 2D sup F = 1F
@viiA loD to G den eni ktw frgmno ki qei mgisto stoiqeo to max G = sup G = 11 @exhgste gitAF
PQF
Brete to
supremum
kai to
inmum
twn
sunlwn
A=
1 + (1)n +
(1)n+1 :nN n
B=
1 1 + m : n, m N . 2n 3
Updeixh
F @A qryte to A sth morf
A=
1 :kN 2k
1 :kN . 2k 1
16 To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn qi kje a A isqei 0 < a < 2F en y > 0 tte uprqei k N ste 2k1 1 < y F en 1 y < 2 tte uprqei k N ste 2 2k > y F ep t prpnw peti ti inf A = 0 ki sup A = 2 @exhgste gitAF hexte ti to A den qei mgisto ote elqisto stoiqeoF
1 1 1 erD sup B = max B = @A qi kje n, m N isqei 21 n + 3m 2 + 3 F 9 b B isqei b > 0F ipshD n y > 0 tte uprqei n N ttoio ste 5 6F
qi kje
1 2 1 1 1 + n < n = n1 < y. n 2 3 2 2 n
9ipeti ti inf B = 0 @exhgste gitAF hexte ti to B den qei elqisto stoiqeoF
PRF
Dexte
ti
to snolo
A=
enai fra gmno kai brete ta
(1)n m : m, n = 1, 2, . . . n+m
kai
sup A
inf A
Exetste
an
to
qei
mgisto
el qisto
stoi qeo.
1) m m F qi kje m, n N qoume ( = n+ n+m m < 1F unepD A (1, 1)F hexte ti sup A = 1 ki inf A = 1F loD dexte ti to A den qei mgisto ote elqisto stoiqeoF
Updeixh
esksei ymd f9
3 2+ 3+ 5 F @A pojtoume ti 2 + QF teD 5 + 2 6 = ( 2 + 3)2 QD r 3 m 6 QF wporome n gryoume 6 = n pou m, n N me mgisto koin diirth th mondF ep thn m2 = 6n2 lpoume ti o m eni rtioD r uprqei k N ste m = 2k F entikjistnt sthn m2 = 6n2 prnoume 2k 2 = 3n2 F engkstikD o n eni ki ut rtioF eut eni topoD fo o 2 eni koin diirth twn m ki nF @A pojtoume ti 2 + 3 + 5 = x QF teD 5 + 2 6 = x2 + 5 2x 5, r 6 + x 5 = y QF ynont pli sto tetrgwnoD lpoume ti 30 QF wporome n gryoume 30 = m n pou m, n N me mgisto koin diirth th mondF ep thn m2 = 30n2 lpoume ti o m eni rtioD r uprqei k N ste m = 2k F entikjistnt sthn m2 = 30n2 prnoume 2k 2 = 15n2 F engkstikD o n eni ki ut rtioF eut eni topoD fo o 2 eni koin diirth twn m ki nF
PSF
Dexte
ti
oi arijmo
2+
kai
enai rrhtoi.
Updeixh
PTF
o
Dexte ti an o fusikc arijmc
den enai tetr gwno kpoiou fusiko arijmo, tte
enai rrhtoc.
17
F efo o n den eni tetrgwno kpoiou fusiko rijmoD uprqei N N ste N 2 < n < (N + 1)2 F pojtoume ti n = p q D pou p, q N ki o q eni o mikrtero duntF ttoume q1 = p qN = q ( n N ) ki p1 = p( n N ) = qn pN F teD p1 , q 1 N diti eni krioi ki jetiko @fo n N > 0A ki q1 = p qN < q diti p = n < N + 1F 9ymwD q
Updeixh
p1 p( n N ) p = = = n, q1 q q( n N )
to opoo eni topo fo q1 < q F
PUF
'Estw
A, B
mh ken
uposnola tou
Upojtoume ti:
@A @A
Dexte
gia kje gia kje
aA >0
kai gia
kje
uprqoun
bB ab aA bB ba<
isqei , kai kai ste
ti
sup A = inf B
F heqnoume prt ti sup A inf B F tjeropoiome b B F efo a b gi kje a AD o b eni nw frgm tou AD sunep sup A bF o b B tn tuqnD r o sup A eni ktw frgm tou B F rD peti ti sup A inf B F qi thn ntstrofh nistht prthrome tiD gi kje > 0 uprqoun a A ki b B ste b a < D sunep
Updeixh
inf B b < a + sup A + .

hexme ti inf B 0D r inf B sup A @p thn 9eskhsh IAF
PVF
'Estw
A, B
mh
ken,
nw
fra gmna kje
uposnola
tou
kai mno an gia kje
aA
kai gia
>0
uprqei
R bB
.
Dexte ste
ti
sup A sup B a 0F ep ton Eqrkthrism tou sup B D uprqei b B ste sup B < bF teD
Updeixh
a sup A sup B < b.

entstrofD upojtoume ti gi kje a A ki gi kje > 0 uprqei b B ste a < bF 9istw > 0F tewrome tuqn a A ki rskoume b B ste
a 0D r sup A sup B @p thn 9eskhsh IAF
PWF
Dexte ti uprqei kai .
A, B @A aA @A A B = R R B = (, +)
'Estw mh ken gia kje .
uposnola tou kje
kai gia
R bB
pou
ikanopoion ta exc:
isqei
a<b
ttoioc ste ete
A = (, )
kai
B = [, +)
A = (, ]
F ep thn upjesh peti ti A B = @exhgste gitAF ipshD p thn 9eskhsh PH qoume := sup A := inf B F hikiologste didoqik t exX
Updeixh
@iA = X n eqme < tte o @iiA (, ] A ki [, ) B F @iiiA (, ) A ki (, ) B F
+ 2
den j nke sto A B @exhgste gitAF
@ivA y nkei se kri n p t A B F
QHF
'Estw
A (0, +)
an
Upojtoume ta ,
Na brejon,
uprqoun,
inf A = 0 max min sup inf

ti , kai
kai
ti
to
den
enai
nw
fra gmno.
tou sunlou
B=
x : xA . x+1
x F en y B tte y = x+1 gi kpoio x AF efo A (0, +)D lpoume ti y > 0F 9erD to B eni ktw frgmno p to 0F heqnoume ti inf B = 0 me ton qrkthrism tou inmumF 9istw > 0F efo x x B ki y = x+1 < x < @eni inf A = 0D uprqei x A ste x < F teD to y = x+1 x + 1 > 1 fo x > 0AF rthrome ti o 1 eni nw frgm tou B X n y B tte uprqei x A ste x < 1F heqnoume ti sup B = 1 me ton qrkthrism tou supremumF 9istw y = x+1 1 x = x+1 > 1 D dhld x > 1 > 0F htme x A ste 1 x+1 1F efo to A den x x B ki y = x+1 > 1 F eni nw frgmnoD ttoio x A uprqeiF teD to y = x+1 o B den qei mgisto elqisto stoiqeoX j prepe n uprqei x > 0 pou n x x iknopoie thn x+1 = 0 thn x+1 = 1 ntstoiq @kti pou den gnetiAF
Updeixh
QIF
1 . n
'Estw
xR
Dexte
ti:
gia
kje
nN
uprqei
akraioc
kn Z
ste
kn n
<
Updeixh
F ttoume kn = [ nx] ZF teD kn nx < kn + 1D r 0 nx kn < 1 1 kn 1 < 0 x < . n n n
hhldD x
kn n
<
1 . n
19
QPF
'Estw
ste
xR |nx m| <
Dexte ti:
gia kje
N 2
uprqoun akraioi
kai
, me
0<nN
1 N.
1 j F wrzoume to [0, 1) se N s didoqik distmt jN , N D j = 1, . . . , N F qi k = 0, 1, . . . N jewrome tou rijmo xk = kx [kx] [0, 1)F efo to pljo twn xk eni N + 1 ki to pljo twn disthmtwn eni N D mporome n rome j ki k > s 1 j 1 1 , N F teD |xk xs | < N D dhld |(k s)x ([kx] [sx])| < N F ste xk , xs jN ttont n = k s ki m = [kx] [sx] prnoume to zhtomenoF
Updeixh
QQF
'Estw
a1 , . . . , an > 0
Dexte ti
(a1 + a2 + + an )
1 1 1 + + + a1 a2 an
n2 .
Updeixh
F ep thn nistht rijmhtikogewmetrikormoniko msou qoume
a1 + a2 + + an n a1 a2 an n
1 a1
1 a2
n + +
1 an
QRF
An
a>0 b>0
,
kai
a+b=1 2
, tte
a+
1 a
+ b+
1 b
25.
F rthrste prt ti 1 = (a + b)2 4abF ifrmzont thn nistht Cauchy-Schwarz prnoume

Updeixh
a+
1 a
+ b+
1 b
= (12 + 12 ) =
a+
1 a
+ b+
2
1 b
1 1 1 (a + ) + 1 (b + ) a b (a + 4b) + (b + 4a) 25(a + b)2 = 25.

2
QSF @A
@A
An
a1 , . . . , an > 0
, dexte ti
(1 + a1 ) (1 + an ) 1 + a1 + + an .
An
0 < a1 , . . . , an < 1
, tte
1 (a1 + + an ) (1 a1 ) (1 an ) 1 (a1 + + an ) + (a1 a2 + a1 a3 + + an1 an ).
20 To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn F we epgwgF
Updeixh
QTBF
An
a1 a2 an > 0
kai
b1 b2 bn > 0
, tte
a1 bn + a2 bn1 + + an b1 n
a1 + + an b1 + + bn n n a1 b1 + + an bn . n
F wporete n podexete ti do nisthte me epgwgF wi pol pi sntomh pdeixh eni h exF ep thn upjesh ti a1 a2 an ki b1 b2 bn peti @gitcA ti
Updeixh Dexi anisthta:
(ak aj )(bk bj ) 0.
k,j =1
hhldD
n n n n
()
k,j =1
ak bk +
k,j =1
aj bj
k,j =1
aj bk +
k,j =1
ak bj .
rthrste ti
n n n
ak bk =
k,j =1 j =1 k=1
ak bk
= n(a1 b1 + + an bn ).
9ymoiD
aj bj = n(a1 b1 + + an bn ).
k,j =1
ep thn llh pleurD

n n
aj bk =
k,j =1 k,j =1
ak bj = (a1 + + an )(b1 + + bn ).
9erD h () prnei th morf
2n(a1 b1 + + an bn ) 2(a1 + + an )(b1 + + bn ),

pou eni h zhtomenh nisthtF rhsimopoiste to gegon ti
Arister anisthta:
(ak aj )(bnk+1 bnj +1 ) 0.

k,j =1
21
QUBF
'Estw
a1 , . . . , an
jetiko
pra gmatiko
arijmo.
Dexte
ti
uprqei
1mn1
me
thn idithta
ak
k=1
Updeixh: Jewrste touc
ak max{a1 , . . . , an }.
k=m+1
arijmoc
bm =
k=1
kai
ak
k=m+1 n
ak ,
m = 1, . . . , n 1
b0 =
k=1
Dexte ti do diado qiko ap
ak , bn =
k=1
ak .
autoc enai etershmoi.
Updeixh
F tewrste tou rijmo

m n
bm =
k=1
ak
k=m+1 n
ak ,
m = 1, . . . , n 1
ki
b0 =
k=1
ak , bn =
k=1
ak .
en B = {k : 1 k n ki bk > 0}D tte to B eni mh ken @exhgste gitAF 9erD qei elqisto stoiqeoX to pome m0 F rthrste ti m0 1F efo o m0 eni to elqisto stoiqeo tou B D qoume bm0 > 0 ki bm0 1 0F 9ipeti @exhgste gitA ti
|bm0 | + |bm0 1 | = bm0 bm0 1 = 2am0 2 max{a1 , . . . , an }.

eut dnei to zhtomeno @exhgste gitAF
QVF
'Estw .
A, B
mh
ken,
fra gmna
uposnola
tou
Orz oume
A + B = {a + b : a
A, b B }
Dexte ti
sup(A + B ) = sup A + sup B,

Updeixh
inf(A + B ) = inf A + inf B.
F t dexoume ti inf(A + B ) = inf A + inf B F
@A inf(A + B ) inf A + inf B X rke n dexoume ti o inf A + inf B eni ktw frgm tou A + B F 9istw x A + B F prqoun a A ki b B ste x = a + bF 9ymwD a inf A ki b inf B F 9erD
x = a + b inf A + inf B.
22 To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn o x A + B tn tuqnD r o inf A + inf B eni ktw frgm tou A + B F @A inf(A + B ) inf A + inf B X rke n dexoume ti o inf(A + B ) inf B eni ktw frgm tou AF qi to skop utD jewrome @tuqnA a A ki deqnoume ti
inf(A + B ) a inf B.
qi thn teleut nistht rke n dexoume ti o inf(A + B ) a eni ktw frgm tou B X stw b B F teD a + b A + B F 9erD
inf(A + B ) a + b = inf(A + B ) a b.
o b B tn tuqnD r o inf(A + B ) a eni ktw frgm tou B F 9istw > 0F ep ton qrkthrism tou supremum ki tou inmumD uprqoun a A ki b B pou iknopoion ti
Deteroc trpoc:
a < inf A + ki b < inf B + .

teD fo a + b A + B D
inf(A + B ) a + b < inf A + inf B + 2.

o > 0 tn tuqnD r inf(A + B ) inf A + inf B F
QWF
A, B A B = {ab : a A, b B }
'Estw mh ken,
fra gmna
snola
jetikn
pra gmatikn
arijmn.
Orz oume
Dexte ti
sup(A B ) = sup A sup B,

Updeixh
inf(A B ) = inf A inf B.
F ekoloujste th didiks pou qrhsimopoijhke sthn 9eskhsh QVF
RHF
'Estw ti an an
mh ken, fra gmno uposnolo tou
An
tR
, orz oume
tA = {ta : a A}
Dexte
@A @A
t0 t<0
tte tte
sup(tA) = t sup A sup(tA) = t inf A
kai kai
inf(tA) = t inf A inf(tA) = t sup A
Updeixh
F ekoloujste th didiks pou qrhsimopoijhke sthn 9eskhsh QVF
Keflaio 2
Akoloujec pragmatikn arijmn

irwtsei ktnhsh
IF PF
Kje fra gmnh
akolouja
sugklnei.
Ljoc
F r kolouj an = (1)n eni frgmnh ll den sugklneiF

akolouja enai fra gmnh.
Kje sugklnousa
Swst
F pojtoume ti an a RF rnoume = 1 > 0F wporome n rome n0 N ste |an a| < 1 gi kje n n0 F hhldD n n n0 , tte |an | |an a| + |a| < 1 + |a|. ttoume
M = max{|a1 |, . . . , |an0 |, 1 + |a|}

ki elgqoume ti |an | M gi kje n N @dikrnete periptseiX n n0 ki n > n0 AF 9erD h (an ) eni frgmnhF
QF
An
(an )
enai
mia
akolouja
akerawn
arijmn,
tte
(an )
sugklnei
an
kai
mno
an
enai telik stajer.
1 F pojtoume ti h (an ) sugklnei ston prgmtik rijm aF ipilgoume = 2 1 ki rskoume n0 N steX gi kje n n0 isqei |an a| < 2 F teD n n n0 qoume
Swst
|an an0 | = |(an a) + (a an0 )| |an a| + |a an0 | <
1 1 + = 1. 2 2
24 Akoloujes pragmatikn arijmn 9ymwD oi an ki an0 eni krioiD r an = an0 F hhldD h (an ) eni telik stjerX gi kje n n0 qoume an = an0 F r ntstrofh ktejunsh eni plX genikterD n gi mi kolouj (an ) sto R @qi ngkstik sto ZA uprqoun n0 N ki a R ste gi kje n n0 n isqei an = aD tte an a @exhgsteD me sh ton orism tou orouAF
RF
Uprqei
gnhswc fjnousa akolouja fusikn arijmn.
F e upojsoume ti (an ) eni mi gnhsw fjnous kolouj fusikn rijmnF o snolo A = {an : n N} eni mh ken uposnolo tou NF ep thn rq th kl ditxhD qei elqisto stoiqeoF hhldD uprqei m N steX gi kje n N isqei am an F eut eni topoD fo am+1 A ki am+1 < am F
Ljoc
SF
Kje sugklnousa
akolouja
rrhtwn arijmn sugklnei se
rrhto arijm.
F r kolouj an = eni rhtAF

Ljoc
2 n
eni kolouj rrhtwn rijmnD mw an 0 @ki o 0
TF
Kje pra gmatikc
arijmc enai rio kpoiac akoloujac rrhtwn arijmn.
F hikrnete periptseiF en o x eni rrhtoD mporete n jewrsete th stjer kolouj an = xF en o x eni rhtD mporete n jewrsete thn kolouj an = x + n2 F
Swst
UF
an
An
1 an
(an ) +
enai .
mia
akolouja
jetikn
pra gmatikn
arijmn,
tte
an 0
an
kai
mno
F pojtoume prt ti an 0F 9istw M > 0F efo an 0D efrmzont ton 1 orism me = M > 0D mporome n rome n0 = n0 () = n0 (M ) N steX gi kje 1 n n0 isqei 0 < an < M F hhldD uprqei n0 = n0 (M ) N steX gi kje n n0 1 isqei an > M F 9ipeti ti a1 +F qi thn ntstrofh ktejunsh ergzmste me n nlogo trpoF
Swst
VF WF
An
an a
tte h
(an )
enai montonh.
Ljoc
F r kolouj an =
(1)n n
sugklnei sto 0 ll den eni montonhF

An h
'Estw
(an )
axousa akolouja.
(an )
den enai
nw
fra gmnh, tte
an +
Swst
F 9istw M > 0F efo h (an ) den eni nw frgmnhD uprqei n0 N ste an0 > M F efo h (an ) eni xousD gi kje n n0 isqei an an0 > M F efo o M > 0 tn tuqnD sumpernoume ti an +F
IHF
An h
(an )
enai fra gmnh
kai h
(bn )
sugklnei tte h
(an bn )
sugklnei.
Ljoc
F r an = (1) eni frgmnh ki h bn = 1 sugklneiD mw h an bn = (1)n den sugklneiF

n
25
IIF
An h
(|an |)
sugklnei tte kai
(an )
sugklnei.
Ljoc
F r an = (1)n den sugklneiD mw h |an | = 1 sugklneiF
IPF
An
an > 0
kai h
(an )
den enai
nw
fra gmnh, tte
an +
F tewrste thn kolouj (an ) me a2k = k ki a2k1 = 1 gi kje k NF teD an > 0 ki h (an ) den eni nw frgmnhD mw an + @n ut squeD j prepe loi telik oi roi th (an ) n eni meglteroi p 2D to opoo den isqei fo loi oi peritto roi th eni soi me 1AF
Ljoc
IQF an +
Ljoc
an
kai .
mno
an
gia
kje
M >0
uprqoun
peiroi
roi
thc
(an )
pou
enai
megalteroi ap
F rhsimopoiste to prdeigm th prohgomenh erthsh gi n dexete ti mpore n isqei h prtsh {gi kje M > 0 uprqoun peiroi roi th (an ) pou eni meglteroi p M } qwr n isqei h prtsh {an +}F r llh ktejunsh eni swstX n an + tte @p ton orismA gi kje M > 0 loi telik oi roi th (an ) eni meglteroi p M F 9erD gi kje M > 0 uprqoun peiroi roi th (an ) pou eni meglteroi p M F
IRF
An h
(an )
sugklnei kai
an+2 = an
gia kje
nN
, tte h
(an )
enai stajer.
F en an a tte oi kolouje (a2k ) ki (a2k1 ) sugklnoun ston a @exhgste gitAF ep thn upjesh ti an+2 = an gi kje n ND lpoume ti oi (a2k ) ki (a2k1 ) eni stjer koloujeX uprqoun x, y R ste
Swst
x = a1 = a3 = a5 =
ki y = a2 = a4 = a6 = .
ep ti a2k1 x ki a2k y peti ti x = y = aF 9erD h (an ) eni stjerF
penjmish p th jewr IF
@A @A @gA
'Estw
(an ) (bn )
,
do akoloujec me
an a
kai
bn b
An
an bn an < bn
gia kje
nN nN
, dexte ti
ab
An
gia kje
, mporome na sumpernoume ti
a bF en jsoume = steX gi kje n n1 isqei

Updeixh
ab 2
tte uprqoun n1 , n2 N
|an a| <
ab ab a+b = an > a = , 2 2 2
26 Akoloujes pragmatikn arijmn ki gi kje n n2 isqei
|bn b| <
ab ab a+b = bn < b + = . 2 2 2
ttoume n0 = max{n1 , n2 }F teD gi kje n n0 qoume
bn <
to opoo eni topoF @A 9yqiX n orsoume an = 0 ki bn =
n 1 nD
a+b < an , 2
tte an < bn gi kje n ND ll lim an =
n
lim bn = 0F t qoume mw a b @p to prto erthmAF
@gA tewrste ti stjer kolouje n = mD n = M ki efrmste to @AF
PF
@A @A @gA
'Estw
(an )
ti ti
akolouja pra gmatikn arijmn.
Dexte
an 0
an .
an kai mno an
|an | 0
. tte
Dexte
an a = 0
tte
|an | |a|
Isqei
to antstrofo?
'Estw
k2
Dexte ti an
an a
|an |
|a|
Updeixh
F @A erke n gryoume tou do orismoX
@iA 9iqoume an 0 n gi kje > 0 uprqei n0 N ste gi kje n n0 n isqei |an 0| < F @iiA 9iqoume |an | 0 n gi kje > 0 uprqei n0 N ste gi kje n n0 n isqei |an | 0 < F rthrnt ti |an 0| = |an | 0 gi kje n N lpoume ti oi do protsei lne kri to dio prgmF @A 9istw > 0F efo an aD uprqei n0 N ste gi kje n n0 n isqei |an a| < F teD gi kje n n0 qoume
|an | |a| |an a| < ,

p thn trigwnik nistht gi thn pluth timF o ntistrofo den isqei prthtX jewrste thn an = (1)n F @gA hikrnoume do periptseiX
(i) an 0X 9istw > 0F efo an 0D efrmzont ton orism gi ton jetik rijm 1 = k rskoume n0 N steX gi kje n n0 isqei 0 an < k .
27
teD gi kje n n0 isqei
an <
k = .
9erD k an 0F (ii) an a > 0X tumhjete ti n x, y 0 tte |xk y k | = |x y |(xk1 + xk2 y + + xy k2 + y k1 ) |x y |y k1 . rhsimopoint utn thn nistht me x = k an ki y = k a lpoume ti k an k |an a| a . k ak1 k ak1 D
9istw > 0F efo an 0D efrmzont ton orism gi ton jetik rijm 1 = rskoume n0 N steX gi kje n n0 isqei k |an a| < ak1 . teD gi kje n n0 isqei
k
unepD
an
|an a| a < . k ak1
an
aF
kai
QF @A
>1 an + @A 0<<1 an 0 @gA an > 0

