be obtainedsimply by reading the extensive figure captions. Secondly, the main text describes the principles in more detail, but without deriving the equations in detail Thirdly, the appendices contain detailed derivations and some necessary ‘mathematical background. Itis stressed that only those readers who are specialising in the subjeet would usually need to study the appendices in detail, Within the main text, an essentially self-contained guide to the subject is presented. That is, the reader is introduced to the mechanisms of eystal nucleation and growth ‘occurring at the atomic scale (chapter 2) before being shown how the form of an initially planar solid/liquid interface evolves (chapter 3). Subsequently, the most important single-phase (chapter 4) and multi-phase (chapter 5) solid/liquid interface ‘morphologies are presented. Finally, the effect which solidification has upon the redistribution of solute is discussed (Chapter 6), One subject which is not covered in detail is convection in the melt. To introduce this complex field properly would requite another book! However, the overall effect of the interaction of convection and solidification is described where necessary. Each chapter includes a bibliography of key references for further study, and ‘exercises which are designed to test the reader's understanding ofthe contents of the Preceding chapter. For certain exercises, itis advisable firstly to work through the corresponding appendices The authors hope that, after reading this book, the newcomer will feel confident when delving further into soldifcation-related subjects, and that the experienced foundryman will also find some thought-provoking points. W. Kurz, DJ, Fisher Lausanne, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank Dr.T.W.Clyne, Dr.H.Jones, Dr.J. Lipton, Prof. J. Perepezko, Mr. D. Previero. Dr. M. Rappaz, Prof. P.R.Sahm, Dr. T. Sato. and Dr. M. Wolf, for their helpful discussions and critical comments concerning the The invaluable aid of Mrs. E. Schlosser in preparing the diagrams and arranging the {ext is also gratefully acknowledged CONTENTS FOREWORD 1 CONTENTS 1 SYMBOLS v CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION LI The importance of solidification 1.2 Heat extraction 1.3 Solidification microstructures 14 Capillaity effects 1 15 Solute redistribution I CHAPTER 2, ATOM TRANSFER AT THE SOLID/LIQUID INTERFACE 21 2.1 Conditions for nucleation 2 22 Rate of nucleus formation 8 23 Interface structure 3 CHAPTER 3, MORPHOLOGICAL INSTABILITY OF A SOLID/LIQUID INTERFACE ” 3.1 Interface instability in pure substances 0 32 Solute pile-up at a planar solid/liquid interface st 33 Interface instability in alloys 3 3.4 Perturbation analyses 8 CHAPTER 4. SOLIDIFICATION MICROSTRUCTURE: CELLS AND DENDRITES. 65 4.1 Constrained and unconstrained growth 66 42 Morphology and crystallography of dendrites 6 4.3 Diffusion field atthe tip of a needle-like erystal n 44 Operating point of the needle crystal - tip radius n 43 Primary spacing of dendritesafter directional growth 85 4.6 Secondary spacing after directional or equiaxed growth 88 (CHAPTER $, SOLIDIFICATION MICROSTRUCTURE: EUTECTIC AND PERITECTIC 9 5.1 Regular and irregular eutectes 98 52 Difusion-coupled growth 100 5.3 Capillarity effects 106 5.4 Operating range of eutectics 107 5.5 Competitive growth of dendritic and eutectic phases U3 566 Peritectc growth un CHAPTER 6, SOLUTE REDISTRIBUTION 2 6.1 Mass-balance in direetonal solidification 122 62 The initial transient 123 m63 The steady state 6.4 The final transient 65 Rapid diffusion in the liquid - small systems 66 Microsegregation SUMMARY APPENDICES | Mathematical modelling of the macroscopic heat flux 2 Solute and heat flux calculations related to microstructure formation 3. Local equilibrium at the solid/liquid interface 4 Nucleation