= 60 29 compen rego conte seed shee Bor pin tSee 111 = sober boda ate ASD yp. 679 or 2.40 > ea resin congrenion: aig sens 2 eet of rt ee steph ee he > Sin es tmiton R14 ntensoncn ba jo ocombned sare eon aes in Table tones re ASD sabe ar es he rene of so pei comnctom) = dow enaon ena TEE Pons can et tne Fearne an {Et dans ane bs ued tc eet et {Sew maine ai) (GecTRFDae oceatanonty ots 1 tc reenact en Pls (Chp. 1) sy Bn hg 1 ™ ig dtu ote eal aust th ie fie the compen seth tc nr ‘ome of ren het he fr yas tgetly otro soe or Mamet fer a he sso ae ane tit deed lowing Bg soni rk etin met nn femme sco hag er Pred o ert fedSae 710) ~ Nitsa un erie ago 14 es wig ett Ba 1628 sng cosuar Sa 9.3 yee conta = Sa eS = concen fr weed ape 4) ane hace ty tcc i to ht wd sph Eye St ad St Ege ge, htt op a = ret ey tr es = ASD: umn nay eset ewig Fy ~ ‘eduntance mae in ey i ae ap ~ LRFD- oun aera see gin rig = Ma, 9463 TERED mex ray rl gtr ag a 882rs SD: mses waco ng fr aie ama ent Fi: = OF. wen 5 siti fen inspite nd ee Ce HMM mae ond pan, expel al whaceseet 946.1 mM ~ eu cama ane Croco io aed ame abet event ome Mand M Aner benting moment v6 oe Mange (EC. Ni) aM atone pomeeta my aun re we rein! moment engi the presence of shear Mr = pay tase moment fen none Ream cle Moy Rel men stents aie a yas pec So 116 & 9.8) Maga, = die moment np, ZF-ntkrert ote an aes eon sand stp nal moet Seno an) C808) “hed ye hn mone ate 86 cg sn hs Me? Ete met on ee Me Pein taal moet ra nig fx (has 87 Spent ht eben ment en 1) Sears ly Se ea me eh A on a ee 9 * ‘oi tyra £6 nb otter Cap. Gel hing cpio ks sn 1, = barat btn aro om ig een) rh = TP EAKLLP tar nie ago absent tes Bn Bg 2” Tyme at aay nad open ee FA mia hot wa an aeting Pett aa Se. 19 eed enw iets gs hs tment ecm 44) ea be et 8 ene Pech er et ome eS 1h mo so hl Ray abt an SBS Er Ui ieSTEEL STRUCTURES Design and Behavior Fourth Edition Emphasizing Load and Resistance Factor Design Charles G. Salmon University of Wisconsin-Madison John E. Johnson University of Wisconsin-Madison # HarperCollinsCollegePublishersSpore Es Miu Sth en Canyon Be: ug he Cobra Re a7 opr © 1985 by Hap Cs Paci Hapealie® an pitt api Liar af Cones Calon inion Dat tales orp eens an.Contents PREFACE xd CONVERSION FACTORS xv CHAPTER 1 Introduction 4 1 Structural Design 1 12 Principles of Design 13, Hite Background of Sse Structures 3 Ve Longe 1S) Types or Structural Stel Members 13 He Stes Structires 18 17 Specifications and Bulking Codes 23 ER Philosophies of Design 24 19. actors of Safety—ASD and LRED Compared) 30 t t 1 Why Should LRFD te Used? 34 1 Analy ofthe Steure 36 Sected References 36 CHAPTER 2 Steels and Properties 41 21 Structural Steels 41 2 Fastener Slee 47 23 Weld Electrode and Filer Mater 48 24 Seres-Siruin Behavior (Tension Test} at ‘Almoshenie Temperaures 49 Material Toughness 51 ‘Yield Strength for Multan States of Stress $3 High Temporaure Behavior 5SCold Wivk and Strain adenine — 57 Brite Fracture St Lamellar Tearing 62 Fatigue Strength @ {Corrosion Resistance ad Weathering Ste Selected References 67 66 CHAPTER 3 Tension Members. 71 Introduction 74 Nominal Stength 72 Novara 73 Efect of Staggered Hoes on Net Arca TH Effective Net area 78 Tearing Flue at Bol Holes 81 7 Slime ac Design Citron 84 Load Tansfer at Connections 84 ‘9 Load and Resstance Factor Design —Tersion Members 86 S10 Tension Rods 93 S11 Allowable tess Desizo—Tension Members 96 Seleted References 98 Problems 99 CHAPTER 4 Structural Fasteners 104 SL Types of fastens 108 42 Historica! Background of High-Strength Bolts 107 43 Canes of Rivet Obolscence 108 AY Detain or Highs Strength Bas 108 43 Installation Procedures 111 46 Nominal Seength of Fuividual Fasteners 114 47 Lol and Restance Factor Design Fasteners 119 48 Bxamples—Tenson Member Bearing-Type Connections ERED 124 49° Slip-Caitieal Joints 130 410 Allowable Sires Design —Faslencrs 134 S11 Examples Tension Memes Using Allowable Stress Design 4A2 coon Shear U8 413 Fasteners Acting in Avil Tension 157 413 Combined Sheurand Tension 161 4515 Shear and Tesnon fom Excenrie Lash Sekevted References 178 Problems 180 i)conTeNTs wv CHAPTER 5 Welding 188, $1 Iniraductin and Hisirial Development 188 52 Basie Procenes 190) 53 Weldapity of Suetaral Steel 198 35 Typesof ins’ 196 53 Typesof Weldh 198 56 Welding Symbols 20 5.7 Factors Afecting the Quality of Welded Connections 204 58 PosiblsDefecs in Welds 207 39. Inspection and Control 209 5.10 Economic of Welded Buileup Members and Connections. 211 Sl Sizeand Length Limitations for Fillet Wells 212 S12 Effective Areas of Welds 215 5.13 Nomina Strength of Welds” 217 SLL Load and Resistance Factor Desiga-—Welds 221 S15 Allowable Stress Design Welds 227 5.16 Welds Connecting Members Subject wo Disc Axial Load 231 S17 cere Shear Connections Strength Analysis 243 S18 eventie Shear Connections Elastic (Sector Analysis 251 S19 Loach Applic Exventi tothe Pane of Welds 258 Selected References 263, Problems 268 CHAPTER 6 Compression Members 276 PARTI: COLUMNS — 276 G1 Geserst 276 62 Bier Elastic Buckling and Witrieal Background 276 63 Basie Colum Sueagth 278, G4 Tnelive Bucking 284 65 Resa Sues 284 66 Devekyment of Column Strength Curves Including Residual Stress 287 7 Strutaral StabiiyReeaech Couned ISSRC} Strength Curves 205 GS Lead and Resseance ctor Devin 300 69 ‘Eflectne Length 308 6.10 Laid und Resstace Factor Design of Rolled Shapes (Sad M) Subject w Axial Compression 311 Alinable Stes Design 817 ‘Shear EMect 318 Design of Luticed Members 321 PARTI: PLATES 327 6.41 lateaton w Stailly of Plates 227 GIS Strenghof Plates ander Uniform Eige Compresion 3366.18 AISC Width/Thickress Limits A, 19 Achiove Yield Stress Without Local Plate Buckling 839 6.7 AISC Width/Thickeess Limits, 0 Asseve Signicant Plastic Deformation 342 6.18 AISC Prosisions to Aecoun for the Buckling and Poss Buckling Strengths OF Pate Elements 345 6.19 Design of Compression Members as Alieted by Local Buckling Provisions 351 Selected References 388 Problems 368 CHAPTER 7 Beams: Laterally Supported 370 TL tewroduction 370 72 Simpie Bending of Symmetrical Shapes 370 13 Behivior of Laterally Stable Bears 372 74 Laterally Supported Beams—Load and aesstance ctor Design 375 TS Lateally Supported Beams—Allowable Stress Design 381 716 Serviceability nf Beams 388, 7.7 Shear on Roled Beams 390 78 Conceatrted Loads Applied wo Rolled Bears 396 79 Holes in Beams 402 7.10 General Flexural Theory 408 TIL Bianal Bending of Symmewie Sesto 410 Selected References 415, Problems 418 CHAPTER 8 Torsion 424 8.1 Introduction 424 52 Pare Torsion of Homogencous Sections 425 53 StearStrsses Dae w Boning of Thin all Open Ceone-Sections 428 B4—ShearCemer 430 85 Torsional Stresses in Shaped Steel Seations. 432 8.6 Analogy Between Torsion and Plane Bending 83 87 Practical Situations of Torsonal Loading 447 88 Loud and Resistance Factor Desig for Torsion —Lateally Stable Beums 452 8.9 Allowable Stess Design for Torsion —Laterally Stable Beams 458 8.10 Torsion in Closed Thin-Wall Sections 458 811 Tonion in Sections with Open and Chased Parts 462 S12 Torsional Buckling 462 Selected References 469 Problems 471conrents i CHAPTER 9 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of Beams 479 9.1. Rational Analogy wo Pure Columas 479, 92 Lateral Support 480 53 Siength of I-Shaped Beams Under Uniform Moment 482 94 Elastic Latera-Tersional Bucking 484 95 Incas LateralTorsonsl Bucking 488 9 Load ard Resistance Fator Desigh—I-Shaped Beams Subjected 1 Strong Axis Bending 491 on lawable Steve Design-—I-Shaped Beams Subjected to Swrong-Axis Bending 499 9.8 Effective Latrally Unbvaced Length S09 99 Examples: Load and Resistance Factor Design SII 9.10 Example: Allowable Stress Design $26 9.11 WeakvAxis Bending of FShaped Sections 532 9.12 Lateral Buckling of Channels, Zees, Monosymmeric -Shaped Sections ‘nd Tees $32 9.13 Lateral Bracing Design 542 9.14 Biaxial Bending of Doubly Symmetric LShaped Sections 555, Selected References 560 Problems 964 CHAPTER 10 Continuous Beams $71 Your Introduction — S71 102 Pasie Strength of « Staticaly Indeterminate Beart S71 103 Plasie Aral Load and Resistance Factor Design Examples S81 104 Elastic Analjis—Laad and Resitance Factor Design Example 596 105 Baste Analyss—Allowable tres Design Examples 598 106 Spices 60s Selected References 605, Probiems 606 CHAPTER 11 Piate Girders. 610 im "2 ns us 6 ur ts no Inirodustion and Hisorcal Devekpment 610) Difference Between Beam and Plate Gitdor 613 Vertical Plane Buckling Limit State 614 ‘Nomina! Montent Stongth-—Loud and Restance Factor Design 618 “Moment Surength—Alowable Stress Design 623, “Moment Strength Redvction Due to end:Buckling ofthe Web 624 Nominal Moment Stength—Hybeid Geders 631 Nominal heat Strength—Elasic and Inelastic Buckling 633. Nominal Shear Sirength—Inclding TensionFied Action 639contents 3120 Secngth in Combined Bending and Shear 619 TAL Inermedinte Tanserse Stifeners 654 112 Beanng Sitfener Design 651 1113 Longtail Web Stfeners 663 11.14 Proportioning he Section 665 IIS Plate Girder Design Example ERED 671 Selected References 693, Problems 695 CHAPTER 12 ‘Combined Bending and Axial Load 702 at Introduction 702 Dilernis) Equation fr Axiaf Compression and Bending 703 Moment Meznifestion —Sinplied Treatment foe Members in Single Curvature Without End Trarslaion 707 “Moment Magnifeation Members Subject to End Momeats Only: NoJoin Transition 7H) ‘Moment Magnification —Members with Sidesway Possible 713) [Nominal Strength- Testability inthe Plane of Bending 71S ‘Nominal Siength—Falure by Combined Bending and Torsion 717 Nominal Strength—Hateraction Equations 717 Bisnisl Bending 720 Lina and Resistance Ficlor Design Criteria 722 UUnbraced Frame -—Lond and Resistance Factor Design 127 Design Procedures —Load and Resistance Fac Design 734 Examples Lond and Resianee Facir Design 737 Alowable Suess Design Criteria 740 evgn Procedures-—Allowsble tess Design 766 Seketed References 774 Problems 777 CHAPTER 13, Connections 788 i 2 B3 6 Br Gs 59 ‘Types of Connections 788 Simple Shear onections 792 Seated Beam Connections —Unsifened 809 Siilfened Sear Connections 816 Triangular Bracket Plates 823 ‘Continous esmn-To-Columa Connections 828 ‘Continooos Hezino- Beam Conacctions 86 RigilFrume Kness 862 Colum Base Plates $70‘CONTENTS. ix 15.10 Beam Spices 876 Seleted References 881 Problems 888 CHAPTER 14 Frames—Braced and Unbraced 895 Mal General 895 142 Flas Buckling of Frames 899 M3 rocedre for Etective Length 907 a of Frames under Primary Bending Moments 907 14S Bracing Reguiements—Braced Frame 913 146 Overall Stabity When Plasic Hinges Form 918 Selected References 919 CHAPTER 15 Design of Rigid Frames 923 Is Inroduction 923 152. Plastic Analysis of One-Sory Frames 923 15.3 Load and Resistance Factor Design —One-Story Frames 935 154 Multstory Frames 981 Selested References 982 Prebloms 953 CHAPTER 16 Compost Steel-Concrete Construction 955 16.1 Historical Background 985 162 Composite Action 957 Ved Advantages and Disadvantages 959 164 Effective Width 960) 16.5 Computation of Elastic Seton Properties 962 166 Service Load Streses With and Without Shoring 965 16.7 Nominal Moment Strength of Fully Composite Sections $67 Shear Connectors 972 Hybrid Composite Giders 981 Composite Pleural Members Containing Formed Steel Deck 082 Design Procedure—Load and Resistance Fistor Design 983 Design Procedure—Allowable Stres Design 983 LLRFD Examples—Simply Suppored Beans 985 ASD Example—Simply Supported Beam 992 Deletions 995 Continuous Beams — 961617 Composite Columns 999 Selected References 1001 Problems 1008 APPENDIX 1007 TABLE A1 APPROXIMATE RADIUS OF GYRATION 1008 TABLE A2 TORSIONAL PROPERTIES — 1008 INDEX 1010Preface “The publication af this ert dion elects the continuing changes cecrsng i design sequlrement fr suctral sel. poriculal the fist sifcant updating bythe Amer en institute of Steel Cosiratin (AISC) of the Load end Resivance Factor Desi CLRED} Speciation for Srarral Ste! Balding. Design of sructura tea! members hae developed ver the pis 98 years fom 2 ‘spe approach olin a few be properties of te td eementarymatherais 10 2 ophistated trestment demanting thorough knowledge of sreteral and materi ‘behavior reson den pace utlzes knowledge of mechanics of Water, srr aly. abd particulary. structural stability @ combination with manly recognized ‘Seign rules for salty. The most Widely quod design sues ae those of the America lose of Stel Consruction (NISC), gic ia Load and Revstonce Factor Desi Specfation for Srucral Ste uli an Speiftion for Sractaral Set Bul ings Altace Siax Design and Pic Devin eeferted 0 hereuter a LRED Speciation and ASD Speefiation especie “The specie occrrence dictating eis Kurth din the gulbication ofthe 1983 LLRFD Speciation fetfecie December 1.1993) with Commentary. along withthe ontesponding LRED handbook, Maal of wel Conseuton Lo und Resistance Factor Design, 2nd alton. 1994, Volume U (Siracrural Members, Specifications. & Cones) sind Value I (Connections) References ure comtnied 10 the WHO ASD Speciation (effective Jue 1, 1989) with Commentry: and the cvreponding ASD hind, Mena! of Sie! Contraction —Allmuble Sires Deven and Plastic Dei. th Edion, 1989, Stel member and compponenhy ae ssid from tse handbooks referred to hereafter us LRAD Maal 30 ASD Man. “The fourth edition floes the same pisopical approach that has aie wide scceptate of wr since te fis ton Ws published in 1971. Ts edition cotiniss to asic presenti gical manner the theoreti! background needed fr develping and explaining dessn requirement, prticelry the of the 1993 LRED Sprcitstion Beginning with eoerape of backer material. isdn relerences fo Fetinent scars he development specie forms we inthe AISC Speciation alowed by sonorous umber of design examples explaining In dal the proves of sling iim weight member sas zen conditionsPREFACE Emphasis throughout tis our eon son the 1988 LRED Speciation, That speciation bane on stil se ads andthe esitances Wel sibtues| jet ovaries tes Bod effin, ssh ax bsoing moment she, nl fre, and fosional momen Tae rational exten of oth loads including Nod effets) and Festance ess nse siretures ning ore uf safety troyehout, This modern sop af design, discs only rif i one section af the secon eto, maine tsar ting the predominant approach to dss {Censlerabe exons han boon plced om presenting for te beginners Nl a6 the udsancd sudce the sew cane sd iaatc maby concepts. the under Sanding o hich essential wo propor ppl te design rls, The sme concept are fsppiable whether design is acconing’ Wo the LRFD Speciation or the. ASD Speciation. The explanation of ibility concept is incorporated nt he taps is ich way thatthe eadee may’ eter sud im detail the aby concepts ogc sequence rani posgone sy of sections otaising detailed Jevelopment merely Accepting qualitative npanation and poceeding iret to desig, ‘Ashi fourth edition s repre a majority of desig sil done according tothe tradiionalAllovable Stress Design ie, Working Sens Deng) That method facses On Service (working) ads and lst computed sexes, compatingthoe stress oth able ining values. However be kp teaver eat Set peara sould be toward tbe more rational Loot id Resance Fistor Deion Speciation. Stength ‘even phiksopy (reflected inthe 1986 and 1998 LRED Specifcation) anes tored erage lads and compares the seegth proved with sich cored leads or lead Sse). Thesrength it ay given case deers he “lumi Sa” or me ofan, Sch an ycing.frctre, or bushing. The tational “plastic design ineade a6 {Chaps ofthe 1989 ASD Speciation, ian option intepaly includ put of he RFD Speciation. “Thowghout the tex the deory ard bachround mer. ing common both the LRED and ASD plsoiss of design hie Been verted. The specie devin ‘roves nd lasetiveeximpcn se weve, eagerly in sepa sections thin the chaps that tary tay iter he Allowable Sree Desig the Usd and Restance Fair Desi ptions sera “The tet eto contin the we of Sluis an aon othe primary we ‘oF toh Pound uns Although neither the LRFD nor the ASD Speciation contains SU Uni some se of SI ite appease Ie tet LRED and ASD fel ve thee St fauialent conversions are the practical ones mode by the author sen a footnote ‘nthe fet pare containing the AISC-specthed Inch od wats. Tabs and grams feral contain bath Ich Pound ad Stans. Depending on the peatccny ried of the xen, this ext prides mate ria foe po autses of tres ofr semeircre burs each, 1 suggested ha the bearing ours in eel sactre fr undesradute ss ight conti he mail [Chapter F throu 7.9. 10, 12 and 16 except Sections 4, 66.612 19 6.19. 7910 FHI, 91849915. 98, 9.12409,14,amd 12.619 12.7, The second couse would review some (the same topics the te couse tut mre ap. emphasing ems mite ithe fit couse. br abltion, se Fetiningchaprs—-nately Chapter on lorsan, Chaplr Tes pate gies Chapter 13 om connections Chae [o frame, and Chapter 15 fon fame Sgn are sugested for incision, The primary philnophy emphasized in bv courses sul be Lag and Ressance Factor Desig‘The reader will need ready acces tothe LRFD Manual” thcustout the td of te ‘ext paisolrh when working With te examples, Hosexer: ene eben his tes thatthe reader become prfcent in the routine se of tbls the tables se¥s only {ha gide to obwining experience wih aration of sign parameters nd ae 28 Sirising a good deen The LRED Specification and Commentary ae contained Inthe [ERED Morual andar therefore nt inched 0 this book excep for varices nisi proxisons qoted sere they ate explaies. “The deat we ofthe compute snot specials employed an where inthe eX “The authors the to of Pas pecpes in the clasroom is he Bhan pint However the eer may find ha acquiring the dat seo standard section properties. fvalable for purchise fom AISC. sl he hapa. The authors recommend the ake of 3 Spreadsheet safware seas Lows 1-2-2 or Micronoft Exel, slong ih tha sea the htabse properties. estes ofthis fourth edition at: (1) detailed presentation of seeagt-reated hacksround and design sles for Loud and Resistance Factor Desig (2) af inepraled treatment of bth the 1993 Enad nd Renseanes Facto Dssign Speciation slg wih ‘he 1989 Allowable Stass Design Speciation ‘Other special features a Is fext are (3) comprekensie treatment of design of “-xhaped members sujet frson (Cheper 8-Inaing spied practical metho: (4) deta eaten of plate girder theory at relates o Loa and Resistance Factor Design (Chapter 1) anda comprehen dsge example of atwo-spancontinwus dee ting two fret gro wel (5) ete tear ment of connections (Chapter 13) Including significant dension and lation ofthe deg of components, Chapters ‘which nese extesvelyrewetan othe hid eition ty st LRFD appt othe 1986 seit, hve bee upted forthe 1983 LRED Speciation and improved fot ote Yea nd wndertaing 262 eeu of SBS fom aes The aus edb to stdens oleae nd et urs of he Ks tes cations wp ne sugstsed improvements of wording. the errors and recom ‘mended item or ncesion or dton The suggestions have been carefully comldeed resting ns complete evo, Te continued esoperation a lp of AISC toh Neste nani, Direct, Research and Codes. also appr “The ttt are etl adele a Dr. Robert E Andro ols State Let ‘sty fe his exonaive und dete maggesions to eee 70s and prove esty ‘paring al eager The detailed suzzetins rn Dr, Patrick. Zaank of Coulian State University rgarng Chapt [= are sincerely apres Special thane are duc Dr. Dil C. Salon of the Buy ofthe Univers of [eashiLineoin for his many snc sagzestons and ace reardiag the etre smanasstip SRA LAPD Sect Coes an asc paxiv PREFACE ne suoes abo acknoweage with thanks ie comments ad sugestons ein inaterrs iron clarity. and general improve vob: by Dr. Thomas M. Mure fof Vezina Posten: Tastus, De. Gary 1. Krats of the Unversy € Nebraska Lincoln Dr. Abdl-Hamil Zarek of Georgia Insite of Tecnolegy abd Dr. Grezory c G. Deen of Corl Unversity {Users his fourth edition are urged to comarca with he authors paring aspects of his book patculars om identi fers and suggestion or improve “The serior autor affectionately dedicates this Book in emery of his Ite wie ‘Bere Saino, fo er pllnee ahd encouragemest thaugh he Test eee eons, Carle G, Salmon Join E Johnson — February 1995 SeConversion Factors sen ne Pond Un ra iV, Ue a sina ce SeuChapter 1 Introduction 4.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN Sirvtural design may be defined as @ mistare of art and science combining the Mpurtencad engineers inutvefeling for he behavior of structure with a sound Ceeicte ofthe prvcples of sacs, danas, mechani of materials, and struc. reat netsh produce a safe economical structure tha wil serve ts intended pepo. ‘att about 1850, structural design was largely an art eelying on inition fo determine the size and asrangement of whe siractural elements, Early man-made iy conform those which could also Be observed in nature, suc ichea, As the prinipies governing the behavior of stretures ane 2 para anaes hive become beter wadestond. xn procedures have become sore sient aethations involving sce principles should seve as a ade wo deiion making a notte followed bey. The art or inne abiiy ofthe experienced ‘elmer uiized to make the decisions. ide by he computations ress 1.2 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN ‘Design isa process by which an optimum souton is obtained nts ext te concern pen the Senn af artes pica. set structures, any design, eral at mua be established to vate whether or nt ax optima has bse sieved Fae itunes typical eriria may be (a) mintoum cents (b) iim weigh Fo" Snr construction ine: mim [bor isin cost of manufatere 1G Bane’: products, and (7) maximum efficiency of operation to owner. Usual aera ave invotved, cach of which may require weighting. Observing the TARE oul crtera,ihmsy be apparent tat setting ecarly mcrae enteia sey eae and eos forestablishing an optimum fequensy willbe ificl, and (tape mpi. Ino practical tation, de evaleation mast Be qualita Me neejne bjetveetron cas be expressed mathematical then ouiina: sion ech gues ay be employed to obtain # maxim oF nim for te objectivefaction. Opinization procure and tsniguss comprise an ene subject that ‘outside the scope of this tex. The citron of eininam wei i emphasized {roughout ander the general ssnpion that minum materia epresens mi fu cost, Other subjective criteria tbe kept in mind ven though the nkegraion ‘of behavioral principles with design of sical Met clement i this text ules ‘only simple cbjctve criteria ch a weigh es Design Procedure The design proceuse my be comiderol to be comps of ow pacts—fanetional design and structural Irumowork design, Panctioal design eases that intended resuls are achieved, sich 3s (a adequate working areas apd clearances: (b) proper entiation andfor air conditioning: fe) adequate tramsportation faites, sich a ‘evar, surwag nd cranes orto handing equipment: adegate light Ing and ie) attic. “The stun framework deen ithe skction ofthe arangement and sizes of strat element so that service Toads maybe sel cated and isplacements re within acepiable lini13 MISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF STER STRUCTURES 3 “The iterative design procedre may be outlined 48 flows 1. Plonning.Esablishmentof the unetions for sich he sactare mus serve Set ertevia against which fo niesure the resting Jesyn for being 40 psimum, 2, Preliminary structural configuration. Atrngemment ofthe elements fo serve the funtion ia sep 3. Establishment ofthe loads wo be cacie, & Preliminary member selection. Based on the decisions of tps 1,2. and 3 Selection of the member sizes o sity sn objective eaterion suchas kas tweight or eos. ‘8 Anas, Stroctral analysis ivotsing odsing the loads and the structaral framework o obtain intro forces and any desited defections. 