'Estw . 'Estw ti . 'Estw
an > 0 (an ) n n
gia
kje
nN
An
an+1 an
gia
kje
dexte
ti
kai
akolouja me thn idithta
|an+1 | |an | an + an 0
.
gia kje
Dexte
gia kje
, kai
an+1 an an+1 an
>1
Dexte ti
@dA
'Estw
an = 0
gia kje
, kai
<1
Dexte ti
Updeixh
F @A 9iqoume a2 a1 D a3 2 a1 D a4 3 a1 D ki genikD
an n1 a1 =
efo lim n = +D peti ti an +F
n
a1 n .
@A 9iqoume |a2 | |a1 |D |a3 | 2 |a1 |D |a4 | 3 |a1 |D ki genikD
|an | n1 |a1 | =
|a1 | n .
28 Akoloujes pragmatikn arijmn efo lim n = 0D peti ti |an | 0D r an 0F

n
@gA ttoume =
1 2
> 0F efo
an+1 an
D uprqei n0 N steX gi kje n n0 D +1 . 2
an+1 > = an
2 3 rthrste ti := +1 2 > 1F teD an0 +1 > an0 D an0 +2 > an0 D an0 +3 > an0 D ki genikD n n > n0 isqei @exhgste gitA
an > nn0 an0 =

efo lim n = +D peti ti an +F
n
an0 n . n0
@dA ttoume =
1 2
> 0F efo
an+1 an
D uprqei n0 N steX gi kje n n0 D +1 . 2
an+1 < += an
2 rthrste ti := +1 2 < 1F teD |an0 +1 | < |an0 |D |an0 +2 | < |an0 |D |an0 +3 | < 3 |an0 |D ki genikD n n > n0 isqei @exhgste gitA
|an | < nn0 |an0 | =

efo lim n = 0D peti ti an 0F
n
|an0 | n . n 0
RF @A
@A @gA
'Estw
'Estw
a>0 (an )
ti
Dexte ti
a1
akolouja
jetikn ?
pra gmatikn
arijmn.
An
an a > 0
tte
an 1
Ti mporete na pete an
Dexte
an 0
.
n1
Updeixh
F @A ixetzoume prt thn perptwsh a > 1F teD yrzoume n = n a 1.
a > 1 gi kje n NF
rthrste ti n > 0 gi kje n NF en dexoume ti n 0D tte qoume to zhtomenoX 1 + n 1F efo n a = 1 + n D mporome n gryoume
a = (1 + n )n 1 + nn > nn .
9ipeti ti
0 < n <
a , n
29
ki p to kritrio premol sumpernoume ti n 0F unepD 1 + n 1F 1 en 0 < a < 1 tte a > 1F 9erD
1 = n a
1 1 = 0. a
unepD n a 1F loD n a = 1 tte n 1 = 1 gi kje n NF ini tr fner ti n 1 = 1 1F @A ipilgoume = a/2 > 0F efo lim an = aD uprqei n0 () N me thn idithtX gi
kje n n0 isqei |an a| < a/2F ssodnmD gi kje n n0 isqei a/2 < an < 3a/2F teD n a/2 < n an < n 3a/2.
n
a/2 = lim n 3a/2 = 1D p to @AF teD to kritrio premol m n exsflzei ti lim n an = 1F n en an 0 den mporome n sumpernoume to dioX jewrste t prdegmt an = n 1 1 1 n a , lim b , lim n cn c , b = , = F i prthrete gi ti lim n n n n n n n 3 n
n
9ymwD lim
@gA yrzoume
n =
n 1.
rthrste ti n > 0 gi kje n NF en dexoume ti n 0D tte qoume to zhtomenoX 1 + n 1F efo n n = 1 + n D qrhsimopoint to diwnumik nptugmD mporome n gryoume
n = (1 + n )n 1 + nn +
9ipeti tiD gi n 2D
n 2 n(n 1) 2 n > n . 2 2
2 , n1 ki p to kritrio premol sumpernoume ti n 0F unepD 1 + n 1F 0 < n <
esksei ymd e9 IF
'Estw
(an )
akolouja pra gmatikn arijmn me
lim an = 2
Jewrome ta snola
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
= = = = =
{n N : an < 2.001} {n N : an > 2.003} {n N : an < 1.98} {n N : 1.99997 < an < 2.0001} {n N : an 2}.
30 Akoloujes pragmatikn arijmn
Gia
kje
j = 1, . . . , 5
exetste
an
@A
to
Aj
enai
peperasmno
D @A
to
N \ Aj
enai
peperasmno.
F @A rnont = 0.001 > 0 rskoume n1 N steX gi kje n n1 isqei 1.999 < an < 2.001F 9erD kje n n1 nkei sto A1 F o N \ A1 eni pepersmno @ki to A1 peiroD ki mlistD telik tmm tou NAF @gA rnont = 0.02 > 0 rskoume n3 N steX gi kje n n3 isqei 1.98 < an < 2.02F 9erD kje n n3 nkei sto N \ A3 F o A3 eni pepersmno @ki to N \ A3 peiroD ki mlistD telik tmm tou NAF @dA rnont = 0.00003 > 0 rskoume n4 N steX gi kje n n4 isqei 1.99997 < an < 2.00003 < 2.0001F 9erD kje n n4 nkei sto A4 F o N \ A4 eni pepersmno @ki to A4 peiroD ki mlistD telik tmm tou NAF @eA o A5 mpore n eni pepersmno peiroD exrtti p thn (an )F rte sn prdegmt ti kolouje
Updeixh
an = 2,
n
an = 2 +
1 , n
an = 2 +
(1)n . n
9yle iknopoion thn lim an = 2F thn prth perptwsh qoume A5 = N ki N \ A5 = F thn deterhD A5 = ki N \ A5 = NF thn trthD tso to A5 so ki to N \ A5 eni peir snol @to snolo twn perittn ki to snolo twn rtiwn fusiknD ntstoiqAF
PF
Apodexte
me ton orism
ti
oi paraktw akoloujec sugklnoun sto
0:
n , an = 3 n + n2 + 1
bn =
n2
+ 2
n2
+ 1,
cn =
1 2n
1 n2 +1
D n n = 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, . . . D lliF
Updeixh
F e dome gi prdeigm thn (cn )X p ti 2n = (1 + 1)n 1 + n > n ki 1 n + 1 n + 1 > n qoume 0 < cn < n gi kje n NF rgmtiD n o n eni th morf n = 3k + 1 gi kpoion mh rnhtik krio k @dhldD n n = 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, . . .A 1 en pli n = 3k + 1 gi kje mh rnhtik krio k D tte tte 0 < cn = 21 n < nF 1 1 0 < cn = n2 +1 < n F 1 < F teD gi en tr m dsoun @tuqnA > 0D uprqei n0 = n0 () N ste n 0 kje n n0 qoume 1 1 < 0 < cn < < , n n0
2
Shmewsh
dhldD |cn | < F unepD cn 0F F qi ti (an ) ki (bn ) prthrste ti
an =
n n 1 < 2 = n3 + n2 + 1 n n
31
ki
bn =
n2 + 2
n2 + 1 =
n2
1 1 1 < < . 2 2 n +2+ n +1 n +2
utpinD doulyte pw sthn perptwsh th (cn )F
QF
Apodexte
me ton orism
ti
an =
Updeixh
n2 n 1. n2 + n
F rthrste ti
|an 1| =
2n 2n n2 n 2n 2 1 = 2 = 2 < 2 = . n2 + n n +n n +n n n
2 n0
qi tuqn > 0 rete n0 () N ste 2 2 n n0 < F
< F teD gi kje n n0 isqei |an 1| <

An
RF
'Estw
(an )
akolouja
pra gmatikn
arijmn.
lim an = a > 0
dexte
ti
an > 0
telik.
Updeixh
F ipilgoume = a/2 > 0F efo lim an = aD uprqei n0 () N me thn

n
idithtX gi kje n n0 isqei |an a| < a/2F ssodnmD gi kje n n0 isqei a/2 < an < 3a/2F 9erD an > a/2 > 0 telik @p ton n0 Eost ro ki prAF
SF @A
@A
'Estw
aR
me
|a| < 1 xR
Dexte ti h akolouja
bn = an
2
sugklnei sto 0.
Gia poic
timc tou
sugklnei h akolouja
1x 1+x2
n
?
F @A r (|bn |) eni fjnous ki ktw frgmnh p to 0F 9erD uprqei x 0 ste |bn | xF ep thn |bn+1 | = |bn | |a|D prnont rio w pro n ki st do mlhD qoume x = x |a|F efo |a| = 1D sumpernoume ti x = 0F @A rthrste ti 1 x2 |1 x2 | 1 + x2 = = 1. 1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
Updeixh
ipshD n x = 0 tte
1x2 1+x2
= 1 @exhgste gitAD r 1 x2 < 1. 1 + x2
x ep to @AD n x = 0 tte h kolouj 1 0F loD n x = 0 qoume 1+x2 1 1F n x2 sugklneiD poio ki n eni to xF hhldD h kolouj 1 1+x2
1x2 1+x2
TF
Gia
kajemi
ap
tic
paraktw
akoloujec
exetste
an
sugklnei,
kai
an
nai,
brete
to
ri thc:
n =
3n , n!
n =
2n 1 , 3n + 2
n = n n = n6 , 6n n+
n2 n ,
n =
1+
1 n2
n n = ( 10 1)n , sin n , n 2n n ! , nn
n = n2 sin
1 . n3 n = 1+ 1 2n
n
n =
n =
n =
n,
n =
F @A n = r n 0F
Updeixh
3n2
n2 , +n+1
n =
3n n! , nn
n =
sin(n3 ) . n
n+1 n
3n n! X
me to kritrio tou lgouF rthrste ti
3 n+1
0 < 1D
@A n =
1/n 2 =2 3+2/n 3 F @gA n = n n2 n = n+n 1 2F n2 n 2n1 3n+2
@dA n = 1 +
1 n X n2
rthrste ti
1 1+ n
1 diti h 1 + n lpoume ti n
1 1+ 2 n
n2
e,
eni xous ki nw frgmnh p ton eF rnont nEost rze
1 n n e. n 1 1 ki n e 1AF ep to kritrio isosugklinousn koloujinD n 1 @fo 1 + n @eA n = ( n 10 1)n X me to kritrio th rzF rthrste ti n n = n 10 1 1 1 = 0 < 1F 9erD n 0F 1+
n+1 n 1 n+1 1 @zA n = 6 n X me to kritrio tou lgouF rthrste ti n = 6 n 6 < 1F 9erD n 0F 1 @hA n = n2 sin n 3 F rhsimopoint thn sin t t gi t > 0D lpoume ti 0 < n 1 1 2 n n3 = n 0F 9erD n 0F
6
@jA n = @kA n =
sin n n X h (sin n) eni 2 n n! nn X prthrste
frgmnh poltw p 1 ki h ti
n
1 n
mhdenikF 9erD n 0F
n+1 2nn = = 2/ n (n + 1)n
n+1 n
2 < 1. e
33
9erD n 0F @nA n =
n+
nX prthrste ti n = n 1 2 n+ n+ n
@rA n = 1 +
1 n X 2n
rthrste ti
1+
n
1 n
1+
1 2n
2n
e,
1 diti h xn = 1 + n eni xous ki nw frgmnh p ton eF rnont tetrgE wnik rze lpoume ti xn n e. ep to kritrio isosugklinousn koloujinD n eF
@A n = @tA n =
n2 3n2 +n+1 3 n n! nn X
1 3F
prthrste ti
n+1 3n n = 3/ = n (n + 1)n
9erD n +F @xA n = n 0F
sin(n3 ) X n
n+1 n
3 > 1. e
h (sin(n3 )) eni frgmnh poltw p 1 ki h
1 n
mhdenikF 9erD
UF
Gia
kajemi
ap
tic
paraktw
akoloujec
exetste
an
sugklnei,
kai
an
nai,
brete
to
ri thc:
n =
5n + n , 6n n 1+
n = 1 n n2 , +1
1 1 + n, 2n 3 1 n+1 ,
n =
n1
n = n2
1+
1 n = cos n2 , n n = (n!)2 2n . (2n)!
n = (1)n
F @A n =
5n +n 6n n
n2
n =
nn , n!
00 10
Updeixh
(5/6)n +(n/6n ) 1(n/6n )
= 0F
34 Akoloujes pragmatikn arijmn @A n =

1 3n X
1 2n
prthrste ti
1 = 2
efo
1 n 2n
1 1 1 n + n = 2. n 2 2 2
2 1D p to kritrio isosugklinousn koloujin lpoume ti n 1/2F n @gA n = ( n n 1) X me to kritrio th rzF rthrste ti n n = n n 1 1 1 = 0 < 1F 9erD n 0F
@dA n = n2
1+
1 n
1+
1 n+1
X grfoume
= n2
1 1 n n+1
1 1+ 1
1 n
1+
1 n+1
n2 n(n + 1)
1+
1 n
1+
1 n+1
1 . 2
1 @eA n = cos n2 X h (cos(n2 )) eni frgmnh poltw p 1 ki h n 9erD n 0F n @lA n = (1)n n2 +1 X den sugklneiD fo 2n 1 ki 2n1 1F
2
1 n
mhdenikF
@mA n = @jA n =
nn n! X
prthrste ti n = X prthrste ti
n n
n n1
n 2
n 1
nF 9erD n +F
(n!) 2 (2n)!
2 n
n+1 2(n + 1)2 1 = < 1, n (2n + 1)(2n + 2) 2

r n 0F
VF
Exetste wc proc th sgklish tic paraktw akoloujec:
an bn n n
= = = =
1 n2
+1 +2 +n 1 + 22 + 33 + + nn nn 1 1 1 + + + n! (n + 1)! (2n)! 1 1 1 + + . + 2 / 3 2 / 3 n (n + 1) (2n)2/3
1 n2
+ +
1 n2
35
F @A rthrste ti
Updeixh
efo lim
n2
n 1 1 1 n an = + + + . 2 2 2 2 +n n +1 n +2 n +n n +1 = lim
n n n2 +1
n n2 +n
= 1D sumpernoume ti an 1F
@A rthrome prt ti
1 + 22 + 33 + + nn 1 + n2 + n3 + + nn 1 + n + n2 + n3 + + nn .
rhsimopoint thn tuttht 1 + x + x2 + + xn =
xn+1 1 x1
gi x = nD prnoume
1 + 22 + 33 + + nn 1 + n + n2 + + nn =
unepD
nn+1 1 . n1
bn =
1 1 nn 1 + 22 + 33 + + nn nn+1 1 nn+1 1 +1 = = 1 . nn nn (n 1) nn+1 nn 1 n
ep thn llh pleurD
bn =
hhldD
1 + 22 + 33 + + nn nn n = 1. n n n
1 1 nn +1 1 . 1 n
1 bn
ep to kritrio premol peti ti bn 1F @gA rthrste ti
0 < n =
1 1 1 n+1 + + + . n! (n + 1)! (2n)! n!

n+1 n!
ep to kritrio tou lgou prokptei ekol ti @dA rthrste ti
0F 9erD n 0F
n =
9erD n +F
1 n2/3
3 1 1 n+1 n + + > +. 3 2 / 3 2 / 3 2 / 3 (n + 1) (2n) (2n) 4
WF @A
'Estw
a1 , a2 , . . . , ak > 0 bn :=
n
Dexte ti
n n an 1 + a2 + + ak max{a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }.
36 Akoloujes pragmatikn arijmn @A
Upologste to
rio thc akoloujac
xn =
1 n 1n + 2n + + nn . n
Updeixh
an 1
F @A yrzoume a = max{a1 , a2 , . . . , ak }F teD gi kje n N qoume an n + + an k ka F 9erD
a bn :=
n n an 1 + a2 + + ak
n kan = a k.
efo lim n k = 1 @lpe to R@A sthn upenjmish p th jewrAD p to kritrio n premol qoume bn aF qi prdeigmD n 2n + 3n + 7n 7.
@A o pljo twn prosjetwn @ston orism tou nEosto rouA den eni stjerF houlyte mw pw sto @AX prthrste ti nn < 1n + 2n + + nn < n nn n n 2F 9erD 1 1 < xn = n 1n + 2n + + nn < n n n n gi kje n 2F efo n 1D efrmzeti to kritrio twn isosugklinousn kolouE jinD ki xn 1F
IHF
thc.
'Estw
Exetste an sugklnei h akolouja
xn =
[n] n
kai, an nai, brete to ri
Updeixh
F ep ton orism tou kerou mrou qoume [n] n < [n] + 1D r
nxn n < nxn + 1.

9ipeti ti
r xn F
1 < xn , n
IIF
'Estw
>0
Dexte
ti
akolouja
bn =
1+n (1+)n
enai
fjnousa
kai
prosdiorste
to
rio thc.
Updeixh
F r (bn ) qei jetiko rouF rthrome ti
bn+1 1 + (n + 1) 1 + (n + 1) = = <1 bn (1 + n)(1 + ) 1 + (n + 1) + n2
37
r h (bn ) eni fjnousF ipshD
bn+1 1 + (n + 1) n + 1 + n+1 1 1 = = 1 1 + 1 + < 1. bn (1 + n)(1 + ) n + n

ep to kritrio tou lgouD bn 0F
IPF
kai
(an ), (bn ) bn + @A >0 @A an bn +

'Estw akoloujec . Dexte ti uprqoun Dexte ti .
pra gmatikn
arijmn.
Upojtoume
ti
lim an = a > 0 an >

.
kai
n0 N
ste:
gia kje
n n0
isqei
F @A ifrmzoume ton orism tou orou me = a/2 > 0F prqei n0 N steX gi kje n n0 isqei
Updeixh
|an a| <
a 2
an > a
a a = . 2 2
ttont = a/2 prnoume to zhtomenoF @A 9istw M > 0F efo bn +D uprqei n1 N ste bn > M/ gi kje n n1 F ttoume n2 = max{n0 , n1 }F teD gi kje n n2 qoume an bn > (M/ ) = M F we sh ton orismD an bn +F
IQF
'Estw
mh
ken
kai
nw
fra gmno tou
uposnolo
tou .
An
a = sup A
dexte
ti
uprqei
akolouja
An, epiplon, to
(an ) sup A
stoi qewn
me
den enai stoi qeo tou axousa.
lim an = a n A
, dexte ti h parapnw akolouja mpore
na epilege ste na
enai gnhswc
F ep ton sik qrkthrism tou supremumD gi kje > 0 uprqei x = 1 x() A ste a < x aF ifrmzont didoqik to prpnw gi = 1, 1 2 , 3 , . . .D 1 mporete n rete kolouj (an ) stoiqewn tou A me a n < an aF ep to kritrio twn isosugklinousn koloujinD an aF e upojsoumeD epiplonD ti o a = sup A den eni stoiqeo tou AF prqei a1 A pou iknopoie thn a 1 < a1 aF 9ymwD a1 = a @diti a / AAD r a 1 < a1 < aF e upojsoume ti qoume re a1 , . . . , am A pou iknopoion t exX
Updeixh
@iA a1 < a2 < < am < aF @iiA qi kje k = 1, . . . , m isqei a

1 k
< ak < aF
teD o sm = max{a m1 +1 , am } eni mikrtero p ton aF wporome loipn n rome am+1 A pou iknopoie thn sm < am+1 < a @exhgste gitAF 9erD am < am+1 ki a m1 +1 < am+1 < aF ipgwgikD orzeti gnhsw xous kolouj (an ) stoiqewn tou A pou iknopoion 1 thn a n < an < aF ep to kritrio twn isosugklinousn koloujinD an aF
IRF
Dexte
ti
kje
pra gmatikc
arijmc
enai
rio
gnhswc
axousac
akoloujac
rhtn
arijmn,
kajc epshc kai
rio gnhswc
axousac
akoloujac
rrhtwn arijmn.
F 9istw x RF prqei q1 Q pou iknopoie thn x 1 < q1 < x @p thn pukntht tou Q sto RAF e upojsoume ti qoume re rhto rijmo q1 , . . . , qm pou iknopoion t exX
Updeixh
@iA q1 < q2 < < qm < xF @iiA qi kje k = 1, . . . , m isqei x

1 k
< qk < xF
teD o sm = max{x m1 +1 , qm } eni mikrtero p ton xF vgw th pukntht twn rhtn stou prgmtiko rijmoD mporome n rome qm+1 Q sto noikt disthm (sm , x)F teD qm < qm+1 ki x m1 +1 < qm+1 < xF ipgwgikD orzeti gnhsw xous kolouj (qn ) rhtn rijmn pou iknopoion 1 thn x n < qn < xF ep to kritrio twn isosugklinousn koloujinD qn xF
ISF
tte
Dexte ti an
(an )
enai mia akolouja jetikn pra gmatikn arijmn me
an a > 0
inf {an : n N} > 0.

F r sik id eni tiD fo a > 0 ki an aD j uprqei n0 me thn idithtX gi kje n n0 isqei an > a/2F hhldD telik loi oi roi th (an ) xepernon ton jetik rijm a/2F rgmtiD n efrmsete ton orism tou orou gi thn (an ) me = a/2 > 0D mporete n rete n0 R steX gi kje n n0 D
Updeixh
|an a| < = a/2 = a/2 < an < 3a/2.

teD o jetik rijm m := min{a1 , . . . , an0 , a/2} eni ktw frgm tou sunlou A = {an : n N} @exhgste gitAF unepD inf(A) m > 0F
ITF
Dexte ti an
to snolo
(an ) A = {an : n N}
enai mia akolouja jetikn pra gmatikn arijmn me qei mgisto stoi qeo.
an 0
, tte
F r sik id eni tiD fo a1 > 0 ki an 0D j uprqei n0 me thn idithtX gi kje n n0 isqei an < a1 F hhldD uprqei stoiqeo tou A megltero p {l} @ekt p pepersmn to pljoA t stoiqe tou AF rgmtiD n efrmsete ton orism tou orou gi thn (an ) me = a1 > 0D mporete n rete n0 R steX gi kje n n0 D
Updeixh
an = |an 0| < = a1 .
teD o megltero p tou a1 , . . . , an0 eni to mgisto stoiqeo tou AX nkei sto A ki eni megltero so p kje an @exhgste gitAF
39
IUF
Dexte
ti
akolouja
Updeixh:
Exetste prta
an
1 yn = n+1 + (yn )
h
1 n+2
+ +
1 2n
sugklnei
se
pra gmatik
arijm.
enai montonh.
Updeixh
F rthrome ti
yn+1 yn
1 1 1 1 1 + + + + + n+2 n+3 2n 2n + 1 2n + 2 1 1 1 + + + n+1 n+2 2n 1 1 1 1 1 = + = > 0, 2n + 1 2n + 2 n + 1 2n + 1 2n + 2
r h (yn ) eni gnhsw xousF ipshD
yn =
1 1 1 1 1 1 n + + + + + + = < 1, n+1 n+2 2n n+1 n+1 n+1 n+1
1 fo to jroism pou orzei ton yn qei n prosjetou to pol sou me n+1 F 9erD h (yn ) eni nw frgmnhF ep to jerhm sgklish montonwn koloujinD h (yn ) sugklnei se prgmtik rijmF
IVF
Jtoume
a1 =
kai, gia
kje
Exetste wc proc th sgklish thn akolouja
n = 1, 2, . . . an+1 = (an )n
, .
6 + an .
F hexte me epgwg ti h (an ) eni xous ki nw frgmnh p ton 3F 9erD an x gi kpoion x pou iknopoie thn x = 6 + xF yi rze th exswsh eni 2 ki 3F efo h (an ) qei jetiko rouD an 3F
Updeixh
IWF
Orz oume mia akolouja
(an )
me
a1 = 1
kai
an+1 =
Exetste an sugklnei.
2an + 1 , an + 1
n N.
Updeixh
x=
2x+1 x+1
F rthrste prt tiD n h (an ) sugklnei tte to rio th j iknopoie thn 1+ 5 1 5 @exhgste gitAF 9er x = 2 x = 2 F hexte didoqik t exX
@iA r (an ) orzeti klF erke n dexete ti an = 1 gi kje n NF hexte me epgwg ti an > 0 gi kje n NF @iiA r (an ) eni xous @me epgwgAF rthrste ti n am am+1 tte
am+2 am+1 =
am+1 am 0. (am+1 + 1)(am + 1)
40 Akoloujes pragmatikn arijmn @iiiA r (an ) eni nw frgmnh @me epgwgAF rthrste ti
am+1 =
2am + 2 2am + 1 =2 am + 1 am + 1
1+ 5 2
gi kje mF t mporoste epsh n dexete ti am p t prpnwD ut eni to {upoyfio rio} th efo h (an ) eni xous ki nw frgmnhD sugklnei @ston
axousac
gi kje m @foD kolouj (an )AF
1+ 5 2 AF
PHF
Orz oume ti:
mia
akolouja
(n )
me
1 = 0
kai
n+1 =
32 n +1 2n +2 ,
n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Dexte
@A (n ) @A n 1F
H Updeixh
enai axousa.
F @A rthrome prt ti n > 0 gi kje n NF ipshD
n+1 n =
2 3n +1 2 2n + 1 (n 1)2 n = n = 0, 2n + 2 2n + 2 2n + 2
r h (n ) eni xousF 2 @A r (n ) eni nw frgmnh p ton 1F hexte to epgwgikX n n 1 tte 3n +1 = 2 3 +1 2 2 1 F 2n + n + 1 2n + 1 + 1 = 2n + 2D opte n+1 = 2n n +2 efo h (n ) eni xous ki nw frgmnhD sugklnei se kpoion x > 0 o opoo x2 +1 2 iknopoie thn x = 3 2x+2 D dhld x 2x + 1 = 0F 9erD x = 1F
PIF
Jewrome .
thn
akolouja
(n )
9 5
pou
orz etai
ap
tic
1 = 3
kai
n+1 =
2n +3 , 5
n = 1, 2, . . .
Updeixh
Dexte ti h
(n )
sugklnei kai
upologste
to rio thc.
F rthrome ti 2 = < 3 = 1 F hexte me epgwg ti h (n ) eni fjnousF efo @plA h (n ) eni ki ktw frgmnh p ton 3/5D sugklnei sth lsh +3 F hhldD n 1F th exswsh x = 2x5
'Estw
PPF
a>0
Jewrome tuqn
x1 > 0 1 2
kai gia
kje
nN
orz oume
xn+1 =
Dexte ti h
xn +
a xn
(xn )
, toul qiston ap ton detero ro thc kai pra, enai fjnousa kai ktw
fra gmnh ap ton
Brete to
lim xn
Updeixh
F hexte didoqik t exX
@iA r (xn ) orzeti klF erke n dexete ti xn = 0 gi kje n NF hexte me epgwg ti xn > 0 gi kje nF
41
@iiA qi kje n 2 isqei xn
a @me epgwgAF rthrste ti xn + a xn xn a = a xn
xn+1 =
gi kje n NF
1 2
@iiiA qi kje n 2 isqei xn xn+1 @me epgwgAF rthrste ti
xn xn+1 =
gi kje n NF
x2 na 0 2xn
efo h (xn )n2 eni fjnous ki x eni jetik ktw frgmnhD sugklneiF o rio 1 a @p t prohgomen qoume x a A ki prpei n iknopoie thn x = x +x D dhld 2 2 x = aF 9erD x = aF
esksei ymd f9 PQF