kinetics in a pure substance 5 Atomie structure of the solid/liquid interface 6 The Mullins-Sekerka interface stability analysis 7. Diffusion at a dendrite tip 8 Dendrite tip radius and spacing 9 Eutectic growth 10 Transients in solute diffusion TL Mass balance equations 12. guide to relevant physical properties for solidification problems INDEX wv 126 126 i bo 19 143 13 133 74 8 88 192 201 208 217 ns 230 SYMBOLS Symbol Meaning A 7 daddao surface or cross-sectional area {eradient term parameter in stability analysis surface area of casting constant eutectic composition length of eutectic te-ine initial alloy concentration diffusion coefficient in liquid pre-exponential term (diffusion) ‘diffusion coefficient in solid eee internal energy ‘exponential integral function stability parameter Gibbs free energy interface temperature gradient interface concentration gradient enthalpy nucleation rate mass fux curvature feonstant length ‘atomic (molecular) weight umber Avogadro's number pressure series term for eutectic growth solute Péclet number thermal Péclet number activation energy for diffusion {quantity of heat gessconsant radius eens perturbation term: stability parameter temperature cooling rate ‘melting point of pure substance liquidus temperature Defi KVGo/(Vp - Db) ‘equation A6.13 equation A7.16 (Ele) (mGe/V) tide dC/dz equation 2.11 Unt 6.022 x 10 equation 9.30 VR/2D VR/2a 831 ‘esin(wy) equation A6.12 aya Units %Im ANY, w% ato, 9% at, w% a6, w% m/s J Jima K/m J}mol K/m 196), wt/m, J}mol ims Sens g/mol {mot Pa J}mot J Sjmol K J/mmol Kf ‘ther f 6 f h k kp SYMBOLS (continued) Meaning. ‘measurable temperature : solidus temperature : non-equilibrium solidus : ate of interface movement : rate of crucible movement mole fraction : partial solution to equation ‘equation A2.13 partial solution to equation ‘equation A2.10 thermal diffusivity Kje {separation constant equation A29 half-axis of ellipsoid 5 yhalfaxis of elipsoid e (V/2D) + [(V/2DF + a5 equation A238 ‘volumetric specific heat : exponent : istance s exponent force a crystallographic factor ‘equation AS.7 liquid fraetion wl +¥%9) solid fraction re volume fraction of a-phase : Papers consane 6.63.x 10 4 heat transfer coefficient a Ate distribution coefficient CsIC." ay Boltemann’s constant 138 x 10) fee slope T/C normal to isoconcentrates . umber : exponent interface normal adsorption site density exponent probabil : [complementary distribution coeff. 1-k heat flux : strength of heat source : radivs critical nucleation radius : position of 5/1 interface : equation A4.9 vw Jk ‘Symbol Meaning fe tt & ACo Ac Gq Ac Ac Aci, AG Acy Ae aw Au, by SYMBOLS (continued) Definition solute capillarty length Time%(k - 1) thermal capllarit length - Pei Shy ification time : back-diffusion parameter 1-20 volume : omic volume tnolar volume work coordinate in /Lintrface ‘coordinate in lintrface ‘coordinate perpendicular toa planar solid/liquid interface ~ System coordinate : iment cntony of ion sy dimensionless eoecent for back-diffusion Dal? dimensionless coefcient for interdendritic back-diffusion equation 6.10 Gibbs-Thomson coefficient. o/s solute boundary layer thickness 2D/V Solute Boundary layer thickness insoha away thermal boundary layer thickness 2a/V concentration difference between liquidus and solidus at solidus temperature of alloy {otal Gibbs free energy activation free energy for diffusion across solid/liquid imerface SMandard fre ene:ey : activation energy forthe nucteation of the critical clister radius activation energy for the rucleation of a critical number of clustered atoms - interface free eneray 2 Gibbs free energy per mole = Gibbs free energy per unit volume AGy/\in standard enthalp : fent heat of fusion per mole Intent heat of fusion per volume Cf fork vin aa 0%, wi J}mol J}mot Jimol I/mol I}mol Sj? I/mol V/mol ym