6, Bvaltaion Areal seagth and szviceabiltyrequtemens satisfied aad the result optimucn? Compare the result with predetermined ene 17. Redesign, Repetition of any par ofthe sequence I through 6 found neces Sar of desirable asa est 0” evaluation, Steps 1 dough 6 represat an erative process, Usiaiy inthis text only steps 3 through 6 wil be subject to this iteration since the tractral configuration an external loading wil be prescribed 8 Final decision The devermination of whether or tan optimum design has been sciove, 1.8 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF STEEL STRUCTURES. Mets as.a structural material been with east eon used on 2 100-1 (30m) are span ‘sti was but in England 1777-1779 [1.1] A numberof easton bidges were built daring the psi 1780-1820, mostly arch-shaped with main srdersconsising 0-130 Orato 620) estas) fs ro. “Host! tert 66) 70-898) 5) Apomea ows 7 in tsesasy ay cratesy “SD s0=100 Tt 2 is) 8S) "as) AsoGaaso 4075) 58.38) force ds ASua10} 1804) Gee) SK) 8518S) AmGweene Pn we. a 90) t8) ‘iso, crteso os we ay Bas) G0) Go ceateco 0 is wit was Grate 65 os 0 Wit nasTABLE 214. (Continue) 21 STRUCTURAL STEELS 48 ‘07 Ga Cras ‘Grae 68 ate Crake 168 Gs CT ‘Gudea rate sow cat 100 ‘S100 vr 51 Gre Grae 68 Grae 10 Moetun S034) Ss\i80) aavsiss sso) 50.330) S045) 0048) 4) 85) ss) ‘war ssn) ross) s Maxum Terie eens ASTI AG fwereh —ferpaies “reuse te fn ver es om shapes omses — oretns. - ‘ino Sous S380) ssa; $680) S00) 265) Souls) fe Tievalle a0 Tea 7 0-550) “G0 cs “o0) ™ wa au 20-750) “Gon, 102-130 Over 24 cones) ei tio-30 ap 0-0) “eh 6202750) “00, 75 20) s01580) 90,620) produ AISC Spain 15,1] ep ABI A “Astacio ape 3 MSs nea Et tsa te eh cnc crane magnus api Jn ASTAU AOIAEM 18) and inte AISE Manes 118) seas Atenas ate acl ASTM Speccnton4 CHAPTER 2 STEELS ANO PROFCRTIES AST seater 5 hae | Alas ied ve oped ert AISE Spectatos -5 120 epe N Cenmsnoao8 ‘ele blige cosracon we odontal only spony Ge 98 ‘Sap ne heed wld a ea a “Seta ohne Hen het il. eg eel in Gras 42d Sony sal pede eo gen “Sera stipes i Sci pce hon eer: trina 1 3 1006 ras eae wae epee tec io Aa concen see tmp22 FASTENEASTEEL2 47 Figure 24.1 Typical stress-strain cures 2.2 FASTENER STEELS ‘The detailed treatment of the design of threaded fasteners appears in Chapter 4. A brief description of the materials used for bolts appears in he following paraeraphs. ‘The headings are the ASTM specification exace ties. ‘A307 [2.4], Carbon Stee! Bolts and Studs, 60,000 psi Tensile Strength ‘This material i wed fo what are commonly referred tas “machine bolts," These are usually used only for temporary installations. Included are Grade A bolts for general applications, which have 2 manimum tensile stength of 60 ksi (415 MPa); and Grade B bol for flanged joints in piping systems where one or both flanges arc cast iron. The Grade B bolts have 4 muasimum tensile strength limitation of 100 ksi (700 MPa). No well-defined yield point is exhibited by these bols, and no ranimum Yield strength (for instance, 0.2% offset strength) is specified A325 [2.5], High-Strength Bolts for Structural Stee! Joints ‘This quenched and tempered mesdum carbon steele wsed for blts commonly known as “high-strength structural bolts," or high-strength bolts. This material has maxt- ‘mum carbon of 0.30%. lis heat-treated by quenching and hen by rebeating (temper48 cHaer A449 (2.71, ‘A490 [2.8], Tensile Str ER 2 STEELS AND PROPERTIES ing) to a temperature of at least 800°F, This steal behaves in a tension tet more similarly to the hear-ueated I-alloy stels than to carbon steel. It has ax ultimate tensile strength of 105 ksi (733 MPa) (110 1 -in-diam bots) 0 120 ks (838 MPa) Go Lin-diam bots). Is yield strength, measured at 0.2% ole, iv prescribed at SL ksi (365 MPa) minimum for 1310 1(-in-diam bolts, and 92 ks (643 MPa) for bolts to L in. diam Gee Table 4.1: Quenched and Tempered Steel Bolts and Studs “These bolts have tensile strengths ard yield steesss (strength at 0.2% offset) the same 4s,A325 for bolts 1 in diam and smuller; however, they have the regular instead of heavy) hetagon head aod longer theead length of A30" bolts, They are also available in diameters up 3 in, The AISC Specifications [15,116] permit use of Ad4 bolts, ‘only for certain structural joints reqnising diameters exceeding | in. and for high strength anchor bolts and threaded ros. Heat Treated, Steel Structural Bolts, 150 ksi (1035 MPa) rength ‘This material has carbon content that may range up to 0.53% for 1 nium bol, and has alloying elements in amousts similar the AS14 [2.11] sees. After quench= ing ino, the aerials tempered by reheating to at least 900°F. The vinimam yield strength, obtained by 0.2% offit, ranges from 115 ksi (803 MPa) (ver 240.14 in iam) 40 130 ks (908 MPa) for 2 in. diame and under, Galvanized High-Strength Bolts In order to provide corrosion protection, A325 holts may be galvanized. Hot-ip {galvanizing requires the molten zinc temperature to be in the range of the heat ‘restment temperature; thus, the mechanical properties obtained by heat treatment may be diminished, Whenever galvanized bots are use, the nuts must be “oversized.” Ifthe nuts ave also galvanized, they’ must be “double oversized.” Steels having tensile strength in the range of 200 ksi or higher are subject to hydroper embrittlement when hydrogen is permitted to remain inthe stel and high tensile stress is applied, The intraduction of hydrogen occurs dusing the pickling operation ofthe galvanizing process andthe subsequent “sealing-in” of the hydrogen tnd zine coating [2.24], The minimom tensile strength of A325 bots is wel below the tical 200 ksi range. On the other hard, A490 bots have a maximum tensile strength OF 170 ksi a value considered too close to the entical range. Thus, galvanizing of ‘8490 bolts is not permitted. 2.3 WELD ELECTRODE AND FILLER MATERIAL ‘The detited treatment of welding und welded connections appears in Chapter 5. The clectrodes use in shielded metal are welding (SMAW) (see Sec. 5.2) also serve as the filer materia! and ate covered by American Welding Society (AWS) AS.1 and [ASS Specifications [2.25], Such consumable electrodes are clasiied EOOXX,24 STRESS STRAIN TABLE2311 ELECTRODES UScD FOR WELDING HAVIOR (TENSION TEST] AT ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURES Sihided Sioned «Gases owed Wweane wating wisn weidrg «Mn Gum Sawn Gia fea ANSAG! ANSE? aWSaSte AWSaszo | _S! crass "wrasza—weabae eras) Pa FOXSEXNX BS rox HRSX MTX Fr 45 sox & Foxxx ext esos SS soaxx Soo FrowKENax fos sot is ioe oo Finacen as eux 8 os “Pl sui rapremeatanerby ANSDI IES) machi wri s num sn os) ra Ginn as 70-9) 485-055 Omi $80 s0"100 $sh-600 mie S30 oon 690 Too"130 —o-kos ron 130 Moe ho-3s 49 [ETOXX, ESOXX, E9OXX, E1OOXX, and ELOXX. The “E" denotes electrode, The frst ow cits indicate the tensile iength Ks; thus the tensile strength range from {60 t 110 ksi (414 t0 760 MPa). The "X's" represent numbers indicating the usage of the electrode, For submerged arc welding (SAW) (se See. 52), the electrodes which also Serve a filler material are specified under AWS AS.17 and A5.23. The wel-electrose combinations are designated FEXXEXXX, FIXX-EXXX, etc. up t0 FIIAX-EXXX ‘The “F” designates a granular Mux material that shields the weld as itis made. The frst one or two of the three digits following the “F” indicate the tease strength (6 means 60 ksi, 11 means 10 ks). The “E" stands for electrode and the other X's represent numbers relating 1 use. The yicld suesses and tensile srengty of com- monly used electrodes are given in Table 23. 2.4 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR (TENSION TEST) AT ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURES ‘Typical stress-strain curves for tension are shown in Fig 21.1 for the three categories, of steel alrendy discussed: carbon, high-strength low-alloy, and heat-treated high: strength lovwalloy. The same behavior occurs in compression when support i pro vide so as to preclude buckling. The portion of each ofthe stzess-strait curves of Fig. 2.1.1 chat is utlized in ordinary design is shown enlarged in Fig. 2.4.150 CHAPTER 2 STEELS AND PROPERTIES 2 ere ome oon, i [Bess opee eet Pil Figure 24.1 Enlarged ypical stress-strain curves for diferent yield seses, ‘The stress-strain curves of Fig. 2.1.1 are determined using a unit siress obtained by dividing the load by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen, and he strain (inches per inch) is obtained as the elongation divided by the original length. Such Ccuves are known ab engineering siessrain curves and ese co a maximum sess level (known asthe tensile strength) and then falloff with increasing stain until they terminate as the specimen breaks. Insofar a the material itself is concerned, che unit ‘ress continues 10 se nti failure eccurs. The so-called true-stress/rue:strain ‘cave is obtained by using the actual cross-section even after necking down begins and using th instantaneous incremental seis, ‘Strese-stain curves (as per Fig. 241) show a straight line relationship up 10 @ point krown asthe proportional limi, which essentially coincides withthe yield point for most structural steels with yield poins not exceeding 65 ksi (450 MP2). For the ‘quenched and tempered low-lloy sees the deviation from a straight line occurs {radually, asin curve (@), Fig. 24.1, Since the term Yield point is ot appropriate to ‘ouve (eyelid strength is used for the sess at an offiet sain of 0.2%; or alerna- wey, 2 0.5% extension under lal, as shown in Fig 2.4.1. Weld stress the general term to clude the unit stress a a yield point, when one exists, othe yield strength, ‘The ratio of sires t0 strain in the initial straight line region is known as the modulus of elasticity, or Youns's modus, E, which for structural steels may be taker25 MATERIAL TOUGHNESS 51 ‘appeosimatsy’ 36 29.000 ksi (200,000 MPa). In the staighe-ine resin, long and unloading results i so permanent deformation: hence itis the elosic range. The service load unit stress in sel design is always intended w be safely below the ‘proportional limit, even though in ordre ascertain safety Fciors agaist failure or excessive delormation. knowledge Is required of abe stress-strain behavior up to a Strain about £5 t9 20 times the maximum elastic sain, For steels exhibiting yield points, as curves (a) and (b) of Fig. 2.41, the long. plateau for which essetially constant sres exists is known as he plastic range. The Tod and resistance factor design method consciously uses this range. The higher strength sels typified hy curve ca Fig, 24.{ also have a tepion that might be called the plastic range: however, in tis Zone the stress is continuously increasing (instead of remalning constant) as strain creases. For lack of having a region of constant stress with increasing strain, the sels wlose yield stress exceeds 65 ksi are a0 ‘permitted to be used for plastic analysis (LRFD-AS.\ and ASD-N2), Plastic analysis (reated in Chaps. 7 and 10) relies onthe ability of sel to deze strain) at constant For stains greater than 15 1 20 times the maximum elastic strain, the sess agsin increases but with a much fatter slope than dhe original clastic lope. This increase in ssength is calle strain hardening, which continues up 9 the tensile siength. The slope of the stress-strain curve is known a5 the strsin-hardening mod ‘les, E,. Average values fortis tdulus and the strain , a which i begins have been Setermined [2.26] for evo steels: A36 steel, ,, = 900 ksi (6200 MPa) at, = (0.014 in. per in: and for A441, E, = 700 ksi (4800 MPa) at, = 0.021 in, pe i. ‘The strain-hardening range is not coasciously used in desips, but certain of the bckling limitations are conservatively derived to preclude buckling even at stains well beyond onset of strain hardening. ‘The stress-strain curve also indicates the dtilty. Ductlity is defined as the amount of permanent strain (1e. strain exceeding proportional limit) upto the point Of fracture. Measuremen of ductility is obtained from the tension test by determining the percent elongation (comparing final and original lengths over a specified gage Uistance) of the specimen. Duetlity is important because it permits yielding locally Adu to high stesso and thus allows the stress cstibution to change, Design proce- ‘dures based on inelastic behavior require large inherent ducsility, pariculaiy for treatment of stresaes near holes or abropt chase in member shape, as well as for design of connections. 2.5 MATERIAL TOUGHNESS “The use of steels having higher strength than A36 without beat treatment has rested in problems relating Tack of ductility and materish facture (2.28) at east the use of ‘sch stocls requlfes the structural engineer tbe more enscious of material behavior In strtural steal design, toughness @ measure of the ability of steel to resist fracture: ie to absorb energy. Accordiag to Rolfe [2.27], material toughness is defined as “the resistance 1 unstable crack propagation in the presence ofa notch.”52 CHAPTER. STEELS AND PROPERTIES Unstable crack propagation produces bs growth ofa subertcal crack trom fatigue For unas tension, roughness can be expresed as the toa area under the stces-sirain curve cut 1 the facture point where the diagram terminates. Since Uniasal tension early exists in real stctures, a more useful index of toughness is tase on the more complex stress condition a the rot of a note. Notch roughness i the measure of the resstance of a metal 0 the stat and propagation ofa crack atthe hase ofa standard notch, commonly using the Charpy notch tet, Ths test uses a small rectangular simply sepported beam having a ‘V-notch at midlenath, The bar is factured by alow fom a swinging pendulum, The amount of energy absorbed is calculated from the height the pendulum ruses alter breaking te specimen. The amount of energy absorbed will increase with increasing temperature at which the tests conducted, "Though the Charpy V-notch fest has been a common means of determining notch toughness, other Fracture criteria and more revenly fracture mechanics have been used (2.27) Barsom and Rolfe [2.29] and Barsom [2,30, 2.31 Jhave excellently presented the important factors relating wo fracture of see. Figure 2.5.1 shows the typical relationship between temperature and toughness, tnd also shows the transition Irom dict o bitte behavior. such as one may obtain from the Charpy V-notch test. The temperature atthe point where be slope is seepest (point A of Fig 2.5.1) ithe transition femperstore, Since beitleness and ductility are ‘qualitative terms, the varius structural steele have differen requirements for ductility ft various temperatures depending on their service environment (leading. tempera ture, stess and strain levels, loading fate, and number of lad repetitions) For example, a moderate amount of ductility may be required for ordinary structures where very low lemperatures ae not expected: in sach cases, 15 feb has tle froeture, as apposed 0 stable creck of Seesgey ee ® ae Nim Figure 25.1 Transition temperature curve for carbon see! obnined from Charpy ‘V-notch mo tess. dap rom Re. 220)26 VeLD STRENGTH FOR MULTIXAL STATES OF STRESS 59 commonly been the enemy absorption required. The corresponding temperature jebiained from the test resus shown in Fig. 25.1 would be abou {7"F The temper tue at which marked deetease in slope begins to occur is known as the diclity transition tenperatare, This would indicate tha the material may Be expected to be brite when service temperatures ae below 17°F. 2.6 YIELD STRENGTH FOR MULTIAXIAL STATES OF STRESS Only when the load-carrying member is subject 10 niaxial tensile stress ca the properties from the tension est be expected to be identical with those of the structural member. Icis easy 0 forget that yielding in 9 real srucure is usually nor the well- defined behavior observed in the tension test. Yielding #8 commonly assumed to be achieved when any one component of sires reaches the eslawal valve F, For all states of stress ther than naa, «definition of yieking is needed, ‘These definitions, and there are frequently several fora given state of sires, are alle Yield conditions (or theories of failure) and are equations of interaction between the Stresses acting. Energy-of-Distortion (Huber-von Mises-Hencky) Yield Criterion ‘Tis most conmonly accepted theory gives the wail yield stress in terms of the thee principl sttesies, The yelderterion® may be sated ia, ~ 9: ad + o)') e6) where 0, 04 are te tensile or compressive stresses that sc inthe thre principal directions. the sesses that atin the three mutually perpendicular plans of 210 shear, and 0, is the “yield stress" that may be compared withthe uniaxial valve F For most structural design stations, one ofthe principal sess i either zero ‘or small enough be neglected: hence Ea. 26-1 reduces tothe following forthe case ofthe plane sess Gl sresses considered ace acting in» plane) 262) ‘When stresses on tin lates are involved, the principal stress acting transverse © the Plane of the plate is usually zeto (atleast first-order approximation) Flexural Stresses on beams assume Zero principal sess perpendicular tothe plane of bending Furthermore, structural shapes Fig 1.5.1) are comprised of thin plate elements, so ‘that cach i subject to Eg. 2.6.2, The plane sess yield erterion, Fg, 26.2, i the one ‘sed throughout the remaining chapters where needed, ai illustrated in Fig. 2.6.1 See Ath Boe. Richard J. Schmit and Omar Mido, Advanced Mecanes of Mori ve New Nore Don ey & Sos ne. 195: p. 38138,5 CHAPTER? STEELS AND PROPERTIES t -.—-D—-# t igure 26. Energy-c-dstorton yi criterion for plane ares ‘Shear Yield Stress “The yc point for pureshear can be determine from astess-stran cure wit shear loading, or if the malta yield esteron ic known, that relationship con be used. Pure sear occurs on 45" panes tthe principal planes when; ~ 0; andthe shear sures 7 = 0, Substation of; = —o io Eq. 262 ves o} = at + 03 — of-a) = 307 263) = oJNG = shear yield 264) hich nites thatthe yee conton for shear ses ating alone is a,/V3 = 0580, 265) Poisson's Ratio, 42 ‘When tess i applied in one direction, strains are induced not only i the direction cof applied siress but also in the other two mutually perpendicular directions. The usual ‘value of jase is that obtained from the uniaxial sess condition, where itis the ratio ofthetransverse strain longitudinal stain under load, For structral sees, Poisson's ratio is approximately 0.3 in the elastic ange where the material is compressible27 HIGH TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOR 55 ‘and approaches 05 when in the plastic range where the atrial is esseatially incom- pressible (ie. coxstant resistance no matter what the strain), ‘Shear Modulus of Elasticity Loading in pure shar produces stress-strain curve with straight line portion whose slope represents the shear modulus of elasticity If Poissons ratio and the tension- compression miodalus of elasticity are known, the shoar modulus Gis defined bythe theory of elasticity as * 2, On oe hich for srictral sels stoner 1,000 ks (78.800 MP. 2.7 HIGH TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOR “The design of suuctres to serve under atmosphere temperature rarely involves concer abot hightemperature behavior. Knowle of ck behavior i desabie when specifying Welding procedures, ane iS necessary when concerned with the fost of fe ‘Whon temperatures exceed about 200°F (93°C), the stress-sraincurve bein ‘become nonlinear gradually eliminating the well-defined yield point The modulus of ‘elasticity, yield strength, and tensile trenath all reduce a temperature increases. The ange from 800 1 LOKFF (430 to SA0°C) i where the rate of decrease is maximum, ‘While each steel, because ofits different chemistry and microstructure, behaves somewhat differetly, the general relationships are shown in Fig. 2.7.1. Ste's having relatively high percentages carbon, such as A36, exhibit “strain aging” inthe range 300 0 700°F (150 to 370°C). Ths s evidenced by a relative rise in yield strength and tensile strength is that range. Tensile strength may rise to about 10% above that st oom temperature and yield stength may recover abou its room temperature valve ‘when the temperature resches $00 10 600°F (260 ro 320°C), Stain aging results in eereased ductility, “The modulus of elasticity decreas is moderate up to 1000°F (540°C); thereafter 1 decreases rapidly. More importantly, at temperatures above about 500 to 600°F (250 to 320°, steels exhibit defarmetion which incteases with increasing time under Jad, a phenomenon kaaun as creep. Creep is wel known in concrete structures; and its effect in steel, which does not occur at atmospheric temperatures, increases with increasing temperature ‘Other high temperature effects are (a) improved notch impact resistance up 10 about 150 10 200°F (65 10 95°C), as discussed in Se. 2.5; (byincreased britleness due ‘to metallrpical changes, such as carbide precipitation discused in Set. 2.1, beg to ‘occur at about 950°F (510°C); and (€) corrosion resistance of structural ste in- ‘ereases for temperatures up fo about 1000" (540°C), Most stels are used in applica tions below 1000°P, and some heat treated steels should be Kept below about 800°F 300).5 CHMPTER 2 STEELS AND PROPESTIES Rant ese I i Figure 27. Typlol eects of high temperature on sts ftrin car properties af stucturl steels. (Adapted from Ret. 226)28 COLO WORK AND STRAINHARCENNG 87 2.8 COLD WORK AND STRAIN HARDENING Alter the strain ¢, = F./E, at frst yield has been exceeded appreciably: and the Specimen is unloaded, reloading may’ give a stress-strain relationship difeing from that observed during tbe inital loading. Elastic loading and unleading tests ia 20 Id point, suchas © poinc A of residual strain: however, inl loading beyond the » ing toa ain at point B.A permanent st OB has occurred Fig, 2.8.1, results in umlo ‘The ductility capacity has been cedaced fom a stain OF tothe srain BF. Reloading exhibits behavior as ifthe sres-strain origin were at point B: the plastic zone prior to strain hardening s also reduced. When loading has occurred until point C is reached, unloading follows the dashed line to point Die, the erigin fora new loading ts now point D. The length of the Tine CD is greater, indicating that the yield point has increased. The increased yield point is referred to asa strain hardening effect; the ductility temaining when ‘rom point D is severely reduced from its original value prior w the initat doa loading. The processof loading beyond the elastic range to cause a change in available phetic temperature, is known 38 cold work, Since real ly. when done ata ‘Sructufes are not loaded in uraxial tension-compeession, the cold work effect is ut ‘much more complex, and any theoretical stdy ofits outside the scope of the text ‘When stroctaral shapes are made by esldorming from plates at atmospheric temperature, inelastic deformations oceur at the hes, Cold working ino the stain hardening range at the bend locations increases the yield strength, which design | see a i elasonstip 5 sung ly pat jE ott et of veo Figure 28:1 Eset of string beyond the elas ange,58 Figure 282 Etet of srsin aging ater sessing into steao-hardesing rate and unleadig. specifications may permit taking ito account. The Specifcaion forthe Design of Cold-Formed Stee! Structural Menbers* [1-11 bas such provisions. Upon wnloading and ater 3 period of time, the steel will have acquired different properties from those represeates by points D, C, and F of Fig. 28.1 by a phe- hhomenon known as strain eging. Stain aging, as shown in Fig. 28.2 produces an {addtional inereae in yield point, restores aplastic zone of constant sires, and gives ‘new sirain hardening 7006 at an elevted stress. The original shape ofthe siress= ‘rain diagram is resor:d, bur the ductility is reduced, The new stress-strain diagram ray be uted as if it were the original for analyzing cold-formed sections, as long as the ductility that remains i sufficient. The corner regions of colé-frmed shapes ‘generally would not require high ductility for rotational strain about the axs of the bend. ‘stress relieving by annesling will eliminate the effects of cold work shoul that be desired, Annealing involves heating to a temperature above transformation range and allowing slow cooling; a recrystallization occurs to restore the orignal properties. BBittence [232] provides an excellent summary ofthe bases of heat eating. 