'Estw
(an )
akolouja me
an a
Orz oume mia
deterh akolouja
(bn )
jtontac
bn =
Dexte ti
a1 + + an . n
bn a
F unoume prt thn epiplon upjesh ti a = 0 ki deqnoume ti bn 0F tewrome > 0 ki rskoume n1 () N me thn idithtX gi kje n n1 isqei |an | < /2F teD gi kje n > n1 qoume
Updeixh
|bn |
|a1 + + an1 | n n1 |a1 + + an1 | + < + . n n 2 n 2
y rijm A := |a1 + + an1 | exrtti p to @fo o n1 exrtti p to A qi mw p to nF ep thn erqimdei idithtD uprqei n2 (A) = n2 () N me thn idithtX gi kje n n2 qoume |a1 + + an1 | A = < . n n 2 en loipn proume n0 = max{n1 , n2 } tteD gi kje n n0 isqei h
|bn |
we sh ton orismD bn 0F
A + < . n 2
42 Akoloujes pragmatikn arijmn qi th genik perptwshD jewrste thn kolouj an := an aF teD an 0F 9erD
bn a =
(a1 a) + + (an a) a + + an a1 + + an a= = 1 0. n n n
9ipeti ti bn aF
PRF
'Estw
(an )
akolouja jetikn rwn
me
an a > 0
Dexte ti
bn :=
F efo
1 an
1 a1
n + +
1 an
a ki n :=
a1 an a.
Updeixh
1 a D h 9eskhsh PQ deqnei ti
1 = bn
1 a1
+ + n
1 an
1 . a
+an erD bn aF qi thn n D prthrste ti bn n n := a1 + p thn nisthE n t rmonikoEgewmetrikoErijmhtiko msouD ki efrmste to kritrio twn isosugkliE nousn koloujin se sundusm me thn 9eskhsh PQF
PSF
'Estw
(an )
akolouja me
lim (an+1 an ) = a an a. n
Dexte ti
Updeixh
F rthrste ti
(an an1 ) + + (a2 a1 ) + a1 bn1 + + b1 a1 an = = + n n n n

pou bn := an+1 an aF rD qrhsimopoiste thn 9eskhsh PQF
PTF
'Estw
(an )
axousa akolouja
me thn idithta
bn :=
Dexte ti
a1 + + an a. n
an a
F erke n dexoume ti h (an ) eni nw frgmnhF teD h (an ) sugklnei kiD p thn 9eskhsh PQD lim an = lim bn = aF n n unoume prt thn epiplon upjesh ti a1 0F teD an a1 0 gi kje n NF efo h (bn ) sugklneiD eni frgmnhX eidikterD uprqei M R steX gi kje k N isqei a1 + + ak = kbk kM F rnont k = 2n ki qrhsimopoint thn upjesh ti h (an ) eni xousD grfoume
Updeixh
nan an+1 + + a2n a1 + + a2n = 2nb2n 2nM.
43
hhldD h (an ) eni nw frgmnh p ton 2M F o qrhsimopoijhke h upjesh ti oi roi th (an ) eni mh rnhtikoc qi th genik perptwshD jewrste thn @xous koloujA an = an a1 ki thn a ++a bn := 1 n n F ep thn upjesh qoume bn a a1 kiD pw orsthke h (an )D qoume a1 = 0F 9erD h (an ) eni nw frgmnhF 9ipeti ti h (an ) eni nw frgmnh @exhgste gitAF
PUF
Dexte
ti:
an
an > 0
kai
lim
an+1 an
=a
, tte
lim
an = a
Updeixh
F qrfoume
an =
a1
a2 an = a1 an1
b1 b2 bn ,
an pou b1 = a1 ki bn = an D n = 2, 3, . . .F ep thn upjesh qoume bn a kiD p 1 thn 9eskhsh PRD h kolouj twn gewmetrikn mswn th (bn ) sugklnei ston aF hhldD lim n an = aF n
PVF
Prosdiorste ta ria twn akoloujin:
n n n
= = =
(2n)! (n!)2 1 [(n + 1)(n + 2) (n + n)]1/n n 2 1

1/n
1/n
3 2
4 3
n+1 n
n 1/n
Updeixh
F qi thn n =
(2n)! (n!)2
jtoume xn =
(2n)! (n!)2
ki prthrome ti
xn+1 (2n + 1)(2n + 2) = 4. xn (n + 1)2

9erD n 4 p thn 9eskhsh PVF qi thn n =
1 n [(n + 1)(n + 2) (n (n+1)(n+2)(n+n) ki prthrome ti nn 1/n
+ n)]1/n =
(n+1)(n+2)(n+n) nn
jtoume yn =
yn+1 (2n + 1)(2n + 2) nn (2n + 1)(2n + 2) = = n +1 yn n+1 (n + 1) (n + 1)2

9erD n
4 e
n n+1
4 . e
p thn 9eskhsh PVF

1/n n+1 n n
qi thn n = ti
2 1
3 2 2
4 3 3
jtoume zn =
2 1
3 2 2
4 3 3
n+1 n n
ki prthrome
zn+1 = zn
9erD n e p thn 9eskhsh PVF
n+2 n+1
n+1
e.
PWF
'Estw
snolo
(an ) Ak = {n N : |an | k }
akolouja
pra gmatikn
arijmn
me
thn
idithta: ti
gia
kje .
enai peperasmno.
Dexte
1 n an
k N
to
lim
=0
F 9istw > 0F prqei k N ste 1/k < F o snolo Ak = {n N : |an | k } eni pepersmnoD r qei mgisto stoiqeoF ttoume n0 = max(Ak ) + 1F teD gi kje n n0 qoume n / Ak D r |an | > k @eidikterD ak = 0AF 9ipeti tiD gi kje n n0 isqei 1 1 < < . an k
Updeixh
9erD lim
1 n an
= 0F
ria twn paraktw akoloujin:
QHF
Upologste ta
an =
ki
1+
1 n1
n1
, bn =
n
1+
2 n
, cn =
n
1 n
dn =
1 n2
, en =
1+
2 3n
Updeixh
F rhsimopoiste to gegon ti xn = 1 +
1 n1 2 n n n n1
1 n n
eF qi prdeigmD
@A an = 1 + @A bn = 1 + @gA
1 cn
= xn1 eF
n n+1 n n
= =
n+2 n+1
n+1 n+2 xn+1 xn
e2 F
n n1
n n1 xn1
eD r cn 1 eF 1F
@dA dn = 1 @eA e3 n = 1+
1 n 1 n 1 n = 1 n 1+ n 1 n2 e e= 3 n 3 2 e2 @gitcAD r en e2 F 3n n 1 n lim (1 + n ) =e
.
QIF
Jewrome gnwst ti
Dexte ti, gia kje rht arijm
, isqei:
lim
1+
q n
= eq .
45
x F erqik prthrome tiD gi kje x > 0D h kolouj tn (x) = 1 + n eni xousF 9in trpo gi n to dome eni efrmzont thn nistht rijmhtiko x gewmetriko msou gi tou rijmo s1 = s2 = = sn = 1 + n ki sn+1 = 1F 9iqoume n
Updeixh
s1 sn sn+1
dhld
s1 + + sn + sn+1 n+1
n+1
x 1+ n
efo n 1 +
x n
x n 1+ n +1 n+1
n+1
+ 1 = n + 1 + xD sumpernoume ti 1+ x n
n
k mD
n+1+x n+1
n+1
1+
x n+1
n+1
tewrome jetik rht q =
pou k, m NF tloume n dexoume ti
1+
ssodnmD ti
k mn
ek/m .
bn =
1+
k mn
mn
ek .
rthrste ti h (bn ) eni xousX zhtme
bn+1 = tm(n+1) (k ) tmn (k ) = bn ,

to opoo isqei gi kje nD fo h tn (k ) eni xous ki m(n + 1) > mnF ipiplonD
bkn =
diti 1 +
1 mn mn
k 1+ mkn
mkn
1 1+ mn
mn k
ek ,
eF rD gi tuqn > 0D rskoume n0 steX gi kje n n0 D ek < bkn < ek + .
teD gi kje n > kn0 qoume
ek < bkn0 bn bkn < ek + .

unepD bn ek F qi thn perptwsh q < 0 douleoume me prmoio trpoF
QPF
'Estw
0 < a1 < b1
Orz oume anadromik
do akoloujec jtontac
an+1 =
@A @A
Dexte ti h
an bn ki bn+1 = (bn )
an + bn . 2
Dexte
ti
oi
(an ) (an ) (bn )

,
enai axousa kai h
fjnousa.
sugklnoun kai qoun
to dio rio.
Updeixh
F hexte didoqik t exX
@iA an > 0 ki bn > 0 gi kje n NF @iiA an bn gi kje n NF ep ton ndromik orism @nexrtht mlist p to poio eni oi an ki bn A qete
an + bn = bn+1 . 2 @iiiA r (an ) eni xousF rthrste ti an+1 = an bn n NF an+1 = an bn

@ivA r (bn ) eni fjnousF rthrste ti bn+1 =
an +bn 2
a2 n = an gi kje = bn gi kje n NF
2bn 2
ep t prpnwD h (an ) eni xous ki nw frgmnh p ton b1 D en h (bn ) eni fjnous ki ktw frgmnh p ton a1 @exhgste gitAF 9erD uprqoun a, b R ste bn b an a ki bn bF ep thn bn+1 = an + peti ti b = a+ 2 2 D dhld a = bF
QQF
Epilgoume
x1 = a x2 = b
,
kai jtoume
xn+2 =
Dexte ti h
2xn+1 xn + . 3 3
ri thc. .
(xn )
sugklnei
kai
brete tpo
to
xn+1 xn
Updeixh
kai brete anadromik
gia thn
(yn )
Updeixh:
Jewrste
thn
yn =
F rthrste ti
xn+2 xn+1 =
xn+1 xn . 3
n 9erD h kolouj yn = xn+1 xn iknopoie thn ndromik sqsh yn+1 = y3 F 9ipeti @exhgste gitA ti
yn =
rthrste ti
1 3
n1
y1 =
1 3
n1
(b a).
xn = x1 + (x2 x1 ) + + (xn xn1 ) = a + y1 + + yn1 .
47
9erD
xn
= a+ = a+
1+
1 3
1 3
+ +
1 3
n2
(b a)
n1 1 ( 1 3 3b + a 3) (b a) a + (b a) = . 1 4 4 1 ( 3 )
QRF
Dste pardei gma do akoloujin
(xn ) (yn )
,
me jetikoc rouc, oi opoec ikanopoion
ta exc:
@A xn + @A
Updeixh
kai
yn +
H akolouja
xn yn
enai fra gmnh all den sugklnei se kpoion pra gmatik arijm.
F ttoume xn = n + ki yn = n n o n eni perittD yn = n/2 n o n eni rtioF efo yn n/2 gi kje n ND qoume yn +F xn n rthrome ti x yn = 1 n o n eni peritt ki yn = 2 n o n eni rtioF 9erD h xn kolouj yn eni frgmnh ll den sugklnei se kpoion prgmtik rijmF
an n bn
QSF
@A @A
'Estw
lim
(an ) (bn ) =1
, . h
do
akoloujec
pra gmatikn
arijmn
me
bn = 0
gia
kje
nN
kai
An, epiplon,
(bn )
enai fra gmnh,
dexte ti
Dste pardei gma akoloujin gia tic opoec
n lim an n bn
lim (an bn ) = 0 =1
all den isqei
lim (an
bn ) = 0
Updeixh
F @A qrfoume an bn = bn
an bn
1 F ep thn upjeshD h (bn ) eni frgmnh
ki h
an bn
1 eni mhdenikF unepD lim (an bn ) = 0F

n
@A tewrste ti an = n + 1 ki bn = nF
QTF @vmm tou StolzA
'Estw
(an )
akolouja pra gmatikn arijmn kai stw me
(bn )
gnhswc
axousa akolouja pra gmatikn arijmn
lim bn = +
Dexte ti an
n
pou
lim
an+1 an = , bn+1 bn an = . bn
= +
, tte
lim
Updeixh
n+1 an F pojtoume ti limn a bn+1 bn = pou R @h perptwsh = + exetzeti nlogAF 9istw > 0F rhsimopoint ki to gegon ti bn +D
48 Akoloujes pragmatikn arijmn lpoume ti uprqei n1 () N steX gi kje n n1 isqei bn > 0 ki
an+1 an < <+ . 2 bn+1 bn 2
efo h (bn ) eni gnhsw xousD qoume bn+1 bn > 0F 9erD gi kje n n1 isqei
(bn+1 bn ) < an+1 an < + (bn+1 bn ). 2 2
9ipeti @exhgste gitA tiX gi kje n > n1 isqei
(bn bn1 ) < an an1 < + (bn bn1 ). 2 2
hiirnt me bn prnoume
rthrste ti
b n1 bn
an1 an < < + bn bn 2 b n1 bn b n1 bn an1 bn an1 bn
bn 1 bn 2 2
an1 . bn
lim
2 2
ki
n
lim
=+
git bn + tn n F 9er @exhgste gitA uprqei n2 ND pou exrtti p to n1 ki p to D steX gi kje n n2 isqei
 0 tn tuqnD sumpernoume ti

n
lim
an = . bn an+1 = an (1 an ) n = 1, 2, . . .
,
QUF
ti
Orz oume
akolouja .
(an )
me
0 < a1 < 1
kai
Dexte
lim nan = 1
49
F ipgwgik deqnoume ti 0 < an < 1 gi kje n N @gi to epgwgik m prthrste ti n 0 < an < 1 tte qoume ki 0 < 1 an < 1D opte pollplsizont lpoume ti 0 < an (1 an ) < 1D dhld 0 < an+1 < 1AF ep thn ndromik sqsh qoume
Updeixh
an+1 an = a2 n < 0,
r an > an+1 gi kje n NF unepD h (an ) eni gnhsw fjnousF efo eni ki ktw frgmnh p to 0D h (an ) sugklnei se kpoion x 0F li p thn ndromik sqshD o x iknopoie thn x = x(1 x) = x x2 D dhld x2 = 0F 9erD an 0F orzeti klD eni gnhsw xousD we sh t prpnwD h kolouj bn = a1 n 1 ki an + @exhgste gitAF qrfoume
nan =
ki efrmzoume to vmm tou StolzX qoume
n bn
(n + 1) n = bn+1 bn
r
1 an+1
1
1 an
1
1 an (1an )
1 an
= 1 an 1,
nan =
p thn 9eskhsh QTF
n 1 bn
Keflaio 3
Sunartseic
esksei ymd e9 IF
'Estw
a, b R
ep.
me
a<b
Dexte ti h apeiknish
f : [0, 1] [a, b] : x a + (b a)x
enai 1-1 kai
Updeixh
F pojtoume ti x, y [0, 1] ki f (x) = f (y )F teD
a + (b a)x = a + (b a)y = (b a)x = (b a)y = x = y.

9erD h f eni IEIF qi n dexoume ti h f eni epD jewrome tuqn z [a, b] ki zhtme x [0, 1] me thn iditht f (x) = z F ssodnmD a + (b a)x = z F r mondik lsh ut th exswsh a eni o x = z ba D o opoo nkei sto [0, 1]X fo a z bD qoume 0 z a b a a r 0 z ba 1F
PF
'Estw
@A @A
Na brete tic
Na dexete ti orz etai h
f, g : [0, 1] [0, 1] f (x) = f g gf f 1

me kai .
1x 1+x
kai
g (t) = 4t(1 t)
h
all den
orz etai
g 1
x F rthrste prt ti n x [0, 1] tte f (x) = 1 1+x [0, 1] ki n t [0, 1] tte g (t) = 4t(1 t) [0, 1]F hhldD oi f ki g orzonti klF
Updeixh
@A 9iqoume
(f g )(x) = f (g (x)) =
ki
1 g (x) 1 4x(1 x) = 1 + g (x) 1 + 4x(1 x) 1x 1+x 1x 1+x 8x(1 x) . (1 + x)2
(g f )(x) = g (f (x)) = 4f (x)(1 f (x)) = 4
52 Sunartseis @A r g den eni IEIF qi prdeigmD g (1/3) = g (2/3) = 8/9 ki genik g (t) = g (1 t) gi kje t [0, 1]F 9erD h g 1 den orzetiF 1y x r f eni IEIX n x, y [0, 1] ki 1 1+x = 1+y tte (1 x)(1+ y ) = (1 y )(1+ x) dhld 1 x + y xy = 1 y + x xy F 9ipeti ti x = y F efo h f eni IEID orzeti h f 1 sto f ([0, 1])F wporete mlist n dexete ti h f eni ep ki ti h f 1 : [0, 1] [0, 1] z 1 = fF dneti p thn f 1 (z ) = 1 1+z F we ll lgiD f
QF
'Estw
h antstrofh sunrthsh
g : X Y, f : Y Z (f g )1
do sunartseic pou enai 1-1 kai ep. thc
Dexte ti orz etai .
f g
kai ti
(f g )1 = g 1 f 1
F pojtoume ti oi g : X Y ki f : Y Z eni IEI ki epF htme h : Z X ste h (f g ) = IdX ki (f g ) h = IdZ F r 9eskhsh m qei dh dsei thn hF r g 1 f 1 : Z X orzeti kl git oi f ki g eni ntistryime ki f 1 : Z Y D g 1 : Y X F loD
Updeixh
(g 1 f 1 ) (f g ) = g 1 (f 1 f ) g = g 1 IdY g = g 1 (IdY g ) = g 1 g = IdX

ki
(f g ) (g 1 f 1 ) = f (g g 1 ) f 1 = f IdY f 1 = f (IdY f 1 ) = f f 1 = IdZ .

qi n dexete ti h f g eni IEI ki epX @A en x1 , x2 X ki (f g )(x1 ) = (f g )(x2 )D tte f (g (x1 )) = f (g (x2 )) r g (x1 ) = g (x2 ) diti h f eni IEIF 9ymoiD p thn g (x1 ) = g (x2 ) lpoume ti x1 = x2 D fo h g eni IEIF eut podeiknei ti h f g eni IEIF @A en z Z tte uprqei y Y ste f (y ) = z @git h f eni epA ki uprqei x X ste g (x) = y @git h g eni epAF teD (f g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (y ) = z F eut podeiknei ti h f g eni epF
Shmewsh:
RF
'Estw
g : X Y, f : Y Z f g f g
do sunartseic.
Dexte
ti
@A @A
an h
enai ep tte kai h
f g
enai ep.
an h
enai 1-1 tte kai
enai 1-1.
Isqoun ta antstrofa twn (a) kai (b)?
F 9istw g : X Y ki f : Y Z do sunrtseiF @A 9istw ti h f g eni epF qi n dexoume ti h f eni ep jewrome tuqn z Z ki zhtme y Y ste f (y ) = z F efo h f g eni epD uprqei x X ste f (g (x)) = (f g )(x) = z F rnont y = g (x) Y qoume to zhtomenoF o ntstrofo tou @A den isqeiX dokimste ti f (x) = x ki g (x) = 1 @p to R sto RAF @A 9istw ti h f g eni IEIF qi n dexoume ti h g eni IEI jewrome x1 , x2 X me g (x1 ) = g (x2 ) ki deqnoume ti x1 = x2 F efo g (x1 ) = g (x2 ) qoume (f g )(x1 ) =
Updeixh
53 f (g (x1 )) = f (g (x2 )) = (f g )(x2 )F efo h f g eni IEID peti ti x1 = x2 F o ntstrofo tou @A den isqeiX dokimste ti g (x) = x ki f (x) = 1 @p to R sto RAF
SF
kai
'Estw
f :XY h:Y X f g = IdY

mia ste
sunrthsh. kai
Upojtoume .
ti
uprqoun
sunartseic .
g:Y X
h f = IdX
Dexte ti
h=g
F ep thn f g = IdY ki p thn 9eskhsh R@AD h f eni epF ep thn h f = IdX ki p thn 9eskhsh R@AD h f eni IEIF 9erD h f 1 : Y X orzeti kl ki iknopoie ti f 1 f = IdY D f f 1 = IdX F rD prthrste ti
Updeixh
h = h (f f 1 ) = (h f ) f 1 = IdX f 1 = f 1
ki
g = (f 1 f ) g = f 1 (f g ) = f 1 IdY = f 1 .
hhldD h = g = f 1 F
TF
'Estw
f (x) =
1 1+x .
orismo thc
@A @A @gA @dA @eA
Na breje to pedo
Na breje h
f f
ta
Na brejon
1 f(x ), f (cx), f (x + y ), f (x) + f (y ).

uprqei
Gia poi
cR cR
xR
ste
f (cx) = f (x)
Gia
poi ?
sqsh
f (cx) = f (x)
ikanopoietai
gia
do
diaforetikc
timc
tou
xR
UF
An
mia
sunrthsh
enai sto
gnhswc
axousa
sta
diastmata
I1
kai
I2
enai
aljeia
ti enai gnhswc axousa
I1 I2
F 9yqiF en orsete thn f : [0, 1] [2, 3] R me f (x) = x n x [0, 1] ki f (x) = x 3 n x [2, 3]D tte h f eni gnhsw xous st distmt I1 = [0, 1] ki I2 = [2, 3]F 9ymwD f (0) = 0 > 1 = f (2)F 9erD h f den eni gnhsw xous sto I1 I2 F
Updeixh
VF
@
'Estw
f (x) =
AF
x+1 x2 + 1
an an
x1 x1
'Exetste
an
enai
montonh
kai
brete
thn
f 1
an aut orz etai
Updeixh
F r f orzeti kl sto 1X 1 + 1 = 12 + 1F rthrste ti
@A en x < y 1 tte f (x) = x + 1 < y + 1 = f (y )F @A en 1 x < y tte f (x) = x2 + 1 < y 2 + 1 = f (y )F
54 Sunartseis @gA en x < 1 < y tte f (x) < f (1) < f (y ) p t @A ki @AF ep t prpnw lpoume ti n x, y R ki x < y tte f (x) < f (y )F 9erD h f eni gnhsw xousF qi to detero erthm prthrste ti @A en y 2 tte f (y 1) = y F @A en y 2 tte f ( y 1) = y F unepD h ntstrofh sunrthsh f 1 : R R orzeti p ti f 1 (y ) = y 1 n y 2 ki f 1 (y ) = y 1 n y 2F
WF
g
'Estw
f (x) = x + 1
Na
breje
mia
sunrthsh
g:RR
ste
gf =f g
Enai
monadik?
Updeixh
F r g prpei n iknopoie thn g (f (x)) = f (g (x)) gi kje x RF hhldD thn
g (x + 1) = g (x) + 1.
wi ttoi sunrthsh eni h g (x) = xF en h eni opoidpote periodik sunrthsh me perodo 1D tte
(h + g )(x + 1) = h(x + 1) + g (x + 1) = h(x) + g (x) + 1 = (h + g )(x) + 1

gi kje x RF 9erD h h + g iknopoie ki ut thn (h + g ) f = f (h + g )F
IHF
Apodexte ti h sunrthsh
Poi enai
to snolo timn
f (x) = f (R)
?
x |x|+1
enai gnhswc axousa kai fra gmnh sto
F @A erke n dexoume ti h f eni gnhsw xous sto (, 0] ki sto [0, +)F ixhgste git @prmoio epiqerhm qrhsimopoijhke sthn 9eskhsh IPAF y x e upojsoume ti x < y 0F tloume n elgxoume ti 1 x < 1y F efo 1 x ki 1 y > 0D isodnm zhtme x(1 y ) < y (1 x) dhld x xy < y xy @pou isqeiAF y x < y+1 F we ton dio trpo dexte ti n 0 x < y tte x+1
Updeixh
@A rthrste ti
|f (x)| =
|x| <1 |x| + 1
gi kje x RD dhld f (R) (1, 1)F hexte ti isqei isthtX n 0 < y < 1 tte x uprqei x > 0 ste f (x) = x+1 = y D en n 1 < y < 0 tte uprqei x < 0 ste x f (x) = 1x = y F
IIF
pou
An
AR
sumbolz oume
me
orz etai ap
thn
A (x) =
1 0
A : R R xA x /A
an an
thn
qarakthristik sunrthsh
tou
Apodexte ti
55
@A AB = A B @
eidiktera
A = 2 A AD
@A AB = A + B A B D @gA R\A = 1 A D @dA A B A B @eA

An kai
f :RR
enai mia
sunrthsh me
f2 = f
, tte uprqei
AR
ste
f = A
IPF
an
jroisma
g:RR g (x) = g (x) xR f = fa + fp fa

Mia sunrthsh gia kje pou
lgetai .
rtia
an
g (x) = g (x)
kje kai ti
gia kje
Dexte kai
ti
sunrthsh
xR f :RR
h
kai
peritt
wc enai
grfetai
rtia
fp
peritt,
aut
anaparstash
monadik.
Updeixh
F rthrste tiX n h f grfeti sth morf f = fa + fp pou h fa eni rti ki h fp peritt tteD zont pou x ton x sthn f (x) = fa (x) + fp (x)D prnoume
f (x) = fa (x) + fp (x) = fa (x) fp (x)

gi kje x RF hhldD oi fa ki fp prpei n iknopoion ti
f (x) = fa (x) + fp (x) f (x) = fa (x) fp (x)

gi kje x RF engkstik @exhgste gitAD oi fa ki fp prpei n dnonti p ti
fa (x) =
f (x) f (x) f (x) + f (x) ki fp (x) = . 2 2
ilgxte ti n orsoume tsi ti fa ki fp tte h fa eni rtiD h fp eni peritt ki f = fa + fp F r mondiktht th nprstsh qei dh podeiqje @gitcAF
IQF
R
@A @A
Mia
ste
f :RR f (x + a) = f (x)
sunrthsh
lgetai
periodik (me perodo a)

.
an
uprqei
a=0
sto
gia kje
xR
Dexte ti h sunrthsh
f :RR
pou orz etai ap thn
f (x) = [x]
ap thn
den enai periodik.
Exetste
an
sunrthsh
f : R R
pou
orz etai
f (x) = x [x]
enai
periodik.
F @A e upojsoume ti h f (x) = [x] eni periodik me perodo aF wporome n upojsoume ti a > 0 @n h f qei perodo a tte qei ki perodo aAF rthrste ti f (R) = f ([0, a))F rgmtiD kje x R grfeti sth morf x = mx a + yx gi kpoiou mx Z ki yx [0, a)D opteD gi kje x R qoume f (x) = f (mx a + yx ) = f (yx ) f ([0, a))F
Updeixh
56 Sunartseis 9ymwD f ([0, a)) [0, a)X n 0 x < a tte 0 [x] x < aF 9erD h f eni frgmnhF eut eni topoD fo f (n) = n gi kje n NF @A r sunrthsh f (x) = x [x] eni periodik me perodo 1F erke n dexoume ti [x +1] = [x]+1 gi kje x RF 9ymwD [x] x < [x]+1 r [x]+1 x +1 < ([x]+1)+1F hhldD o krio m = [x] + 1 iknopoie thn m x + 1 < m + 1F 9erD [x] + 1 = m = [x + 1] @p th mondiktht tou kerou mrouAF @A
IRF
'Estw Dexte
nN
ti
h sunrthsh
f (x) = [x] + x +
enai periodik me perodo
n1 1 + + x + [nx] n n
gia kje
@A @gA
Upologste thn
tim
1/n f (x)
Dhlad,
tan
1 f x+ n = f (x) 0 x < 1/n

.
xR
Dexte
thn tautthta
[nx] = [x] + x +
gia kje
1 n1 + + x + n n
xR
kai kje
nN
Updeixh
F @A rthrste tiD p thn 9eskhsh W@AD
f x+
1 n
= = = = =
1 + + x + n 1 x+ + + x + n 1 x+ + + x + n 1 [x] + x + + + n f (x). x+
1 n2 1 n1 1 n x+ + + x+ + n n n n n n1 + [x + 1] [nx + 1] n n1 + [x] + 1 [nx] 1 n n1 x+ [nx] n
@A en 0 x < 1/n tte
x, x +
r
1 n1 , ..., x + , nx [0, 1) n n
[x] = x +
9ipeti ti f (x) = 0F
1 n1 = = x + = [nx] = 0. n n
57
1 @gA uje x R grfeti sth morf x = mx n + yx gi kpoiou mx Z ki yx [0, 1/n)D 1 opteD p t @A ki @AD gi kje x R qoume f (x) = f mx n + yx = f (yx ) = 0F
ISF
'Estw
f : R R
kai
mia
sunrthsh
me
f (x + y ) = f (x) + f (y ) xR
isqei .
gia
kje
x, y R
Apodexte
ti
@A f (0) = 0 @A
Gia kje
f (x) = f (x)
kai
gia kje
nN
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn R
f (x1 + x2 + + xn ) = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + + f (xn ).