2.9 BRITTLE FRACTURE ‘As has been discussed in several sections, te! that i ordinarily ductile ean become brittle under various conditions. ‘Barsom [2 30, 2.31], Barsom and Rolfe [2.29], and Rolfe [2.27] hve provided an excelent summary of fracture and fatigue control for stractual engineers. Rolfe Reeron hancfrth a he AISI Spin28 GRITTLE FRACTURE 59 [2.27] defines dvr fracture as “a type of catastrophic flare that scours without Prior plastic deformation and at extremely high speeds.” Fracture behavior is afected by temperature, loading rate, sess level, flaw size, pate thickness or constraint, jth seometry, and workmanship, Effect of Temperature [Notch toughness, 35 determined the Charpy’impact energy vs temperature curves Gee See, 2.5), is an indication of the susceptibility to brite facture, Temperature is vital ctor in several ways: (athe value below whic notch toughness is inadequate: () the 600 to 800°F (320 to 430°C) range causes formatin of bite rnicrstrecture and (6) over 1000°F (540°C) causes precipitation of carbides of slaying elements to sive more brite mucrostrcture. The othe temperature factors have already been tiscused in earlier sections Effect of Multiaxiat Stress: ‘The complex stress condition found in usual structures, particulasly at joints, is nother major factor affecting brtleness. The Primer on Britle Fracture [2.33] has provided an excellent rational presentation of this and forms the basis for what follows. The engineering stress-strain curve i for uniaxial stess; prior to fracture s ‘necking down occurs a shown in Fig. 2.912 If biaxial lateral loading as shown in Fig. 29.1b could be appliod, plastic necking down could be suppressed to the point where the bar would break in 4 brite maaner withoot elongation and without redve tion in area. The fractute stress based on the unreduced cross-sectional rea-sntld be the same high value as that based on the necked-down eross section jn the uniaxiat tension case, Te unit stress would be far above the nominal maximuru tensile strength, \ | Tiana (aah ae) Figure 2.9. Uniawil and wisi! loading60 CHAPTER? STEELS AND PROPERTIES of the engincering stss-sain cur, which is slvays computed on the bass of bigina eros section ‘Aso the effects of notches have been alluded to inthe discussion of noxch toughness in See. 25, The notch serves somewhat the same purpose as the theoretical triaxial loading of Fig. 29.1b, in that it restais plastic Now which otherwise would ‘occur ad thus at Some higher stress may likly fll n a britde mannet. Fgute 2.9.2 shows te lft of nash na tense test specimen. The cros-sectiona area the base ‘oF the notch corresponds to the area of the original spocimen of Fig. 29.1b. The reduced section tres to Become narrower asthe arial tension increases, bu is resisted. by the diagonal pull thar develops in che corners, as shown in Fig. 2.92. The test bar Wal a igs stress by bite fracture "Notches can occur in eal structures by use of unflleted corners indesign or from improperly made welds that may cfack. Such occurrences can lead to britenes Notches and cracked welds can, however, be minimized By good design and welding procedures ‘Unsial configurations and changes in section should be made gradually so the siress flow lines are not required to make abcupt changes. Whenever the complexity is such as to give rise wo threeimensional sess, the tendency for brittleness increases. Castings fr instance, hae the reputation for britleness. Primarily this is Ihecase ofthe uilein ehree-dmensional continuity. ‘Multiaxial Stress Induced by Welding In general, welding creates builtin resteain that gives rise to biaxial and triaxial stress and strain conditions, which reslt in brittle behavior. To illustrate, consider the Toaded simply supported beam of Fig, 2.9.3, which in tun supportsa plate in tension. Due to flexure, the botom flange of the beam isin tension therefore, the stress a point ais uniaxial tension (neglecting the small effects of beam width and attachment fof Mange wo web). Connecting the tension plate with angles and bots puts the flange bolts estentally in eniaual tension, pts the bolt which passes through the suspender plate in shear, and distorts the horizontal legs of the angles in bending: so that there t TTr re 29.2 Esc of notch on uniaxial tension vst29 BRITTLE FRACTURE 61 a I met tu htt | Figure 29.3. Comparison of ses condition in boted and welded jas is no appreciable effet on the sess at point A, In ther words the tres conditions i the connection of Fig. 2.0.34 ate approximately uniaxial in nature "Next, consider she tensile suspender plate welded 0 the tension Nange of the ‘beam, a6 in Fig. 2.9.3b. The stress at point A is now biaxial because of the direct attachment othe Mange at that point. The wel region, therefore, is subject tian ‘tress biaxial from the directly applied load, pls the resistance deformation along the axis ofthe welds resulting from continyous attachment (Poisson's rato effec), “The design of welded joints should consider the possbilites of brittleness due to three-dimensional stcssng. The subject of lamellar fearing is treated in See. 210, Effect of Thickness {As diseased in Se. 2.6, thin plats may usually be asured io be in tate of plane Stress in which the tree dimensional sres effects may be ignored. This wot eneally whe cise fo ck plate clement for wich thre-dinensional stess con tributes to brilenes Bitenes inthe pates als increases de to the manufactat- ing process. The sler cooling rate produces 9 coarser nicosructure, and. hight carbon comet fe rquied to aehove te strength stherwise obtained Bj hot working inthin plas “The ver thick rolled Weshapes (ASTM AS/AGM (1.8), Groups 4 and 5s, the so-called "jambo shapes” exhib face tooghaess athe core ofthe thick Age wo veb intion andthe center of te web aacent to t(224}, This ow fectare toughness may cause bile allure when these beavy Weshapes ae sed Tension tember For ths reason ie use is inesided only for compression members (2.38) "When ASTM AG/AOM, Groups 4 and 3 tolled shapes are 10 be "ed as members sje primary tale stresses det tesion o Hse, toughness ned tot be specied if spies are made by bolting. I atch members are speed Using62 CHAPTER? STEELS AND PROPEAT TABLE291 THE ELEMENT OF ASK: FACTORS TO ANALYZE IN GSHMATING SERIOUSNESS OF BAITTUE FRACTURE (ADAPTED FROM REP. 293), T Ware nium anripted erie peste? The ver the epee. he sete he ‘cep ees Be eion ees amohed” Beil fstrecun oct ny oder non of ene ste Howth the mas Tether vv ts pester the sees ile Face Ieiterestcediensioa coins! Tes imensona oma ging ie wma ‘Sats o ses ea wes teil ro ag and tees acepy bite ‘caches pein! The peesce sap moths incest sep wo eft 6 felony sped sa hah at? The higher the rae oan de gener ssp to le trace 7 ACIS tinggi ta ts ace cn or nis ising 8. ts wlng inne? We racks com at ene LES complete joint penetration welds, the see! shall be specified in dhe contract documents tobe supplied with Charpy V-Notch testing in acordance with ASTM A6, Supplemen- tary Requirement §5.” (LRED-A3.1¢) The Bettichem Steel Technical Bulletin, Use af Heany Structaral Shapes in Tension Applicata [2.36] provides additional puidance BBven though jumbo sections were not originally intended for tension applications, designers use them in such stations. Effect of Dynamic Loading “The stress-strain properties referred t $0 far have been for Satie fouding slowly applied. More rapid loading, sich as that of forge dop-hammers, earthquake, oF huclea blast changes the stress-strain properties. Ordinal. the inreased strain rate from dynamie loading increases the Feld point, tensile strength, and ductility. AL bout 600°F (320°C) there will be a small decrease in strength. Some increased brittleness hes been noted with higk strain rate, but it seems principally associated ‘with other factors already discussed, such as notches where sre concentrations exist, land the temperature effect on toughness, The more important factor relating to dy- ‘mn load application is not thatacapidly ineveasing strain rate oceurs, Dut that iti combined with a rapidly deereasing strain rate, The effect of stress variation is discussed inthe section on fatigue "Table 2.9.1, fom Ref, 2.22, provides list of fects “to elp determine whether lornot the risk of bite fracture is serious and requires special design considerations.” 2.10 LAMELLAR TEARING “Lamellar tearing sa form of brite fracture occurring “in planes essentially parallel to the rolled surtace of aplate under high through thickness leading.” [2.37] Beeause Strains resulting from service Joads are well below e,, normal loads are not believed to initiate of propazat lamellar eas, and something else must be responsible. In &210 LANELLARTEAANG 6 hightycestrained welded joint “thruthckness” strains e are induced by weld metal shriskage. The loealized stains resulting from weld metal shrinkage, which can be several times lager than yield strain eae the source ofthe problem, “The subject of lamellar tearing has received considerable attention since the any 1970s, reslting in tendency’ for structural engineers @ aime lamellar tearing for maoy brite fractures. The AISC has provided an excellent summary of the Figure 2304, Detition of dirction erminaligy (From Ref. 238) © Figure 2.102 Joins showing pica lara tears resulting from skate (fA Welds thick matcal Under high restraint. (Pom Ref. 238)64 CHAPTER? STEELS AND PROPERTIES igure 210.3 Suscepuibity o lamellar ering can te redooed by ciel dealing of welded connections. (From Ret. 2.38) ‘Reenomenon [2.38]. Thornton [2.39] has provides design and supervision procedures to minimize lamella tearing. For more detailed treatment, the reader is referred to ‘Kaufinan, Pens and Stout [2.37] and Holby and Smith (2.40), ‘AS a result of the hot rollig operation in manufacture, steel sections have it ferent properties in the direction parallel to rlling (ee Fig. 2.10.1), in the trans verse direction, and inthe “thrw-thickness” direction. In the elastic range, both the tolling and transverse directions exhibit similar behevior, with the elastic iit for the transverse direction being only tightly below that for the rolling direction. The uetility (train capability) owever, in the “thnu-thickness” direction may be well ‘low that for the rolling dretion ‘Generally, L-shaped steel sections are adequately ductile when loaded either parallel or transverse to tke rolling diection. They will deform focally to strains ter than the yield stain (,/E.), carrying load with some of the materil acting at the yield stress and bringing adjacent material into participation if added strength is heeded. When, however the sin i localized for instance in the “thru-thickness direction at one thick fange of « section, a restrained situation exists because the ‘Strain cannot redistribute from the ange through the web to the opposite flange. The217 FATIGUE STRENGTH 65 large localized “thrusthickness” strain may exceed the yield point st causing decobesion and leading toa lamellar eat Figure 2,102 shows conditions thar promote lamellar tearing in welded joins {nterna! joint restraint that inhibits large strains eresuitng from weld shrinkage can potentially cause Tamellar tearing. Figure 2.10.3 indicates weld shrinkage in the hrushickness” direction, increasing susceptibility 10 lamellar tearing. The Weld etal shonld be made soch that weld shrinkage ocedrs in the rolling destin so that the shrinkage pulls onthe bers longitudinally im thei strongest orientation, Refer- ences 2.38 ane 2.41 suggest ways of avoiding the prodtem, 2.11 FATIGUE STRENGTH Repeated loading and unloading. primarily in tension, may eventually resin faire even if the yield stress is never exceeded. The term farique means failure under cyclic loading. [is a progresive flue, the fal stage of which is unstable crack propagae tion. The fatigue siength is governed by thee variables (1) the numberof eycles of loading, (2) the range of service lnad stress difference benween the maximum and tinrmum stress) and (3) the initial size ofa las, A law is discontinuity, sachs tn extemely small exack In Welded assemblics, Maw could be the “notch intersection of two elements ‘ora “discontinuity” such asa bot hoe, Flaws may be the rest f poorly made weds, ‘ough edges esling fom shearing, punching, or fame cutag.o smal les, Such faws may be of no concern; however, unr many eyes of loudng the flew (noch effect) may give rise to a rack that increases in length with each eycle of lod and Fedces the section carrying the ad, consequently increasing the stress intensity on the uncracked par, Te fatigue strength is more dependent onthe loclied stat of stress than i Ue static strength. Fatigue is always a service load corsieration the cual sctvce load state of stess is what determines crack propagation. "The grade of steel has no apparent alec on the number feces to fire and te effect of minimum stress attributable to dead load) is considered to be nealigible fordesign purposes. On the otherhand, the specimen geometry, including the surface condition and interne! soundness ofthe weld have a significant effet. These fctrs fare reflected in the Structural Welding Code (2.25] aes for welded strctre design. ‘Work by Zaraski and Johnson [2.42] evaluating the remaining life in see! bridges has shown that unde certain Condition repeated sessing in steel sections can actually increase ie fatigue lif. The phenomenon, known ah coasting, was st Studied by Sinclair [2.43] and results from repeatedly stressing near, but below, the fatigue limit and gradoaliy increasing the sess ‘The AISC Specifications (1.5. 116] in LRED-App. K3 and ASD-App. Ka preserbe no fatigue effet for fer than 20.000 cycles, which approximately two {applications a day fr 25 years. Since mos loadings in buikings are in tat category. fatigue is generally not considered. The exceptions are crane-runway girders and stroctures supporting machinery. Fatigue is alays considered inte design of highsay bridges, which are expected to have in exces of 100,000 cycles of lading66 CHAPTER® STEELSAND PROPERTIES Bohs lo Figure 212.1. Comparative cososion of esi aa ‘ndusrial atmosphere. Shaded aes ndieate range for individual specimens. Adapted rom Ref. 245) ‘Volume {ofthe Weng Handboo (223, p42] shows several god exersples ofthe faiaue relationships for weet pats gndts and cove pated beans Exel tiseusion of fugue is given by Barsom and Rolf (2.23), 2.12 CORROSION RESISTANCE AND WEATHERING STEELS Since the earliest uses of ste, one ofthe important drawbacks was that painting was required to prevent the deterioration ofthe etal by corrosion (rusting). The lower- strength carbon steels were inexpensive but very vulnerable to corrosion. Coreosion resistance may be improved by the addition of copper as an alloy element, However, copper-bearing carbon steel I 00 expeasive for general use. High:strengt low-alloy steels have several anes [2.45] the corrosion resistance of structural carbon steel, with er without the addition of copper, as shown in Fig, 2.12.1, The high-strength low-alloy stels do net pitas severely as carbon steels {nd the rus that forms becomes 2 protective coating preven further deterioration, ‘With certain alloy elements the high-strength low-alloy stel will develop an oxide protective coating that i pleasing in appearance and is cesribed as follows": “Itis 8 very dense corrosion—actually a deeply colored brows, red, purple... It has & texture and color which cannot be reprodoeed atifcially—a character only’ nature can give, as with stone, marble, and granite.” When steels vet be unpainted aad lett exposed they are called weathering steels. 'As might be expected, the corrosion properties of ary Sel, including the ‘weathering steels, are dependent oa the chemical Composition, the degree of polation inthe atmosphere, and the frequeney of wetting and drying ofthe see Since its frst major use in 1958, forthe Administrative Cener for Deere & Company in Moline, Iinois, the use of weathering steel has received considerable Shrchectara Reco, Ags 198SELECTED AEFERENGES 67 tention. At fst such steels were specified under ASTM A242, which as previously fiscussed is very general, allowing & wide vatacion in chemist. With the adoption of ASSS steel in 1969, and A709 in 1975, A242 is now cesentially obsolete: A385 is generally used for weathering ste) in buildings and ‘A709 Grades SOW and 1OOW for weathering Stel in bridges (ee Table 21.2). Fabrication and erection of weathering ste! requites care. Unsightly gouges, scratches. and dents should be avoided. Painting. even for ideniiation, should be ‘minimized, since all marks most he removed ae the erection s completed. Scale ond discoloration from welding also must be removed. The extra expense resulieg from fabrication and erection is offset by the elimination of painting at intervals during the life ofthe srvcture “The practice of using weathering steals, including the results of 30 years expe ‘ence, has been summarized by Coburn [2.4 who presents the following “res 1. For optimum performance in the unpuited condition, the structure should be boldly exposed tothe elements, 2, The development ofthe protective oxide film is best achieved under normal ‘expoaire, wherein the surfaces are wet at night by dew formation and dry ‘ring daylight hours, 3. Because this wet-dry cycle cannot occur when the steel, regardles of is _rade, is buried inthe sol or immersed in water, the prowctive oxide will not form and the performance will resemble that of mild carben ste! exposed to the same conditions SELECTED REFERENCES 2.1, ASTM. Standard Specification for Structural Stel (A36/A36M-94), Pita pia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1994. 22. ASTM. Standard Specification for Pipe, Stee, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zine Coated Welded and Seamless (453-952). Philadelphia, PA: American Society {for Testing and Materials, 1993. 2.3, ASTM, Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel (A242/A242M93)- Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing ane Mate Fal, 195, 24. ASTM. Standard Specification for Carbon Stee! Bols and Studs, 60 000 psi Tensile Srengrh (4307-922), Philadelphia, PA: Amveican Society for Testing and Materials, 1992, 25. ASIM. Standard Specification for Structural Bolis, Steel, Heat Treated, 120/105 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength (A325)A325M-92a). Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992 2.6. ASTM. Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Soractural Man- _ganese Vanadium Stee! (A481-85), Philadelphia, PA: American Society for “Testing and Maral, 1985, 2.7. ASTM. Standard Specifation for Quenched and Tempered Stet Bots and ‘Studs (449-920, Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Mater als, 199268 28. ASTM, Standart Specification for Heat-Teate Spel Stevcrurad Bois, 150 ksi Minar Tensile Siregtit (8490-82 also Specification for High Serengrh Steel Bolts, Classes 10.9 and 10.93, for Steuaural Steel Joints [Metric] (As90M-92), Philadelphia. PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992, 29, ASTM. Standard Specification for Cold-Formed Welded and Seamless Carbo ‘Stee! Structural Tubing in Rownds and Shapes ($0093). Philadelphia, PA: [American Society for Testing and Materials, 1993 2.10. ASTM. Standard Specifcarion for Hot-Formed Welded and Seamless Carbon ‘Steel Structural Tubing (ASOL-93), Philadelphia PA: American Society for Test ing and Materials, 1993. DAL ASTM. Standard Specification for High-Yield Soength Quenched and Tem: ered Allov Stee! Plate, Suiabie for Welding (ASIS/AS14M-93a). Philadel ‘hia, PA: American Sociewy for Testing and Materials, 1993, 212, ASTM. Standard Specicaion for High-Sirengh Carbon-Mangonese Steel of Siructura! Quaity (AS20/4329N94, Philadelphia, PA: American Scciety for Testing and Materials, 1994, 23, ASTM. Standard Specification for Sie, Sheet an? Strip, Carbon, Hot Rolled, Sirucrural Quairy (A50-88). Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1988, 2M. ASTM. Standart Specifcarion for High-Strengh Low-Alloy Colombian Vanadivon Stes of Structural Quality (AST2IASTM-94b), Philadelphia, PA ‘American Society for Testing and Materials, 1994 2S. ASTM. Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel vith 50 ksi {345 MPo) Minimum Yield Point 0. in. [100 mm} Thick (ASS8/AS88M-94). Philadephia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materi- als, 1994, 2.16. ASTM. Standard Specification for Stee, Sheet and Srp, High-Strength LowAl- loy, Hor-Rolled and Cold-Rolled, wie Improved Amaspkeric Corrosion Resi ‘ance (A696-512). Philadephia, PA: Anjrican Sasety for Testing and Materi- als, 1991, 2.17. ASTM. Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet and Strip, High-Strength, Low-Alloy, Colunbium or Vanadium, or Both, Hot-Rolled and Cold-Rolled (A607-92a). Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992, 2.18, ASTM. Specification for Seeh, Sheet, Carbon, Colé-Rolled, Structural Quality (A611-94), Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1984, 2.19, ASTM, Standard Specification for Hot-Formed Welded and Seamless High Sivengih Low Alloy Structural Fubing (N618-92). Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992 2.20. ASTM, Standard Spectfation for Sructural Steelfor Bridges (A709/A700M- 943) Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Tesing and Materials, 1994, 2.21, ASTM. Standard Specification for Steel Sheet and Sirip. High-Strength, Low- Alloy, Hot-Rolled, and Stel Sheet, Cold-Rolled, High Strength, Low-Alloy with Improved Formabilty(AT15-91), Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Tesing and Materials, 1981SELECTED REFERENCES 69 ASTM, Standard Specification for Quenched and Tempered Lewsttoy Struc ‘ural Stel Plove ith 70 ksi [483 MPo} Mintauon Yelr Sonat oi {109 mun} Thick (A852/A852M-93), Philadlphis. PA: American Society for “Testing and Materials. 1993, AWS. Welding Handbook, Shag, Vol 1, Welding Technologs, 1987. Vol 2 Welding Processes. 1981, Miami. FL: American Welding Society, 1987, 1991 (550 NW. Lekne Road. PO. Box 351040. Miami. FL 33135), Research Council on Structural Connections. Conmentar on Specifications Jor Serytural Joins Using ASTM 325 or A490 Bolis. Chicago: American Institute of Steel Consruction. June §, 1988, AWS. Sinucrural Welding Code—Stel, Thiteenth Edition, Efective Decem- ber 30, 1993 (ANSU/AWS DI.1-98). Miami, FL: American Welding Scie 1994, RL Brockenbrough and B. G. Johnston. Sie! Dest Manual. Pitsburgh, PA United States Steel Corporation, 1968. (Chap. 1), 227. S.T. Rolfe. “Fracture and Fatigue Control in Steel Structures,” Engineering Journal, AISC, 4, 1 (Ast Quarter 1977), 2-15. 228, K. A. Gaditey. J. “High Strength Stee: Crisis or NOP", Chil Engineering, May 1585, 50-53, John M, Batson and Stanley 7, Rolle. Fracture and Fatigue Control tn Steve “ures Applications of Fracture Mechanics, 2nd ed. Englewood Chil New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. tne, 1987 2.30, Join M, Barsom, "Material Considerations in Suuctural Stee! Design” Pro- ‘ceedings, National Enginering Conference & Conference of Operating Per= “sonnel. Chicago: American Insinge of Stee! Construction, April 29-May 2, 1987, 1-1 tough 1-15, 2.31. 4. M. Barsoin. "Merial Considerations in Stuctural Stel Design,” Eusineer Ing Journci, AISC, 24,3 (30d Quarter 1987), 127-139, 232, John C. Bittence. "The Basis of Heat Treating. What it Does- How it Works- ‘Where t Specify i." Machine Desig, January 24,1974, 106-111; February 7, 1974, 117-121 233. A Primer on Brtle Fracture, Bookiet 1960-A, Steel Desge Fle, Bethe ‘Steel Corporation, Bethlehem, PA. 2.34, John W. Fisher and Alan W.Pense, “Experenve with Use of Heavy W Shapes in Tension.” Engineering Journal, AISC, 24, 2 (2ra Quarter 1987), 63-77. 2.35. “The Use of Jumbo Shaper in Non-column Applications,” Engineering Jour. ral, AISC. 23, 3 ed Quarter 1986), 96 226, “Use of Hany Strictural Shapes in Tension Applicstions” Construction Mar- sting Technical Buller 7.312, Bethlehem Stel Corporation, Jone 1992. 237, E. 1 Kaufman, A. W. Bense, and R, D. Steat. “An Evaluation of Factors Significant Lamsellar Tearing, Welding Jounal, 60, March 1981, Research ‘Supplement, 435-496, 238. “Commentary on Highly Restrained Welded Connections." Engineering Jour nal, AISC. 10, 3 (3rd Quatter 1973), 61-72 239, Charles H. Thornton. “Quality Cons! in Design and Supervision Can Elimi- ate Lamellar Testing.” Exglicering Journal, AISC. 10,4 (4b Quarter 1973), 12-116,0 240, 2s. 2.46, Holby and J. F Smith. “Lamellar Tearing The Problem Noboy Seems t0 ‘ant Talk About.” Welding Journal, $9, February 1980, 374 “Causes and Prevention of Lamellar Tearing.” Civil Engineering, Api. 1982 1. PD. Zuraski and J. E. Johason, “Research on the Remaining Life in Steet Bridges,” Proceedings, ASCE Specalte Conference on Probabilistic Mechanies and Structural Reliability. Berkeley. CA: January 11~13, 1983, 414-418, GM. Sinclair. “An Investigation of the Coaxing Effect in Fatigue of Metals Proceedings, ASTM, 52 (1982), 743-758, Seymour Ceburn, “Theory and Practice in Use of Weathering Steel,” Proceed Ings, Nationat Engineering Conference & Conference of Operating Personne. ‘Chicago: Ameriean Instiue of Steel Construction, pil 29- May 2, 1987, 14-1 through 14-25, €.P. Larrabes. “Corrosion Resistance of High-Strength Low-Alloy Stes 38 Influenced by Composition and Environment.” Corrasion, 9, August 1953, 59-271 ASTM. Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Steel Shapes of Structural Quality, Produced by Quenching and Self Tempering Process (QST) (4913/A013M-93), Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Mater als, 1993,Chapter 3 ~ Tension Members 3.1 INTRODUCTION ‘Tension members are encountered in most stel structures. They occur as principal structural members in towers and wind braci sms in multistried buildings. Th 'e rods to stiffen a trussed floor system ort provide intermediate support fora wall Birt sytem, Tension members may consist ofa single structural shape or they may be built up from a number of structural shapes. The erass-sections of some Iypica tension members are shown in Fig. 3,11 4 9 aa L JL r { 1 It igure 31.1 Cross-section of typical ension members7 SOE \ Structural sol fam a nermaate Hoe Rel, This eel suspended rom roo space rs with emsnn rs Pho by © Sala) 3.2 NOMINAL STRENGTH ‘The strength of a tension member may be described in tems ofthe “limit states” that ‘govern, The controll strength lit state for tension member wil be one of the Following: (a) yielding of cross-section ofthe member aus from the con- rection, (b) fractir of the efectve net area. through the holes) athe connection Luar 1 bot holes atthe connection, Whe: 1 yielding ofthe gross section over the member Jengttyptio by ate er without Holes (he. with welded e>anection), the nominal strength 7, may be expressed = FA, G21) where F, = yield stress A, = gross cross-sectional area For tension members having hoes, such for bolts, the reduced cross-section is referred tous the ner area. Hols in a member cause stress concentrations at service foad as. for example shown in Fig. 3.2.la, Tory of elasticity shows that tensile stress adjacent to a hole will be about three times the average stress on the net area. However, as each fiber reaches yield strain e, = F/B. its sess then becomes & ‘constant F. with deformation continuing with inceasing load uni nally all fibers have achieved or execeded the strain , (Pig. 3.2.16),Figure 32.1 Sie dsebuton ith oles present ‘When the limit state is a loalized yielding resulting in fracture through the effective net area of & tension member bavng holes, the nominal strength, may be expresed 622) where F, = speciied minimum tensile strength (se Fig. 2.1.1) AA = effective net area = UA, (ee Secs. 3 and 3.5) A, = net ares 1 ~ reduction coefficient (an efficiency factor) Because of srain hordening, thats, the ris in resistance when the fensite strain ‘becomes large (See. 2), the actual stegth of a ductile member may exceed that indicated by Eq, 32.1 [3:1], However, the lage elongavons resulting from yielding fof the member along is entre length may cause the member ends to move unaceept- ‘bly far apart and distress the structure thus, the member po longer serves itsintended purpose Fither unrestrained yielding or facture through reduced section at hoes may Timit the structural usefulness ofthe member. Traditionally. a higher margin of safety has been used in design when considering the facture mit state than forthe yielding Timi state. 3.3 NET AREA |Whenever a tension member i to be fastened by means of bolts or rivets. oles must the provided atthe connection, As a result, the member cross-sectional area at the connection is reduced and the strength of the member may also be reduced depending ‘on the size and location ofthe holes. ‘Several methods are used to cut holes. The most common and least expensive method isto punch standard holes in. (1.6 mm) larger than te diameter ofthe rivet ‘or bolt, In general, th plate thickness s less than the punch diameter. During the punching operation, the meta at the edge ofthe hole is damaged. This is secounted for in design by assuming that the extent of the damage i limited wo a radial distance fof rim. (0.8 mm) around the hole. Therefore the total width 1 be deducted (LRED. fd ASD-B2) is o be taken as the nominal dimension of the hole nocmal tothe Alirection of applied load pls in. 1.6 mm). For fasteners in standard holes, the tal ‘deduction is equal tothe fasener diameter pus in. (3.2 mm)7 CHAPTER TENSION MEMBERS A second method of eutting holes consists of subpunching ther in. (4:8 mm) diameter undersize and then reaming the holes tothe inshed size after the pieces being joined are asembed, This method is more expensive than that of punching Standard holes but does offer the advantage of accurate alignment, This method and the next method produce beter strength both sate and faigue, but his is ignored in design procedures. 1 third method consists of cling holes toa diameter of the bolt or river plus ‘$in. (0.8 men). This method is used to jin thick pieces. nd is the most expensive of the common methods. ‘When greater latitude is needed in meeting dimensional tolerances during ec: ‘oo, larger than stand oles canbe used with high strength bols in, diameter and reer without adversely affecting the performance. The maximum sies for oversized, short stored, and long-slotted holes ate specified in LRFD and ASD-J3.2. EXAMPLES What isthe net area A, forthe tension member shown ia Fig. 3.3.17 Figure 33.1 Tension meiner for Example 33.1 Solution. A, = 40.25) = 10.4%, Width wo be deducted for hole = 3 + {= Zin A, = Ac ~ (width for bole thickness of plat) 10 ~ 03875 (0.25) = 0.78 sq in, mm 3.4 EFFECT OF STAGGERED HOLES ON NET AREA ‘Whenever there is more than one hale and the Holes are not lined up transverse to the loading direction, more than one potential fallure line may exis. The controlling {ailure ine i that which gives the largest stress on an effective net are, Tn any eases, the critial failure path is also the path that has the minimarn neta In Fig. 34.1a the filre line is along the section A~B In Fig. 34. 1b showing wo lines of staggered holes, the failure line might be through one hole (ection A~B) or itmight be along a diagonal path, A~C. At first glance one might think section AB isertical since the path A-B is obviously sorter than path AC. However, from path A-B,only one hole would he deducted while two oles would have tbe deducted from + pth A-C: In order to determine the controling section, both paths A~B and A-C rust be investigated. Accurate checking of streagth along path A-C is complex. However, a simpliid empirical relationship proposed by Cachrane [3.2] has been aGa EFFECT OF STAGGERED HOLES ONNET AREA 75 igure 341 Paths of ilar on net secon, adopted by LRFD and ASD-B2 w secount fr the difference berween the path A~C fd the path AB, expressed asa length correction. te “where s isthe stagger, or spacing of adjacent oles parallel 10 the loading direction (ee Tig, 34.1), and the gage distance transverse tothe loading direction, Thus the net lengths of paths A~B and A~C would be Set eth of 8 feogth of (AB) ~ (ith ole + in) Net length of A-C = length of (A-8) ~ 2d of le + jgin) + 5 “The minimum net area would then be determined from the minimum net length ‘multiplied by the thickness ofthe plate fn the yeas since Cochrane proposed the simple s?/4 expression, many inves tigators have proposed other rules [33~3.6] but none of them gives significantly better results, and al are more complicated, ‘Consistent with the general tzend toward using strength-related design ap- proaches the work of Bijlaard [3.7] and others [3.83.10] has provided limit analysts {hsories to obtain net area in tension. These theories do not deviate from the 5/4 method by more than 10 to 15 percent. "The reader is referred to MeGuite [3.11] fora more compete coverage ofthis subject of act section trough staggered lines of fasteners. [BXAMPLE 44) ———————_—_$<_$_$_$_$_______ Determine the minimum net area of the plate shown in Fig, 3.4.2, assuming iar hols are located as shown. “Solution. According to LRFD and ASD-B2, the width used in deducting for holes isthe hole diameter plus jr in. and the staggered length correction is fA, Pith AD (10 holes) [e-2l+76 CHAPTERS TENSION MEMBERS igre 342 Fuimpie 4 Path ABD (she oles 109 stage) 11), sr | e228) | ~ opt a5) + San + ar Path ABC (res hoe; so sugges) 3 a(S, 1) , Gunsy , (75 [ie a(i ge) Sr + SF Jo2s = 2.42 gin (oniols) mm Angles When holes are staggered on two legs of a angle che gage length g for use in the $°/4g expression is ebtained by using a length between the centers of the holes measured along the centerine of the angle thickness, Le. the distance AB in Fig. 3.4.3. Thus the gage distance g is beecbeetent ean ane ‘stage Gotete Figure3A3 Gage dimensions fran angle134 EFFECT OF STAGGERED HOLES ON NET AREA 77 TABLES.41, USUALGAGES' FOR ANGLES, INCHES FROM AISC MANUAL t4 LAN Mae 8h 7 209 Every rolled angle has a standard value for the lation of holes (i.e. gage stances g, and g.. depending onthe length of the leg and the numberof lines of hols. Table 34.1 shows usual gages for angks as ised in the AISC Manual. EXAMPLE 342 Determine the net area 4, for se angle given in Fig. 3.4.4 sed diam holes are Solution. For net area calculation the angle may be visualized as being Battened into a plate as shown in Fig. 3.4.5: An Ay~ SEE ‘where D is the width tobe deducted forthe Hole Path AC: 1s ies 16 as ~ (3 25 sain. Path ABC: 1s or oss * Lies Since the smallest 4 is 3.7559 in. that salue governs OF se i fos = 3960 in SCRPD Menno (18) p9-13¢A8D Bema LT) 1-8278 CHAPTERS TENSION MEMBERS. ep atnetnen ae wre 344 Example 3.4.2, Figure 34.8. Angle fr Example 3.42 with lege shown "atened” ato one plane 3.5 EFFECTIVE NET AREA ‘The net ares as computed in Secs. 3.3 and 3.4 gives the reduced section that resists: tension but still may aot correctly reRet the stength. That i particulary true when the tension member has profile consisting of elements notin a common plane and where te tensile lad is transmitted a the end f the member by connection Wo some but aot all ofthe elements. An angle section havirg connection to one leg only is an ‘example of such a situation, For such eases the lemsile force is not uniformly dis Iibuted over the net ares. LLRED and ASD-B3 provide t where U = reduction coeficient A, = nev aea, ‘The above equation logically applies for both fastener connections having holes and for welded connections. For welded connections, the net area equals the gross area A, sine there are no bok. ‘When tensile oadis applied eccentically toa wide plate, the stress distribution cross the width of the plate #8 nonuniform, The mechanism by which stress gts transmitted from the location of the applied load m sections distant from the load i by shear stresses acting in the plane of the plate. The fact thatthe ses is lower the farther the location i from the applied load meansthat the shear transfer “lags” ors infin i he nny of arene sorte ene fd sections when a tensile load is applied nonuniform, is refered to as "she or Bolted of riveted connetions, the cedetion eoefcet U tlates 10 the coceniricity¥ af leading in the connection, Whenever tension is transmitted through some but not all ofthe cross-sectional elements, LRFD-B3.2 indicates the flowing shall be used, u=1-isos 652)95 EFRECTIVENET AREA 78 where ¥ = distance finm centroid of clement being connected eccentically © pine of foad transfer (See Fig. 3.5.1 and also LRFD Commentary Figs. C-B3.1 and C-B3.2 for added guidance tg determine ¥) length of connection in the direction of loading Equation 3.5.2 is based onthe work of Munse and Chesson 3 9Jané correlates within 10% of tests [3.1]. A review of shear Zap research for both bolted and welded Connections, along with design recommendations, is provided by Easting and Giroux [3.13], In addition @ the reduction in strength because of shear lag, the efficiency of the fasteners is reduced in long (in the load direetion) connections, a tiscussed in Chapter 4, where detailed treatient of bolted tension members occurs, ‘The approximate values of U used prior to the 1983 LED Specification) for bolted and riveted connections to T-shaped sections, channels, and angles, are sill considered acceptable, acconding to LRFD Commentary B3, Por shire tension members (connecting elements), such as splice and gusset, plates, where the elements of the cross-section lie essentially ina common plane, the effective net area is taken equal to A, Dut tay no exceed 85% ofthe Bross area 4, Genet ae B Figure 35.1 Eccetrity in joints: determination of F for computing Ug. 38.2.80 CHAPTER.@ TENSION MEMBERS (LRFD-35.2.band ASD-B3), Tess [5] hue shown that when any hols are prevent ‘in such sort elements whee general yielding on the gross section cannot occur. there ‘sill beat least 15% redoctioninsiength fom that obtained based on viding of the gross section For welded tension connections, there ae three catagories (C1) Load transmitted to a member other than a plate by longitudinal welds, ot by longitudinal welds in combination with transverse welds A, = UA, = UA, 353) Although not specifically stated in the LRFD Specification, the intention is for Eg, 55.2 la apply also for welded connections when sheat lag is presen. This iaten- tion indicated both in the LRFD-Commentary B3. and ERED Manual, p. 2-L1 12) Load transinited only by transverse welds C= UA, = Ace esa) whore 4... = area of drcely connected elements. this caste shear lag effect is approximated indirectly by vsing the reduced area A, (3) Load transmited toa plate by longitudinal welds along both sides of the plate spaced apart such that! = Ww 4,= UA, ass) where = length of weld along one side of plate w © distance between longitudinal welds (i. plate width) U= 100 For! = 2w O87 For2v 51> 1Sw 075 For lise > 120 “Welded connections for tension members are created in Chapter S on welding EXAMPLE 3.8. Determine the reduction factor U'to be applied in computing the effective net area for AW 1482 section connected by plates atts to flanges, as shown in Fig. 3.5.2. There are three bolts along each connector line Soluron. In this ease, two elements (the flanges) of the cross-section are connected but one (the web) is not connected. In accordance with Ea. 3.5.1, there is Fediced eftciency of carrying load, The reduction factor U must bs ‘computed using Eq. 3.5.=. Because each lange connection can be thought of as load onthe cibueary portion ofthe W shape, the section may be treated as two tuctural tee, as in Fig, 3.5.Lc, The balf W shape corresponds to a sructral tee W741, whose central distance Fis given by the AISC Marval 8 1.39 in. The length £ ofthe connsction is 6 in, Thus, Eg. 3.5.2 gives 39 vai LRED Commentary-B3 indicates the 1986 LRFD Specification values smay sil be used. Thus, for W, M, ce S shapes having Mange wits not ess tha 077s 09 0K6 TEARNGFALURE ATBOLTHOLES 81 ee = | oF (. A. -—E 5 c = BY were Figure 352 Fample3 two-thirds of the depth, and stracual tees cut from these shapes, U = 0.90 fue there are atleast thre fasteers per lin in the direction of stress, For this oxample by _ ange width 10.13 991 5 967 27 fection depht ~ Jaan ~ 0717 067 OK “Thus, the reduction factor U ecu be taken as 0.90, However, the Speciation “approach isthe more cortectone ad seems mandatory (using the word “shall” ‘Thus, the 0.77 value should be used. mm 3.6 TEARING FAILURE AT BOLT HOLES When thin plates are attached by bots, a tearing limit state, known a8 block shear, shay control the stength ofa tension member, or the tension region at the end ‘Connection of a beam (see Chapter 13). Referring to Fig. 36.18, the angle tension frember attached to 4 gos plate may have a tearing failure slong the bolt holes, ection abe, The tearing (shear euptre) strength on section @~b plus the tensile Sfelding strength on sector be wil give the total resistance ta block shear fle JED. 12, 313] hve shown it tobe reasonable to add the strength tension yielding i one plane to the shear oture strength of the perpendicular plane. ‘the four oles in the plat of Fig. 36, tb andc will contribute ta tear-out failure ithe sumof the shear stengths along 2-b and c-d pls the tensile strength along b= is less than ether of the strengths in general yielding of the member (Eg, 3.2.1) or jracture along e~b-c-f (Eq. 3.2.2). ‘Combination she and tension tearing fulures are uncommon in tension mem: bers; however, this combination mode Frequently controls the design of bolted end {connettions to the thin webs of beams& Figure 361 Tearing fire imi state ‘Tests on block shear filure in angle members [3.14] have shown that block shear controls for short connections (ie., two or fewer connectors per gage line. ‘These tests also indicate that shear la i a factor in block shear failure of tension members, which is not currently accounted for by the LRED Specification [18 Furthermore. adding s2/4g t0 the net tensile area for block shear calculations on Staggered bolts may be unconservatve, depending on the direction of the stagger with respect the failure path [LRFD- 14.3, provides for considering two block shear failure moves (1) fracture slong the tensile plane (b=c in Fig. 36,10) fllowedby yielding along the shear planes (a-b and cmd in Fig. 3.6.16). and (2) fracture along the shear planes (ab and cmd {in Fig. 36.1) followed by ying along the tensile plane (Bc in Fig. 36.10). Block shear ia fractare limit state and the allure anode which governs in that which has the ‘reater fractare strength, CConsistont with the limit states discussed in See. 3.2, the gros area is used for ‘he yielang limit state snd the net area i used forthe fracture limit state In addition, {ollowing the enensy-ct-distortion theory (Ea. 2.6.5). the hear yield stress 7s taken 480.5, Similarly, the shear strength 7, is aken a8 O6F,,AB TEARING FALURE AT CLT HOLES 82 “The nominal strength T, [tension is thus given by 1. Shear yielding —tension fracture (Fay = O5F, An) T,= 06F.Ay + Fun Gon 2, Shear fractare —tension yielding (F.A,, < 0.6, T,=06F,An * Ay (3.62) where A, = gross area acted upon by shear ‘A, = gross area acted upon by tensios AL, = net area acted upon by shear ‘AL, = net area acted upon by tension iF, = specified (ASTM) minimom tensile strength F. & specified (ASTM) minimum yield stress. [Equation 3.6.1 indicates fracture (F,Ay) on the net tensile area followed by yielding (O6F,A,) along the shear plines. Equation 3.6.2 indicates fracture {oioF.a,.)on the net shear atea followed ty yielding (FA) onthe gloss teasion area Because yielding eapnot occur until after fracture has taken place, the appropriate ‘equation fuses the one having te greater ratio of fracture sitength o yield sirength “The comparison criterion that provides the bass for using ether Eq. 3.6.1 Eq. 362s slightly different from the aforementioned rationale. Instead of compa jn the fracture and yield components of the sireagth within 2 single equation, the Fracture components of Eqs, 3.6. and 36.2 are compared, The correlation between ting the equation having the larger proportion of fracture wo yield strength. and the ‘Compatison of fractere strengths ised for Eqs. 3.6.1 and 3.6.2 is as follows ‘Requiring & larger proportion of fracture strength to yield siengih in Eq. 3.6.1 an in Eg, 3.6.2 means that A, F064, (ati) = (5) 49 ‘Canceling the ratio (F,/F) 20m both sides and multiplying through by the denom “Taking the square root of both sides and multiplying each side by F, produces an ‘expression similar €o the criterion of Eqs. 3.6.1 and 3.6.2, Thus, FiAy 2 O6F,Ay te (3.6.5) “Therefore the erterion used for selecting either Eq. 3.6.1 or Eq. 3.62 isthe same at choosing the equation with the greater ratio of facture strength #0 yield84 CHAPTER 2 TENSION MEMBERS strength assuming te ratio of gross are to net area in tension is equal the ratio of ross area to net area in shear. This is approximatly tue when the hole spacings in the perpendicular directions are uniform and nearly eval 3,7 STIFFNESS AS A DESIGN CRITERION ven though stability is nota eriterion in the design of tension members, it s still necessary 1 iit their length to prevent a member from becoming too flexible both ‘during erection and final use ofthe stractre. Tension members that ae foo long may sag excessively because oftheir own weight. n adition, they may also vibrate when ‘subjected to wind forces as in an open tuss oF when supporting Vibrating equipment such as fas of compressors, "To reduce the problems associated with excessive deflections and vibrations a stiffness criterion was esablshed. Ths criterion isbased on the slenderness tio. Lr, fof member where Li the length and r the least radis of gyration (r = V/A). The preferable maximum slendemess ratio s 300 for members whose design i based on tensile force (LRED and ASD-B7). This limitation does not apply to rods in tension In applying the stiffness criterion to tension members, the highest slendernes= ratio must be used. A symmetrical member may Fave two different eadi of gyration, ‘and for nonsymmetrical members one must consider the Weakest principal ax. When ‘tension member is bul up from a number of sections, the radius of gyration must ‘be computed using the moment of inertia J and the evose-setional area A, The value for will be with respect to the same axis as thct used to calculate the moment of 9.8 LOAD TRANSFER AT CONNECTIONS Normally the holes in tension members are those for rivets or bolts to transfer load from one tension member into another ‘Although the detaled treatment of fasteners and their behavior isin Chapter 4, the basic assumption is that each equal size fasteer transfers an equal share ofthe load whenever the fasteners are arranged symumetrcally with respect fo the central axis of a tension member. The following example is to ilustrate the idea and its ‘relationship to net area calculations. EXAMPLE 38.1 Calculate the governing net area for plate A ofthe single lap joint in Fig. 3.8.1 and show free-body diaprams of portions of plate A wit sections caken through each line fof oles. Assume that plate B has adequate net area and does not control the strength 7. Solution. The full tensile force Tin plate 4 aes on section 1-1 of Fig 3.8.1 Examination of other sections in plate A to ‘he left of section 1-1 will invohe- less than 100% of acting, since part of that force will have already been8 LOAD TAANSFER AT conmECTIONS 8S te ft Leree] nee Figure 34.1 Sing op conection fr Example 381 transferred from plate A 10 plate B. At section 4~4, 100% of T must no be acting in paie 8 shile only 20% of T acts i plate A. Since there must be zer0 force acting on the end of plate a short distance to the It of section 4—4, the force T mus: have been eatirely transferred to pate B over the distance from sections |=1 to 4-4, The free bodies of the various segments are shown in Fig. 38.2 Deduction in width for 1 bole = Diam of hole + in Diam of fastener + £39, for standard bole US ~ 3) = 750. in ec azea (ection (=) fon which 100% of T acts (Fig. 3.8.2, Figure 382 Load dsteibusion i ato86 CHRETER 2 TENSION ueuaERS [Net aren (staggered path 1 a sty + 42] = 7.08 59 in Sfis—s0) al] = r00m ‘on which 1005 of T also ats, [Not area (staggered path 1-2. ‘on which 0.9 of Tis presumes to ct since one connector has already transfersed its share (0.10) of the lad prior w reaching section 1-2-2 1, The 7.29 sq i, ‘with O97 acting would compare with 7.29/0,9 = 8.105q in. with T acting, A comparison of 7.50, 7.08, and 8.10 shows that seetion 12~3~2: then A, = 7.08'sqin. ai 3.9 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN— TENSION MEMBERS ‘The general philosophy of Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) was deseribed inSees.1 Sand 1.9. Equation 1.8.1 givesthe structural safety requirement, as fellows or, = Dro, 8] where = resistance factor (strength reduction factor) , = nominal resistance (strength) (overload factors (LRED-A4.1} loads (Such as dead load ive loud, wind load, earthquake load) of load effets (such as bending moment, shear, axil force, and torsional ‘moment resulting from the various loads) @ Equation 1.8.1 requires thatthe design strength 6R, equal or exceed the summation of factored loads, or specially for tension memes, Eq. 1.8.1 becomes O12 7, Bo.) here d= resistance factor relating to tensile strength T, = nominal strength ofa tension member T, = factored load on a tension member Since the loading isnot related wo the typeof member, such as teasion member ‘or column, the various loed factor combinations given in LRFD-A4.| are the same for all members in the sructure. However, the resistance facior ¢ accounts for the possibilty that the atual strength ofthe member may be bss than the theoretically ‘computed strength because of variations in material properties and dimensional toler- ances. These variations while individually within accepted tobrance limits may com- Dine in the actual structure to give a strength Iss than the computed value. Neither28. LOAD ANG RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN—TENSION MEMBERS 87 the ¢ factor nor the overload fctors + are intended to account for careless errors in Uesign or constuction. The reliability of designs of bolied see! tension members using LRED has been reported by Bennett and Najem-Clarke [3.16] “The design strength 6,7, according to LRED-D_ is the smaller of that based on elding in the gross section, ar. cor fracture in the ner section, 87. = 8 FA. = O75EA, 093) Note that the resistance factor ei 0.90 fr the yielding mit tate and is 0.75 forthe fractuce Hm tate Th addition the designer mysttake into account rupture strength (tension, shear, ‘ora combination of both) along a potential tear-cut path (see See. 3.6). The design ‘rength requirements of LRFD-If ace OFA, = 0908.4, 892) 1. Shear rupture design strength OV, = G10.6F.IAy B98) 2, Tension rupture design strength 6 OT, = OF Aw 693) ‘3. Shear—tension combination design strength a. When Fy = O.6F Ay, OR, = HOGF Ay + FiAg) 896) which means shea yielding—tension fracture controls Db. When O.6F, Ay. > FeAyy AR, = HOGF Ay + FAQ) Gen which means shear fracture —tensio yielding controls ‘= er0ss area acted upon by shear 1038 area acted upon by tension ret area acted upon by shear = ret area acted upon by tension 1} = 0.75 for the facture limit state (Eqs. 3.9.4 through 3.9.7) FF, = specie (ASTM) minimum tensile strength F,= specified (ASTM) minimum yield stress In the 1993 LRED Manual (Tables 8~86 and 8-47), the deduetion for holes is ‘computed in accordance with LRFD-B2, par. 2 the same as forthe tension fracture limit state forte member, as discussed in Section 3.2. nthe 1986 LRFD Manual, the implied “recommendation” was to deduct the actua hole: Lethe bolt diameter plus 1/16 in. for standard holes when checking Block shear. ‘The Specification [1.16] sections used in Load and Resistance Factor Design of, tension members are sammanzed in Table 39.188 CHAPTER? TENSION WenBERS TABLE 8. TENSION MeMBERS— [NSC SPECIIOATIONS REFERENCES ‘Speafetn secon Tope taro fiie)_ AS0018) Seas Etecive nares @ Tene seth br Baiop enters pe bo Proconectes enter eehars DS D3 Tirade 8 B Boek tee aM i Coaneig eas as 1s EXAMPLE 38.1 Determine the service load capacity in tension foran LOX4x: of AST2 Grade 30 see) connected with Zn diam bolls in andard oles as shown in Fig. 3.9.1, Use ASC [Load and Resistance Factor Design, and assume the lve load te dead toad tio 3.0, Solution, The angle tension member is connected to a gusser plate, typical of ‘russ joints. The gusset plate is the plate atthe intersection of members t which they are connected. “The maximum strength willbe based on either section IL with one hole ducted, or on the staggered section 1-2 Uhrough two holes, The governing section will ave 100% of oad Faeting on it Per section |= nt jena ihe = 405 (+2)as0 25 sqin. For section 1-2, AL= A, = 2hokes + (6/4) oy 2 (Apso + sm = 395.08 475 — Figure 39.1 Tension member for Example 391139 LOND AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN—TENSION MENGERS 68 “The two design strengths to be used in accordence with LRFD-DI ate sivenby Eq, 39.2 based on general vieldng onthe gross section ofthe meme. OT, = FA, B92) = 0:90(50)(4.25) = 214 kips and by Eq. 3.9.3 based on fracture atthe connection, OT.= OFA, Bea) “The angle doesnot have both legs connected to transfer the vensile force, 9 the effective net area is les than the computed net area, accounting Tor the eesen- twiity atthe connection. "The effective net area A, i A.= UA where, according to LRFD-B3.2 the reduction coefficient 7 is to be computed from Bq. 35.2: uai-F (321 where the distance ¥ from centroid of element being connected eccenrically to plane of load transfer (se Fig. 3.5.1) is fr the ease ofthe angle 0.987 in. The fength L of the joints 14 in, Equation 3.5.2 then gives Use U = 09, A, = UA, ~ 090895) “Thus, Ba, 3.93 gives AT = OFA. “Thus, the controlling 7, the smaller ofthe values from Egs.3.9.2(214 kis) tnd 39.3 (173 kip). 56 59 in. 10.75(63)(3.56) = 173 kips AT, = 1D Kips "The averlad factors slate the design strength tothe service loads or toad cetiets, Using the gravity load combination Eg, 18.3 [LRFD-Eq (A4-2)). the factored load T, 7, = DQ = 12D + 16L + O5(L,orS ork) [1.83] where in this example the roof leading Z, $ (Snow), and R (cain) are pot valved. The ive loud (L) is given as three times dead load (D). Thus applying90 CHAPTER 2 TENSION MEMBERS ‘the safety requirement, Eq. 3.9.1: tha is, letting 6,7, equal factored load 7, ives OT. = 12D + LOL = 12D + 16D) = 60D 173 = 60D D = 28.8 kips L = 3D = 3128.8) = 864 ips ‘The total sae sevice load T's T= D+ L= 288 +864 = 115 kips Ishi angle connection consisted ofa very few loge fasteners or if either the gusset plate or the angle Were thin elements, the shearruprre limit state of LRED-14, represented by Eq. 3.9.4 through 3.9.7. mighs give & lower strength than the lesser of Eqs. 3.9.2 and 39.3. mm EXAMPLE 39.2 Iavestigate the shear rupture failure mode on the angle L4%<4! attached with three in.-diam bolts toa in, gusset plate, as shown in Fig. 29.2. The material is A36 feel, ‘Solution, The usoal general yielding and fracture limit states governed by the lesser of Bqs. 39.2. and 3.9.3 give OT, = FA, ~ 0.90(36)(198) = 62.9 hips OT, = BEA, = FUA, 26 Figure 39.2. Tenson member of Example 39.229. LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN-TENSION MEMBERS 91 Tas OT. = F.UA, = 0.75(58)(0.82)(1.94 ~ 025) = 60.3 kips ‘The biock shear potential failure along pah a~b=e of Fig. 3.9.2 must be investigated according to LRFD-H. Calelating the net areas A, and A. ‘Ag, = (length ab less 2.5 holes) X thickness as(osrs + 1)Joas = 1.25 sain = [75 ~23(0875 + J) Joas = 125 4 [is—os(oan fas 25 sain. Compare O6F Aa ith Aus {06F, Ay = 06(58)1.28 = 48:5} > dy = ‘which means Eq. 39.7 [shear facture, tension yielding) controls, AR, = HOSEA, + FAQ) Ben AR, = 075035 + F.3,) = 079{435 + 36(15)0.25] = 0754570) = 42.8 kips ‘Thus, block shear [42.8 kps] controls over tension yielding on gross section [62.9 kips) or fracture on effective net section (60.3 Kips] 810.25) = 14.5] EXAMPLE 393 Selecta tension diagonal memes for a roof truss of AST2 Grade 50 stel using AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design. The axial tension i 60 kips dead load and 6 kips live load and the members 12 ong. Assume {-in.-diam bolts re located on single nee line in standard hoes. Asume the preferable limiton slenderness ratio L/ris 40 ‘no: an LRED limi 1, Select the lightest single angle member. by Select the lightest double angle member having les separated by jin. backs to-back Solution. For vssion members, the design strength requirement is OT,=T, “where the factored load T, may be governed by Eq. 1.8 3in general, or Eg, 1.82 ‘when the proportion of dead Toad is large, as inthis case; thus T= 12D + L6L = 1.2(60) + 1.616) = 82 kips T, = LAD = 1.4(60) = 84 kips (contzols) Tn this ease, the factored load 1 be designed for is 84 ks92 The stength ofthe members may be controlled ny citer OT, = AEA, = 09015004, GT, = YEA, = 0.15165)A, ‘The design strength BT, must equal the fetored Ica T,. The area requirements become 4 Requied A, = gS = 1.87 in Sia Required A, = 5a5ig5) 7 1720 Extmating U forither a single or double angle section tobe 0.85, in accordance \with ERED Commentery-B3, Required A, = 4 = 172 = 203 sin ‘The net area requirement obviously controls since it exceeds the gross area requirement Aso, the minimum r to satisfy the given limitation of L/r = 240 is, (a) Select single angle memter. The required gross area in each case ‘depends on the area deducted for one hole, which in turn depends on the thickness, The following tabular procedure may be found useful in making the selection: Standard Deducion Regured (hes ron ‘retnoss “forone gree NSC marcel . tor wee age mole popes oa aah rere one ae 38.7 = 099 Use LAXAX single mgle member (least area, therefore lightes) (Select double angle member. For this rype of section two holes must be educied. Selection should be made from the double angle properties in AISC ‘Manual210 TENSIONRODS 95 StendeeGesicton Grates rom inctness “forte i or 278 Use 2192: with log legs acketo-back slightly undersrengsh. Block shear andthe eduction factor U can be caleulaed ony ater the numer of fasteners has been determined 3.10 TENSION RODS ‘A common and simple tension member isthe threaded rod. Such rods are usually secondary members where the required stength is small, so as (a sag rods to help Support paris in industria} buildings (Fig. 3.10.18): (b) vertical is to help support ‘irs in industrial building was (Fig 3.10. 1b; 6) hangers, such as tie rods pperting ‘balcony (Fig. 3.10.16 and (d) tie rods to resist the thrust ofan atch — ating i i A § + “ITH Ves sie | “ait | | igure 310. Uses of epson rodsoa CHAPTER TENSION MEMBERS Tie os ar frequently used witha initia! ensom as diagonal wind bracing in walls, 10018, and towers. The initial tension effectively adds wo the stifness and Fedaves defsction and vibrational motion, which tnd to cause fatigue failures in the Connections. Such initial tension canbe obtained by designing the member something ‘onthe order of in. short for a 20-1 length or by the use of tornbuckles whieh ean be tightened ater construction EXAMPLE A104 ‘Seloct the diameter for threaded round rd of AG steel to carry an axial tension of {ips live load and 3 hips dead load. Use ATSC Lad and Resisiance Factor Design, Solurion. The design strength of 2 threaded rod is given by LRED-J3.6 (lable 13.2) as OT, = O.79A,F, = 0.°5A,(0.758.) @ ‘The factored load T, 10 be carted is T,= 12D + 1.6L = 1.2(3) + 1.6(6) = 132 kips ‘Using the minioum tensile stength f, for A36 see as 58 ksi from Table 2.1.1 (oFLRFD "NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 2, and equating the factored load ‘T.to the design strength 6,7, gives the required gross area A, from Eg. (a) a8 Required OT; 132g sy sain 075(0.75F,) ~ O750.73)38) 4 ‘Choose a threaded rod from the LRFD Manual, p. 8~17, The area com- puted isthe gross area A, based on the diameter of the unthreaded body ofthe rod (LRFD “Table 13.2), Use indium rod (10 threads per inchy(A, = 0.482 5q in.) Required 4, = EXAMPLE 3102 Design sag ods to support the purlins ofthe industral building roof of Fig. 3.10.2, Sag rods are spaced at the third points between roof tuses, which are spaced 24 f apart. Use 20 psf snow load, A36 steel, and AISC LRED Specification, Solution. (3) Loais. Assume coldformed sz! roofing is used, weighing 3 psf, and thatthe purlins have already been designed. Theie weight may be approxi ‘mated as 83:5 pst roof load, ‘Snow load customarily s prescribed as having an intensity given in pounds per square foot (ps) of horizontal projection. Generally, a vlue not Iss than 20 pa suse, with 30100 pf 1. to 1.9 KN/m') boing sed in northern areas (see See. 1.4 “The horizontal projection of the root area is 25cos 25° over which the snow load ats, Because the oer loads on the roof are given in terms ofthe root tea, Ui sow hae cast be cones w haa pt saat foot of soe! atea by multiplying by cos 2 18.1 psf of roof310 TENSON RODS 95 Figure 3.10.2 Roof and sag reds for Example 3.102. () Compute factored load on roof. The structure weight is dead load ‘Because there arena ive leads other than snow, Eq, 1.8.3 wall control, 12D + 16(L,0r Sor R) (83) 1.2 + 35) + 1.6(18.1) = 368 pst {©) Compute factored load tobe carried by a single rod. Because the rods are spaced 8 f part, the load carried by each ro is that load over a4 ftp ‘Of roof on either sie ofthe rod, The sag rod indicated in Fig. 3.10.2 must carry the load forthe entre length (i... 28 10 of roof. The vertical factored load associated with alin of sig rods 36.8 vimes wibutary area (in 9 £9 '3658(25)(8)/1000 = 7.4 hips ‘omponent of te load parallel “The top tod parallel tote root eaeries ony thal to the of, equal to Jasin 25°) = (0.423) = 3. Kips988 chpTERs TENSION MEMBERS ‘The component of the vertical load perpendicular to the roof is cartied by tbeam action in the puns. The horizontal red atthe roaf pet, indicated in Fig. 3.10.2, mast cary 3.1/(c05 25. 1, = 4l/lo0s 25°) = 3.1/(0.906) = 3.4 kips (4) Select the diameter or rod. The strength requirement of LRFD-J3.6 5 OTT, OT, = 07500.75F day ‘Obtaining F, from Table 2.1 | (or LRFD "NUMERICAL VALUES” TABLE 2), nd equating he tactored load T, co the design strength 67, gives the required area Ay as 7. 34 DAS(OTS) ~ 07510-7558) From LRED Mona! [1.18], Table 8-7, p. 8-17, select a in, diam threaded rod having A, = 0.11 sq in 110 sq in). mt Required A, ~ 0.11 5q in 3.11 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN—TENSION MEMBERS ‘The general philosophy of Allowable Stress Design (ASD) was desribed in Sees. 8 and £.9, Equation 18.8 gives the stuctral safety requirement, a follows: oh “p= Xe (188) hich expresses thatthe design strength OR, divided by a factor yfor overload must exceed the Sum ofthe service lads, Inthe allowable stress design method, the safety provision is 9/8. For tensioa members, taking the factor of safety FS = 7/4, the nominal strength R, as T, for ension members, snd 30, equal tthe service load T in tension, Eq. 18.8 becomes Gay ‘The nominal strength 7, for tension members may he controlled by either of Eqs. 32.1 0F 3.22, T= FA, [2a] Tn BA, B22) 0s cross-sectional area fective net area = UA, (Se See. 3.5) bet area Gee Sec. 3.4) 1U ~ redvction coefcient efficiency factor) (ASD-B3)317 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN TENSION MEMBERS 97 Using a factor of safety FS of 1.67, substituting Eq. 3.2.1 into Eq. 3.11.1. and viding by A, 10 obtain a ste formar gives FAT a tees 3.12) Using 4 larger factor of safety PS = 2.0 as typically used for connections sobsiuting Eq, 32.2 into Eg. 3.1.1, and dividing by 4 0 obtain a stress former ives FAL WT fade a ous 200A, A , “Then defining f. as computed service bad stress, T/A, or T/A. Eqs. 3.11.2 and 3.11.3 beconte the requirements of ASD-D1. =fle [=F] =o, ea) ars z a { F] soso Gas) “The computation of net srea A is discussed in Sec. 3.5 and the effective net area is sreated in See. 38 “The Specification [1-5] sections used in Allowable Stress Design of tension members are suromarized in Table 3.9.1 [EXAMPLE 3144, —_———_—___$_—__________ Investigate the angle 44% selected in Example 29.3 10 serve as a single angle tensioe member of AS72 Grade $0 ste! to carry 60 kips dead load and 6kips ive load ‘sesame j-in-diam bolts wil be facated ona single gage line in standard holes to attach the member to & gusset plate Solution. (4) Compute the effective net area ofthe ember. The net area is A= A, ~ [hole = 240 ~ (0.895 + 0.125}0.3125 = 2.09 sq in “The member is attached 1 the gusset plate along one le (i... one ofits two elements), therefore, the nonuniform stzess across the section reduces the ficiency ofthe member to carry load. According to ASD-BS, the elective net #08 is O85 ofthe actual net area "Thus, the effective net area A, is A, = UA, = 0851208) = 1.78 sq in (b) Check the service lod streses. For AST2 Grade 50 steel, F, = 50481 and F. = 65 si, rT 66 fa T= = 2754s < IF, = 0608, = 304s) OK = SR = sransi> (F, = 0508, = 325 ksi] NG988 CHAPTER] TENSION MEMBERS ‘Thus, the section is not adequate by Allowable Stress Design and a larger section Would be required ‘SELECTED REFERENCES 3.1. Geofitey L, Kulak, John W. Fisher, and John H. A. Stik. Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and Rivered Jains, 2nd ed, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987, V. H. Cochrane. “Rules for Rivet Hole Deductions in Tension Members, Engineering News-Record, 89, November 16, 1922, 847-848 3.3, W. M, Wilson, Discussion of “Tension Tests of Large Rivet loins,” Thansae sions, ASCE, 105 (1942), 1268 3.4. W. M. Wikon, W. H. Munse, and M, A. Cayei. “A Study of the Practical Ethcienty under Static Loading of Riveted Joints Connecting Pats.” Bulletin +402, U. of tlinois Engineering Experiment Station, Urbana, IL, 1952. 3.5. FW, Schutz. “Effective Net Section of Rveted Joints,” Proceedings, Second Minos Structural Engineering Conference, November, 1952. 36, *Heresa Better Way to Design Splics,” Engineering News Reva, 180, Part I. January 8, 1953, 41 3.7. P,P. Bijlard. Discussion of “Investigation and Limit Analysis of Net Area ia “Tension.” Transactions, ASCE, 120 (1955), 1156-1163, 3.8. G.W. Brady and D.C. Brucker. “Investigation and Limit Analysis of Net Area in Tension,” Transactions, ASCE, 120 (1955), 1133-1154 3.9. W. H. Muse and E, Chesson, J. “Riveted and Bolted Joins: Net Section Design," Journal ofthe Structural Disision. ASCE, 89, ST2 (February 1963), 107-126 3.10. E, Chesson and W. H. Munse. "Behavior of Riveted Connections in TrussType Members," Journal ofthe Structural Division, ASCE, 83, STI January 1957), Paper 1150, 161; aso Transactions, ASCE, 123 (1958), 1087-1128 3.11, William McGuire, Steet Structures, Englewood Clits, NI: Prentice-Hall Ine., 1968 (pp. 310-328), 3.12. James M. Rickes and Joseph A. Yora. "Strength of Double-Row Bolied Web Connections.” Journal of Structural Engineering. ASCE, 109, 1 Canuary 1983), 136-142, 3.13. Steve G, Hardash and Reidar Bjorhovde, “New Desiga Criteria for Gusset Plates in Tension,” Engincering Journal, AISC, 222 nd Quarter 1585). 77-94 3.14, Howard L Epstein. “An Experimental Study of Block Shear Fuilure of Angles in Teasion," Engineering Journal, AISC. 29, 2 (2nd Quatter 1992), 75-84. 3.15. W. Samuel Eastering and List Gonzales Giroux. "Shear Lag Effects in See ‘Tension Members,” Engineering Journal, AISC, 30, 3 (3rd Quarter), 199, 7-39, 3.16, Richard M. Bennet and F, Shiga Najem-Clarke. “Reliability of Bolted Steet ‘Tension Members," Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 113, § (August 1987), 1868-1872PROBLEMS 99 PROBLEMS Allproblems are to be done according to the AISC Los and Resistance Factor Design fr Allowable Stress Design a indicated by the instructor. Assume fastener strength |S adeguate and does not contr. All holes ace andar holes, Volos of yield stress Fandtensilesrength F are available in Table 2-1. Forall problems where the total humber of less not known, asstie rupture stength of LRFD-14 doesnot control Where needed, assume distances from center of hole to end of ple are Tin 3.4. Compute the maximum acceptable tensile service fad that may aet ona snale sngle L6-db<} that is welded slong only one leg o a gusset plate thus, there tte no poles. The service live load is three times the dead Joad. Solve for (@) A36 steel and (b) AS72 Grade 50 steel 32. Compute the maximum acceptable tensile service load the angle in Prob, 3.1 ‘may carry when connected on both les. The d-i. leg contains a single gage Tine ot f-in-diam bolts, and the 6-in, kee contains a double gage line of ‘Fin.-diam bolts. Assume no stagger of bolts. and that all bolts participate fm carrying loa. 33. Compute the maximum acceptable service loud on an A36 ste plate wesion tember in. % 12 in. having a single line of Holes parallel tthe direction of Toading. The oad is 25% dead load and 75% live load, and j-in.-diam bolts are used 34, Compute the net area A, for the plate (a connecting element according to RED and ASD-15) shown in the accompanying figure. Then compute the ‘maximum value for service load T when A36 see is used, the ive load is four times the dead load, and the holes aze ff in. diameter. Problems 34 and 35 AS. Repeat Prob. 34 using A572 Grade 60 steel and #-in.-iam holes100 cnaetens 36, 37. 38. 39. 30. TENSION MEMBERS Selecta pir of angles to support a tensile live load (LL) and dead load (DL) forthe case assigned by the instructor. Assume the anglks are separated backtochack jin. bya coanected gusset plate, and that the connection is welded, Assume the slenderaess ratio is desired 1 not exceed 300, Coan (es) ow) Stel re Ate 2 8 ae i Sst crea took xe Sw AsmGrs0 6 5 Selecta single angle (forthe case assigned by the instructor) to support a tensile load. A single gage line of atleast three bolts is be used. ow ‘betaine Lana a ee) cH « 1 6 «Ae 38 is 21s AsmGrsy oe 1s 3s A aa 20 ee ee as ne) 8 2» 6 0 ASG 718 2» 7 sR 18 es sce aie & ‘Selecta standard threaded ro to carry a tensile force Tof 4 kis dead lod and 6 kis live load. Use A572 Grade 50 see ‘Selecta standard threaded rod to cary a tensile force Tf kips ded load and “4 kip Tve Toad, Use A36 stel Design sag ods to support the purtins of an indusral building roof whou span and slope are shown in the accompanying figure. Sag rods are placed at | Points between roof trusses, which are spaced 20 ft apart. Assume roofing end purlin weight is 9 pst of root surface. Use standard threaded rods and A36 Steel The snow load to be carried is 20, 30 or AO pst of horizontal projection, whichever is appropriate for your localeProaes 101 Problem 3.10 AML. Determine the maximum allowable tensile load (20S dead load, 80% live toad) fora single C15% 33.9 fastened wo $-in suse plate asi the accom nying Rigure. Use A36 stel and assume Hoke are for $-indiam belts Base fansver on tension strength ofthe channel, and ince shear rupsure strength, neat Problem 3.11 312. Repeat Prob, 3.11 using a C10%25 attached to a in, guset plate. Assume the 12 bolts are in lines parallel to the direction of loading, with the same 3 in. spacing: 33, Determine the tensile load (85% live load; 15% dead fond) permitted by AISC {or pit of angles L6%4% attached 1 a gusset plate as shown in the accom punying figure. Use A36 steel and -in--diam bolts on standard gage fines Sihose distances re given in Table 34,1, The force Tis transmitted t0 the [puset plate hy fasteners on lines A and By assume only open oles inthe 4-in. (outstanding) less. til— + Problem 3:13102 CHAPTERS TENSION EMBERS 3.44, Repeat Prob. 3.13 wsiig a pair of L862} angles with staggered j-in-diam bolts in he Si, le. BIS. Ginen the splice shown in zhe accompanying Fite: 4. Determine the masimam capacity 7 (25% ded load, 786 lve oad) based fon the AG stel plates having holes arranged as shown, 'b, Whar vale of «should be specified to provide the masimum capacity Tas ‘computed in par a) if the final design is haves, = 5) = 57 Problesn 15 3.46, An1.5%3{% angle, as shown inthe accompanying figure. isto carry 20 kips ‘dead loud and 70 kips live lod using the shorts! length of connection using two age lines of Bolts in the S-in. leg. What the minimum acceptable i, multiples). sing AS72 Grade 50 steel? Problem 3:6 347. An L%3,>< ange as shown inthe accompanying gue. i cary 20 kips ‘ead load and 60 kips ive lad. Using one gage line of hoes for -in-diam bolts ineach leg, what would be the oninimum stagger sreuired to secomplish this? ‘Consider the load to be transferred by bolts inthe Sn, lg. while te hoes in the 3 leg may be considered open ones (ie not transmit he tensile a), Use A36 set,PROBLEMS 103 Problem 317 348, Compute the minimum value of that could theoretically be used onthe angle of the accompanying figure sich that the maximum factored tensile force T, ‘nay'be earied. Assume mis large enough so tht a failure pattern through the ‘pen hole will not govern, Jnclude consideration of shear rupture strength a sve er wee Problems 3.18 and 3.19 3.19, Assuming thats for the angle of Prob. 3.18 is made as large as required in Prob. 3.18. compute the minimum distance m required so thatthe open hole inthe dn, leg il not reduce the stengt below its maximum possible value If Prob. 3.18 isnot solved, assume 58 3.75 in 320, Design an eyehar to carry 24 kips dead load and 76 kips lve load, using ‘Name-cut A572 Grade 50 seo plate. (Refer to LRFD or ASD-D3.)Chapter 4 Structural Fasteners 4.1 TYPES OF FASTENERS Every stroctore isan assemblage of individual parts or members that must be fastened together, usually atthe memher ends. Welding is one method and is treated in Caap- ter 5, The other method is 10 use fasteners, such as rivets or bolts, This chapter is ‘concerned with bolting: in particular, high-strength bolts. High-strength bolts have Feplaced rivets 3s the means of making aoswelded structural connections. Howevet, for completeness, a brief description of the other fasteners, including rivets and unfinished machine balls, s given, High-Strerigth Bolts ‘The two basic types of high-strength bolts are designated as ASTM A325 [2.5] and 4902.8), the material properties of which ate discussed in See.2.2and summarized in Table 4.1.1. Those bolts are heavy hexagon-head bolts, used with heavy ‘omifsisbed hexagon nuts, as shown in Fig. 4.1.1b. The threaded portion is shorter ‘than for bots in nonstructural applications, and may be cut or rolled. A325 bolts are ‘of heat-treated medi carbon steel having an approximate yield strength of 81 10 ‘92 ksi (560 to 630 MPa) depending on diameter. A490 bolts ae also heat-treated but Are of alloy stel having an approximate yield strength of 1)5 10130 ksi (790 o 900 MP2) Sepending on diameter. A449 bolts are occasionally used when diameters over $n up 03 in, are needed, and also for anchor bots snd tneaded rods igh-streneth belts range in diameer from 10 Tor Ad49) The most common diameters used in building construction are jin. and Jn. whereas the most common sizes in bridge dexign are i. and Lin, Hish-strenath bolts are usally tightened to develop a specified tensile stress in ‘hem, which results in a predictabie clamping force on the joint, The actual transfer ‘of service loads through a joint is, thereors, due tothe fiction developed in the pieces being joined. Joins containing high-strength bots are designed either as slip-eritcal Aormerty called frition-ype), where high sip resistance at service load is desire; of as bearing-type, Where high slip resistance at service lead is unnecessary.12 TYPES OF Fast asm “n A © ermper iy se (rene as 395) a035) Figure 41 Types of taseaecs108 Rivets CHAPTER ¢ STRUCTURAL FASTENERS For many years rivets were the accepted mans of connecting members but today (1995) they are virally obsolete in the United States, Undiiven rivets are formed from bar sce a cylindrical shatt with a head formed on one end, as shown in Fig. 4.1 1a, Rivet stel isa mild carbon see designated by ASTM as A302 Grade 1 (F, = 28 ks (190 MPa) and Grade 2 (&. ~ 38 ksi) (260 MP, withthe minimum specified yield strengths based on bar stk as rolled, The forming of undriven rivets and the driving of svets cause changes inthe mechanical properties. Installation requires heating the rivet a ight cherry-red color. inserting i into 4 hole and then applying pressure 1o the preformed head while a the same time Squeezing the plain end of the river to form rounded head. During this process the shank ofthe rivet completely oF nearly il the ole into which it had been inserted, Upon cooling, the rivet shrinks, thereby providing a clamping force. However, the amount of camping produced by the cooling ofthe vet varies rom rivet rivet and Therefore cannot he counted on in design calculations, Unfinished Bolts Bolts of low-carbon sel designated ASTM A307 [2.4] ate the ast expensive bolt ‘They may not, however. produce the last expensive connection since more are required in «particular connection. Tel primary us is night sractures, secondary ‘or bracing member, platforms, catwalks, parling,gtts, small wusses, and silat "pplication in which the loads ae primarily small and static ia nature. Such bolts are algo used as temporary fting-up fasteners in cases whetehigh-sirength bolts, rivets, for welding may be the permanent means of connection. Unfinished bolts are some~ times called common, machine, or rough bolts and may come with square heads and square mats Ribbed Bolts Bolts of ordinary rivet stel having rounded head and raised bs parallel othe shank ‘were used for many years as an alternative to rivets, The actual diameter ofa rbbed bolt is slightly larger than the hole into whic iis riven. fn ding te bol actually ‘cuts into the edges around the hoe, producing a relatively tight fi, The ribbed bolt was Particularly useful in besring-type connections and in connections that had stress reversals, 'A modern variation of the ribbed bolt isthe imterference-tody bolt shawn in Fig. 4.1.1e, which sof A225 bolt steel and instead of longitudinal bs, hs serrations around the shank as wells parallel othe shank. Because ofthe seritions around the shank through the ribs, this holt is often called an interrupted-rib lt. Ribbed bolts are difficult to drive when several layers of plates are to be connected, The A325 Inerference-body bolt may’ also be more difficult 1 inset Uhrough several plates; however, i is used when tight fit ofthe bolt inthe hole is desired, and it permits tightening the nut without simultaneously holding the bolt head as may be required with smooth loose-ting, ordinary A325 bots, These bolts are, however, are used in ordinary ste! structuresHISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF HGH-STAENGTH BOLTS 107 4.