1 @gA f ( n )= f (1) n
gia kje
nN
@dA
Uprqei
ste
f (q ) = q
gia kje
qQ
F 9iqoume upojsei ti h f iknopoie thn f (x + y ) = f (x) + f (y ) gi kje x, y RF @A rnont x = y = 0 mporete n elgxete ti f (0) = 0F utpinD gi dosmno x RD prnont y = x mporete n elgxete ti f (x) = f (x)F @A rhsimopoiste epgwgF 1 @gA rte x1 = = xn = n sto @AF 1 1 @dA qryte ton q sth morf n + + n gi ktllhlo pljo prosjetwn ki qrhsimopoiste t @A ki @gAF
Updeixh
f : R R f (y ) f (x) (y x)2 x, y R f en |f (b) f (a)| = > 0 gi kpoi a < b sto RD diirste to disthm [a, b] se n s upodistmtD pou n rket meglo fusik rijmF
'Estw mia sunrthsh me gia kje Apodexte ti h enai stajer. Updeixh: Updeixh
ITF
F erke n dexoume ti gi tuqnte prgmtiko rijmo a ki b me a 0F wrzoume to [a, b] se n didoqik upodistmt mkou (b a)/n me t shme a) a = x0 < x1 < < xn1 < xn = bD pou xk = a + k(bn D k = 0, 1, . . . , nF rthrome tiD p thn upjeshD
|f (xk ) f (xk1 )| (xk xk1 )2 =
ba n
(b a)2 n2
gi kje k = 1, . . . , nF ep thn trigwnik nistht gi thn pluth tim qoume
= |f (b) f (a)| = |f (xn ) f (x0 )| |f (xn ) f (xn1 )| + + |f (x2 ) f (x1 )| + |f (x1 ) f (x0 )| (b a)2 (b a)2 n = . 2 n n
58 Sunartseis hhldD (b a)2 /n gi kje n NF eut eni topo fo > 0 ki tn to n F

(ba)2 n
Keflaio 4
Sunqeia kai ria sunartsewn

eF irwtsei ktnhsh
IF
An
kje
f :RR x (x0 , x0 + )
h
enai
suneqc
sto
x0
4 5.
kai
f (x0 ) = 1
tte
uprqei
>0
ste:
gia
isqei
f (x) >
Swst
F ifrmzoume ton orism th sunqei me = 1 5 > 0F efo h f eni suneq sto x0 D uprqei > 0 steX gi kje x (x0 , x0 + ) isqei
|f (x) f (x0 )| <
1 1 , dhld |f (x) 1| < . 5 5

4 5
unepD gi kje x (x0 , x0 + ) isqei
=1
1 5
< f (x) < 1 +
1 5
=6 5F
PF
f :NR
me
f (x) =
1 x
enai suneqc.
Swst
F 9yl t shme tou pedou orismo th f eni memonwmn shme touD r h f eni suneq se utF o epiqerhm eni to exX stw m N ki stw > 0F 1 ipilgoume = 2 F en n N ki |n m| < 1 2 D tteD ngkstikD n = mF unepD
|f (n) f (m)| = |f (m) f (m)| = 0 < .
QF
sunrthsh
x /N
, enai suneqc
f :RR x0
sto
pou
orz etai
ap
tic: .
f (x) = 0
an
xN
kai
f (x) = 1
an
an kai mno an
x0 /N
60 Sunqeia kai ria sunartsewn F en x0 / N tte uprqei > 0 ste sto (x0 , x0 + ) n mhn periqeti fusik rijm @exhgste gitAF teD gi kje > 0 ki gi kje x (x0 , x0 + ) qoume |f (x) f (x0 )| = |1 1| = 0 < F 9erD h f eni suneq sto x0 F 9istw tr x0 NF prqei kolouj (xn ) h opo sugklnei sto x0 ki h opo den qei rou pou n eni fusiko rijmo @exhgste gitAF teD f (xn ) = 1 1 = 0 = f (x0 )F mfwn me thn rq th metforD h f den eni suneq sto x0 F
Swst
RF
Uprqei
f :RR
pou
enai
asuneqc
sta
shmea
1 0, 1, 1 2, . . . , n, . . .
kai
suneqc
se
la ta lla shmea.
1 1 F tewrste th sunrthsh f : R R pou prnei thn tim 1 st shme 0, 1, 2 ,..., n ,... ki thn tim 0 se l t ll shmeF
Swst
SF
Uprqei
f :RR
pou
enai
asuneqc
sta
shmea
1 1, 1 2, . . . , n, . . .
kai
suneqc
se
la
ta lla shmea.
F tewrste th sunrthsh f : R R pou orzeti w exX f (x) = x n x = 1 1, 1 , . . ., n , . . . ki f (x) = 0 se l t ll shmeF qi n dexete ti h f eni suneq 2 sto shmeo 0 qrhsimopoiste ton orism th sunqeiF
Swst
TF
Uprqei
sunrthsh
f :RR
pou
enai
suneqc
sto
kai
asuneqc
se
la
ta
lla
shmea.
Swst
x / QF
F tewrste th sunrthsh f : R R me f (x) = x n x Q ki f (x) = x n
UF
An h
f :RR
enai suneqc se kje rrhto
, tte enai
suneqc
se kje
F tewrste th sunrthsh f : R R me f (x) = 0 n x = 4 ki f (4) = 1F r f eni suneq sto x0 = 4 ki suneq se kje rrhto xF
Ljoc
VF
An
gia kje
f x (a, b)
enai
suneqc .
sto
(a, b)
kai
f (q ) = 0
gia
kje
rht
q (a, b)
tte
f (x) = 0
F tewrste x (a, b) ki kolouj (qn ) rhtn rijmn p to (a, b) h opo sugklnei sto xF toi kolouj uprqei lgw th pukntht twn rhtn sto RF efo h f eni suneq sto xD h rq th metfor deqnei ti f (qn ) f (x)F ep thn upjesh qoume f (qn ) = 0 gi kje n ND ki sunepD f (x) = 0F
Swst
WF
An
1 n
= (1)n
gia kje
nN
, tte h
enai asuneqc sto shmeo
Swst
F 9iqoume
f 2n1 1 = (1) shmeo 0F
1 2n 2n1
0 ki
1 2n1
0F ep thn upjeshD f
1 2n
= (1)2n = 1 1 ki
= 1 1F ep thn rq th metforD h f eni suneq sto
61
IHF
An
h .
f : R R
enai
suneqc
kai
f (0) = f (1)
tte
uprqei
x0 [0, 1]
ste
f (x0 ) = 0
Swst
F en f (0) = 0 tte prnoume x0 = 0 1F en f (0) = 0D tte p thn f (0) = f (1) lpoume ti h f prnei etershme tim st kr tou [0, 1]F ep to jerhm endimesh timD uprqei x0 (0, 1) ste f (x0 ) = 0F
IIF
An .
f : (a, b) R
enai
suneqc,
tte
parnei
mgisth
kai
el qisth
tim
sto
(a, b)
F tewrste thn f : (0, 1) R me f (x) = xF r f eni suneq sto (0, 1)D mw den prnei mgisth ote elqisth tim sto (0, 1)F
Ljoc
IPF
An h
enai suneqc sto
[a, b]
tte h
enai fra gmnh
sto
[a, b]
F 9in p t sik jewrmt gi suneqe sunrtsei pou qoun pedo orismo kleist disthmF
Swst
IQF
tte
An
x0
lim g (x) = 0
tte
x0
1 =0 lim g (x) sin x
Swst
F rhsimopoisteD gi prdeigmD thn rq th metforF en xn = 0 ki xn 0D
g (xn ) sin
x0
1 |g (xn )|. xn
efo lim g (x) = 0D qoume g (xn ) 0F ep thn prohgomenh nistht peti ti
x0
lim g (xn ) sin
1 = 0. xn
eskseiX sunqei sunrtsewn ymd e9 IF

'Estw
f :XR
kai stw
x0 X
An h
enai suneqc sto
x0
kai
f (x0 ) = 0 f (x) > f (x) <
, dexte
ti:
@A @A
an
f (x0 ) > 0
, uprqei
>0 >0
ste:
an
|x x0 | < |x x0 | <
kai
xX xX
tte
f (x0 ) 2 f (x0 ) 2
>0 <0
an
f (x0 ) < 0
, uprqei
ste:
an
kai
tte
F @A pojtoume prt ti f (x0 ) > 0F efo h f eni suneq sto x0 D n x0 ) jewrsoume ton = f (2 > 0 uprqei > 0 steX n x X ki |x x0 | < tte
Updeixh
|f (x) f (x0 )| <
f (x0 ) f (x0 ) f (x0 ) < f (x) f (x0 ) 0 < < f (x). 2 2 2
62 Sunqeia kai ria sunartsewn @A pojtoume tr ti f (x0 ) < 0F efo h f eni suneq sto x0 D n jewrsoume ton x0 ) = f (2 > 0 uprqei > 0 steX n x X ki |x x0 | < tte
|f (x) f (x0 )| <
f (x0 ) f (x0 ) f (x0 ) f (x) f (x0 ) < f (x) < < 0. 2 2 2

Upojtoume . ti uprqei
PF
'Estw
M |x y |
Updeixh
, gia
f :X R xX
kje
sunrthsh. kai
M 0
ste
|f (x) f (y )|
yX
Dexte ti h
enai suneqc.
F en M = 0 tte h f eni stjer @gitcAF wporome loipn n upojsoume ti M > 0F 9istw x0 X ki stw > 0F ipilgoume = /M > 0F en x X ki |x x0 | < D tte |f (x) f (x0 )| M |x x0 | < M = F o > 0 tn tuqnD r h f eni suneq sto x0 F
QF
'Estw
f :RR
ti h
sunrthsh me
|f (x)| |x| 0
.
gia kje
xR
@A @A
Dexte
enai suneqc sto
Dste pardei gma
miac ttoiac
pou
na
enai asuneqc se kje
x=0
F @A rthrste ti |f (0)| 0D dhld f (0) = 0F 9istw (xn ) kolouj sto R me xn 0F teD p thn xn f (xn ) xn ki to kritrio premol peti ti f (xn ) 0 = f (0)F ep thn rq th metfor h f eni suneq sto 0F Dx /Q x @A r sunrthsh f (x) = eni suneq mno sto shmeo 0 @exhgste x D x QD gitA ki iknopoie thn |f (x)| |x| gi kje x RF
Updeixh
RF
'Estw
gia kje
f :RR xR
.
kai
Dexte ti h
g:RR f
suneqc
sunrthsh
me
g (0) = 0
kai
|f (x)| |g (x)|
enai suneqc sto
F rthrste ti |f (0)| |g (0)| = 0D dhld f (0) = 0F 9istw (xn ) kolouj sto R me xn 0F efo h g eni suneq sto 0D qoume g (xn ) 0F ep thn upjesh qoume g (xn ) f (xn ) g (xn )D r f (xn ) 0 = f (0)F ep thn rq th metfor h f eni suneq sto 0F
Updeixh
SF
f :RR n = 1, 2, . . . an a R
'Estw . An Updeixh
suneqc
sunrthsh
kai .
stw
a1 R
Orz oume
an+1 = f (an )
gia
tte
f (a) = a
F ep thn an a ki p thn rq th metforD qoume f (an ) f (a)F ep thn upjeshD f (an ) = an+1 aF ep th mondiktht tou orou koloujD f (a) = aF
63 x
mno sta shmea
an
TF
xQ
enai suneqc
Dexte
ti
sunrthsh
f :RR
me
f (x) =
x3
an
x /Q
1, 0, 1
Updeixh
F e upojsoume ti h f eni suneq sto x0 RF prqei kolouj (qn ) rhtn rijmn me qn x0 ki uprqei kolouj (n ) rrtwn rijmn me n x0 F efo h f eni suneq sto x0 qoume f (x0 ) = lim f (qn ) = lim qn = x0 ki f (x0 ) =
n 3 3 lim f (n ) = lim n = x3 0 F 9erD x0 = x0 F eut mpore n sumnei mno n x0 = 1, 0 n n n
1F hhldD h f eni suneq se kje x0 / {1, 0, 1}F e upojsoume ti x0 {1, 0, 1}F teD n jewrsoume ti suneqe sunrtsei g, h : R R me g (x) = x ki h(x) = x3 D qoume f (x0 ) = g (x0 ) = h(x0 )F 9istw > 0F efo h g eni suneq sto x0 D uprqei 1 > 0 steX n |x x0 | < 1 tte |g (x) g (x0 )| < F efo h h eni suneq sto x0 D uprqei 2 > 0 steX n |x x0 | < 2 tte |h(x) h(x0 )| < F ttoume = min{1 , 2 }F en |x x0 | < D tteX @iA ete x Q ki |x x0 | < 1 D opte |f (x) f (x0 )| = |g (x) g (x0 )| < D @iiA x / Q ki |x x0 | < 2 D opte |f (x) f (x0 )| = |h(x) h(x0 )| < F e kje perptwshD |x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 )| < D ki fo to > 0 tn tuqnD h f eni suneq sto x0 F
UF
'Estw
f, g : R R f (x) = 0
suneqec
sunartseic.
Dexte ti:
@A @A @gA
An
gia kje
xQ
, tte
f (y ) = 0
gia kje
yR
An
f (x) = g (x) f (x) g (x)
gia kje
xQ xQ
, tte
f (y ) = g (y ) f (y ) g (y )
gia kje
yR yR
An
gia kje
, tte
gia kje
Updeixh
F@A 9istw y RF wporome n rome kolouj (xn ) rhtn rijmn me xn y F efo h f eni suneqD p thn rq th metfor qoume 0 = f (xn ) f (y )F 9erD f (y ) = 0F @A ifrmste to @A gi thn suneq sunrthsh h = f g F @gA 9istw y RF wporome n rome kolouj (xn ) rhtn rijmn me xn y F ep thn upjesh qoume f (xn ) g (xn ) gi kje n NF ep thn rq th metfor prnoume f (y ) = lim f (xn ) lim g (xn ) = g (y ).
n n
VF
'Estw .
f : [a, b] [a, b]
suneqc
sunrthsh.
Na
dei qje
ti
uprqei
x [a, b]
me
f (x) = x
64 Sunqeia kai ria sunartsewn F tewrste th suneq sunrthsh g : [a, b] R pou orzeti p thn g (x) = f (x)xF rthrste ti g (a) = f (a)a 0 ki g (b) = f (b)b 0F efo g (a)g (b) 0D p to jerhm endimesh tim uprqei x [a, b] ste f (x) x = g (x) = 0F
Updeixh
WF
'Estw
isqei
f : [a, b] R |f (x)| = 1
.
suneqc
sunrthsh
me
thn
exc
idithta:
gia
kje
x [a, b]
Dexte ti h
enai stajer.
F r f mpore n prei mno ti tim 1 ki 1F en den eni stjerD tte uprqoun x1 [a, b] ste f (x1 ) = 1 ki x2 [a, b] ste f (x2 ) = 1F ep to jerhm endimesh timD h f prnei tte le ti tim [1, 1]F qi prdeigmD uprqei [a, b] ste f ( ) = 0F eut odhge se topoD fo |f ( )| = 1 p thn upjeshF
Updeixh
IHF
f, g : [a, b] R x [a, b] g f [a, b]

'Estw kje . sto . Updeixh
suneqec epshc
sunartseic
pou gia
ikanopoion kje
thn .
Upojtoume
ti
f (x) = 0
x [a, b]
Dexte
f 2 (x) = g 2 (x) gf
ti
gia
F rthrste ti fo h f den mhdenzeti se knn x [a, b] to dio isqei ki gi thn g F wr periorism th geniktht mporome n upojsoume ti f (a) > 0F te qoume f (x) > 0 gi kje x [a, b] @n h f pirne kpou rnhtik tim tteD p to jerhm endimesh timD j uprqe ki shmeo sto opoo j mhdeniztnAF e upojsoume ti g (a) > 0F 9ypw prinD qoume g (x) > 0 gi kje x [a, b]F efo f 2 (x) = g 2 (x) gi kje xD sumpernoume ti g (x) = f (x) gi kje xF hhldD g = f F ilgxte thn perptwsh f (a) > 0 ki g (a) < 0 me ton dio trpoF e ut thn perptwsh p thn f 2 = g 2 j prokyei ti g = f F
IIF
'Estw ti
Dexte
f : [0, 1] R f
suneqc sunrthsh me thn idithta sunrthsh.
f (x) Q
gia kje
x [0, 1]
enai stajer
F r f eni suneq sto [0, 1]D r prnei elqisth tim m ki mgisth tim M sto [0, 1]F en upojsoume ti h f den eni stjer sunrthshD tte m < M @gitcAF qnwrzoume ti uprqei rrhto ste m < < M F ep to jerhm endimesh tim uprqei x (0, 1) me f (x) = F eut rqeti se ntfsh me thn upjesh ti h f prnei mno rht timF
Updeixh
IPF
rht
'Estw
f : (0, 1) R x (0, 1)
. Na
suneqc
sunrthsh
me
thn
exc
idithta:
f (x) = x2
gia
kje
breje to
2 2
Aitiologste plrwc thn
apnths sac.
Updeixh
F heqnoume ti f (t) = t2 gi kje t (0, 1)F iidikterD j qoume f

1 2F
= 9istw loipn t (0, 1)F prqei kolouj (qn ) rhtn sto (0, 1) me qn tF efo 2 f (qn ) = qn ki h f eni suneq sto tD h rq th metfor deqnei ti
2 f (t) = lim f (qn ) = lim qn = t2 . n n
2 2 2
2 2
65
IQF
me
f : [0, 2] R f (x + 1) = f (x)
'Estw .
suneqc sunrthsh me
f (0) = f (2)
Dexte ti uprqei
x [0, 1]
F yrzoume g : [0, 1] R me g (x) = f (x) f (x + 1)F r g eni kl orismnh ki suneq sto [0, 1]F rthrste ti
Updeixh
g (0) = f (0) f (1) = f (2) f (1) = g (1),

r g (0)g (1) 0F ep to jerhm endimesh tim uprqei x [0, 1] ste
f (x) f (x + 1) = g (x) = 0.
IRF
Upojtoume
ti
f
1 n
enai
suneqc
ti uprqei
x 0, 1
ste
[0, 1] 1 f (x) = f x + n
sto
kai .
f (0) = f (1)
'Estw
nN
Dexte
1 F yrzoume g : 0, 1 n R me g (x) = f (x) f x + 1 orismnh ki suneq sto 0, 1 n F rthrste ti

Updeixh
1 n
F r g eni kl
g (0) + g
1 n
+ + g
n1 n
= f (0) f (1) = 0.
0 ki g n 0F ep to jerhm 9erD uprqoun , {0, 1, . . . , n 1} ste g n endimesh tim uprqei x pou nkei sto kleist disthm pou qei kr t n ki n 1 ki iknopoie thn f (x) f x + n = g (x) = 0F
ISF
'Estw
t [0, 1]
uprqei
f : [a, b] R yt [a, b]
suneqc ste
sunrthsh
kai
x1 , x2 [a, b]
Dexte
ti
gia
kje
f (yt ) = tf (x1 ) + (1 t)f (x2 ).