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS ‘The first experiments indicating the possibilty of using high-strength bolts in ste: framed construction were reported by Batho and Bateman [4.1] in 1934. They con: ‘nda that bolts with a minimum yield strength of 54 ksi (370 MPa) could be relied ‘onto prevent slipbenseen the connected parts, Follow-up testsby Wilson and Thomas [4.2] substantiated the earlier work by ceporting that high-strength bois smaller i> Siameter than the holes in which they were inserted had fatigue strengths eqeatw that fof welldviven rivets. proved that the Bolts were sufficiently pr=tensoned, The next major step occurred in 1947 with the formation of the Research CCounei oa Riveted and Bolted Steuctural Joints. This organization Bevan by sing and extrapolating information from stwdivs of riveted joins-in particular. the extensive annotated 1945 hibliogranby by De Jonge [43]. ‘By 1950 the eancept of using high-strength bolts anda summary of research and ‘behavior nas presented|+.4] co practicing ensineers andthe stee-fbrication industry. ‘The rst Specification in 1951 permitted replacement ofrives with holison a one 0 ‘one basis. t was conservatively assumed that fiction transfer ofthe load was neces: ‘ary in all joints under service nad conditions, The factor of safety against sip mas ‘established ata bigh enough level so that good fatigue resistance (1. 20 ship under ‘varying stress or stess reversal accuriag dating many load e)eies) was provided in ‘very joint, similar to or beter than that shows by rvetd joints In 1984 a revision was made in the Sgecifcation 10 include the use of Hat washers on 1:20 sling surfaces andeo allow the use of impact wrenches for insialing bls, AIs0, the 1984 revision permitted the surfaces in contacto be painted when the boli were used ina bearng-rype connection; e., when the strength ofthe connection was to be based on the bal n bearing against the sie ofthe hole In 1956 Manse [6.5] summarized bolt behavior and concluded that bolts myst havea high an initial tension es practicable if high-strength bolts were 1 he eficient snd economical. By 1960 the minimum bolt tension was increased. The Bearing-fipe Connection was eecognized as an acceptable subsiute fora eiveted connection, sha the connection designed on the basis of slip resistance, knowe chen a a fietion-type ‘connection, would probably only be necessary wher direct tension acts on the bolts fr when stress reversals occu ‘Also, in 1960 a simple inssiation procedure, known as the rurn-ofthe-aut ‘method, was introduced ss an alternative to the torque wrench method previously required, The economics of high-stengt bolting further improved when only one ‘washer {located under the element (head oF mat) Being turned}, instead ofthe previ ‘ously required two. could be nsed ifthe turn-of-tesnut method was used, In 1962 the requirement for washers was eliminated except in special situations [4.6]. In $964 the higher strength A490 bolt was introduced. “The 1985 and 1988 Specifications of the Research Cogn on Structural Con- nections (RCSC}|+4.7, 4.8] changed the philosophy of desige or bearing-type connec ‘ons and for Tricton-type connections, now cal slip-critical connections. A de {ale review of the historical backgrounds provided inthe RCSC Commentary [4.9] ‘The Guide 10 Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints by Kulak, Fisher, and Steuik [3.1] (hereinater refered! to as the Gude) summarizes research and makes108 CHAPTER. STAUCTURAL FASTENERS ecommentations which generally fort the bass for curent des of bolted connes- 4.8 CAUSES OF RIVET OBSOLESCENCE Riveting is a methodot connecting members at a joint by inserting ductile metal pins into les in the pieces being joined and forming ahead at each end to prevent the joint from coming apart. Typical ypes of rivets are shown in Fig. 4.3.1 (see also Fig, 4.1.13) Riveting required a crew of four or five experienced persons. On the other hand, the erews required foc high-srength bol instalation do not need o be highly skilled Iaspection was diffclt, and eating out and replacing bad rivets was an expensive procedure, Even the preheating immediately prior vo de the necessary tightness attr cooing, “The principal factor that delayed immediate acceptance of high-strength bolts \was the high cost ofthe material cluding two hardened washers. Inthe early 19505 the reduced labor cost for installing bots didnot offset the higher bolt material cos. After the washers could be reduced to on or eliminated and the greater strength of {bolt over that of rivet could be utilized in design, high-stength bolts became ‘economical. Now (1995) with even higher bor cot and conection design generally "requiring fever bots than would be required tor rivers, the economy is cleat wth high-strength bol ‘Welding, as rested in Chapter 5, has plays an important role in reducing the use of all fasteners. Both rivets and bolts. om Figure 421 Types of ives, 4.4 DETAILS OF HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS Both the most commonly used A325 bolt and the occasionally used A490 bolt are heavy hexagon (ex) head bolls with heavy hexagon ats, identified by the ASTM T). Figure $83. Example 48.3,48. EXAMPLES—TENSICN MEMBER BEARING TYPE CONNECTIONS-LRFO 128 Tor shear, wing A325, 8R, ~ $10.50F%)mA, = 07510.50)(120}2)10.4418) For bearing on the {-in, plate, when L. = 15d and s = 3d 9.8 kipsibolt OR, © G14 di = 0.75(2.438\0.75)(0.25) = 19.6 kips/bolt n Number of bolts = 7 = 3.9 Use 4 hots ‘The shear rapture limit tate (lock shear) should also be checked partie ularly here, since the plate (-in.) is thin and heavily leaded, Refering to Fig. 48.4, the preliminary arrangement forfour bolts is © use 2, edge dis tances atthe sides and end, and 3 in. longitudinal spacing, Investigate the block shear strength ofthe resulting arrangement using LRFD-I4.3. “The block shear potential flue long path «--candd-e-fof Fig. 48.4 mast be investigated according to LRFD-#4 Calculating the net areas A, and lene band fle 1 oes ists as ~ 2s(ars = $)Jo2s = 1.849. du = Ugh 8 ad deo 05 hs) ik 2fa—os(ors«t) as - 0789 Compare 06: A. with FA [0.6F,A., = 0.6(58)1.84 = 64.0} > [F,A,, = 58(0.78) = 45.2], ‘which means Eq. 3.9.7 [shear fracture, tension yielding] controls, OR = B006F.A, + FA) bon R,. = 0.75(64.0 + F.A,) = 0.751640 + 36(4.0)0.25] = 0.75(100.0) ~ 75 kips Figure 484 lock shear lure on plate of Example 4.83,130 (CHAPTER STRUCTURAL FASTENERS Thus. block shear [75 kips) controls over tension yielding on gross section [81 Kips] or fracture on effective net section [90 kips]. The design strength is Slightly below the feted lad [77 kips] that mast be eae: an unsatisfactory sitbaton, Intease end distance t 2.5. i, {Use 2 in, edge distances along the sides. 3 in. longitudinal spacing, and 2 in, end distance 4.9 SLIP-CRITICAL JOINTS EXAMPLE 49.1 ‘When slp resistance at service load is ested, the join is referred to asa sip-evticat Joint. In the 1978 AISC Specification, such connections were temed friction: type ‘connections. All tensioned high-strength bolted connections actwally resist lead by friedon, Referring wo Fig. 4.6.3, the pretension force Ti the bat equals the clamping force between the pieces being joined, The resistance to Shear iss fitional force fT, where jis the coetiient of fiction, “The oeticient of friction or more propery the slp coeficient, depends onthe surface condition, with such items as mil scale, ol, paint, or special surface teat- ‘ments determing the value of Sip is defied as occurring when “the fiction bond is definitely broken and the wo suraces slip with respect tone another by a relatively large amount” [4. 4}. The ange of s varies Irem 0.2 to 0.6 depending on the surface condition [3.11 “To avoid directly using the coefficient of fiction and to permit design of slip- critical joimts using the same general approach as for bearing-type connections, the friction force jT is vided by the bolt gross cross-sectional area A, to obtain a so-called “shear stress” on tbe bol. Determine the amount of force P required to cause sip of a -in-diam A325 bolt Jaded asin Fig. 49.1, she slip coeticent 4 is 0.33 (atypical value for the usual “clean mill scale” surface condition). Using the service load force P, compute the “shear stress”, f= PYAy, Soluron. Using the pretension load from Table 44.2, Ty = 39 kips P = pf, = 0.33(39) ~ 129 kips Figure 49.1 Exaile 49.145 SURCATICALJONTS 191 Sine he veal on of he connection ia searing eect te “sear sss fin hentia ol at he aa casi sip rns oa, ~ 0013 ~ 214 ksi am ‘The AISC Specifications [1 5, 1.16] use the “shear stress” approach to provide adequate slip resistance in joints where slip at sersce fond cannot be tolerated, The limit stae of slip in the joit is a serviceability requirement. The actual failure of aseners ina joinc wil be as dsenssed in Sec, 4.6; that i, a shear failure ofthe bol tension failure of the bol. or bearing failure inthe connected material Because resistance slipin“slip-criial" connection is aservicesility (rather than stength) limit state that must be investigated a service load, the limiting “shear streses” tobe used are in concep tbe same for LRFD as were used in the 1978 ASD. Specification. The LRFD maximum acceptable service lad “shear stress” F, for Class ‘A surface condition (see Ref. 4.7, See. 5(b, for data on other surface conditions) appears as Table 4.9.1 ‘As may be noted, fr the situation of Example 49.1 the LRFD-J3.8a allowable “shear stress" F, of 17.0 ksi for A325 bolts 16 used for slip-eritical connections ccortaining standard holes. The margin of safety against slip provided would be 214/170 = 1.26, Since slip i serviceability requirement, Faber than a strength equirement, a margin of safety lower than tha used for strength is reasonable. The [ATSC has used for ths situation a safety fatoe against slip about 70% ofthat used for steength, ‘Overcoming slip doesnot imply that filure mode has been reached. However, ‘when connections are subject to stress reversal there is greater concern regarding any slip at service load, Repeated loading may introduce fatigve concerns if sip is oecur 2, particularly when oversized or slotied holes are used. ‘The factor of safety against sip computed above is typical for other bolt sizes anc for both A325 and A490 bolts the vatution may be observed from Table 4.9.2 ‘The clamping force isthe inital tension from Table 4.4.2. ‘TABLE 49:1 MAKAUNI ACCEPTABLE SERVICE LOAD “SHEAR STRESS", FOR HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS IN SLIP-CAITICAL CONNECTIONS! (FROW URED SPECIFICATION, TABLE 3.6) ‘Nomi! Restos 0 sear es Tipe ottot | stndard ze oles | sonst ee | Lenpstote tles 590, a 6 Is ore ea gae192 CHAPTER STRUCTURAL FASTENERS TABLE 492. FACTOR OF SAFETY AGANST (COEFFICIENT OF SLIP = 030) bat ene oon So itr ose fey t6gia) me) Aas caus 9 i Dats 30133 Le 1s 0 GS 108 136 fue “The reliability iaex (se See. 1.8) is higher for slp-resistance when bolts are installed by the ten-ofthe-nat method than when they are installed by calibrated ‘wrench [8,16], The AISC Specifications [1 5, 116] 0 not ecognize the dilference the values assume « 10% probability of slip with bolts installed by the calibrated wrench mothod. The slip- 2.55 ips | 2.00 kips >| BeOS R= VR RETR RE R= VOSS > 150} + G82 + ZO = 7.09 kips Ultimate Strength Analysis ‘This method, als called plastic analysis, currently is recognized by the Guide [3.1] asthe most rational one “The application of the foad P causes both a translation and a rotation of the fastener group. The translation and rotation can be reduced wo a pure rotation about 4 point defined as the instantaneous center of rotation (se Fig, $12.7), ‘The requirements for equilibrium ate as follows: Zk = 0; Da. sin = P sin 5 (4.12.13) ar DR cos 8 — Pos 6 = 0 (412.14) DR, — Ple + x cos 8 + yy sin 8) =O (412.15)144 (CHAPTER ¢ STRUCTURAL FASTENERS Figure 4.12.7 Instantaneous center of rotation ‘These three equations (Eqs. 4.12.13 4.12.15) contain three unknowns (P, so, ‘and and thus exaedly determine the location (i) ofthe instantaneous center and the magnitude ofthe spplied force P. When either “he resistance R, is proportional the deformation, or when the angle 8 is equal to 2270 or ninety degrees, the angle a is equal to the angle 6 and Eq. 4.12.15 reduces to =u where rs the distance between the instantaneous center and the centroid (CG) ofthe connection (7, shown in Fig, 412.8), "Actually the concept of instantaneous centers identical t the elastic (vector) method when the resistance & is assumed proportional tothe deformation (ie. tess §s proportional strain, For either the elasteof te strength method, the deform tion is proportional to the distance d from the instantaneous center of rotation, For the strength analysis, two approaches have been used [3.1] Fora bearing ‘ype connection, sip is neglected s thatthe deformation ofeach fastener is propor tional tits distance from the instantaneous enter The resistance af each fastener is related tis deformation according to its load-defmation relationship. An expres- son proposed by Fisher [4.21] and used by Crawford and Kulak [4.17] for this oad vs deformation 3 response is B= Rl — maps 27) where Rye = As. The coefficients 10 and 0.55 were experimentally determined and the maximum & at failure was about 0.34 in, [3.1] Note that e in Eg. 4.12.17 36 the Ded — Pete =0 (4.12.16)432 ECCENTRIC SHEAR 145 Naperian base (2.718) and not the eecenricity. For A325 bois, the uhimate shear Strength + s approximately 10 ofthe tensile strength (120 ks minimum. Aetoaly the experimental work cirectly obtained 7, 0 be Kips for n.-diam A325 bolts {in double shear, making 7, equal to 0.7 of 120 bs ‘The experimental work flating 19 Fq. 4.12.17 used bolts loaded symmetrical (chat i, in double shear; however, the general strength method could use an ap priate load R vs deformation 8 relationship, not necessarily Eq. 4.12.19, EXAMPLE 4123 ‘estrate the general strength method by determining the nominal strength load Py that may be applied to the fastener group of Fig. 4.12.5. Use Eq. 4.12.17 as the Joad-deformation expression, and assume that the maximum deformation Ay. at failure i 0.34 in. Assume full shank cross-sections ofthe bolts resist shear. Solution, For -in-diam A325 bolts, Ba 4.12.17 becomes 8, = 0.7(120)(0.0013)(1 ~ ey" sos - my ‘The loads applied in the y-direction: therefore 8 = 0 (Fig. 4.12.7). Using» for sin 0, and sd for ons 8 Eqs. 12.13 through 4.12.15 become DR =0 (4.12.18) Bede, 1219 Baa = Ale +d 1220) Ao, base deformation assumptions ay 4 a ha hose (@) Since an iterative process will be fequted 10 solve Eqs. (4.12.18 through 4.12.20, let te first ial ry — 3 in, (ee Fig. 4.12.8), Figure 4128 _ Strength method for Buumple 4.123146 CHAPTER 4 STRUCTURAL FASTENERS Fests x yg Bn 13> si oi a8 $3 Sn to oe 5 a so om ie. 9. 4.12.19: Bq. 4.12.20: Since te values are not identical, further tials are required. One will generally find that, from Ea, 412.2018 relatively cose tothe correct value even though gp. 412-19 and 4.12.20 give values that are not very close. A tial vale of ry that wil give P beticen the two values but closet the velue from Bq. 4.12.20 will make the Saletation converge eather rapidly. The correct value is = 2.06 in. 2s shown in the following table: Re Faire x yt BE Tage 3 sb Oa we7 Go tana 2 Gus bom baw “Sas 8s 3 ome 3 Stor ama aero and 4 fy 3 Song se ake an $80 0 Ate oats a7 kos Tor & SoS Som Snes Ses ass REE So 9. 4.121% Ea. 41220 P, 39 kips Thus, Py = 139 ips am ‘Studies [4.17, 4.18, 420, 4,22) have indicated that an ultimate strength (plastic) analysis isthe most rational approach o aba the strength of eccentric shear connec- tions. The elastic (Vester) analysis was found to be conservative, making the ratio betwcen strength and service load range ftom 2.5 4 3.0. However since that elastic ‘method does tot propery rect actual behsvior, the margins of safety are variable from case © ease, though conservative LRED Manual Tables 8-18 08-25, pp. 8-40: 8-87, provide for eccentric shear ‘based on the ultimate strength concept described in this section, Brandt [4.19] has provided a precical procedure for making a general solution to these problems.17 ‘The same stength procedure is recommended [3.1] for slip-eitical connections as for bearing-type connections. Since slip-esstance im serviceaility requirement, not 2 strength requirement itis logical to snvesizate the stengih of either (ype connee tion by the ultimate strength approach described above. ‘A preferred procedure for analysis slip-crtical connections a service load is to consider the resistance R, as cofstant forall fasteners, say, at whatever is the "shear stress” F, (see Table 49.1 from RCSC [1.7). Since the iil joint most be jnsalled with initial tension, thre wil be a fily ‘uniform clamping ation between the pieces being join. EXAMPLE 4124 Repeat Example 4.12.3 (Fig. 4.12.5) using R, = R, a fora slip-ritial connection using the instamancous center approach, similar to the ultimate strength method, Solurion, For R,~ R, and 8 = 0, Eqs. 4.12.13 though 4.12.15 become ys RY=0 220) RDP =o (4.1222) RLd~ Pes nad (4.1223) Try ry = 2 In, Referring wo Fig. 412.8, Festenee ae 3 Sh From Bq. 4.12.22, From Eq. 4.12.23, For this assumption, fastener No. 2 is atthe center f rotation and therefore not involved in Eq. 41223. Also, fastener No.2 is assumed a have no Cots148° CHAPTER STAUCTURAL FASTENERS bution to Eq, 4.12.22, When fs assumes slighny lege than 29, Eg. 4.1222 ives P = 308, because sd, ™ 1.0 for fastener No. 2. When ris assumed SHighuly smaller than 2.0, 4. 