F r f eni suneq sto [a, b]D r prnei elqisth tim m ki mgisth tim M sto [a, b]F qi i = 1, 2 qoume m f (xi ) M D r
Updeixh
m = tm + (1 t)m tf (x1 ) + (1 t)f (x2 ) tM + (1 t)M = M.

ep to jerhm endimesh tim uprqei yt [a, b] me f (yt ) = tf (x1 ) + (1 t)f (x2 )F
ITF
'Estw
uprqei
f : [a, b] R y [a, b]
ste
suneqc
sunrthsh,
kai
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn [a, b]
Dexte
ti
f (y ) =
Updeixh
f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + + f (xn ) . n
F r f eni suneq sto [a, b]D r prnei elqisth tim m ki mgisth tim M sto [a, b]F qi kje i = 1, . . . , n qoume m f (xi ) M D r
m :=
f (x1 ) + + f (xn ) M. n
66 Sunqeia kai ria sunartsewn ep to jerhm endimesh tim uprqei y [a, b] me f (y ) = F
IUF
'Estw
uprqei
f : [a, b] R >0 f (x)

ste
suneqc
sunrthsh
me .
f (x) > 0
gia
kje
x [a, b]
Dexte
ti
gia kje
x [a, b]
Isqei to
sumprasma an antikatastsoume to disthma
[a, b]
me to
disthma
(a, b]
F r f prnei elqisth tim f (x0 ) > 0 se kpoio x0 [a, b]F en jsoume = f (x0 )D tte > 0 ki f (x) f (x0 ) = gi kje x [a, b]F en ntiktstsoume to [a, b] me to (a, b] tte to sumprsm pei n isqeiF rdeigmX h f : (0, 1] R me f (x) = x eni suneq ki f (x) = x > 0 gi kje x (0, 1]F 9ymwD inf {f (x) : x (0, 1]} = inf(0, 1] = 0F 9erD gi kje > 0 uprqei x (0, 1] ste f (x) = x < F
Updeixh
IVF
kje
'Estw
f, g : [a, b] R x [a, b]
.
suneqec
sunartseic ste
pou
ikanopoion
thn
Dexte ti uprqei
>0
f (x) > g (x) +
gia kje
f (x) > g (x) x [a, b]

.
gia
Updeixh
F tewrste th suneq sunrthsh f g : [a, b] RF r f g prnei elqisth tim m se kpoio y [a, b]F ep thn upjesh qoume m = (f g )(y ) = f (y ) g (y ) > 0F en jsoume = m 2 D tte > 0 ki gi kje x [a, b] qoume f (x) g (x) m > F
IWF
'Estw
x [a, b] f (x0 ) = 0
Updeixh
uprqei .
f : [a, b] R y [a, b]
suneqc ste
se
kje
shmeo
tou
[a, b]
Upojtoume uprqei
ti
gia
kje ste
|f (y )|
1 2 |f (x)|.
Dexte
ti
x0 [a, b]
F pojtoume ti h f den mhdenzeti sto [a, b]F teD |f (t)| > 0 gi kje t [a, b]F r suneq sunrthsh |f | prnei elqisth tim sto [a, b]F hhldD uprqei x [a, b] ste |f (t)| |f (x)| > 0 gi kje t [a, b].
9ymwD p thn upjeshD uprqei y [a, b] ste
0 < |f (y )|
hhldD |f (y )| < 0D to opoo eni topoF
1 1 |f (x)| |f (y )|. 2 2
PHF
'Estw ti
Dexte
f, g : [a, b] R max(f ) < max(g )
suneqec
sunartseic
me
f (x) < g (x)
gia
kje
x [a, b]
Updeixh
F tewrome t [a, b] me f (t) = max(f )F teD
max(f ) = f (t) < g (t) max(g ),

dhld max(f ) < max(g )F
PIF
'Estw
ste
f, g : [a, b] [c, d] f ( ) = g ( )
.
suneqec
kai
ep
sunartseic.
Dexte
ti
uprqei
[a, b]
67
F efo oi f, g eni ep tou [c, d]D uprqoun x1 , x2 [a, b] ste f (x1 ) = d = g (x2 )F teD gi th sunrthsh h = f g qoume
Updeixh
h(x1 ) = f (x1 ) g (x1 ) = d g (x1 ) 0

ki
h(x2 ) = f (x2 ) g (x2 ) = f (x2 ) d 0.

ep thn h(x1 )h(x2 ) 0 ki p to jerhm endimesh tim peti ti uprqei [a, b] ste h( ) = 0D dhld f ( ) = g ( )F
PPF
'Estw
, , > 0
kai
<<
Dexte ti h exswsh
+ + =0 x x x
qei toul qiston ma rz a se kajna ap ta diastmata
(, )
kai
(, )
Updeixh
F erke n dexoume ti h exswsh
g (x) = (x )(x ) + (x )(x ) + (x )(x ) = 0

qei toulqiston m rz se kjn p t distmt (, ) ki (, )F r g eni suneq sto [, ] ki sto [, ]F rthrome ti
g () g () g ( )
= ( )( ) > 0, = ( )( ) < 0, = ( )( ) > 0.
ep to jerhm endimesh tim uprqei 1 (, ) ste g (1 ) = 0 ki uprqei 2 (, ) ste g (2 ) = 0F
eskseiX ri sunrtsewn ymd e9 PQF

Qrhsimopointac ton orism tou orou, dexte ti
x0
lim
1+x x
1x
=1
ki
x+
lim
x+a
x =
a , a R. 2
Updeixh
F @A 9istw x (1, 1)F wporome n gryoume 1+x 1x 2 1 = 1 x 1+x+ 1x 1 1 1+x + 1 1x = 1+x+ 1x x x 1 + . = 1+x+ 1x 1+ 1+x 1+ 1x
68 Sunqeia kai ria sunartsewn
rthrste ti 1 + x + 1 x > 1D 1 + 1 + x > 1 ki 1 + 1 x > 1F unepD 1+x 1x 1 |x| |x| 1 + x 1+x+ 1x 1+ 1+x 1+ 1x 2|x|.
9istw > 0F en 0 < |x| < = /2 tte 1F
1+x 1x x
1 < F 9erD lim
x0
1+x 1x x
@A 9istw x > max{a, 0}F wporome n gryoume a a a x x x+a x = 2 x+a+ x 2 a = x x+a 2( x + a + x) a2 . = 2( x + a + x)2 efo ( x + a + x)2 > xD qoume
a a2 . 2 2x 9istw > 0F en x > M = a2 /(2) > 0 tte x x + a x x x+a x

x+
a 2
< F 9erD
lim
x+a
x =
a . 2
upologste ta.
PRF
Exetste an uprqoun ta paraktw ria kai,
an
nai,
@A
x3 8 , x2 x2
lim
@A
3
xx0
lim [x],
@gA
xx0
lim (x [x]).
Updeixh
8 2 F @A rthrste ti x x2 = x + 2x + 4 gi kje x = 2F en (xn ) eni mi 2 kolouj sto R me xn = 2 gi kje n N ki xn 2D tte x2 n +2xn +4 2 +2 2+4 = x3 8 12F ep thn rq th metforD lim x2 = 12F x2
@A en x0 / ZD tte [x0 ] < x0 < [x0 ] + 1D r uprqei > 0 ste [x0 ] < x0 < x0 + < [x0 ] + 1F teD h f (x) = [x] eni stjer ki sh me [x0 ] se mi perioq tou x0 @exhgste gitAD r lim [x] = [x0 ]F en x0 ZD tte gi kje x (x0 1, x0 ) qoume f (x) = [x] = x0 1 en gi kje x (x0 , x0 + 1) qoume f (x) = [x] = x0 F 9erD lim [x] = x0 1 = x0 = lim [x]F 9ipeti ti to lim [x] den uprqeiF
xx 0 xx+ 0 xx0 xx0
69
@gA ep to @AD n x0 / Z tte lim (x [x]) = lim x lim [x] = x0 [x0 ]F en x0 Z tte to lim (x [x]) den uprqeiD git tte j uprqe ki to lim [x] @exhgste gitAF
xx0 xx0 xx0 xx0 xx0
PSF
an
'Estw
f :RR
me
f (x) =
x0 = 0
tte den uprqei to
xx0
x x lim f (x)
an an
x x
rhtc . rrhtoc Dexte ti
x0
lim f (x) = 0
kai
ti
Updeixh
F rhsimopoint thn |f (x)| = |x| ki ton orismD dexte ti lim f (x) = 0F

x0 xx0
rhsimopoint thn pukntht twn rhtn ki twn rrtwn dexteD me sh thn rq th metforD ti n x0 = 0 tte den uprqei to lim f (x)F
PTF
Exetste an enai suneqec oi akloujec sunartseic:
@A f : R R me f (x) =
sin x x
n x = 0 n x = 0
1 xk sin x 0
@A fk : [1, 0] R me fk (x) = @gA f : R R me f (x) =

1 x
n x = 0 @k = 0, 1, 2, . . .A n x = 0
1 sin x 2 0
n x = 0 n x = 0
x F @A qnwrzoume ti sin x x tan xD r cos x sin x 1 gi x (0, /2)F en (xn ) eni mi kolouj jetikn rijmn me xn 0D tte cos xn cos 0 = 1F ep xn to kritrio twn isosugklinousn koloujinD f (xn ) = sin xn 1 = f (0)F 9erD h f den eni suneq sto shmeo x0 = 0F r f eni suneq se kje x0 = 0F
Updeixh
1 @A r f eni suneq sto 0 n k = 0X dokimste thn kolouj xn = 2n + F r f
eni suneq sto 0 n k 1X prthrste ti |f (x)| |x|k |x| gi kje x [1, 0]F @gA r f den eni suneq sto shmeo 0X gi thn kolouj xn = 1 qoume xn 0
2n+ 2
ki f (xn ) =
2n +
an
+F r f eni suneq se kje x0 = 0F

tte
PUF
Dexte
ti
a, b > 0
x0
Ti gnetai tan
lim+
x b b = a x a
kai
x0+
lim
b x = 0. x a
x 0
Updeixh
F @A 9istw x > 0F rthrste ti
b x
1 0D r
b x x b b < . a a a x a
70 Sunqeia kai ria sunartsewn efo lim

b a
qi to detero rioD prthrste ti n 0 < x < a tte b x kje x (0, a)F 9ipeti ti limx0+ x a = 0F @A9istw x < 0F rthrste ti
b x
x0+
x a
b =a D sumpernoume ti lim
x0+
x a
b x
b =a F x a
aHF 9erD
b x
x a
= 0 gi
1 . a a a x a
efo lim
x0 b a
x a
b =a D sumpernoume ti lim x0
x a
b x
b =a F x a x a
qi to detero rioD prthrste ti n a < x < 0 tte 1 < b b b x unepD x a = x gi kje x (a, 0)F 9ipeti ti limx0 x
< 0D r = +F
x a
= 1F
PVF
to
x0
f :RR lim f (x)

'Estw .
me
f (x) = 1
an
1 n
: nN
kai
allic.
Exetste an uprqei
1 F o rio den uprqeiF yi kolouje an = n ki bn = n2 sugklnoun sto 0F 9iqoume f (an ) = 1 1 ki f (bn ) = 0 0F en uprqe to lim f (x) = D p thn rq th
Updeixh
metfor j eqme f (an )
ki f (bn ) D dhld 1 = = 0D to opoo eni topoF

Upojtoume ti uprqoun ta
x0
PWF
'Estw
f, g : R R
ti an
do sunartseic.
xx0
lim f (x), lim g (x)

xx0
.
@A @A
Dexte
f (x) g (x)
gia kje
xR
, tte
xx0
lim f (x) lim g (x)

xx0
Dste na pardei gma pou
f (x) < g (x)
gia kje
xR
en
xx0
lim f (x) = lim g (x)

xx0
Updeixh
F @A 9istw ti lim f (x) = ki lim g (x) = F tewrste tuqos kolouj

xx0 xx0
(xn ) sto R me xn = x0 gi kje n N ki xn x0 F teD f (xn ) g (xn ) gi kje n ND f (xn ) ki g (xn ) F 9erD F @A tewrste th sunrthsh f pou orzeti p thn f (x) = 0 ki th sunrthsh g pou orzeti p ti g (x) = x2 n x = 0 ki g (0) = 5F teD f (x) < g (x) gi kje x R ll lim f (x) = lim g (x) = 0 @exhgste gitAF
x0 x0
QHF
sussreushc
X R, f, g : X R X (x0 , x0 + ) X lim g (x) = 0

'Estw tou . Upojtoume ti kai ti
do
sunartseic
prqei .
> 0
xx0
Dexte ti
xx0
x0 R f lim f (x)g (x) = 0

kai stw ste h na enai .
na
shmeo sto
fra gmnh
F ep thn upjesh uprqoun > 0 ki M > 0 steX n x X ki |x x0 | < tte |f (x)| M F tewrste tuqos kolouj (xn ) sto X me xn = x0 gi kje n N ki xn x0 F t dexoume ti f (xn )g (xn ) 0D opte to zhtomeno prokptei p thn rq th metforF
Updeixh
71
9istw > 0F ep thn upjesh qoume lim g (xn ) = 0D r uprqei n1 () N ste
|g (xn )| < M gi kje n n1 F efo xn x0 D uprqei n2 ( ) N steX |xn x0 | < gi kje n n2 F 9erD |f (xn )| M gi kje n n2 F ttoume n0 = max{n1 , n2 }F teD gi kje n n0 qoume n
|f (xn )g (xn )| = |f (xn )| |g (xn )| < M

o > 0 tn tuqnD r f (xn )g (xn ) 0F
= . M
QIF
x+
f :RR lim f (x) = b R

'Estw .
periodik
sunrthsh
me
perodo
T >0
Upojtoume
ti
uprqei
to
Dexte ti h
enai stajer.
F 9istw x RF tewrome thn kolouj xn = x + nT F teD xn + ki f (xn ) = f (x) gi kje n N @exhgste gitAF 9erD lim f (xn ) = f (x)F efo
Updeixh
x+
lim f (x) = bD p thn rq th metfor prnoume lim f (xn ) = bF 9er f (x) = bF

n
o x R tn tuqnD r h f eni stjerX f (x) = b gi kje x RF
QPF
'Estw
ti h exswsh
P (x) = am xm + + a1 x + a0 P (x) = 0
polunumo
me
thn
idithta
a0 am < 0
Dexte
qei jetik pra gmatik rz a.
Updeixh
pou
F 9istw x > 0F qrfoume P (x) = am xm + + a1 x + a0 = am xm (1 + (x))
(x) =
rthrste ti
am1 xm1 + + a1 x + a0 . am xm lim (x) = 0, 1 + (x) > 0
r uprqei M > 0 ste gi kje x M F iidikterD oi P (M ) ki am qoun to dio prshmo @exhgste gitAF rhsimopoint ki thn P (0) = a0 D lpoume ti o P (M )P (0) eni omshmo me ton a0 am D dhld rnhtikF ep to jerhm endimesh tim uprqei (0, M ) ste P () = 0F
QQF
'Estw
f :RR
suneqc
kai
fjnousa
sunrthsh.
Dexte
ti
qei
monadik
stajer shmeo:
uprqei
akribc
nac
pra gmatikc arijmc
x0
gia ton opoo
f (x0 ) = x0 .
Updeixh
x+
F efo h f eni fjnousD gi kje x > 0 qoume f (x) x f (0) x ki lim (f (0) x) = F 9erD uprqei x1 > 0 ste f (x1 ) x1 < 0F
72 Sunqeia kai ria sunartsewn 9ymoiD gi kje x < 0 qoume f (x) x f (0) x ki lim (f (0) x) = +F 9erD uprqei x2 < 0 ste f (x2 ) x2 > 0F efo h f eni suneqD efrmzont to jerhm endimesh tim gi thn f (x) x sto disthm [x2 , x1 ] rskoume x0 (x2 , x1 ) ste f (x0 ) x0 = 0D dhld f (x0 ) = x0 F qi th mondikthtD prthrste ti h sunrthsh f (x) x eni gnhsw fjnousD ki sunepD qei to pol m rzF
x
QRF
'Estw
f :RR
suneqc sunrthsh
me
f (x) > 0
gia kje
xR
kai
x
Dexte ti h
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0.

x+
uprqei
parnei mgisth tim:
yR
ste
f (y ) f (x)
gia kje
xR
Updeixh
F ttoume = f (0) > 0F efo lim f (x) = 0D uprqei M > 0 steX gi kje
x+ x
x > M isqei 0 < f (x) < f (0)F efo
lim f (x) = 0D uprqei N > 0 steX gi kje
x < N isqei 0 < f (x) < f (0)F r f eni suneq sto kleist disthm [N, M ]F 9erD uprqei y [N, M ] me thn idithtX gi kje x [N, M ] isqei f (x) f (y )F iidikterD fo N < 0 < M qoume f (0) f (y )F wporome tr ekol n dome ti h f prnei mgisth tim sto shmeo y F tewrste tuqn x R ki dikrnete ti periptsei x < N D x [N, M ] ki x > M F
QSF @A
ti h
'Estw
diathre prshmo:
@A
'Estw ti
dexte
x+
g : [0, +) R g (x) > 0 f : [0, +) [0, +) lim f (x) = +

.
suneqc
sunrthsh.
An
gia kje
x0
suneqc
sunrthsh.
g (x) = 0 g (x) < 0 f (x) = x

gia An
kje
gia kje
gia
x0 x0 x 0
. kje
dexte
F @A efo g (x) = 0 gi kje x 0D n h g den dithre prshmoD j uprE qoun x1 , x2 0 ste g (x1 ) < 0 ki g (x2 ) > 0F 9ymw tteD efrmzont to jerhm endimesh tim mporome n rome nmes st x1 ki x2 gi to opoo g ( ) = 0F 9itsi odhgomste se topo @p thn upjesh qoume g ( ) = 0AF @A tewrome th suneq sunrthsh g : [0, +) R me g (x) = f (x) xF ep thn upjesh qoume f (x) = 0 gi kje x 0F ep to @AD h g dithre prshmoF efo g (0) = f (0) > 0D sumpernoume ti g (x) > 0 gi kje x 0F unepD f (x) > x gi kje x 0F 9ipeti ti lim f (x) = +F
Updeixh
x+
QTF
Upojtoume ti h
f : [a, +) R
enai suneqc kai
ti
x+
Dexte ti
lim f (x) = +.
dhlad ti uprqei
gia kje
f x [a, +)
h
parnei .
el qisth
tim,
x0 [a, +)
me
f (x) f (x0 )
73
F efo lim f (x) = +D uprqei M > a ste f (x) > f (a) gi kje x > M F
x+
Updeixh
r f eni suneq sto kleist disthm [a, M ]D r uprqei x0 [a, M ] ste f (x0 ) f (x) gi kje x [a, M ]F teD qoume epsh
f (x) > f (a) f (x0 )

@h deterh nistht isqei diti a [a, M ]AF 9ipeti ti f (x) f (x0 ) gi kje x [a, +)F
QUF
h
'Estw
f :RR
suneqc
sunrthsh.
An
lim f (x) =
kai
x+
lim f (x) =
tte
parnei mgisth el qisth tim.
Updeixh
F en h f eni stjer ki f (x) = gi kje x RD tte h f prnei profn mgisth ki elqisth tim @thn AF elliD ete uprqei x1 ste f (x1 ) > uprqei x2 ste f (x2 ) < @mpore fusik n sumnoun ki t doAF we thn upjesh ti uprqei x1 ste f (x1 ) > D j dexoume ti h f prnei mgisth timF ttoume = f (x1 ) > 0F efo lim f (x) = D uprqei M > max{0, x1 } steX gi kje x > M isqei f (x) < + = f (x1 )F efo
x+
ste N < x1 ki gi kje x < N n isqei f (x) < + = f (x1 )F r f eni suneq sto kleist disthm [N, M ]F 9erD uprqei y [N, M ] me thn idithtX gi kje x [N, M ] isqei f (x) f (y )F iidikterD fo N < x1 < M qoume f (x1 ) f (y )F wporome tr ekol n dome ti h f prnei mgisth tim sto shmeo y F tewrste tuqn x R ki dikrnete ti periptsei x < N D x [N, M ] ki x > M F we thn upjesh ti uprqei x2 ste f (x2 ) < D dexte ti h f prnei elqisth timF
lim f (x) = D uprqei N > 0
QVF
'Estw
f :RR f (R) = R
.
suneqc
sunrthsh
me
lim f (x) =
kai
x+
lim f (x) = +
Dexte
ti
Updeixh
F y egkleism f (R) R eni profnF t dexoume ti gi kje y R uprqei x R ste y = f (x)D opte R f (R)F 9istw y RF efo lim f (x) = D uprqei x1 R ste x1 < 0 ki f (x1 ) < y @exhgste gitAF efo
x
@exhgste gitAF efo f (x1 ) < y < f (x2 ) ki h f eni suneq sto [x1 , x2 ]D p to jerhm endimesh tim uprqei x (x1 , x2 ) ste f (x) = y F
x+
lim f (x) = +D uprqei x2 R ste x2 > 0 ki f (x2 ) > y
QWF
'Estw
f : (, ) R
sunrthsh gnhswc axousa kai suneqc.
Dexte ti
f ((, )) = ( lim+ f (x), lim f (x)).

x x
F efo h f : (, ) R eni suneqD gnwrzoume ti to f ((, )) eni n disthm J to opoo periqei to (, )D pou = inf f (x) ki = sup f (x)F
Updeixh
<x<
<x<
74 Sunqeia kai ria sunartsewn hexte prt ti lim f (x) = ki lim f (x) = F qi prdeigmD h prth istht peti p t exX IF en < x < tte f (x) D r lim f (x) F
x+ x+ x
PF en < y < D tte gi kje x (, y ) qoume f (x) < f (y )D r lim f (x) f (y )F hhldD to lim f (x) eni ktw frgm tou {f (y ) : < y < }D opte lim f (x) F
x+ x+ x+
wnei n dexoume ti to f ((, )) den periqei t ki @n ut eni pepersmnAF eut mw eni sunpei tou ti h f eni gnhsw xousX gi prdeigmD n = f (x) gi kpoio x (, ) tte prnont tuqn < z < x j eqme f (z ) < f (x) = D pou eni topo fo o eni ktw frgm tou f ((, ))F
eskseiX sunqei ki ri sunrtsewn ymd f9 RHF R f (x + y ) = f (x) + f (y )

An , h Antstrofa, dexte opoa ikanopoie thn
f : R R x, y R f : R R f (x + y ) = f (x) + f (y )
sunrthsh gia kje an . ti
me
f (x) = x
suneq x, y R
profanc
ikanopoie
thn
enai
mia
sunrthsh , tte:
me
f (1) =
gia kje
@A f (n) = n
1 )= @A f ( m m
gia kje
nN
gia kje
m = 1, 2, . . . xR
.
@gA f (x) = x
Updeixh
gia kje
F 9iqoume upojsei ti h f iknopoie thn f (x + y ) = f (x) + f (y ) gi kje x, y RF rnont x = y = 0 mporete n elgxete ti f (0) = 0F utpinD gi dosmno x RD prnont y = x mporete n elgxete ti f (x) = f (x)F @A rhsimopoint epgwg deqnoume ti
()
f (x1 + + xm ) = f (x1 ) + + f (xm )
gi kje m N ki gi kje x1 , . . . , xm RF rnont m = n ki x1 = = xn = 1 lpoume ti f (n) = nF 1 @A rte x1 = = xm = m sthn ()F 1 1 @gA tewrste prt q QD q > 0F qryte ton q sth morf n + + n gi ktllhlo pljo prosjetwn ki qrhsimopoiste to @A gi n dexete ti f (q ) = q F en q < 0 to zhtomeno peti p thn f (x) = f (x)F 9istw tr x RF tewrome kolouj rhtn rijmn qn xF efo h f eni suneqD p thn rq th metfor prnoume
f (x) = lim f (qn ) = lim (qn ) = x.

n n
75
RIF
Meletste wc proc th sunqeia th
sunrthsh
f : [0, 1] R
me
f (x) =
0 1
q
Dx /Qx=0 Dx= p q , p, q ND wuh(p, q ) = 1F
F heqnoume prt ti n o x (0, 1] eni rhtD opte grfeti sth morf x= p pou p, q N me wuh(p, q ) = 1D tte h f eni suneq sto shmeo xF rgmtiD q uprqei kolouj rrtwn rijmn n [0, 1] me n xF teD f (n ) = 0 0 = 1 q = f (x)D ki to sumprsm peti p thn rq th metforF 9istw tr ti o x [0, 1] eni rrhto ki stw > 0F ttoume M = M () = 1 ki A() = {y [0, 1] : f (y ) }F en o y nkei sto A() tte eni rht o opoo 1 grfeti sth morf x = p q pou p, q ND p q ki f (y ) = q F o pljo utn twn rijmn eni to pol so me to pljo twn zeugrin (p, q ) fusikn rijmn pou q M ki p q F ipomnwD den xepernei ton M (M + 1)/2F hhldD to A() eni pepersmno snoloF wporome loipn n gryoume A() = {y1 , . . . , ym } pou m = m() NF efo o x eni rrhtoD o x den nkei sto A()F 9erD o rijm = min{|x y1 |, . . . , |x ym |} eni gnsi jetikF 9istw z [0, 1] me |z x| < F teD z / A() r f (z ) < F efo f (x) = 0D peti ti 0 f (z ) = f (z ) f (x) < F o > 0 tn tuqnD r h f eni suneq sto shmeo xF loD dexte ti h f eni suneq sto shmeo 0F
Updeixh
RPF
'Estw
kje
f :RR xR
.
Upojtoume ti h
enai suneqc sto
kai ti
f (x/2) = f (x)
gia
Dexte ti h
enai stajer.
Updeixh
F 9istw x = 0F rhsimopoint thn upjesh @ki me epgwgA deqnoume ti
f (x) = f (x/2) = f (x/22 ) = = f (x/2n )

gi kje n NF 9iqoume 2x n 0 ki h f eni suneq sto 0F ep thn rq th metforD f (x/2n ) f (0)F efo f (x) = f (x/2n ) gi kje n ND h kolouj (f (x/2n )) eni stjerD me lou tou rou th sou me f (x)F 9ipeti ti f (x) = f (0) kiD fo to x = 0 tn tuqnD h f eni stjerF
RQF
'Estw ti
Dexte
f : R R f (x) = 0
suneqc
sunrthsh .
me
gia kje
xR
m f(2 n) = 0
gia
kje
m Z
kai
n N
F 9istw x RF qi kje n ND o krio mn = [2n x] iknopoie thn mn 2n x < mn + 1F 9erD