4 ves Pm 1.6R, because sf) = ~1 for the same fastener, Thus the talue P= 2-86R, fom Bq, 4.12.23 is accepted as the answer (ey % = 2.0 in), Hea factor of safety is applied. R, may be inter- preted asthe allowable value fora slip-crtical connection and P the safe applied toad. For +in-diam fasteners, using F, — 17 AS see Table 4.9.1), ses Tor single shear, R= 170.6013) = 10.2 kips “and the servis lad capacity would he P= 2.86(102) 202 hips Load and Resistance Factor Design EXAMPLE 4125 ‘Compare the service iad capacities P of the eccentric shear comection of Fig. 412.5 ‘when investigated by various methods, Solve assuming the consection i (a) a bea type connection with threads excluded from the shear ple, and (b) a slip-riti {Giction-type) connection, Assume the Live load is $0%¢ oad dead load is 20% of the total. Assume the plates ae thick enough that bearing os the plates does not contol Use }-in-iam A325 bolts and AISC LRFD Specification. Solution (a) Elastic analysis—bearing-type connection ‘R= 10 kips (fastences 4 and 6 in Example 4.12.1) “The design strength #R, in shear on the bolt for a bearingtype comnection (325K) is oR, $(0.S0FmA, [473] £75(0.50)(120)(1}0.6013 = 27.1 kips/bot ‘The factored service load R, is R,= 12D + 1.6L = 1.22) + L6(8) = 152 kips Since the factored load (15.2 kips) on the eitcal fastener is well below the ‘design strength of 27.1 Kis, the load P on the eccentric conaeetion may be increased proportionally. Thus, P= 2427.1/15.2) = 42.8 kips (}) Blase analysis—slip-crtial connection. The design strength GR, is still 27.1 kigsbolt as computed in (a). The "shear stress” From Table 4.9.1 is 17 ks for A325 bolts n standard holes, Thus, the service load bolt capacity for slip resiance is Allowable R= Faas 17(1)0.6013 = 10.2 kips/bolt412 ECCENTRIC SHEAR 149 ‘The computed maximum load per bolts 10 ips. very close 10 the lit forthe Slip-eritical connection. Strength in shea does not govern, Thus P = 24(10.2/10) = 24.5 Kips (c) Ulimatestrength—bearing-type connection. The desig strength 3 is till 27-1 kips/bolt as computed in (a). which means the maxiraam nominal resistance R,perboltis27.1/6 = 36.1 hips. Thus. , from Example 4.12.3 must be redined isthe ratio of 36.1 to maximum &, (Le. 49.6 kips. Thus BP, = 0:75(139)(36 1/39.6) = 75.9 ips “The factored load on the connection is P= 1.21027) + 1.6(0.8P) = 152P Equating P10 8P, gives P= 759/152 = 49.9 kips (a) Instantaneous center—sip-eitical connection. The service load ea pacity from Example 4.124 is P= 22 kips (6) LRFD Manual {1.18} Table 8-20 (9, 8-52) for 0 = O°—beating-1ype ‘connection. Since the horizontal spacing of fisteners is 4 in. the LRED tables are not directly applicable. One could interpolate Between Table 8-19 for 3 in. td Table 8-20 for 5 in. e=Sin. Table 8-19 Table 8-20 n= 3 bois (p.846)——(p.B32) Angle = 0 Angle = 0° Coefficient, C = 259 2.96 Inverpolated, C = 2.59 + (2.96 ~ 2.59(1/2.5) = 2.74 OP, = Chr, where dy, = BR, = design strength of one fastener Thus, 8, = 2.7427.) = 742 hips P= TH3/152 = 489 kips mths case, the imerpolated design strength i ess than the valve computed in Example 4.12.3; a conservative result but adequate within the accuracy that behavior can be predicted. (£) LRED Manuai [1.18] tables—slip-ritical connection. ‘The intespo- Jated coefficient C = 2.74 from (eis multiplied by the service load capacity (10.2 por per bolt from (by thus, P= 2740102 27.9 ips (2) Summary150 CHAPTER STRUCTURAL FASTENERS Beara ype Sere ‘Sirength amass B9kips “ enema eS 2p ERPD Vwate-bserpoited —A89Rips 279 “Thus, one m res note the elastic (eso) metho produces the most conservaive Design Formula for Moment on Single tine of Fasteners ‘The LRFD Manual [1.18] provides Tables 8-18 to 8-25 that allow the designer to determine the number of connectors required for a given load and eccentricity. In tunusual cases for which the tables do not apply, or When they may not be really ailable, i 6 desirable to have a simple alternative method to wse. The following evelopment from Shedd provides a useful imple formula ‘Consider sna line of n equally spaced fasteners subjected to moment alo as shown in Fig. 4.12.9. Since with uniform spacing the resistance ofthe fasteners is ‘uniform from op to Bottom. and according 0 Bq, 4.12.6, R = Md/(2d), the force varies linearly a8 shown in Fig. 4.12.9. ‘Assuming R isthe force in the outermost fustener, and that i represents the accumulation of stress that would occur on a rectangular resisting section over the ‘itaace p, one may designate the average lad per inch of height atthe outermost fastener a8 R/. ‘Using similar triangles the load per inch at se extreme fiber may be determined, a baer fete = 2(-2-) (229 ‘eens eee wet be vinge pany efor ap, 1(2)(2.) : re)\\G)-aty | wna ‘The internal resisting moment is M = TGa) (4.1226) Substitution of Eq, 4.12.25 into Ea. 4.12.26 gives, ke (2 “-a=aG") Solving Fg. 4.12.27 form, one obtains (1227 n= VG (4.12.28) “thomas © She Sra Dein See ohn Wiley & Sons, New Yak 1984p. 287432 ECCENTRIC SHEAR 181 Figure 4.129 Moment ono see line of fasteners: Which asa frst approximation becomes ao (4.12.29) subich is suggested for design use Since Bq. 4.12.29 is for moment alone acting on a single row of fasteners, the numerical value for wo be used in it Should he adjusted to account for direct sheat and for more than one row of fasteners. I's ugpested to use a reducedetfctve R for the diectshear effect and use an increased effective R fr the effect of lateral spread For lateral spread use a multiplier on Rof 1.0 forse lineup to about 2.0 fora square array of connectors ‘More complicated formulas have been developed 10 compute the maximom stressor force on fastener at pa direct solution forthe numberof connectors or Use humiber of rows is possible Teom sac equations, EXAMPLE 4.26 Determine the required number of -indiam A325 boks for one vertical lie of Tasteness @ ~ @) in the bracket shown in Fig. 4.12-10. Assume i o bea bearing- type connection with threads mclded i the shear planes (A325-N), Use AISC Load and Resistance tor Design Solution (@) Factored load, Using the gravity load equation, Fg. 1.83. P, = 1.200) + 1.6041) = 74 kips (b) Design strengah of a fastener in a besring-type connection OR, = S(OADFDoA, (hear strength — double shest = 0.75(0.403(120)2)0.6013 = 43.3 kips controls)152. CHAPTER 4 STRUCTURAL ERSTENERS En ® Figure 4 Example 4.126. OR, = G44 ,a) (bearing strength) = 0.7512.4)(58)(0.875)0.5 = 45.7 kips (c) Estimate the numberof bolts required, using Eq. 4.12.29 fot [ome fooui6) "Vip Varo Vasa ‘The R value (here AR, has not been adjusted for the direct shear effect try 4 fasteners, () Check the adequacy using the general ultimate strength analysis. Start ing withthe assumption thatthe instantaneous center is 3 in the let of the vertical line of fasteners, sera} iterations are required to obtain satisfaction of Eqs. 41218 through 4.12.20, The inal results are tabulated below. fs noted that quite a few iterations may be needed 10 get the values of P, from Eqs, 4.12.19 and 4.1220 exactly equal, however, the intial assumption of ry = Bin. gave Py = 111 Kips from Eq, 412.20. The authors have found that tven the first tial gives a reasonable approximation of the answer. ‘Verify that answer is ro = 2.35 in. 10 the left of the line of fasteners: a Tas 60 «59 080 we 2 bss don Sat oe 8 5 bss 23 es 83 42S Tem 6s a0 foe Fy. 4121: Ey. 4.1220: P, Note that the solution above is Jor single shear and bas assumed that no threads are in the shear planes (A325-X). Also the maximum R,, even though 10 kips HO kips (Equal proves solution)412 ECCENTRIC SHEAR 153, losiclly computed wing Eg. 4.12.17, cannot exceed the LRFD-Table 43.2 specitied value (based on 0.50F2 = 60 ksi) R, = OSOPYA, = 6010.601%) = 36.1 ips “Then, P, must be reduced in proportion that 36.1 kips she masimam Rie 49.6 kips inthe table above, , = 110(36.1/49.6) = 80.1 kips for A325-X in single shear For A325-N, this value must be multiplied by 2 forthe double shear case ‘ofthis example and mulhipled by 0.7 because threads are possible in the shear planes (A325-N}. CCompane dP, with P, using the shear-related ¢ valve since shear con twolled the fastener sont, [6P, = 0.75(80.1)2(03) = 84 kips] > (P, = 74 Kips) OK ‘The above shows tha fasteners ina line aremsare than adequate, Investigation (oot showin) for3 fasteners indicates that 3 fasteners are nol adequate (6) Check the adequacy using the elastic (veto) method. The ditect shear component R,, ftom Eq. 4.12.11 is Rom 8.5 kips | The moment component ,, from Eq. 4.12.9 (noting that M equals P, times eis Poy Rn Ss (4.1293) Dei + Dy? = aay + 7] = 80 in? = 780016 . 2 = HE = 33.3 ips ‘Then, using Eq. 4.12.12, the resultant is obtained, 2B, = VEST > G33P = 38.1 kips < (eR, 13.3 kips) ‘Thus, the fctored load R, on the most beavily loaded bolt does not exceed the design srengh i, = 43.3 kips for A325-N. Thus, 4 fasteners are acceptable emust be noted that the edge distance , measured inthe direction ofthe resultat. foree must sati'y Eq. 4.7.13 (LRFD-13.10) requiring that L RF.) Nate that the factored force R, on tbe most heavily loaded bolt, used as P in the original equation. samt AS25-N bots @ 4-in. pitch, EXAMPLE 4.127 Determine the requiee! number of bracket plate of Fig 4.12.11, assuming 4 vertical rows. Use a slip tam A325 bolts in standard holes for the ical connection154 CHAPTERS STRUCTURAL FASTENERS Figure 4.12.11 Eccentric shear connection of Example 4.12.3 with clean mil scale (Class A) surface condition, and use AISC Load and Resistance Factor Desi Solution {@) Factored load, Since one-half the Joa is carted by each plate in a singe shear situation, use one-half the total load ial ealelations fr one pte Using the gravity load equation, Eq. 18.3, P,= 1268) + 16(85) = 94 kips (or 47 kps/plae) (b) Desig strength ofa fastener ina slip-critcal connection. For strength, values areas for hearing-type connections Assume no threads are to be inthe shear planes (A325-X), For single shear. GR, = HO5OF!ImA, (shear trength—single shear) = 0.75(0.50)(120)(1)(0.4418) = 19.9 kips (Conteols OR, ~ 642.4 dt) (bearing srength) 75(2.4)(88)(0.29)0.$ = 39.2 kips For slip resistance, the service bad capacity is R= mF.A, = 1.0007)0.4818) (@) Estimate the numberof bolts required, using Eg, 4.12.29. tis assumed ‘that ship eesistance at servie loads the controlling iit state strength will Iter be checked, — feat focorti6) "= Nap Vasa) 57 Inthe above equation, the service load per plate s 30 kips, andthe oad per Tine ‘of fasteners i 30/4, which must be used since Eq, 4.12.29 applies w one line of fasteners, No adjustment in & was made either fr direct shear or for several lines of fasteners. Try 5 bolts per row. Skips— 2 ECCENTRIC SHEAR 155 roe 308 Figure 41212 Fastener aumbering for Example 4.127 (4) Check the adequocy using the general ultimate strength analysis. Re- fecring 1 Fig. 412 12, and using tho same method illustrated in Example 4.12.6, the value of ris found toe 3.03 in. tothe left of the cencrod ofthe fastenet sroup: Facer wy & yO ong bam 6m asa ae lan ne 2 2 30 Son aun “3090 ae 6 02s 6m gor 3D 138 ons + 038 Sh Sar mas aes ash $38 gh ean st 23 71 3% So e5i2 Bs jos! aaa fo 8S Goo bane wea Sur 03 he S00 Ste eo Sim Ss “ea ara Muli the atone cies 2forsyameny = 17720 3748 3 mar ao 29s 27 Ba MS 8 025 Ga G0 om “8 3a 3 3578 On Sam OS a ne sd RT Om) Rama G2 359 Bee hae rm els Eq. 4.1218 P, = 228.9 ips Bg. 4.12.19: P, = 4362.1/(16 + 3.03) = 229.2 kips Note thatthe solution sbove is fr single shear and has assumed that 90 threads are inthe sheas planes (A325-X). In adsition,consier that LRFD limits ‘the maximum strength ofa bot in shear to A, = OSOF; Ay = 0.50(120)04418 6.5 ips156 GUAPTER 4 STAUCTURAL FASTENERS Reducing P, from the stength analysis P, = 229126.5/361) = 167 hips [oP, = 0.781167) = 125 hips) > [P, = 47 Kips] OK ‘Strenath i more than adequate: it was not expected that strength would govern for this sip-resistant connection having standard holes and Class A surface condition, Only” when using a surface condition having a very high slip coefficient is theze teal probability oF streagth comrolig (@) Using the strength analysis approach but reducing the capac proportion thatthe allowable capacity [75 kips from part (bof a slip- omnection isto the force (36.4 hips) on the mast heey leaded fastener inthe Strength analysis of the bearing-type connection Thus. the service load capacity i P= 229(7.5/364) = 47.1 hips > [Required 30 kips] This procedute is always conservative, Am alernative isto do an analysis as itasrated in Example 4.12.4 where the resistance of each fastener isthe same, (© Check using LRED Mera! Table 8-25 (p. 8-82) for eceentically loaded bolt groups. The horizontal spacing of fasteners iy not exactly the same asin Table $-25, however, when the external dimensions ofthe artay are about the same, and the vertical spacing of bots agrees with the tables, the coefficient ‘wll be found tobe about the same. Ifthe LRFD table is assumed applicable a5 "he authors believe is for this case enter the table withthe number (n= 5) of fasteners in a vertical in, and the eccentricity (e = 16 in.) f the load fom tbe center of gravity ofthe group of fasteners, Find coefficient C = 6.15 AP, = CpR, ~ 6.15119.9) = 122 kips OP, = 125 kips for a bearings which compares wi analysis in For the sip-ritiel connection of this example P = CR = 615(7.5) = 46 ips which compares with P = 47.) kips compated in (@) Investigace the connection using fhe elastic (vector) method. Since the slip-ertial service load condition has already been shown to govern, the ius tration ofthe use ofthe elastic (vector) method s performed fr the service ad [GO kips on axe plate). ‘Check 5 bolts per row by elastic method: pe connection from the P30 a= ba So soni Bes Dye = wiersy + 69-1 + slay + 6) Bom abt, — 30006 36 tips 766423 FASTENERS ACTING MAMIAL TENSION 187 Mx___ 301165 766 FRTGF = 634 kips < 75 OK iam A325 bolts per co. The fasteners (3,8, 13, and 18) located on ‘he wais could have been omitted: however. the regular patlern of Fig, 412.11 ‘spree. mm 3.60 kips | 4.13 FASTENERS ACTING IN AXIAL TENSION Axial tension occurring without simultaneous shear exists in fasteners for tension ‘members such as hangers (see Fig. 4.6.lc) or other members shose lite of action s perpendicular tothe member to which its fastened, When such tension members are hot perpendicolar to their connecting member, the fasteners are subjected to bach axial tension and shear. Te latter, more typical case, is discussed in See. 4.14, Section 4.6.1 discusses the nominal stength R for fasteners subject (0 axial tension; Eq. 4.6.1 gives the strength as R= FYOISA) [a6 When Eq. 4.6.1 is used in Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD- ‘Table J3.2), the design strength dR, using the resistance factor # of 075 38 “R, = 0.75 F0.75A,) asp Values of (0.758%) have been given i Table 4.7.1 ‘When Eq. 46.1 is used in Allowable Stress Design (ASD-table 33.2), the service load capacity Ris the nominal strength R, divided hy the foctor of safety of 2 ‘Thus, R= OSFYOTSA) = 0.279F2A, RFA, 13.2) Where F; = allowable service load nominal stress, T/A (0375(120) = 44 kat (ASD-Table 13.2) for A 325 bolts = 0:375(150) ~ 94 si (ASD-Table 3.2) for A490 bolts AY fastener stoss cross-sectional area tensile strength of fastener material (120 ksi for A325 and 150 ksi for ‘A490 bolts) T= service tensile load on a fastener Fasteners subject to axial tension must be pretensioned according © Table 44.2 \hether the design is for a bearing-type connection ora slip-crtieal connection [4.7 Prestress Effect of High-Strength Bolts Under External Tension ‘To understand the effec of an externally applied load on a pretensioned high-strength bolt, considera single bolt and the tributary potion of the connected plates ax shown in Fig. 4.13.ta, The pieces being joined are of thickness ¢ and the area of contact156 CHAPTER. STRUCTURAL FASTENERS [2 ls = Ll ™ “| f | EP Tre To per le | vee Figure 413.1 restos effect om baled joie. between the pieces is A. Prior to applying external lad, the Siuation is as shown in Fig. 413.1, where the bolt has been installed to havea pretension farce 7, (values as in Table 4.4.2). The pices being joined ae initially compressed an amount C, For equilibrium, G a3) ‘The external load P is then applied and the forces sting are shown in Fig 4.13.te This ime equilibrium requires Poet (134) here the subscript refers to nal conditions ater application ofthe lad P “The force P ating onthe stem lengthens the bolt an amount 8, between the underside of he bolted and he surface of ontat Between he two connected Paes, i-% -ioh ass 6-5 43s) were Fy = modus feast ofthe bot 7, = fn force in the Blt flr external ais applied [At the same time, the compression between the plates decreases and the plate thickness increases an amount 8, = S55, 3. is 136) = modus of elasticity ofthe plate material C= finateompresio force btwesn the pecs being joined fer external Jes applied Xr contact is mainsined, compatiblity of deformation rogues 8, = 8: ts, Fy. 4135 ousted to Eg. 41306 gives where Toh _O-G ME, AE, CED [Noxt, substitution of Eg. 4.13.3 for Cand Eq. 4.134 for C into Eg, 4.13.7 gives L-T +P AE, AE, eee459. FASTENERS ACTINGIN ARIAL TENSION 189 “The moduli of elasticity F, forthe bolt and E, for the plate are essentially the same and may be eliminated. Then solving for T gives G-mbenaner wns) + Ae + Ae ofr) af q=he (4.13.10) AMPLE 443 Assume J-in-diam A325 bolts are used in a direct tension situation such as in Fig. 413.2. With bols spaced 3 in, apart and having 14 ~in. edge distances, the tebutary area of contact may reasonably be about 9 sq in If the maximium externa tensile lod permitted by AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design i applied, how ‘much docs the bolt tension increase? Assume the service load is 20% dead load and 80% lve load, Solution (@) Design iength #R,. Using Eq. 4.13.1, OR, = O7SF0.75A,) = 0.75(120)(0.75)0.6013 = 40.6 kips (b) Permissible service lod & per bolt. Equating the design strength di, to the factored load R, gives = 120.2R) + 1.6(08R) = 1528 152K © 40.6 kips R= 26.7 kips Figure 4132 Example 413.1160 EXAMPLE 4.132 CHAPTER STRUCTURAL FASTENERS {o)Inital tense force in in-air A32S bolt, From Table 4.4.2. 1, = 39 Kips (d) Determine final tensile force in bolt. The ratio of plate gontactazea to bolt area is de 9 4. 6013 ~ '* “This neglects subtracting the bolt area from the total tButary area, but lite difference reslts, Using Bg, 413.10 withthe load P per fastener equal t0 is maximum value R t 40.7 kips ‘The increase in tension i 4.34. The variation in setual pretension from ist: lation may be expected to exceed this amount, so that ths increase isnot of concern. Furthermore the Wibutary area used for the example (9 59 in.) is Probably the minimum one might encounter in practice, since less chan a 3in. patch and gage i rarely used, ‘The important conclusion from this examples that no sigoificun increase In bolt tension arises until the external load equals or exceeds the pretension force. in which ease the pieces do not remain in contact and the applied force ‘equals the bolt tension. Tf the connection can distort and give rise t “prying forces” these must also be considered. (See LRFD-J? and ASD: and the treatment inthe “Split, Bean Tee Connections” part of Sec, 13.6,) Inthe situation of Example 4.13.1 the approximate Factor of safety against overcoming initial compression be- tween pees is 39 = Beis In general, for A125 bolts under LRED-I3 or ASD-I4, the margin of safety against service foad exceeding the proof load is approximately 1.5 for diameters upto 1 in-and approximately 13 for diameters over in. 8M Determine the required numberof -in-diam A400 bolts forthe conneetion shown in Fig. 413.3, Assume thatthe pieces making up the consecton are adequate, and very st such that prying forces (See Sec. 13.6) can be disregarded and thatthe nominal tensile stresses onthe bolls govern, Use Load and Resistance Factor Design assuming the load is TO dead loed and 90% live oa. Solution ‘a) Design strength, per bolt, Using Eq. 4.13. OR, = O7SFYO.7SA,) = 075(150)0.75)0.4818, 37.3 kips4634 COMBNED SHEAR AND TENSION 161 Figure 4133 Buumple 4132, {b) Calculate the factored tension free T, 1, = 1.2(0.1(140) + 1.6(0.9)1140)= 218 kips (©) Determine the number 1 of bolts required ” Peas, wo OR, 373 iam A490 bols, mm Use 6— bin 4.14 CONBINED SHEAR AND TENSION Ina large number of commonly used connections, both shear and tension occur and ‘must be considered in their design. Figure 4.14.1 shows afew typical connections in hich the connectors are simultaneously subjected to both shear and tension, The ‘connection shown in Fig. 4.14.18 is common one where two angles join the beam web tothe column flange. From the moment force indicated in the igure, the upper fasteners ate subjected to tension in proportion 10 the magnitude of the applied moment, However, one my real from structural analsis chat only a small amount ‘of end rotation on a beam is necessary to change from a fixed end to 3 hinged end ‘condition. In addition, the web caries only a smal part ofthe bending moment. Thus, ‘one may intuitively sense that the moment shown will be relieved before a significant tension force can be developed in the fasteners. Sch comections are used whe litle tend moment is desired to be transmitted. An exception ths occurs inthe case of & ‘ery deep beam such asa plate girder. Relerting next Fig 414.10 in the which the applied moment is erumssitted through the Ranges ofthe beam, the situation i ferent. In this ease alge applied moment fs intended eo be tansmited s0 the connection is made atthe fanges, the lements carrying most of the moment. Chapter 13 treats this type of connection, Figure 4.14.1 and 4.14.1dypify the two types of fastener loading in combined shear and tension which are developed inthe following pars of this section,162 CHAPTER & STRUCTURAL FASTENERS | Dy Figure 4.441 Typical combisa shear and tension consssins Bearing-Type Connections—LRFD Design In ater sections the nominal strengths of fasteners loaded Separately in shear and teasion were treated. When the full strength in tension is require, the Full strength in shears not simultaneously asilable. Based on expecimentalstadies[4.23, 3.1] the Strength ineroction equation may be reptesened by a ciclar relationship fe} +[ Ra where R= fictred tai loud on bot Rx = factored sea oad on tat yR,, = design strength of bol in tension alone (6, = 0.75) ‘¢,R_ = design strength of bolt in shear alone (4, ~ 0.75) ‘The nominal strength R,, of bolts in tension is given by Ba. 4.6, Ra = R= FOTSAD [He] Jsv0 tan) ‘The nominal sicength R,, of bots in shear is given by Eq, 4.7.2. Ry = By = mALOSOF.) 143.2)414 COMBINED SHEAR AND TENSION 169 for wo tveads tn shear plones: and Eq. 4.7.5 Ba = Ry = mA(OAOF) farsi Sor threads possible within sheay planes. ‘The AISC Specifications (1.5. 1.16] have simplifed the cirlar imteroction relationship of Eq. 4.14.1 into x teaight line which requires a reduction only in the most severe loading eases. The straight-line expression is ‘sagan where € is constant. Comparison of the stsight line with the circle appears in Fig. 4.14.2, Muliplying Eg. 4.14.2 by 4,8. and solving for R, gives oR OR. The AISC Specifications [1.5, 1.16] have wsed the stress formar by dividing all terms by the gross cross-sectional bolt area A,. In addition, when the expresions for 4, and dR. are substituted, Eq. 4.14.3 becomes Res COR, (4a) Bue eMOISEDA, _eOISEDA, ATO a,” DASIOSORDA, A, aaa Su 5 (BFS, = GO7SFIC = 26.) 4145) ‘When threads ace in the shear planes sing Bg. 4.7.5 for R, gives 2.5 instead of| 12 The Specifications (15, 1.16) have Used C'~ 1.3 wo obtain the straight line of Fig. 4.142. The tension stress init 4, then becomes G0.75(120)1.3 ~ 24} 146) Ot1T = 2h) 147) aa) 8 5 ie gift Figure 4.142 _Nondimensoral shear—tension strength infraction curve: bearing type comesions1G! CHAPTER «STRUCTURAL FASTENERS LRED-J3.7 and LRFD-Table 13.5 gives for A325-X. OF, = 8117 ~ 1.5f,) = 690 48) ‘The use of 1.5 insead of 2.0 reflects the fact that in the development above, the reduced “pseudo” stear strength reflecting medium length connection as used ‘whereas in the combined shear and tension case it more Fational to use the actual strength 0.62F4y. The use of the later would reduce the 2.0 to 1.6, Straightline approximation is slays a judgement call regacding the cve(Ticients © use. When threads are in th shoar plates. LRFD-3.7 and LRFD Table J3.5 give Fs, = W117 ~ 19h) = 490 149) Equations 4.148 and 4.14.9 for A328 bolts are shown in Fig. 4.14.3 with the {= 0.75 incleded, The equstionsform 4, from LRED Table 13.5 are summarized in Table 4.14.1 asrsexee P $62 $07 19612 400) Sea Sons Frc sh fe igre 4.14.3 Intercton relationship for combined shear and tension in A328 and A225-N beasag-type conection,434 COMBINED SHEAR AND TENSION 165 TABLEL141. DESIGN TENSION STRESS UNIT oF IN THE PRESENCE OF FACTOFED EHEAR STRESS (Fon BEARING TYEE CONNECTIONS or LRFO-TABLE V0.8) Festeoat ve cy Ties forested . oes A025 tas 61117 = 189 4905 Lops ween) (690. te ist afi IIB HUOI0 = 1944) = 47) ‘theads or exci ‘A490 tats HUT 561 IIB IOI — 184.) = BI Stp-Critical Connections Again, 2 straight-line interaction relationship is used: but one that is more conserva tive than the type of Eg. 4.14.2 for bearing-type connections. The constant C is Fedweed from 1:3 1.0 for lipcrtical connections. In addition, since sip resstance is a service load consideration, the numerator terms of Bq. 4142 become service foads 7 and V (tension and sheae per bolt) that may simultaneously act, and the denominator terms become the maxinvum service load forces permitted in slip-ctitical {comnections subjest to tension or shear eting alone: lr] [a= asin ‘where F, = maximum nominal service load shear stess V/A, permitted in slip-ritical connections subject shear only (LRFD-13.9), ‘Tne use of the initial tension force T, from installation of the bolts reflects the “prestress” concent discussed in Sec. 4.13, Until the external lad on a bolt excceds the precompression fore between the pies, the tension force inthe bolt will not ‘change significantly rom its intial tension 7, ‘Solving Eq. 4-148 forthe maximum service load shear stess V/A, that may exist In the presence of tnsio, gives fc-Z]=efo-J] sas ‘Substituting the values for F., the allowable service load shear se in the absence of tension for bols in standard holes, one obtains from Ea. 4.14.9 the limitations of TERFD-13.98: fe[ri(i-Z)] ass totsinsiondas totes 442)166 CHAPTER «STRUCTURAL FASTENERS | emt pi Figure 4.144 Combined shear and tension on slip-ertcl connections with standard bales (LRED-IS and 9), pe [rieai(i-2)] svosicinsninanie — aun) ‘These equations are shove in Fig. 4.144. EXAMPLE 44 Using Load and Resistance Factor Design, determine the adequacy of the festenes in Fig. 4.4.5 when j-in-diam A325 bolts are used in () a bearing-type connection (4325) with threads eXcluded from the shear planes, and (b)a slip-rtical connec ton (A325-SC) with Class A surfice condition and slandsed holes. Assume the strength ofthe column flange and the ST section do not govern the answer. Neglect prying action (see Sec. 136). The gravity leading is 10% dead and 90% live load Solurion () Check connection as a bearing-type connection (A325-X). Obtaining the tension and shear components ofthe factored appli force, P, = 1.210.1)(73) & 1,610.9)173) = 117 kips Tension componen 0.8(117) = 93.6 kips Shear component 0.6(117} = 70.2 Kips436 COMBINED SHEAR AND TENSION 167 Figure 4145 Example 4.141 “The factored loads 7, and ¥, per bolt are ‘Tension 7, = 96/6 = 186 Kips/bott Shear V, ~ 10,2/6 = 11.7 kipsfbolt Using Table 4.14.1, OF, = A117 ~ 154.1 = 490 (0.95(117) = 0.75(1.5)f, = 0.75(90) 818 ~ 1.13. = 67.5 ksi Multipying by A, for F-n.