Updeixh
mn 2n x mn + 1 mn 1 n =x< = n + n. n 2 2 2n 2 2
hhldD x = lim
mn n F n 2
ep thn rq th metforD
f (x) = lim f
n
mn 2n
= lim 0 = 0.
n
76 Sunqeia kai ria sunartsewn
RRF
'Estw
xR
kai kje
f :RR nN
.
suneqc
sunrthsh
me
thn
idithta
f (x) = f x +
1 n
gia
kje
Dexte ti h
enai stajer.
F ep thn upjesh peti ti f (0) = f m gi kje m Z ki kje n N n @exhgste gitAF 9istw x RF en mn (x) = [nx]D tte mn (x) Z ki mn (x) nx < mn (x) + 1F 9erD mn (x) 1 mn (x) x< + . n n n
Updeixh
(x) (x) = f (0) gi kje n N ki ti x = lim mn rthrste ti f mn n n F ep th n sunqei th f sto shmeo x sumpernoume ti
f (x) = lim f
n
mn (x) n
= f (0).
o x tn tuqnD r h f eni stjerF
RSF
'Estw
A=
, dexte ti
f : [a, b] R sup A A
suneqc kai
sunrthsh. .
Orz oume
A = {x [a, b] : f (x) = 0}
An
inf A A
Updeixh
F qnwrzoume ti uprqei kolouj (xn ) sto A me xn sup AF r f eni suneqD r f (xn ) f (sup A) p thn rq th metforF 9ymw xn AD r f (xn ) = 0 gi kje n NF 9ipeti ti f (sup A) = 0D dhld sup A AF we prmoio trpo deqnoume ti inf A AF
RTF
'Estw .
a [0, ]
Orz oume
akolouja
me
a1 = a
kai
an+1 = sin(an )
Dexte
ti
an 0
Updeixh
F heqnoume prt me epgwg ti an [0, ] gi kje n 1F teD p thn nistht 0 sin x x pou isqei gi x [0, ]D qoume tiD gi kje n 1D an+1 = sin(an ) an F hhldD h (an ) eni fjnous ki ktw frgmnh p to 0F 9ipeti ti h (an ) sugklnei se kpoio x [0, ]F ep thn ndromik sqsh lpoume tiD fo an+1 x ki sin(an ) sin xD to x iknopoie thn exswsh sin x = xF efo x [0, ]D ngkstik isqei x = 0 @exhgste gitAF hhldD an 0F
RUF
'Estw
f : [0, 1] R
. Tte,
suneqc
sunrthsh. ste
Upojtoume .
ti
uprqoun
xn [0, 1]
ste
f (xn ) 0
Updeixh
uprqei
x0 [0, 1]
f (x0 ) = 0
F pojtoume ti h f den mhdenzeti sto [a, b]F hexte ti uprqei > 0 ste |f (x)| gi kje x [a, b] @qrhsimopoiste to gegon ti h |f | prnei elqisth timAF ep thn upjesh mwD uprqei kolouj (xn ) sto [0, 1] ste f (xn ) 0F qi lou telik tou n N prpei n isqei |f (xn )| < D to opoo odhge se topoF
'Estw
RVF
f (x)
gia kje
f :RR xR
suneqc periodik sunrthsh me perodo Dexte ti uprqei
xR
ste
T >0 f (x) = f (x + 2)
:
dhlad, .
f (x + T ) =
77
F r f prnei mgisth ki elqisth tim sto kleist disthm [0, T ]F hhldD uprqoun x1 , x2 [0, T ] ste f (x1 ) f (x) f (x2 ) gi kje x [0, T ]F efo h f eni periodik me perodo T D mporome n elgxoume ti h nistht
Updeixh
f (x1 ) f (x) f (x2 )

isqei gi kje x R @qrhsimopoiste to gegon tiD gi kje x R uprqei k Z ste x + kT [0, T ]D ki p thn periodiktht th f D f (x) = f (x + kT )AF tewrome th sunrthsh g : R R me g (x) = f (x ) f (x + 2)F teD g (x1 ) = f (x1 ) f (x1 + 2) 0 ki g (x2 ) = f (x2 ) f (x2 + 2) 0F rhsimopoint to jerhm endimesh timD rskoume x nmes st x1 ki x2 ste g (x) = 0D dhld f (x) = f (x + 2)F
RWF
'Estw
akoloujec Dexte ti: .
f : [0, +) R (xn ) (yn ) [0, +) c (a, b)

, sto gia kje
suneqc me
uprqei
a<b xn + yn + f (xn ) a f (yn ) b (zn ) [0, +) zn +

sunrthsh. , Upojtoume ti uprqoun , kai akolouja sto me
kai .
kai
f (zn ) c
Updeixh
F 9istw c (a, b)F efo xn +D yn + ki f (xn ) aD f (yn ) bD mporome n rome gnhsw xous kolouj fusikn (kn ) steX
()
xkn > n, ykn > n ki f (xkn ) < c < f (ykn ).
hexte to epgwgikF qi to epgwgik m prthrste ti loi telik oi roi twn (xm ), (ym ) iknopoion kjemi p ti xm > n + 1D ym > n + 1D f (xm ) < c < f (ym ) @exhgste gitA r uprqei kn+1 > kn ste n isqoun le mz gi tou xkn+1 D ykn+1 F ifrmzont to jerhm endimesh timD rskoume zn nmes st xkn ki ykn ste f (zn ) = cF ipiplonD fo xkn , ykn > nD qoume zn > nF unepD zn + ki f (zn ) = c cF
SHF
kai
'Estw mno an
f : (a, b) R
gia . kje
kai
montonh
akolouja
x0 (a, b) (xn )
.
Dexte
ti
enai
suneqc me
sto
x0
an
shmewn
tou
(a, b)
xn x0
isqei
f (xn ) f (x0 )
Updeixh
F () e upojsoume ti h f den eni suneq sto x0 F prqei > 0 steX gi kje n N mporome n rome montonh kolouj yn (a, b) ste yn x0 ki |f (yn ) f (x0 )| F eut dikiologeti w exX n qoume rei ton xn D prthrome ti 1 ngkstik xn = x0 ki epilgoume xn+1 ste |xn+1 x0 | < |xn x0 |D |xn+1 x0 | < n+1 ki |f (xn+1 ) f (xn )| F teD h kolouj (|xn x0 |) eni gnhsw fjnous ki sugklnei sto 0F en peiroi roi th (xn ) eni mikrteroi p ton x0 D h kolouj (yn ) utn twn rwn eni gnhsw xous ki sugklnei sto x0 D opte iknopoie ton isqurismF en qiD uprqoun peiroi roi th (xn ) pou eni meglteroi p ton x0 ki h kolouj pou sqhmtzoun eni gnhsw fjnous ki sugklnei ston x0 F loD p thn |f (yn ) f (x0 )| qoume f (yn ) f (x0 )F eut eni topo p thn upjeshF
78 Sunqeia kai ria sunartsewn r ktejunsh () prokptei mes p thn rq th metforF
SIF @A
@A
'Estw
f : (a, +) R
me
An
lim f (a + tn ) = L
.
gia
kje
gnhswc
fjnousa
akolouja
(tn )
tn 0
, tte
xa
lim+ f (x) = L
.
Swst ljoc?
'Estw
f : (a, +) R
An
lim f a +
1 n
=L
tte
xa+
lim f (x) = L
Updeixh
F @A we pgwg se topoX n den isqei h lim f (x) = LD tte uprqei

xa+
> 0 me thn ex idithtX gi kje > 0 uprqei x (a, +) me a < x < a + ki |f (x) L| F ifrmzont to prpnw me = 1 rskoume x1 (a, +) me a < x1 < a + 1 ki |f (x1 ) L| F ifrmzont to prpnw me = min{1/2, x1 a} 1 rskoume x2 < x1 me a < x2 < a + 2 ki |f (x2 ) L| F uneqzont me ton dio trpoD orzoume gnhsw fjnous kolouj tn = xn a me tn 0 ki |f (a + tn ) L| F eut eni topoF
@A F tewrste th sunrthsh f : (0, +) R pou prnei thn tim 1 st shme 1 , . . . , 1, 1 2 n , . . . ki thn tim 0 se l t ll shmeF o lim f (1/n) = 1D mw to
Ljoc
x0
lim+ f (x) den uprqeiF

'Estw
SPF
se
kpoio
f : [a, b] R x0 (a, b)
.
gnhswc axousa sunrthsh.
Upojtoume ti h sussreushc tou
Dexte ti to
f (x0 )
enai shmeo
f f ([a, b])
enai suneqc .
F tewrome gnhsw xous kolouj (xn ) sto (a, b) me xn x0 F toi kolouj uprqeiD diti to x0 eni eswterik shmeo tou (a, b)F efo h f eni gnhsw xousD qoume f (xn ) < f (x0 ) gi kje n ND ki fo h f eni suneq sto x0 D h rq th metfor deqnei ti f (xn ) f (x0 )F r kolouj (f (xn )) qei rou sto f ([a, b])D loi th oi roi eni diforetiko p to f (x0 ) ki f (xn ) f (x0 )F ep ton koloujik qrkthrism tou shmeou sussreush sunlouD to f (x0 ) eni shmeo sussreush tou f ([a, b])F
Updeixh
SQF
kje
'Estw
f :RR x, y R
.
suneqc
sunrthsh
me
thn
idithta
|f (x) f (y )| |x y |
gia
Dexte ti h
enai ep.
F ep thn upjeshD n f (x) = f (y ) qoume 0 = |f (x) f (y )| |x y |D r x = y F hhldD h f eni IEIF 9ipeti ti h f eni gnhsw montonhF wr periorism th geniktht upojtoume ti h f eni gnhsw xousF teD n x > 0 qoume f (x) f (0) = |f (x) f (0)| xD dhld
Updeixh
f (x) f (0) + x, x > 0.

9ymoiD n x < 0 qoume f (0) f (x) = |f (x) f (0)| |x| = xD dhld
f (x) f (0) + x, x < 0.
79
ep ti prpnw sqsei peti ti
x+
lim f (x) = + ki
lim f (x) = .
thn 9eskhsh QV dexme ti ut qei w sunpei to ti h f eni epF
SRF
kai
f, g : [0, 1] [0, 1] gf = f g f g f (y ) = y g (y ) = y Updeixh: f (x1 ) = x1

'Estw . Dexte ti oi . kai kai isqei kai h dexte ti enai montonh kai ti loi ja enai koin stajer shmeo twn
suneqec
sunartseic.
Upojtoume
ti
enai
axousa ste An ,
qoun koin stajer shmeo: Xroume ti uprqei
uprqei me
x1 [0, 1]
shmea
, qoume teleisei. oi
An qi, jewrste thn akolouja thc enai stajer thc
roi
y [0, 1] g (x1 ) = x1 xn+1 = f (xn ) g

. . To ri
thc
kai
(giat?).
F ep to jerhm stjero shmeou @dete ki thn 9eskhsh VA gnwrzoume ti uprqei x1 [0, 1] ste g (x1 ) = x1 F yrzoume ndromik mi kolouj (xn ) sto [0, 1] jtont xn+1 = f (xn ) gi kje n NF rthrste ti g (xn ) = xn gi kje n NF rgmtiD ut isqei gi n = 1 ki n g (xm ) = xm tteD qrhsimopoint thn f g = g f qoume
Updeixh
g (xm+1 ) = g (f (xm )) = (g f )(xm ) = (f g )(xm ) = f (g (xm )) = f (xm ) = xm+1 .

en gi kpoio n N qoume f (xn ) = xn tte to xn eni koin stjer shmeo twn f ki gF pojtoume loipn ti xn+1 = f (xn ) = xn gi kje n NF iidikterD x2 = f (x1 ) = x1 F wr periorism th geniktht upojtoume ti x2 > x1 @n x2 < x1 douleoume me ton dio trpoAF teD x3 = f (x2 ) > f (x1 ) = x2 @git h f eni xous ki qoume upojsei ti xn+1 = xn gi kje nAF ipgwgik deqnoume ti h (xn ) eni gnhsw xousF efo xn 1 gi kje n ND peti ti xn x0 gi kpoio x0 [0, 1]F r sunqei th f sto x0 deqnei ti
f (x0 ) = lim f (xn ) = lim xn+1 = x0 .

n n
ep thn llh pleurD h sunqei th g sto x0 deqnei ti
g (x0 ) = lim g (xn ) = lim xn = x0 .

n n
9erD to x0 eni koin stjer shmeo twn f ki g F
SSF
'Estw
f : [a, b] R
me
thn
exc
idithta:
gia
kje
x0 [a, b]
uprqei
to
xx0
lim f (x)
Tte, h
enai fra gmnh.
Updeixh
F ep thn upjeshD gi kje x0 [a, b] uprqei to lim f (x)F 9erD uprqoun

xx0
x0 > 0 ki Mx0 > 0 ste |f (x)| Mx0 gi kje x (x0 x0 , x + x0 ) [a, b]
80 Sunqeia kai ria sunartsewn @efrmste ton orism tou orou me = 1AF rD mporete n mimhjete thn pdeixh tou tewrmto RFPFIF 9istw f : X RF vme ti h f qei topik mgisto @ntstoiqD topik elqistoA sto x0 X n uprqei > 0 ste gi kje x X (x0 , x0 + ) isqei h nistht f (x) f (x0 ) @ntstoiqD f (x0 ) f (x)AF
Gia tic epmenec do askseic dnoume ton exc orism:
STF
se
'Estw
kanna shmeo
f : [a, b] R (a, b)
tou
suneqc. .
Upojtoume ti h
den qei topik mgisto el qisto
Dexte ti h
enai montonh sto
(a, b)
Updeixh
F heqnoume prt ti n [c, d] [a, b] ki c < x < d tte to f (x) nkei sto kleist disthm pou qei kr t f (c) ki f (d)F qi to skop utD mporome n upojsoume ti f (c) f (d) @sthn ntjeth perptwshD douleoume nlogAF r f prnei mgisth tim sto [c, d] se kpoio shmeo x0 F en f (x0 ) > f (d) tte c < x0 < dD r uprqei > 0 ste (x0 , x0 + ) [c, d]F teD gi kje x (x0 , x0 + ) qoume f (x) f (x0 )D dhld h f qei topik mgisto sto x0 F eut eni topoD r h mgisth tim th f sto [c, d] eni h f (d)F 9ymoiD h f prnei elqisth tim sto [c, d] se kpoio shmeo x1 F en f (x1 ) < f (c) tte c < x1 < dD r uprqei > 0 ste (x1 , x1 + ) [c, d]F teD gi kje x (x1 , x1 + ) qoume f (x) f (x1 )D dhld h f qei topik elqisto sto x1 F eut eni topoD r h elqisth tim th f sto [c, d] eni h f (c)F hhldD gi kje x [c, d] qoume
()
f (c) f (x) f (d).
r mporome n dexoume ti h f eni montonhF wporome n upojsoume ti f (a) f (b) @sthn ntjeth perptwshD douleoume nlogAF t dexoume ti h f eni xousF 9istw a < x < y < bF ifrmzont thn () gi thn trid a, x, b qoume f (a) f (x) f (b)F ifrmzont thn () gi thn trid x, y, b qoume f (x) f (y ) f (b)F 9erD gi kje x < y sto (a, b) qoume f (x) f (y )F 9ipeti ti h f eni xous sto [a, b]F wporome mlist n dome ti h f eni gnhsw xousF en uprqn x < y sto [a, b] me f (x) = f (y ) tte h f j tn stjer sto [x, y ]F 9ymw tteD h f j eqe topik mgisto ki topik elqisto se z (x, y )F
kje
SUF
'Estw
diaforetik shmea topik el qisto.
f : [a, b] R x1 , x2 [a, b]
tou
suneqc
sunrthsh.
An
qei
topik
mgisto
se
do qei
, tte uprqei
x3
anmesa sta
x1 , x2
sto opoo h
Updeixh
F pojtoume ti h f qei topik mgisto se do shme x1 < x2 tou [a, b]F r f eni suneq sto [x1 , x2 ]D r uprqei x3 [x1 , x2 ] me thn idithtX f (x3 ) f (x) gi kje x [x1 , x2 ]F hikrnoume trei periptseiX
@A x1 < x3 < x2 X teD n proume = min{x3 x1 , x2 x3 } > 0 qoume (x3 , x3 + ) [x1 , x2 ] [a, b] ki f (x3 ) f (x) gi kje x (x3 , x3 + )F 9erD h f qei topik elqisto sto x3 F
81
@A x1 = x3 X teD uprqei 0 < 1 < x2 x1 ste f (x) f (x3 ) = f (x1 ) gi kje x1 < x < x1 + 1 @git h f qei topik mgisto sto x1 A ki uprqei 0 < 2 < x2 x1 ste f (x) f (x3 ) = f (x1 ) gi kje x1 < x < x1 + 2 @git h f qei topik elqisto sto x3 = x1 AF 9ipeti tiX n jsoume = min{1 , 2 } > 0 tte h f eni stjer sto (x1 , x1 + )F 9erD h f qei topik elqisto se kje shmeo tou (x1 , x1 + )F @gA x2 = x3 X 9ymoi me to @AF
Keflaio 5
Pargwgoc
irwtsei ktnhsh
IF
An h
enai para gw gsimh sto
(a, b)
, tte h
enai suneqc sto
(a, b)
Swst
F 9istw x (a, b)F ep thn upjeshD h f eni prgwgsimh sto xD r eni suneq sto xF
An h
PF
x0 = 0
kai an
f (0) = f (0) = 0
, tte
lim nf (1/n) = 0
Swst
F efo f (0) = f (0) = 0D qoume
0 = f (0) = lim
x0
f (x) f (0) f (x) = lim . x 0 x x

f (xn ) = n xn f (1/n) lim = 0F n 1/n
ep thn rq th metfor gi to rioD n xn = 0 ki xn 0D tte lim tewrnt thn kolouj xn =

1 n
0F
0D prnoume lim nf (1/n) =

n
QF
f f (a) = 0
An h . Ljoc
[a, b]
kai parnei th mgisth tim thc sto
x0 = a
, tte
F tewrste th sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = 1 xF r f eni prgwgsimh sto [0, 1] ki prnei th mgisth tim th sto x0 = 0D mw f (x) = 1 gi kje x [0, 1]D r f (0) = 1 = 0F
RF
An
f (x) 0
gia kje
x [0, )
kai
f (0) = 0
, tte
f (x) 0
gia kje
x [0, )
84 Pargwgos F 9istw x > 0F ifrmzoume to jerhm msh tim sto [0, x]X uprqei x (0, x)
Swst
ste
f (x) = f (x) f (0) = xf (x ).

efo x > 0 ki f (x ) 0D sumpernoume ti f (x) 0F qi x = 0D qoume f (x) = f (0) = 0F
SF
An
uprqei
f x0 (0, 2)
enai
do
forc
para gw gsimh .
sto
[0, 2]
kai
f (0) = f (1) = f (2) = 0
tte
ste
f (x0 ) = 0
F ifrmzont to jerhm Rolle gi thn f st [0, 1] ki [1, 2]D rskoume y1 (0, 1) me f (y1 ) = 0 ki y2 (1, 2) me f (y2 ) = 0F ifrmzont pli to jerhm Rolle gi thn f sto [y1 , y2 ]D rskoume x0 (y1 , y2 ) me f (x0 ) = 0F loD 0 < y1 < x0 < y2 < 2D dhld x0 (0, 2)F
Swst
TF
se
'Estw kje
f : (a, b) R x (a, b) \ {x0 }
kai stw
x0 (a, b)
to
kai an uprqei
xx0
f lim f (x) = R
An h
enai suneqc sto , tte
x0 f (x0 ) =
, para gw gsimh .
Swst
F erke n dexoume ti lim
RD uprqei > 0 steX n 0 < |y x0 | < D tte |f (y ) | < F 9istw x (a, b) me x0 < x < x0 + F ep ti upojsei m peti ti f eni suneq sto [x0 , x] ki prgwgsimh sto (x0 , x)D opteD efrmzont to jerhm msh tim sto [x0 , x]D )f (x0 ) rskoume yx (x0 , x) ste f (xx = f (yx )F 9ymwD 0 < |yx x0 | < |x x0 | < D x0 r |f (yx ) | < F unepD () f (x) f (x0 ) x x0 = |f (yx ) | < .
xx0
f (x)f (x0 ) xx0
= F 9istw > 0F efo lim f (x) =

xx0
xx+ 0
efo to > 0 tn tuqn ki h () isqei gi kje x (x0 , x0 + )D sumpernoume ti )f (x0 ) lim f (xx = F we ton dio trpo deqnoume ti to rio p rister isoti me D x0
r h f eni prgwgsimh sto x0 D ki f (x0 ) = F
UF
An
suneqc sto
f : R R (, )
.
enai
para gw gsimh
sto
tte
uprqei
> 0
ste
na
enai
Ljoc
F tewrome th sunrthsh f : R R me f (x) = x2 n x Q ki f (x) = x2 n x / QF r f eni suneq se kje x = 0D r den uprqei > 0 ste h f n eni suneq sto (, )F 9ymwD h f eni prgwgsimh sto 0X qoume
f (x) f (0) |f (x)| |x2 | = = = |x| 0 tn x 0, x |x| |x|

r f (0) = 0F
85
VF
An h
enai gnhswc axousa sto
x0 R (x0 , x0 + )
kai .
f (x0 ) > 0
, tte uprqei
>0
ste h
na
1 2 F tewrome th sunrthsh f : R R me f (x) = x 2 + x cos x n x = 0 ki f (0) = 0F 1 r f eni prgwgsimh sto 0 ki f (0) = 2 > 0 @exhgste gitAF e upojsoume ti gi kpoio > 0D h f eni xous sto (0, )F teD f (x) 0 gi kje x (0, )F hhldD 1 1 1 2 + 2x cos x sin x 0 gi kje x (0, )F ipilgoume n N rket meglo ste 1 2 xn = 2n+/2 < ki prthrome ti f (xn ) = 1 2 + 2n+/2 cos(2n + /2) sin(2n + 1 /2) = 2 < 0D topoF
Ljoc
esksei ymd e9 IF
Upologste tic para g gouc (sta shmea pou uprqoun) twn paraktw sunartsewn:
f (x) =
1 x2 , 1 + x2
g (x) =
1+
1 , x
h(x) =
1+x . 1x
PF
Upologste tic
para g gouc (sta
shmea pou uprqoun) twn paraktw sunartsewn:
f (x) = sin (x + 1)2 (x + 2) ,
g (x) =
sin(x2 ) sin2 x , 1 + sin x

sto
h(x) = sin
cos x . x
QF
f, g, h @A f (x) = x x /Q f (x) = 0 xQ @A g (x) = 0 x /Q g (x) = x2 xQ @gA h(x) = sin x x /Q h(x) = x xQ

Exetste an oi sunartseic an kai an . an kai an . an kai an Updeixh
enai para gw gsimec
x) f (0) F @A tewrome th sunrthsh f1 (x) = f (x) = f( x x D x = 0F 9iqoume f1 (x) = 1 n x / Q ki f1 (x) = 0 n x QF r f eni prgwgsimh sto 0 n ki mno n uprqei to limx0 f1 (x)F 9ymw ut to rio den uprqeiX n (qn ) eni mi kolouj rhtn rijmn ste qn = 0 ki qn 0D tte f1 (qn ) = 0 0F en (n ) eni mi kolouj rrtwn rijmn ste n 0D tte f1 (n ) = 1 1F efo limn f (qn ) = limn f (n )D p thn rq th metfor lpoume ti to limx0 f1 (x) den uprqeiF 9erD h f den eni prgwgsimh sto 0F g (0) x) @A tewrome th sunrthsh g1 (x) = g(x) = g( x x D x = 0F 9iqoume g1 (x) = 0 n x / Q ki g1 (x) = x n x QF r g eni prgwgsimh sto 0 n ki mno n uprqei to limx0 g1 (x)F t dexoume ti limx0 g1 (x) = 0F 9istw > 0F rthrome ti
|g1 (x)| |x|
86 Pargwgos gi kje x = 0F rgmtiD n x / Q qoume |g1 (x)| = 0 |x|D en n x Q qoume |g1 (x)| = |x|F ipilgoume = F teD n 0 < |x| < qoume |g1 (x)| |x| < = F efo to > 0 tn tuqnD limx0 g1 (x) = 0F g (0) 9erD h g eni prgwgsimh sto 0D ki g (0) = limx0 g(x) = limx0 g1 (x) = 0F x
h(0) x) sin x @gA tewrome th sunrthsh h1 (x) = h(x) = h( x x D x = 0F 9iqoume h1 (x) = x n x / Q ki h1 (x) = 1 n x QF r h eni prgwgsimh sto 0 n ki mno n uprqei to limx0 h1 (x)F x t dexoume ti limx0 h1 (x) = 1F 9istw > 0F qnwrzoume ti limx0 sin x = 1D r sin x uprqei > 0 steX n x R ki 0 < |x| < D tte x 1 < F t dexoume tiX
n x R ki 0 < |x| < , tte |h1 (x) 1| < .

x rgmtiD n x / Q qoume |h1 (x) 1| = sin x 1 < D en n x Q qoume |h1 (x) 1| = |1 1| = 0 < F efo to > 0 tn tuqnD limx0 h1 (x) = 0F 9erD h h eni prgwgsimh sto 0D ki h(0) = limx0 h1 (x) = 0F h (0) = limx0 h(x) x
RF
Exetste an oi sunartseic
par gw gc touc enai suneqc sto
@A f (x) = sin @A g (x) = x sin

2
1 x 1 x
an
x=0
, kai
f, g, h R f (0) = 0
.
enai para gw gsimec sto
An enai, exetste an h
an
x=0
, kai
g (0) = 0
@gA h(x) = x sin

Updeixh
1 x
an
x=0
, kai
h(0) = 0
1 F @A r f eni prgwgsimh se kje x = 0 ki f (x) = x 2 cos prgwgo sto 0 exetzoume n uprqei to rio th
1 x
F qi thn
f (x) f (0) f (x) 1 = = sin x x x

kj to x 0F en orsoume xn = 9erD h f den prgwgzeti sto 0F
1 2n+ 2
1 x
f (xn ) xn 1 x
D tte xn 0 ll
= 2n +
1 x
+F
@A r g eni prgwgsimh se kje x = 0 ki g (x) = sin prgwgo sto 0 exetzoume n uprqei to rio th
cos
1 x
F qi thn
g (x) g (0) g (x) = = sin x x

kj to x 0F en orsoume xn =
1 2n+ 2
1 x
g (xn ) xn = 1 1F g (0) lim g(x) den x x0
D tte xn 0 ki
en orsoume uprqeiD r
xn =
1 2n D
tte xn 0 ki
g (xn ) xn
= 0 0F 9ipeti ti to
h g den prgwgzeti sto 0F
87
@gA r h eni prgwgsimh se kje x = 0 ki h (x) = 2x sin prgwgo sto 0 exetzoume n uprqei to rio th
1 x
cos
1 x
F qi thn
h(x) h(x) h(0) = = x sin x x

kj to x 0F rthrste ti x sin epilgont = > 0 qoume
1 x
1 x
|x|F en loipn m dsoun > 0 tteD
0 < |x| <
h(x) h(0) 0 |x| < . x
hhldD h h prgwgzeti sto 0D ki h (0) = 0F r h eni suneq se kje x = 0D den 1 eni mw suneq sto 0X gi n to dexeteD prthrste ti den uprqei to lim cos x F
x0
SF
Dexte
ti
sunrthsh kje
para gw gsimh se
f : R R x0 R
.
me
Exetste an h
x f (x) = sin x f :RR
an
x = 0
kai
f (0) = 1
enai
enai suneqc sunrthsh.
Updeixh
x cos x sin x . x2 qi thn prgwgo sto 0D jewrome th sunrthsh f (x) = f1 (x) = f (x) f (0) = x
sin x x
F en x = 0D tte
1 x sin x = , x x2
x = 0.
t dexoume ti limx0+ f1 (x) = 0F efo h f1 eni perittD peti ti

x0
lim f1 (x) = lim f1 (x) = 0,

x0+
f (0) = lim f1 (x) = 0.

x0
rhsimopoint thn sin x < x <
sin x cos x
gi 0 < x < /2D prnoume
0<
x sin x x2
< =
1 sin x cos sin x 1 1 cos x x 1 = x x x cos x x sin x 1 2 sin2 x sin x 1 sin(x/2) 2 = x cos x x x cos x x/2
x 1 1 12 0 = 0 2
tn x 0F ep to kritrio premol peti ti limx0+ f1 (x) = 0F r f eni suneq se kje x = 0F qi n dexoume ti f eni suneq sto 0 rke sin x sin x n dexoume ti limx0 x cos x = 0F rhsimopoint thn sin x < x < cos x2 x gi 0 < x < /2D prnoume
0>
x cos x sin x 1 cos x > sin x . x2 x2
88 Pargwgos rthrome ti
sin x
1 cos x = x2
sin(x/2) x/2
sin x 0 2
tn x 0F ep to kritrio premol peti ti limx0+ f (x) = 0F r f eni perittD r limx0 f (x) = 0 = f (0)F hhldD h f eni suneq sto RF
TF
R
Brete (an uprqoun) ta shmea sta opoa enai para gw gsimh h sunrthsh me
f : (0, 1)
f (x) =
0
1 q
, ,
x /Q x=0 x= p , p, q N, wuh (p, q ) = 1 q
F en x Q (0, 1) tte h f eni suneq sto xD r den uprqei h f (x)F 9istw x (0, 1) o opoo eni rrhtoF r f eni suneq sto xD ki f (x) = 0F pojtoume ti h f eni prgwgsimh sto x ki j ktlxoume se topoF 9istw (n ) kolouj rrtwn rijmn sto (0, 1)D ste n = x ki n xF teD p thn rq th metforD
Updeixh
f (x) = lim
00 f (n ) f (x) = lim = lim 0 = 0. n n x n n x
1 1 frskoume n0 N ste n < x < 1 n gi kje n n0 @exhgste gitAF qi kje mn +1 n n n0 D uprqei mondik mn N ste m < 1F rthrste ti n <x< n
mn n
1 n
ki f
mn + 1 n
1 . n
+1 1 n ipshD toulqiston n p tou mn xD x m n n eni mikrtero so p 2n @to mn mn +1 1 jroism tou eni so me n AF 9erD jtont xn = n xn = n D qoume xn = xD xn x ki
f (xn ) f (x) f (xn ) 1 1 1 = (2n) = 2. xn x xn x n |xn x| n

teD p thn rq th metforD
0 = |f (x)| = lim
to opoo eni topoF
f (xn ) f (x) 2, xn x
UF
'Estw
thn
(f
f :RR ) (3)
.
me
f (0) = 3
kai
f (x) = sin2 (sin(x + 1))
gia kje
xR
Upologste
89
VF
'Estw kai
f (1)
f :RR f (1)
.
me
f (x) = x3 + 2x + 1
Upologste
thn
(f 1 ) (y )
sta
shmea
f (0)
WF f : (a, b) R f (x0 )| M |x x0 |
'Estw
kai
gia kje
a < x0 0
ste
|f (x)
@A @A @gA
Dexte
ti
enai suneqc sto
x0
An
>1
, dexte ti h
x0
Poi
enai h tim thc
f (x0 )
Dste
pardei gma
pou
=1
all h
den enai para gw gsimh
sto
x0
Updeixh
tte
F @A 9istw > 0F ipilgoume =
1/ M
> 0F en x (a, b) ki |x x0 | < D
|f (x) f (x0 )| M |x x0 | < M = .

o > 0 tn tuqnD r h f eni suneq sto x0 F @A 9istw x (a, b) me x = x0 F rthrste ti
f (x) f (x0 ) |f (x) f (x0 )| 0 = M |x x0 |1 . x x0 |x x0 |

efo > 1D qoume lim |x x0 |1 = 0F 9ipeti ti f (0) = 0F
xx0
@gA tewrste th sunrthsh f : (1, 1) R pou orzeti p thn f (x) = |x|F teD |f (x) f (0)| = |x 0| gi kje x (1, 1)F 9ymwD h f den eni prgwgsimh sto 0F
IHF
@A @A
Dste pardei gma
sunrthshc
f : (0, 1) R
h opoa:
enai suneqc sto
(0, 1) (0, 1)
all den
enai para gw gsimh sto shmeo
x0 =
enai suneqc sto
all den
enai para gw gsimh sta shmea
1 2. 1 , xn = n
n2
F @A tewrste th sunrthsh f : (0, 1) R me f (x) = x n 0 < x < 1/2 ki f (x) = 1 x n 1/2 x < 1F
Updeixh
@A yrste thn f se kje disthm th morf prnei thn tim do distmt

1 1 0 st n+1 /2 , n1/2 D thn tim 1 1 1 ki n , n1 n+1/2 , n 1/2 F
1 1 n+1/2 , n1/2 1 sto shmeo n D
mimomenoi to @AX h f n ki n eni grmmik st
IIF
Dste pardei gma
sunrthshc
f :RR
. .
me tic
exc idithtec:
@A f (1) = 0 f (2) = 1
,
kai
f (1) > 0 f (1) < 0

m
@A f (1) = 0 f (2) = 1
, , ,
kai
@gA f (0) = 0 f (3) = 1 f (1) = 0 @dA f (m) = 0

kai
kai h
enai gnhswc axousa sto
[0, 3]
f (m) = (1)
gia kje
m Z |f (x)|
,
1 2
gia kje
xR
90 Pargwgos F @A f (1) = 0D f (2) = 1 ki f (1) > 0X tewrste thn f : R R me 1 f (x) = x+1 3 @th grmmik sunrthsh me f (1) = 0 ki f (2) = 1AF 9iqoume f (x) = 3 > 0 gi kje x RD rD f (1) > 0F
Updeixh
@A f (1) = 0D f (2) = 1 ki f (1) < 0X tewrste sunrthsh th morf f (x) = ax2 + bx + cF htmeX f (1) = a b + c = 0 ki f (2) = 4a + 2b + c = 1D r c = 1 3 2a ki b = 1 a F ipshD f ( x ) = 2 ax + b D r 3
f (1) = 2a + b = a +
1 1 < 0 n a < . 3 3
5 3F
rD mporome n epilxoumeX a = 2 3 D b = 1D c = 5 2 f (x) = 2 x + x + iknopoie to zhtomenoF 3 3
ilgxte ti h sunrthsh
@gA f (0) = 0D f (3) = 1D f (1) = 0 ki h f eni gnhsw xous sto [0, 3]X o tupik prdeigm gnhsw xous prgwgsimh sunrthsh pou h prgwg th mhdenzeE ti se n shmeo eni h g (x) = x3 F tewrste sunrthsh th morf f (x) = a(x 1)3 + bF htmeX f (0) = a + b = 0D r b = aF ipshD f (3) = 8a + a = 1D r a = 1 9 F ilgxte ti h sunrthsh f (x) =
(x1)3 +1 9
iknopoie to zhtomenoF
@dA f (m) = 0 ki f (m) = (1)m gi kje m ZD |f (x)| 1 2 gi kje x RX tewrste th sunrthsh f (x) = a sin(x)F teD f (m) = 0 gi kje m Z ki 1 f (m) = a cos(m) = (1)m a gi kje m ZF rpei loipn n epilxoume a = ste n iknopoionti oi do prte sunjkeF teD
|f (x)| =
1 1 1 sin(x) 2
gi kje x RD fo > 2F hhldD iknopoieti ki h trth sunjkhF
IPF
'Estw
para gw gsimh sto
f, g : R R x0 g x0
kai h .
kai
stw
x0 R
Upojtoume
ti:
f (x0 ) = 0
enai
enai suneqc sto
x0
Dexte ti h sunrthsh ginmeno
f g
Updeixh
F qi x = x0 grfoume
f (x)g (x) f (x0 )g (x0 ) f (x)g (x) f (x) f (x) f (x0 ) = = g (x) = g (x), x x0 x x0 x x0 x x0
qrhsimopoint thn upjesh ti f (x0 ) = 0F efo h f eni prgwgsimh sto x0 ki h g eni suneq sto x0 D sumpernoume ti
f (x)g (x) f (x0 )g (x0 ) f (x0 )g (x0 ) x x0

tn x x0 D sunep h f g eni prgwgsimh sto x0 ki (f g ) (x0 ) = f (x0 )g (x0 )F
91
IQF
Gia
kajema
ap
tic
paraktw
sunartseic
brete
th
mgisth
kai
thn
el qisth
tim
thc sto
disthma pou upodeiknetai.
@A f (x) = x3 x2 8x + 1 @A f (x) = x + x + 1
5
sto
sto
[2, 2]
.
[1, 1]
.
@gA f (x) = x 3x
3
Updeixh
sto
[1, 2]
3 2
F @A f (x) = x x 8x + 1 sto [2, 2]F r f eni prgwgsimh sto (2, 2) 4 ki f (x) = 3x2 2x 8F yi rze th prggou eniX x1 = 2 ki x2 = 3 F 9erD to mondik krsimo shmeo th f sto (2, 2) eni to x2 F pologzoume ti tim
f (2) = 5,
f (2) = 11,
f (4/3) = 203/27.
9ipeti ti max(f ) = 203/27 ki min(f ) = 11F @A f (x) = x5 + x + 1 sto [1, 1]F r f eni prgwgsimh sto (1, 1) ki f (x) = 5x4 + 1 > 0D dhld h f den qei krsim shmeF pologzoume ti tim f (1) = 1 ki f (1) = 3F 9ipeti ti max(f ) = 3 ki min(f ) = 1F @gA f (x) = x3 3x sto [1, 2]F r f eni prgwgsimh sto (1, 2)D me prgwgo f (x) = 3x2 3F shme st opo mhdenzeti h prgwgo eni t x1 = 1 ki x2 = 1F 9erD to mondik krsimo shmeo th f sto (1, 2) eni to x2 F pologzoume ti tim f (1) = 2, f (1) = 2, f (2) = 2. 9ipeti ti max(f ) = 2 ki min(f ) = 2F
IRF
Dexte
ti
h exswsh:
@A 4ax3 + 3bx2 + 2cx = a + b + c @A 6x 7x + 1 = 0

4 3 2
qei toul qiston ma rz a sto
(0, 1)
qei to pol do pra gmatikc rz ec.
@gA x + 9x + 33x 8 = 0
Updeixh
qei akribc ma pra gmatik rz a.
F @A r exswsh 4ax3 + 3bx2 + 2cx = a + b + c qei toulqiston m rz sto (0, 1)F tewrste th sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 ax bx cxF rthrste ti f (0) = f (1) = 0F ifrmzont to jerhm Rolle rskoume mi rz th exswsh sto (0, 1)F @A r exswsh 6x4 7x + 1 = 0 qei to pol do prgmtik rzeF tewrome th sunrthsh f (x) = 6x4 7x + 1F e upojsoume ti uprqoun x1 < x2 < x3 ste f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = f (x3 ) = 0 @dhldD ti h exswsh qei perisstere p do prgmtik rzeAF ifrmzont to jerhm Rolle gi thn f st [x1 , x2 ] ki [x2 , x3 ]D rskoume x1 < y1 < x2 < y2 < x3 ste f (y1 ) = f (y2 ) = 0F hhldD h exswsh f (x) = 0 qei toulqiston do @diforetikA prgmtik rzeF 9ymwD f (x) = 24x3 7 = 0 n ki mno n x = 3 7/24D dhld h f (x) = 0 qei kri m prgmtik rzF utlxme se topoD r h rqik exswsh qei to pol do prgmtik rzeF
92 Pargwgos @gA r exswsh x3 + 9x2 + 33x 8 = 0 qei kri m prgmtik rzF tewrome th sunrthsh f (x) = x3 + 9x2 + 33x 8F efo f (0) = 8 < 0 ki f (1) = 35 > 0D p to jerhm endimesh tim sumpernoume ti h exswsh f (x) = 0 qei toulqiston m rz sto (0, 1)F en upojsoume ti h f (x) = 0 qei do diforetik prgmtik rzeD tte h f (x) = 0 qei toulqiston m prgmtik rz @jerhm RolleAF 9ymwD f (x) = 3x2 +18x +33 = 3(x2 + 6x + 11) > 0 gi kje x R @elgxte ti h dikrnous tou triwnmou eni rnhtikAF eut eni topoD r h f (x) = 0 qei to pol m prgmtik rzF ep t prpnwD h f (x) = 0 qei kri m prgmtik rzF
ISF
Dexte ti h exswsh kai to pol
xn + ax + b = 0
rz ec
qei to pol do pra gmatikc rz ec an o an o
enai
rtioc
treic pra gmatikc
enai perittc.
F tewrome thn f (x) = xn + ax + b ki upojtoume prt ti o n 4 eni rtio @gi n = 2 den qoume tpot n dexoumeAF 9istw ti h f (x) = 0 qei tre diforetik prgmtik rzeF ep to jerhm RolleD h f (x) = nxn1 + a = 0 qei toulqiston do diforetik prgmtik rzeF eut eni topoX o n 1 eni perittD r nxn1 + a = 0 n ki mno n x = n1 a/n @mondik prgmtik rzAF 9istw tr ti o n 3 eni perittF teD o n 1 eni rtio ki h nxn1 + a = 0 qei to pol do rzeX ti n1 a/n n a < 0D thn x = 0 n a = 0D km n a > 0F 9erD h f (x) = 0 qei to pol tre prgmtik rze @exhgste gitD qrhsimopoint to jerhm RolleAF
Updeixh
ITF
'Estw
exswsh
a1 < < an f (x) = 0
sto
qei akribc
R n1
kai
stw
f (x) = (x a1 ) (x an )
Dexte
ti
lseic.
F en upojsoume ti h f (x) = 0 qei n diforetik prgmtik rzeD tte efrmzont to jerhm Rolle lpoume ti h f (x) = 0 qei n 1 diforetik prgE mtik rzeD kiD suneqzont me ton dio trpoD ti h f (n) (x) = 0 qei @toulqistonA m prgmtik rzF 9ymwD f (n) (x) = n! = 0 gi kje x RD ki ktlgoume se topoF 9erD h f (x) = 0 qei to pol (n 1) prgmtik rzeF rthrome tr tiX gi kje i = 1, . . . , n 1 qoume f (ai ) = f (ai+1 ) = 0D opte to jerhm Rolle deqnei ti uprqei yi (ai , ai+1 ) ste f (yi ) = 0F y1 , . . . , yn1 eni diforetik n do git t (ai , ai+1 ) eni xn n do @didoqikA distmtF 9erD h f (x) = 0 qei toulqiston n 1 prgmtik rzeF unduzont t prpnwD sumpernoume ti h f (x) = 0 qei kri n 1 prgE mtik rzeF
Updeixh
IUF
Sqediste tic grafikc
parastseic
twn sunartsewn
f (x) = x +
jewrntac oriston. san
1 , x
f (x) = x +
touc to
3 , x2
f (x) =
x2
x2 , 1
tou
f (x) = R
sto
1 1 + x2
mporon na
pedo
orismo
megaltero
uposnolo
opoo
93
IVF @A
@A
Dexte qei
ti:
ap
la
ta
orjognia
parallhlgramma
me
stajer
dia gnio,
to
tetr gwno
to mgisto
embadn.
Dexte ti: qei
ap la ta orjognia parallhlgramma me stajer permetro, to tetr g-
wno
to mgisto embadn.
Updeixh
F @A tloume n megistopoisoume thn postht ab me thn upjesh a2 + b2 = d2 D pou d > 0 @exhgste gitAF rthrste ti
ab
a2 + b2 d2 = 2 2
me istht n ki mno n a = b (= d/ 2)F F tewrste th sunrthsh f : [0, d] R me f (a) = a d2 a2 D isodnmD thn g = f 2 : [0, d] R me g (a) = a2 (d2 a2 )F tloume n dexoume ti max(g ) = f (d/ 2) @exhgste gitAF rgwgizontD qoume g (a) = 2ad2 4a3 = 2a(d2 2a2 )F 9ipeti ti h g eni gnhsw xous sto [0, d/ 2] ki gnhsw fjnous sto [d/ 2, d]D r prnei th mgisth tim th n ki mno n a = d/ 2F
' Alloc trpoc
@A tloume n megistopoisoume thn postht ab me thn upjesh a + b = dD pou d > 0 @exhgste gitAF rthrste ti
ab
(a + b)2 d2 = 4 4
me istht n ki mno n a = b (= d/2)F F tewrste th sunrthsh g : [0, d] R me g (a) = a(d a)F tloume n dexoume ti max(g ) = f (d/2) @exhgste gitAF rgwgizontD qoume g (a) = d 2aF 9ipeti ti h g eni gnhsw xous sto [0, d/2] ki gnhsw fjnous sto [d/2, d]D r prnei th mgisth tim th n ki mno n a = d/2F
' Alloc trpoc
IWF
Brete
ta .
shmea
thc
uperbolc
x2 y 2 = 1
pou
qoun
el qisth
apstash
ap
to
shmeo
(0, 1)
F 9istw (x, y ) n shmeo th uperol x2 y 2 = 1F o tetrgwno th pstsh tou (x, y ) p to (0, 1) isoti me x2 +(y 1)2 = 1+ y 2 +(y 1)2 = 2y 2 2y +2F rthrste ti gi kje y R uprqoun do tim tou x @oi 1 + y 2 A ste to (x, y ) n nkei sthn uperolF erke loipn @exhgste gitA n rome thn elqisth tim th sunrthsh g : R R me g (y ) = 2y 2 2y + 2F rgwgzontD lpoume ti to min(g )
Updeixh
pineti tn y = 1/2D opte prnoume do shmeD t
5 1 2 , 2
PHF
Pnw se kklo aktnac 1 jewrome do antidiametrik shmea gia ta opoa to tr gwno
A, B
Brete ta shmea
tou kklou
AB
qei th mgisth
dunat permetro.
F wporome n upojsoume ti A = (1, 0) ki B = (1, 0)F erke n jewrsoume shme th morf (cos x, sin x)D pou 0 x F eut eni t shme tou nw
Updeixh
94 Pargwgos hmikuklouD gi to ktw hmikklio ergzmste nlogF rthrste ti to mko x = 2 cos x tou A eni 2 sin x 2 ki to mko tou B eni 2 sin 2 2 F erke loipn n x megistopoisoume thn g : [0, ] R me g (x) = sin 2 + cos x @exhgste gitAF efo 2 x 1 x x g (x) = 1 cos sin D sumpernoume ti h g prnei mgisth tim tn 2 2 2 2 2 = 4 D dhld x = /2F 9erD t zhtomen shme eni t 1 = (0, 1) ki 2 = (1, 0)F
PIF
Dnontai
pra gmatiko
arijmo
a1 < a2 < < an
Na
breje
el qisth
tim
thc
sunrthshc
f (x) =
k=1
(x ak )
Updeixh
F rthrste ti
n 2 2 2 (x2 2ak x + a2 k ) = nx 2(a1 + + an )x + (a1 + + an ). k=1
f (x) =
r prgwgo th f eni h
f (x) = 2nx 2(a1 + + an ).

1 9ipeti ti h f prnei thn elqisth tim th sto x0 = n (a1 + + an )F r elqisth tim 1 2 2 eni sh me min(f ) = (a1 + + an ) n (a1 + + an )2 F
PPF
'Estw
a>0
Dexte ti h mgisth
tim thc sunrthshc
f (x) =
enai sh me
1 1 + 1 + |x| 1 + |x a|
2+a 1+a .
F weletste thn f qwrist st distmt (, 0]D [0, a] ki [a, +) @ste n {dixete} ti plute timAF rgwgzontD elgxte ti h f eni xous sto (, 0]D fjnous sto [a, +)D en sto [0, a] qoume ti h f eni fjnous sto [0, a/2] ki xous sto [a/2, a]F unepD h mgisth tim th f eni m p ti f (0) ki f (a)F rthrste ti 1 2+a 2+a f (0) = 1 + 1+ a = 1+a = f (a)F unepD max(f ) = 1+a F
Updeixh
PQF
g (a)
oi
Upojtoume kai
ti .
oi
sunartseic
kai
enai
para gw gsimec
f (b) = g (b)
twn
Dexte ti uprqei toul qiston na shmeo parastsewn twn
efaptmenec
grafikn
kai
sta
[a, b] f (a) = x (a, b) (x, f (x)) (x, g (x))

sto kai ti sto gia to opoo kai enai
parllhlec tautz ontai.
Updeixh
F tloume n dexoume ti uprqei x (a, b) ste f (x) = g (x) @ut shmnei ti oi efptmene twn grfikn prstsewn twn f ki g st (x, f (x)) ki (x, g (x)) eni prllhle tutzontiAF tewrome th sunrthsh h = f g : [a, b] RF efo
95 f (a) = g (a) ki f (b) = g (b)D qoume h(a) = h(b) = 0F ifrmzont to jerhm RolleD rskoume x (a, b) ste h (x) = 0D dhldD f (x) g (x) = 0F
PRF
Dnontai do para gw gsimec sunartseic
0 g (x) = 0
gia kje
x (a, b)
Dexte ti anmesa se do rz ec thc
f, g : (a, b) R f (x)g (x)f (x)g (x) = f (x) = 0

ste brsketai mia rz a thc
, kai
antstrofa.
F pojtoume ti uprqoun x1 < x2 sto (a, b) ste f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = 0D ki ti h g den mhdenzeti sto (x1 , x2 ) @pgwg se topoAF ifrmzont thn upjesh f (x)g (x) f (x)g (x) = 0 st x1 ki x2 D lpoume ti f (x1 )g (x1 ) = 0 ki f (x2 )g (x2 ) = 0D r h g den mhdenzeti st x1 , x2 F we ll lgiD h g den mhdenzeti sto [x1 , x2 ]F teD mporome n orsoume thn h := f g : [x1 , x2 ] RF r h eni suneq sto [x1 , x2 ]D prgwgsimh sto (x1 , x2 )D ki h(x1 ) = h(x2 ) = 0 @exhgste gitAF ep to jerhm RolleD uprqei x (x1 , x2 ) ste
Updeixh
h (x) =
f (x)g (x) f (x)g (x) = 0. [g (x)]2
eut eni topoX fo x (a, b)D qoume f (x)g (x) f (x)g (x) = 0D r h (x) = 0F
PSF
'Estw ti
Dexte
uprqoun
f : [a, b] R x1 = x2 (a, b)
, suneqc
sto
ste
[a, b] f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) = 0

, para gw gsimh
sto .
(a, b)
me
f (a) = f (b)
Updeixh
b F ttoume = a+ 2 F ifrmzont to jerhm msh tim st [a, ] ki [, b] rskoume x1 (a, ) ki x2 (, b) pou iknopoion ti
f (x1 ) =
f ( ) f (a) a
ba 2
ki f (x2 ) =
f (b) f ( ) . b
rhsimopoint thn a = f (x2 ) = 0F
= b ki thn f (a) = f (b)D elgxte ti f (x1 ) + lim f (x) = 0
PTF
'Estw
f : (0, +) R
para gw gsimh, me
x+
Dexte ti
x+
lim (f (x + 1) f (x)) = 0.
Updeixh
F 9istw > 0F efo lim f (y ) = 0D uprqei M > 0 steX gi kje y > M

y +
isqei |f (y )| < F 9istw x > M F ifrmzoume to jerhm msh tim sto disthm [x, x + 1]X uprqei yx (x, x + 1) ste
f (x + 1) f (x) = f (yx )((x + 1) x) = f (yx ).

9ymw yx > x > M D r |f (yx )| < F hhldD
|f (x + 1) f (x)| < .
96 Pargwgos 9ipeti ti lim (f (x + 1) f (x)) = 0F

x+
PUF
kje
'Estw
f : (1, +) R x>1 lim [f (x + x) f (x)] = 0

para gw gsimh . Dexte ti
sunrthsh .
me
thn
idithta:
|f (x)|
1 x
gia
x+
F 9istw x > 1F ifrmzoume to jerhm msh tim sto disthm [x, x + uprqei yx (x, x + x) ste f (x + x) f (x) = f (yx ) x.
Updeixh
x]X
9ymw yx > x > 1D r |f (yx )|
1 yx
1 <x F hhldD
|f (x +
9ipeti ti lim (f (x +
x+
x) f (x)| <
1 1 x= . x x
x) f (x)) = 0F [0, a] f (x) > 0 g (x) > 0

suneqec , sto kai sto para gw gsimec sto
PVF
@A @A
'Estw
toume ti
f, g f (0) = g (0) = 0
do
sunartseic kai
(0, a)
Upoj-
(0, a)
An h
f
f g
enai axousa sto
(0, a)
, dexte ti h
An h
enai axousa sto
(0, a)
, dexte ti h
f (x) x enai axousa sto (0, a). f g enai axousa sto (0, a).
Updeixh
F @A r prgwgo th h(x) =
f (x) x
sto x (0, a) isoti me
h (x) =
f (x)x f (x) . x2
ifrmzont to jerhm msh tim sto disthm [0, x] gi thn f D rskoume (0, x) ste f (x) = f (x) f (0) = f ( )x. 9ymw h f eni xous ki < xD r f ( ) f (x)F unepD f (x) f (x)xF 9ipeti ti h 0 sto (0, a)D r h h eni xousF @A r sunrthsh h(x) =
f g f (x) g (x)
eni kl orismnh sto (0, a)F rgmtiD prthrste ti
h orzeti kl sto (0, a) ki ti g > 0 @p thn upjeshAF eut qei sn sunpei ki thn g (x) > 0 sto (0, a) @dete thn erthsh ktnhsh RAF 9iqoume
h (x) =
f (x)g (x) g (x)f (x) . [g (x)]2
ifrmzont to jerhm msh tim sto disthm [0, x] gi thn zx (t) = f (t)g (x) g (t)f (x)D rskoume (0, x) ste
0 = zx (x) zx (0) = f ( )g (x) g ( )f (x).
97
efo h
f g
eni xous ki < xD prnoume
f ( ) f (x) f (x) . = g (x) g ( ) g (x)

unepD f (x)g (x) g (x)f (x) 0F 9ipeti ti h 0 sto (0, a)D r h h eni xousF
eskseiX ekjetik ki logrijmik sunrthsh trigwnometrik sunrtE sei ymd e9 PWF @A

An
0<a<1
a>1
, dexte ti
(loga ) (x) =
@A
Dexte ti, gia kje
1 . x ln a
a>0
(ax ) = ax ln a.
h
Epshc,
ax
enai kurt sto
kai h
loga x
enai kolh sto
(0, +)
QHF @A
@A
Dexte
ti
gia kje
Dexte
ti
gia kje
xR x>0
isqei
ex 1 + x
isqei
1
Updeixh
1 ln x x 1. x
F @A tewrste th sunrthsh g : R R me g (x) = ex 1 xF r prgwgo g (x) = ex 1 th g eni rnhtik sto (, 0) ki jetik sto (0, +)F 9erD h g qei olik elqisto sto 0F hhldD g (x) g (0) = 0 gi kje x RF @A ep thn ex1 x peti ti
x 1 = ln ex1 ln x.
ifrmzont ut thn nistht gi ton
1 x
> 0D prnoume 1 x 1 1, x
ln x = ln
dhld
1 ln x. x nN
isqei
QIF
Dexte
ti
gia kje
x>0
kai gia
kje
ln x n
x1
x ln x.
98 Pargwgos
Sumpernate ti
limn n ( n x 1) = ln x
gia
x>0
F 9istw x > 0 ki stw n NF ifrmzont thn nistht th 9eskhsh QH gi ton jetik rijm n xD prnoume
Updeixh
1 1 ln( n x) n x 1, n x
dhld
x1 1 ln x n x 1. n n x n x1 n x ln x.
9ipeti ti
ln x n
efo lim
x = 1D to kritrio twn isosugklinousn koloujin deqnei ti

n
lim n
x 1 = ln x.
QPF @A
Dexte
ti
gia kje
xR
isqei
lim n ln 1 +
x = x. n
@A
Dexte
ti
gia kje
xR
isqei
lim
1+
x n
= ex .
Updeixh
x F @A ifrmzont thn nistht th 9eskhsh SQH gi ton jetik rijm 1 + n prnoume x/n x x ln 1 + . 1 + (x/n) n n
9erD
x 1+
x n
n ln 1 +
x x. n
o kritrio twn isosugklinousn koloujin deqnei ti

n
lim n ln 1 +
x = x. n
@A ep to @A qoume
ln
1+
x n
99
tn to n F r y ey eni suneq sunrthshD opte h rq th metfor deqnei ti x n x n 1+ = eln((1+ n ) ) ex n tn to n F
QQF
Meletste th sunrthsh
f (x) =
sto o
ln x x
Poic enai megalteroc, o
(0, +)
?
kai
sqediste
th
grafik
thc
parstash.
Updeixh
F r prgwgo th f eni h
f (x) =
1 x
x ln x 1 ln x = . x2 x2
hhldD f (x) > 0 n ln x < 1 ki f (x) < 0 n ln x > 1F 9erD h f eni gnhsw xous sto (0, e] ki gnhsw fjnous sto [e, +)F efo > 3 > e qoume f ( ) < f (e)D dhld ln e ln < . e 9ipeti ti ln( e ) = e ln < ln e = ln(e ). 9erD e < e F
QRF
Dexte
ti
oi sunartseic
ln
kai
exp lim
ikanopoion ta
exc
X @A
gia kje
s>0
ex = + x+ xs
kai
@A
x+
lim
ln x = 0. xs x
, en h dnamh tou
Dhlad, h
exp
auxnei sto
ta qtera ap opoiadpote (meglh) dnamh tou
ln
auxnei sto
bradtera ap opoiadpote (mikr)
Updeixh
F ifrmste ton knn tou lHospitalF
QSF
'Estw
xR
, pou
f :RR c
para gw gsimh
sunrthsh
me
thn
idithta
mia stajer.
Dexte ti uprqei
aR
ste
f (x) = cf (x) f (x) = aecx xR

gia gia kje
kje .
Updeixh
F tewrste th sunrthsh g (x) = f (x)ecx sto RF rthrste ti
g (x) = f (x)ecx cf (x)ecx = ecx (f (x) cf (x)) = 0
100 Pargwgos gi kje x RF unepD uprqei a R ste g (x) = f (x)ecx = a gi kje x RF 9ipeti ti f (x) = aecx gi kje x RF
QTF
ti:
'Estw
gia kje
f : [a, b] R R
, h
suneqc, para gw gsimh sto
(a, b)
, ste
f (a) = f (b) = 0
Dexte
sunrthsh
g : [a, b] R
me
g (x) := f (x) + f (x)

qei mia rz a sto disthma
(a, b)
Updeixh
F tewrste th sunrthsh h : [a, b] R me h (x) = ex f (x)F r h eni suneqD prgwgsimh sto (a, b)D ki h (a) = h (b) = 0F ep to jerhm tou RolleD h exswsh h (x) = 0 qei toulqiston m rz sto disthm (a, b)F efo
h (x) = ex (f (x) + f (x)) = ex g (x),

peti ti h
g (x) := f (x) + f (x)

qei toulqiston m rz sto (a, b)F
QUF
a, b R limxb f (x) = +
'Estw Updeixh
me
a f ( )

ste
para gw gsimh .
sunrthsh
ste
F tewrste th sunrthsh g (x) = ex f (x) sto (a, b)F tjeropoiste c (a, b)F efo limxb f (x) = + ki limxb ex = eb > 0D isqei
xb
lim g (x) = lim ex f (x) = +.

xb
9erD uprqei d (c, b) ste g (c) < g (d)F ep to jerhm msh tim sto [c, d]D uprqei (c, d) ste g (d) g (c) g ( ) = > 0. dc 9ymwD g ( ) = e (f ( ) f ( )). 9erD f ( ) > f ( ) @ki (a, b)D fo a < c < < d < bAF
QVF
Dexte
ti
gia kje
x 0, 2
isqei
sin x
Updeixh
2x .
2x
F tewrste th sunrthsh g (x) = sin x g (0) = g (/2) = 0F ipshD 2 g (x) = cos x
sto [0, /2]F rthrste ti
101
ki
g (x) = sin x < 0 sto

2
(0, /2).
isqei
9erD h g eni kolhF 9ipeti tiX gi kje x 0,
g (x)
hhldD
2x 2x g (/2) + 1 sin x 2x .
g (0) = 0.
QWF @A
f :RR f (0) = 0 f (x) + f (x) = 0 @A f : R R f (0) = 0 f (x) + f (x) = 0

'Estw kai do 'Estw do kai Updeixh
forc
para gw gsimh
sunrthsh.
Upojtoume gia kje
ti
gia kje
xR xR
Dexte ti
f (x) = 0
forc
para gw gsimh .
sunrthsh. Dexte ti
Upojtoume
ti
gia kje
f (x) = cos x
gia kje
f (0) = xR f (0) = 1 xR
. , .
F @A tewrste thn g = f 2 + (f )2 F teD
g = 2f f + 2f f = 2f (f + f ) = 0,
dhld h g eni stjerF efo g (0) = [f (0)]2 + [f (0)]2 = 0D sumpernoume ti
g (x) = [f (x)]2 + [f (x)]2 = 0

gi kje x RF 9erD f (x) = f (x) = 0 gi kje x RF @A rthrste ti h sunrthsh g (x) = f (x) cos x iknopoie ti g (0) = 0D g (0) = 0 ki g (x) + g (x) = 0 gi kje x RF ep to @A peti ti f (x) cos x = g (x) = 0 gi kje x RF
RHF
'Estw
f :RR
h sunrthsh
f (x) = sin x x +
@A @A
Dexte ti: gia kje , ,
x3 . 6
, .
x 0 f (x) 0 f (x) 0 f (x) 0 xR 1

,
Dexte
ti,
gia kje
x2 2
cos x 1
kai, gia
kje
x0
x
Updeixh
x3 sin x x. 6
F @A pologste ti prggouX
f (x) f (x) f (x)
cos x 1 +
x2 , 2
= sin x + x, = cos x + 1.
102 Pargwgos rthrste tiX f 0D r h f eni xous ki f (0) = 0D r f 0 sto [0, +)D r h f eni xous ki f (0) = 0D r f 0 sto [0, +)F @A qnwrzoume ti sin x x gi kje x 0F ep to @AD gi thn f (x) = sin x x + qoume f 0 sto [0, +) r f (x) f (0) = 0 gi kje x 0F unepD
x3 6
x
qi thn 1
x2 2
x3 sin x x. 6
cos x mporete @metx llwnA n qrhsimopoisete thn 1 cos x = 2 sin2 (x/2) 2(x/2)2 = x2 . 2
r nistht prokptei n uysete sto tetrgwno thn | sin(x/2)| |x/2|F
RIF @A
morfc
Dexte
ti
exswsh
tan x = x
.
qei
akribc
ma
lsh
se
kje
disthma
thc
Ik = k 2 , k +
@A
'Estw
to rio
ak limk (ak+1 ak )
h lsh thc parapnw exswshc sto disthma kai dste gewmetrik
Ik k N
,
Brete, an uprqei,
ermhnea.
Updeixh
ti
F @A tewrste th sunrthsh fk : Ik R me fk (x) = tan x xF rthrste

+ x(k 2)
lim
fk (x) = ki
+ x(k + 2)
lim
fk (x) = +.
rhsimopoint to jerhm endimesh tim mporete n dexete ti uprqei ak Ik ste fk (ak ) = tan ak ak = 0F r lsh eni mondik git h fk (x) = tan x x eni 1 gnhsw xous sto Ik X prthrste ti fk (x) = cos 2 x 1 > 0 n x = k ki = 0 sto shmeo k F @A 9istw > 0F ep thn lim arctan x =
2 x+ 2
peti ti uprqei M > 0 ste n x > M
tte 0 < arctan x < F prqei k0 N ste gi kje k k0 n isqei k 2 > M F teD n jewrsoume th lsh ak th exswsh tan x = x sto Ik D qoume ak > M ki arctan ak = ak k F 9erD
0<
9ymoiD
(ak k ) < . 2
0<
9ipeti ti
(ak+1 (k + 1) ) < . 2 |ak+1 ak | < .
o > 0 tn tuqnD r lim (ak+1 ak ) = F

k
103
esksei ymd f9 RPF

Dnontai pra gmatiko arijmo
a1 < a2 < < an
Na
breje
el qisth
tim
thc
sunrthshc
g (x) =
k=1
|x ak |
F weletste thn g qwrist st distmt (, a1 ]D [a1 , a2 ], . . . , [an1 , an ] ki [an , +) @gi n {dixete} ti plute timAF t qreiste n dikrnete ti periptsei n peritt ki n rtioF @A en n = 2s 1 gi kpoion s ND elgxte ti h g eni fjnous sto (, as ] ki xous sto [as , +)F unepD
Updeixh
2s1
2s1
s1
min(g ) =
k=1
|as ak | =
k=s+1
ak
k=1
ak .
@A en n = 2s gi kpoion s ND elgxte ti h g eni fjnous sto (, as ]D stjer sto [as , as+1 ]D ki xous sto [as+1 , +)F unepD
2s 2s 2s s
min(g ) =
k=1
|as ak | =
k=1
|as+1 ak | =
k=s+1
ak
k=1
ak .
RQF
'Estw
n N
kai
stw
f (x) = (x2 1)n
Dexte
ti .
exswsh
f (n) (x) = 0
qei
akribc
diaforetikc lseic, lec sto
disthma
(1, 1)
F @A ifrmzont to jerhm tou Rolle dexte epgwgik to exX gi kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1D h exswsh f (k) (x) = 0 qei k diforetik lsei sto disthm (1, 1) ki f (k) (1) = f (k) (1) = 0F @A hexte ti h exswsh f (n) (x) = 0 qei n diforetik lsei sto disthm (1, 1)F @gA hexte ti h exswsh f (n) (x) = 0 qei to pol n diforetik lseiF en h f (n) (x) = 0 eqe n + 1 diforetik lseiD tte h f (2n) (x) = 0 j eqe lshF
Updeixh Updeixh:
RRF
Na brejon loi oi
a>1
gia touc opoouc h anisthta
xa ax
isqei gia kje
x>1
Updeixh
F rthrste ti h sunrthsh f : (1, +) R me f (x) = mgisto sto aF r sunrthsh ut meletjhke sthn 9eskhsh QQF
ln x x
prpei n qei
RSF
'Estw
para gw gsimh
stajer kai sh me
f : [0, 1] R (0, 1) 0 f (x) 2f (x) 0 [0, 1]

suneqc sto kai sto .
sunrthsh
me gia
f (0) = 0 x (0, 1)
. kje
Upojtoume . Dexte
ti ti
h h
f f
enai enai
F tewrste th sunrthsh g : [0, 1] R me g (x) = e2x f (x)F efo g (x) = e (f (x) 2f (x)) 0D h g eni fjnousF 9ymwD g (0) = 0 ki g 0 @diti f (0) = 0 ki f 0 p ti upojseiAF engkstikD g 0 ki peti ti f 0 sto [0, 1]F
Updeixh
2x
104 Pargwgos
RTF
'Estw kai
xR
x
f :RR f (0) = 0
.
para gw gsimh
sunrthsh. gia kje
Upojtoume
ti
f (x) > f (x)
gia
kje
Dexte ti
f (x) > 0
x>0
Updeixh
F tewrste th sunrthsh g : R R me g (x) = ex f (x)F teD g (x) = e (f (x) f (x)) > 0 gi kje x RD dhld h g eni gnhsw xousF teD gi kje x > 0 qoume g (x) > g (0) = 0D dhld ex f (x) > 0F 9ipeti ti f (x) > 0 gi kje x > 0F
RUF
'Estw
>0
Dexte ti h exswsh
ex = 1 + x + x2 /2
qei akribc ma pra gmatik
rz a.
Updeixh
F tewrste th sunrthsh g : R R me g (x) = ex (1 + x + x2 /2)F teD
g (x) = ex (1 + x) ex (1 + x + x2 /2) =
x2 ex . 2
efo g (x) < 0 sto (, 0) ki sto (0, +)D h g eni gnhsw fjnousF ipshD lim = 0 ki lim g (x) = +F unepD h g prnei kje jetik tim kri m for @exhgste gitAF 9ipeti to zhtomenoF
x+ x
RVF
'Estw
mnh.
Dexte ti:
f : (0, +) R >1
gia kje
para gw gsimh ,
sunrthsh.
Upojtoume
ti
enai
fra g-
x+
lim
f (x) = 0. x
F prqei M > 0 ste |f (y ) leqM gi kje y > 0F 9istw x > 1F ep to jerhm msh timD uprqei yx (1, x) ste |f (x) f (1)| = |f (yx )(x 1)| M (x 1).
Updeixh
teD gi kje x > 1D
|f (x)| |f (x) f (1)| |f (1)| x 1 |f (1)| + M + . x x x x x

en > 1 qoume
x+
lim
x1 |f (1)| = lim = 0. x+ x x
unepD limx+
f (x) x
= 0 @exhgste gitAF
ti den uprqei . para gw gsimh sunrthsh
RWF
'Estw
f (0) = 0
Updeixh
kai
a > 0 f (x) a
.
Dexte
f : [0, 1] R
me
gia kje
x (0, 1]
F 9istw a > 0F pojste ti uprqei prgwgsimh sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (0) = 0 ki f (x) a gi kje x (0, 1]F
105
@A rhsimopoint to jerhm msh tim sto [0, x] dexte ti gi kje x (0, 1) qoume f (x) f (0) a. x @A rhsimopoint thn f (0) = lim
x0+ f (x)f (0) D x
mporete n ktlxete se topoF

An h
SHF
rio
'Estw
shmeo
xx0
f : (a, b) R x0 (a, b) lim f (x)

, dexte ).
para gw gsimh oti h
sunrthsh. thc
enai
asuneqc (den
se
kpoio to
asunqeia
sto
x0
enai
ousidhc
uprqei
Updeixh
F wr periorism th genikthtD upojtoume ti gi kpoio x0 (a, b) isqei

xx0
lim f (x) = > f (x0 ),
ki j ktlxoume se topoF @A tewrome m R o opoo iknopoie thn > m > f (x0 )F hexte ti uprqei > 0 ste (x0 , x0 + ) (a, b) ki f (x) > m gi kje x (x0 , x0 ) (x0 , x0 + )F @A hexte ti h f den qei thn iditht Darboux sto (x0 , x0 + ) ki ktlxte tsi se topoF
SIF
'Estw
f : (a, b) R
xb
para gw gsimh
sunrthsh
me
xb
lim f (x) = +
Dexte
ti
an
uprqei
to
lim f (x)
tte enai so me
Updeixh
F pojtoume ti lim f (x) < +F

xb
@A hexte ti uprqoun R ki x0 (a, b) ste f (y ) gi kje y (x0 , b)F @A tewrste x (x0 , b) ki efrmzont to jerhm msh tim sto [x0 , x] dexte ti
f (x) f (x0 ) + (x x0 ) f (x0 ) + (b a).

@gA ep to @A h f eni nw frgmnh sto [x0 , b)F rhsimopoint thn upjesh ti lim f (x) = + mporete n ktlxete se topoF
xb
SPF
'Estw
f : (0, +) R
x+
para gw gsimh
sunrthsh
me
x+
lim f (x) = L R
Dexte
ti an
uprqei to
lim f (x)
tte enai so me
Updeixh
F pojtoume ti lim f (x) = = 0F

x+
@A hexte ti uprqei M > 0 ste gi kje x > M n qoume |f (x)| > |2| F @A tewrste x > M ki efrmzont to jerhm msh tim sto [M, x] dexte ti
|f (x) f (M )|
| |(x M ) . 2
106 Pargwgos @gA efo pleurD
x+ M ) lim | |(x2 x+
lim f (x) = LD qoume
x+
lim |f (x) f (M )| = |L f (M )|F ep thn llh
= +F ep to @A mporete n ktlxete se topoF
@dA pojtont ti lim f (x) = D mporete pli n dexete ti uprqei M > 0 ste gi kje x > M n qoume |f (x)| > 1F unepD epnlmnont t mt @A ki @gAD ktlgete se topoF
x+

Λυμενες Ασκησεις Απειροστικου Λογισμου 1

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Λυμενες Ασκησεις Απειροστικου Λογισμου 1

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Askseic Apeirostiko Logismo I

mm wjhmtikn nepistmio ejhnn ejn PHHW

To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn

mh ken, nw fra gmno uposnolo tou

F y sup A eni ex orismo nw frgm tou AF unepD gi kje x A qoume x sup AF

enai mh ken kai nw fra gmno uposnolo

F o A = (0, 1) = {x R : 0 < x < 1} eni mh ken ki nw frgmno uposnolo tou RD mw sup A = 1 / AF

kai nw fra gmno

x<y+ xy+ a<x<b

F pojtoume ti y < xF teD epilgont =

xy xy = > 0, 2 2 dhld uprqei > 0 ste x > y + F 9etopoF x (y + ) = x y

F @A rnoume sn x to mso tou distmto [a, b]X

ba a+b = . 2 2 |a b| < . 2 tteD p thn trigwnik nistht gi thn + = . 2 2

(a /2, a + /2) (b /2, b + /2).

<b <a+ <b+ . 2 2 2 2

9ipeti ti (a /2, a + /2) (b /2, b + /2) = (b /2, a + /2)F

Na dei qje me epa gw g ti o arijmc

enai pollaplsio tou

(m + 1)5 (m + 1) = (m5 m) + 5m4 + 10m3 + 10m2 + 5m.

Exetste gia poiec

timc tou fusiko arijmo

isqoun oi paraktw anisthtec:

F we epgwgF qi to epgwgik mD upojste ti

en 0 < a < bD tte an1 ak bn1k bn1 gi kje k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1F 9erD

aR a>1 an > a a>1 m, n N am < an n 0<a<1 a <a 0<a<1 m, n N am < an

am+1 = am a > am 1 = am > a.

am+1 = am a < am 1 = am < a.

6 To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn @A @A @gA

0 < a < 1/n 0a1

(1 + a) < 1/(1 na)

(1 + a)m+1 (1 + a)(1 + ma) = 1 + (m + 1)a + ma2 1 + (m + 1)a.

(1 + a)m+1 (1 (m + 1)a) = (1 + a)(1 (m + 1)a)(1 + a)m <

(1 + a)(1 (m + 1)a) = 1 + a (m + 1)a (m + 1)a2 = 1 ma (m + 1)a2 < 1 ma.

(1 + a)m+1 (1 (m + 1)a) < 1.

(1 a)n = (1 + (a))n 1 + n(a) = 1 na.

1 < a < 0 a>0

(1 x)m (1 x) m(m 1) 2 1 mx + x (1 x) 2 m(m 1) 3 m(m 1) + m x2 x = 1 (m + 1)x + 2 2 (m + 1)m 2 < 1 (m + 1)x + x , 2 =

1) m fo m(m + m = (m+1) ki x > 0F 2 2 @A en n = 1D h nistht isqei sn isthtF en n 2D prthrste ti p to diwnumik nptugmD n

o qrhsimopoijhke h upjesh ti a > 0c

F qi thn prth nistht prthrome ti

n+1 n n+1 < n+2 1 1 n+2

n+2 n+2 n+1 n+1 n n(n + 2) (n + 1)2 n 1 < 1 . (n + 1)2 <

ep thn nistht tou Bernoulli qoume

8 To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn

9itsiD qoume podexei to epgwgik mF

9ipeti to zhtomeno @exhgste gitAF

IIF @uttht tou LagrangeA

Qrhsimopointac thn tautthta tou

9erD to rister mlo isoti @exhgste gitA me

r nistht CauchySchwarz prokptei mesF

10 To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn

IPF @enistht rijmhtikoEgewmetriko msouA

x1 x2m x2m +1 x2m+1

2 1 x1 + + x2m x2m +1 + + x2m+1 + 2 2m 2m x1 + + x2m+1 . 2m+1

F ttoume = n x1 x2 xn ki orzoume bk = rthrome ti oi bk eni jetiko prgmtiko rijmo me ginmeno

ipshD h zhtomenh nistht prnei th morf

b1 + bm+1 + b2 + + bm > 1 + b1 bm+1 + b2 + + bm 1 + m.

Dexte ti kje mh ken ktw fra gmno uposnolo

qei mgisto ktw fr gma.

mh ken uposnolo tou ti . Me

kai stw lgia,

me thn idithta: qei mgisto

fra gmna kai

hhldD rkme a A ki b B ste b a < F