-dlam bolts, the above becomes Max T, = OFLA, = 87.8(0.6013) ~ L13V, = 67.5(0.6013) 528 = 1.134, = 40. kips 156 < [Max 7, = 328 ~ 1.13(11.7) = 39.6 bps] Note tha the 39.6 kis limit from the linear inveaetion equation is applicable since it éoes not exceed the upper limit on that vale of 40.6 hips, In aii the shear value 11.7 kips/bolt most be checked. The design strength (Eq. 4.7.1) in single sear is Ry, = 0.75(0.50F2)A, = 0.75(0.50}(120)(1}0.6013 = 27.1 kips > 11.7 hips OK. ‘The connection is very conservatively designed asa bearing-type connection (b) Cheek connection as a sip-eritcal connection (A325-SC). For strength, a slip-eritea connection must satisfy the same strength-related crite- sa of a bearing-type connection, The shear stzength was investigated in (a) bearing strength was piven inthe problem statement as not contol For serviceability, the adequacy of sip resistance must be checked. The service load forces per bolt are 17 = 08(05)/6 0.6:75)/6 10 kips/bol 7 kipsibot168 CHAPTER 4. STRUCTURAL FASTENERS From LRFD-I39, Eq. 4.14.12 nenp-Z]=nfi-¥] Max V = F/A, = 12.60.6013) = 7.6 kips/bol exceeds V = 7.5 kis: therefore, the bolts ate satistctory a5 slip ical connection, mm EXAMPLE 4142 Determine the maximum value of the loud P in Example 4.14.1 assuming (2) 2 Slip-eritical connection, and (b} a bearing-type connection (A325-N) with threads possible in the shear planes. Use AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design and assume Class surface conliion with standard hoes Solution {4) Slip-ertical connection, The service lod forces are ‘Tension component = P, = 0.8P Shear component = P, = 0.6P ‘The Service load per bot in shea i V = 068/6 = 0.10P per bott “The service load per bolt in tersion is T= 087/6 = 0.135? per bolt fa4.10] dine 132) «17 oosse ‘The maximum service load shear V per bolt permitted on j-in- Vip * Vana = 43 requited for M alone 7 required for sheat alone Tey 10 bolts (5 per tne) Dy" = ALG) + 6] = 180 in? May _ 92.8836 24.7 kips < 40.6 kips OK By 7180 PL _ 928 Ra = $= ES 9 kips < 27.1 kins OK [Next check the interaction between shear aad tension. From Table 4.14.1, OF, = O7S(117 = 15f,) © 9.75190) OFA, = 878(0.6013) ~ 1.13R,, = 67.5(0.6013) = 528-113, = 406 cis = 528 ~ 1.13093) = 42.3 kips > [R, (One could check 4 bols per line, Dy? = ALS + 5) = 90 in? My Soames a Me AS a tate = Clearly. 4 bolts per line are acceptable Use 8" -in--diam A325 bolts 4 per row. () Slip-crtcal connection, The srengch requiements examined in (a) sre sill applicable here; however wsually the serve load limitations relating to slip resistance will gover. Equation 4.1228 may be used with sevice loadsand allowable resistances entered, |M = 60(8)/2 = 240 in-Lips per bolt line R= Fama, = 17(0)10.6013) = 102 kipssbolt ‘The reduced valve for shear inthe presence of txsion is FL= BAL ~ T/T) (LREDI39) Since strength must be checked even though the joint is slip-critical ane, the number of fasteners to resist tension is the same calculation as in (a) where178 CHAPTER £ STRUCTURAL FASTENERS 44.3 fastoners per line were indicated. It is more tikely here shat shear will ‘control: thus, estimating Rat somewhat ss than 10.2 kips sa 8 Kips. Pw n= Fe = B= 3.8 estimate for shear atone ‘With about 4 bolts required for shear and 4 required for tension. more than 4 shouldbe investigated: Try 5 bots per Tne, The masimum seevie load per bolt in tension and shear sas follows My _ 60186 a= Be = SEF — eo kins Po Be oonips FUT TT ~ 150/39) = 100s FLA, = 10.0(06013) 6.0 kips = [R, = 60 hips] OK 1 exactly meets the slip resistance requirement and is more ear and tension. “Thus, 5 hots pe than adequate for the sttength requirements i Use 10 F-iniam A325 bois, 5 per row SELECTED REFERENCES 4.1. C.Batho and EH. Bateman, favesigasions on Bolts and Botted Joints, Second Report of the Steel Structures Research Commitee. London; His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1934. 4.2. W.M. Wilson and FP. Thomas. “Fatigue Tests on Riveted Joins,” Bulletin 302, Urbana, IL: University of Minos, Engineering Experiment Station, 1938. 4.3. A.ELR Delonge. Riveted Joins! A Critical Review ofthe Literature Covering Their Development. New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 94s, 4.4, AISC. “Symposium on High-Strength Bol.” Proceedings of AISC National Engineering Conference. New York: American laitue of Steel Construction, 1930, 22-43, 4.5, William H. Munse. “Research on Bolted Connections," Transactions, ASCE, 121 (1956), 1285-1266. 4.6, “Rivets and High-Suength Bolts, A Symposium,” Transuerions, ASCE, 126, Part I (1961), 693-820. 47, Research Council on Strvctural Connections: Load and Resistance Factor De sign Specification for Siructural Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts Chicago, IL: American Insitute of Steel Construction, 1988. 48, Research Council on Structural Connections, Allowable Stress Design Specification for Sructural Joints Using ASTM A325 or A400 Bolts. Chicago, IL: American Institue of Steel Construction, November 13, 1985,49. 410. aan 413 44 4.16 47 418, 4, 420. 421 4.22 43, 428, SELECTED REFERENCES 179 Research Council or Sisitural Connections. Commentars on Specifications for Structural Joinss Using ASTM 325 or A490 Bolis. Chicago, IL: American “ustueof Stel Construction, 1988 Join W. Fisher, Theodere -Galambos, Geofiey L. Kulak, and Mayasandra K. Ravindra. "Load and Resistance Faetor Design Criteria fr Coanesto," Journal ofthe Structural Division, ASCE. 104, STS (September 1978), 427-1481 4... Fisher. P.O. Ramseier, and L. S. Beedle. "Stength of AMO Stel fonts Fastened with A325 Bolts.” Publicetions, IABSE, 23 (1963), Joho L. Rump and Joha W, Fisher, "Calibration of A325 Bolts.” Journal ofthe ‘Structural Division, ASCE. 89, ST6 (December 1963), 215-24. Join B, 8. Sirk, Abayomi 0, Oyeledun, and John W. Fisher. “Bolt Tension Coniol with a Direct Tension Indicator." Engineering Journal, AISC, 10, 1 (Firs: Quaner 1973), 1-5. Desi D. Vasarhelyi and Kah Ching Chiang. “Coefficient of Fiction i. ots of ‘Various Steels” Jownal of the Structural Division, ASCE, 98, ST4 (August 1967), 227-243, Joseph A. Yura and Karl H. Frank. “Testing Method to Determine the Slip (Coefficient for Coatings Used in Bolted Joints,” Engineering Journal, AISC, 22, 3 (3m Quarter 1985), 151-185, (abo evailable im AISC LAFD Maruai [L.18} p.6-389) ‘Theodore V. Calambos, TA, Reinhold, and Bruce Ellingwood. “Serviceabilty Limit States: Connection Slip,” Journal ofthe Structural Division, ASCE, 108, ‘STI2 (December 1982), 2668-2680. Sherwood F. Crawford and Geofirey L_ Kulak, “Eccentrically Loaded Bolted ‘Conneetons," Journal ofthe Structural Division, ASCE, 97, STS (March 1971), 165-783, Geoffrey L. Kulak, “Becentrically Loaded Stip-Resistant Connections,” Eng: neering Journal, ATSC, 12,2 (nd Quarter 1975), 52-55. G. Donald Brandt. "Rapié Determination of Utimate Strength of Becentrically [Loaded Bolt Groups,” Engineering Journal, AISC, 19, 2 (2x8 Quarter 1982). ‘94-100. Disc. by Cedric Mash, Engineering Journal, 19,4 (4th Quarter 1982), 214-215; Nestor Iwankiv, Engineering Journal, 20, | (1st Quarter 1983), 46: 2 (@nd Quarter 1983), 88 ‘Avigdor Rutenberg. “Nonlneat Analysis of Eccentric Bolted Connections," Engi- reesive Journal, AISC, 21, + (Sth Quarter 1984), 227-236 J. W. Fisher. “Benavice of Fasteners and Plates with Holes," Journal of the Siruciurat Division, ASCE 91, STS (December 1965), 265-286, Cad L, Shermer. "Pastic Behavior of Eccentially-Loaded Connections,” Eng: neering Journal, AISC, 8, 2 (April 1971), 48-51 Eugene Chesson, Je, Norberto L. Faustino, and William H. Munse, “High Strength Bolts Subjected © Tension and Shea,” Journal ofthe Structural Div sion, ASCE, 91, STS (October 1965), 155—180. Jotn R. Vellee and John T, DeWol, “Eecentrcally Loaded High Strength Bolted Connections,” Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, TL, 5 (May 1985), 1003-1018160 CHAPTERS STRUCTURAL FASTENERS PROBLEMS. All problems are tobe done aecording tothe AISCLoad and Resistance Factor Design for Allowable Stress Design, es indicated the instructor. All siver loads ate service Jas unless othersis indicated. All holes are stardard holes and surface condition is cleat mill scale (Class A) unless otherwise indisated, When an ultimate strength fnalys is requested in an Allowable Stress Design problem, use a factor of safety of 255 t obtain the allowable luo. Where acoded, assume distance from center of hole to nearest edge (edge or end distance) is I in. unless otherwise given lues of yield sress F, and tensile strength F, for member sees are available in Table 2.1.1. For A325 hols, F2 = 120:ks minimum for bolts 0 1-in. diameter, and. 105 ksi minimuny for 1 to 18 130 ksi rminiaum for }40 1 -in. diameter. 4.1. Determine the service load tension capacity of the connection of the accomps: ying figure forthe ease assigned by the instructor, Investigate as Dearingtype ‘connection with threads excluded (X) from the shear planes, bearing-ype bith threads included (N) in the shear planes. ora sip-criical (SC) connec tion. as indicated under the healing “Type Connection.” Specify the minimum imensions A and B appropriate forthe connection cose toad! toad town) concn , 0 Aw aA ARS 2 RS ya Rass 3S Meso a An 2 Aes ja Anese BSS AsmGres—T/N_kamULS Problem 4.PROBLEMS 181 42, For any of the cases soled in Prob. 4.1, determine the factor of safety against Slip at service lad. De you expoc slip wo oceur at service load? If blt strength liad controlled would slip have been expected a sersice load’? 43. Determine the service load capacity T for the batt splice of Prob. 315 when 45, = 5, = 2 in. and A325 bols are used with no threads in the shear planes. Specify the end distances required and evaluate whether or not the given stagger of 2 in. ssuficien, Ifthe 2. isnot adequate. specify the vale to be used. Use (a) @ bearing-ype connection (A325), and (b) a slips (4325-5C) connection 44, Forthe case assigned by te instructor, determine the numberof bolts required to develop the full capacity ofthe double angle tension member shown inthe sccompanying figure. Use a double row of bolts without stagger. Detail the x Bot esd Lye Angle ameter Type ccsco oad lone tee!) conmion 1 0 ASBGrs ya Amsx 2 8 Ss Aas 4 ANC 2% om Res tn Auew so ay Asse Problem 4a 44.5. For the single angle tension member of AS72 Grade 50 stelin the accomp sying figure, how many $-in-diam A325 bolts ae required for the connec ‘Gon? The load Tis 80 kps live lead and 20 kips dead load, Assume a ship-crit- ‘eal connection (A325-SC) isto be used. Design the shortest feasible veriap of pieces forthe connection, and detail it gitar a pete Problems 45 and 4.6182 CHAETEA 4 STRUCTURAL FASTENERS 46, Solve Prob, 4.5 asa hearing-type (A490-X) connection using $-n.-dlam A490 bolts 447. For the single angle tension member of A36 sel in the accompanying figure. termine the number of Z-in-diam A325 bok required in & earing-‘pe connection (A325-N) where threads may exis in the sear plane. The load is 17 kips dead load and 70 kips live load. Assume there are theee fenpy holes inthe outstanding keg that are not a part ofthe connection. The bolts carrying the Joad T are to be in a single ne with te ist alt located a distance sabead of the firs empty hole. Detail the connection, wise Probes 47 48. Design and detl the double lap splice shown, to develop maximum texsion ‘capacity assuming the load is 20% dead load and 80% lve lad, The stool is A36 land | -in-diam A325 bolts are tobe use ina beains-type connection (A325- X) with no threads in the shese planes. What isthe resulting service load ‘capacity ofthe join? Problem 438 49. Determine the service lod capacity of 2-C10%20 channels a s truss member attached io aj-n. gust plate as shown in the accompanying figure. The tel is AS72 Grade 65, and the j-in diam A325 bolts ate in a bearing-iype connec tion (A3252X) with no threads in the shear planes, The load is 25% dead ld and 756 live load.al PROSEMs 183 Sz se ser Problem 49 4.10. Compute the maximum service load P causing escemric shear onthe connection ofthe accompanying figure. The loading 825% dead load ané 754 live load “The bolls are j-in-diam A325 bolts in a Bearing-type connection (A325-X) with threads excluded from the shear plane. Assume the bracket plate has adequate strength. ‘a. Use the elastic (yetor) method 1b. Use the strength method with rotation about the instantaneous center © Use LRFD Manual Tables 8-18 19 8-25, with interpolation. 4.11, For the A36 ste bracket plate of the accompanying figure, calculate the max. Sai service lad (15% de load and 85% lve load) when j-in-dism A325 bolts are used in a bearing-type connection (A325-N) with threads inched in the shear planes 1 Use the ease (Yetor) method 1D. Use the ultimate strength method. Use LRED Manual Tables €-18 10 8-25,18 CHAPTER € STRUCTURAL FASTENERS 442, Repeat Prob. 4.11, except use only 6 bots instead of 8: that is, 2st 3 in setially instead of 3 203 in 443, Repeat Prob, 4.11 as a slip-eritical (A boating-type connection 4414, Select the proper diameser A490 bolts for abearing-type comection (A490-X) if the loading is 10% dead load and 90% lve load 44. Use the elastic (sector) method, Bb. Use ultimate strength anal + €. Use ERED Manual Tables 8-18 10 8-25, “+ -SC) connection instead of a Assume plate as ‘esate een Problem 414 4.15, Assuming the fasteners control the capacity, determine the bot size required for the connection shown when the lod is 10% dead load and 90% live load. ‘The connection is e bearing-type (A325:X) containing A325 bolts fa, Use the elastic (vector) method. 1 Use ultimate strength analysis Use LRED Manual Tables 8-18 w 8-25. t Problem 415 4.16, For the connection of the accompanying Jgure containing bolts in sip-eritical connection, dotermite the service load capacity P (1S ead load and 85% live load) by the folowing meihods, and compare the results: ‘Use the elastic Vector) method.495 SHEAR AN TENSION FAOM ECCENTRICLOADING 185 bb. Use the instantaneous center—constant slip resistance method for sip { ‘ttical connections (see Example 4.12.4). 6. Use LRFD Manual Tables 8-18 19 8-25 a Problem 46 4.17. For the cccentsic shear loading ofthe accompanying figure, two vertical lines ‘of j-in-diam A325 bolts ae used having a 3-in. spacing. Seect the proper ‘numberof bolts fra bearing-type (A325-X) connection. The lad is 40% dead Tead and 60% tive load, a Use the elastic (Vector) method. Di, Use the ultimate strength method, (Use LRFD Manual Tables 8-18 w 8-25, EL ren eablem 4.17 4.18, Repeat Prob. 4.17 using {-in diam A490 bolt, 4419. For the eccentric shear loading of the accompanying gure, J-in-diam A325 bots are used in evo vertical lines in abearing-¥ype(A325-X) connection. The loading is 10 kips dead load and 30 ips live lad,185 CHAPTER 4 STRUCTURAL FASTENERS ‘4, Determine the adequacy of the desi wsing basc principles of the elastic fyector) method b, Compute the service lad capaci analy fe Use ZRFD Monvol Tables 8-18 10 8-25. ‘ofthe conneeton sig ultimate strength Problem 419 420, For the eccentric shear loading of the accompanying figure, $-in-diam 'A325 bolts efe used in a single vertical line in a bearing-type (A325-X) ‘connection, The loading is 7 kips dead load 33 kips lve load. Determine the hmber of bolts required. What thickness of pieces requited to avoid having bearing control and still use minimum edge distances (see LRED Table J3.4 or ASD-Table 13.5), a. Use the elastic (vector) method, Di. Use the ultimate stength method. ©. Use ZRFD Manual Tables 8-18 10 8:25. ‘colu * oa fs Lr wee Lah owns SEL Prete n Problems 4.20 and 422 421. For the connection ofthe accompanying igure, subject to dreet tension and shear, two angles, LAX3 14, are used to carry their maximum capacity 2s a tension member of A36 steel. Assume the connection of the anges to the Structural te (WT) we willbe along a single gage line as shown. Determineproses 187 the number and positioning ofj-in dim A325 bolts to attach the WT t the flange ofa W section, The anges of the WT and the W shape are both fin {hick and A36 see is see fa. Use a bearing type (A2S-X) connection. 'b, Use aslip-ertical (A325-SC) conection (20% DL; 80% LL), Problem 4.21 422, For the eccentric connection of the accompanying figure, causing shear and {ension on the fasteners connecting the anges to the column flange: determine the number and spacing of j-in.-diam bots required o mae the connection 0 the J-in. column flange. The load is 5 kips dead load and 35 kips lve lad ‘a. Use a bearing-type (A325-X) connection 1. Use a slip-crtcal (A325-SC) connection 423, For the eccentic connection of the accompanying figure, casing shear and tension onthe faseners connecting the sutural tee (WT) tothe column ange, Setersine the number of j-n-diam bolts spaced vertically at 3 in. requted 0 ‘make the connection othe J-in. clurmn linge. The load is 10 kips dead load and 60 kips live lad, Use a bearing-iype (A325-X) connection, , Use a slip-enival (A225-SC) connectionChapter 5 Welding 5.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT ‘The process of welding denotes the joining of metal pieces by ating toa plastic oF ‘uid state, with o without pressure In its simplest form, “welding” has been known snd used for several thousand years Historians have speculated that the eary Eayp- tians may have first used pressure welding about 5500 2. in making copper pipes from sheets by overlapping the edges and hammering. Winterton (3.1) has reported that Egyptian art objects dating about 3000 6.c, have been found on which gold foil hha been hammered and fused ont the base copper. This ype of welding, called forge ‘welding. was man’s St process to join pieces of meta together. A well-known) example of forge welding i the Damascus swe which vas made by forging Jeon with different properties Interestingly forge welding was sufficiently well devel- ‘oped and important enough tothe early Romans that they named ane of thet gods Vulean (the god offre and meialworkng) to represent that at. In recent times, the sword vuleanizing has been used in reference to treating rubber wi rally vas used (© mean "to harden." Today forge welding s practic in which the village blacksmith Was the fast major practitioner. Lite progress in welding technology had been made until 1877, prior t0 which ‘ime most ofthe then known processes sch as forge welding and brazing had been sed for at eas 3000 yeas. The origin of resistance welding began around 1877 when Professor Elihu Thompson began a st of experiment [5.2] eversing the polarity of tuansformer coils, He received his fest patent [5.3] in 885 and the first resistance buat ‘welding machine was demonstrated at the American Institute Fair in 1887. J 1889 ‘Charles Coffin [52] was issued a patent for fash-butt Welding and this became one of the important batt joining processes. ‘Zerner, in 1885, introduced the carbon are welding process, making we of two carbon clectodes, and NG. Slaviaoff [5.5] in 1888 in Ressia vas te fst Use the metal ar process using uncoated, bare electrodes. Cofin, working independently also investigated the metal ate process and was iste a US. Patent in 1892. In 1889, 6 P. Steohmeyer [5.2] introduces the concept of coated metal electrodes t eli many of the problems associated with the use of bare electrodes555, INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 189 ‘eldest front space Huss se. (Phot by C.G. Salmon) Thomas Fletcher [5.1] in 1887 used a blowpipe, burning hydrogen and oxygen and showed that he eal succesfully eut or melt meta. tn 1901~1903 Fouche and Picard develed torches that could be used with acetylene and, thus, the era of loryacetyete Welding and cutting began. ‘The period berween 1963 und 1918 saw the wse of Welding primarily asa method of rpair the greatest impetus cecurving during Woeld Wie | (I9T4=1918). Welding techniques proved ty be especialy adpted to repating ships that had been damaged ‘Alice World Wor ( 1918). tere was continued experimentation with electrodes and various aes to shield the are and the weld ure. resulting in the development of ‘gas tungsten are welding and yas metal are welding (See Sec. 5.2). During the period TOs L950 many improvements vecurred, including in 1932(5.5] the introduction of the use of granular thax te protect the weld, which when coupled (0 the use ofa continuosly fed electrode rested inthe deve of submerged are welding (see Sec. 5.2), where the ate isburied under the granular Aux, Ths commen method ofthe 1990 a pened in 1935, "sce 1990 stomution has become a significant factor in welding technology and extensive use of welding foboties i eceureine There are many welding proceses available tO join various metas and theit alloys. Those of puniculas interest in welding sacral steel uid of Unerest to Sin See. 8.2. Structural engineers ia peneal are discuss190 CHAPTER § WELDING 5.2 BASIC PROCESSES ‘Welding is the proces of joining materials (susly metals) by heating them suitable temperatures such thatthe materials coalesce into one material. There may or may not bbe pressure, and there may oF may not be filer material applied. Ave welding isthe ‘general term for the many processes that wse elctical energy inthe form of an tectric are to generate the heat necessary for welding “This section teeas those processes used in are welding carbon an fow-alloy steel for buildings and bridges. For some situations involving light gage steel, ress- tance Welding may also be important. More extensive descriptions than those that follow are available in the Welding Handbook [2.28 5.10] Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) Shielded metat are welding is one ofthe oldest, simplest, and perhaps most versatile types for welding structural steel, The SMAW process is often referred to as the ‘manual stick electrode process. Heating is accomplished by means ofan electric sre between a costed electrode and the materials being joined. The welding citcut is shown in Fig. 5.2.10. ‘The coated electrode is consumed 2s the metal is transferred from the electrode to the base material during the welding process. The electrode wire becomes filler ‘material and the coating is converted partly into shielding ga, party into slag, and some parts absortned by the weld metal. The coating i a clay-like mintare of silieate binders and powdered materials, sich as Auorides,earbonates, oxides, metal alloys, and cellulose. The mixture is extruded and bakedio produce @ dry. hard, concentric coating “The transfer of metal from electrode to the work being welded is induced by molecular straction and surface tension, without application of pressure. The shield ing ofthe are prevents atmospheric contamination of the molten metal in the a stream and in the are pool I prevents nitrogen and oxygen from being pieked up and forming nitrides and oxides which may cause embsitiement asingon spon ou RN sist (0) Sheed ae wene Figure 5.2.1 Shielded metal ste welding (SMAW)52 BASICPROCESSES 191 ‘The electrode ceating may perform the fliowing functions 1, Produces gaseous shield exchide air and stabilize the are 2 Introduces other materials, sch as deaxidizers, to refine the grain structure of the weld metal 3 Produces a blanke: of slag over the molten poo! and he solidified weld ta Protect it fom oxygen and nitrogen in the ait, and also retards coating, The electrode material is specified under various American Welding Society specications that are Hited in AWS [2.25] Table 4.11, and is summarized in ‘Table 2.3.1. The designations such as EGOXX or ETOXX indicate 60 ksi and 70 ke ‘respectively, for tensile strength, The X's refer to fctrs such asthe sutable welding positions, recommended power suppl. type of coating, and ype of are characernies, ‘Morgan (5.6) has provided an excellent guide to classification and use of mild ste coated electodes, Tale 5.13.1 indicates which coated electrodes should be used arith ‘each particular structural sel For welding high-carbon or fowalloy steels, low-hydrogen electrodes are re- {quired by AWS [2.25 tobe used with SMAW forall steel having yield stceses higher ‘han 36 ksi (28 MPa). The low-hydoge electrode is a rod with & carbonate of cod, or “lime,” coating. This electrode requires a different technique from that using the ‘conventional electrode in that a short are must be made and globular-type atherthan 4 spray-type, deposition of metal occurs. It desirable in design Hecause the as ‘welded mechanical properties have been found to be superior to properties obtained using other types of electrode coatings. ‘Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Inthe SAW process the arcs not visible becauseitis covered by e blanket of granular, fusible material, as shown in Fig. 5:22. The bare metal electrode is consumable i ‘that it is deposited as filer material. The end ofthe electrode is Kept continuously shielded by the molten flax over which is deposted a layer of unfused un in Ite sranular condition ‘The granular fux. which is a special feature of this method, is usually lait automatically along the seam ahead ofthe advancingelectode, and provides a covet ‘hat allows the weld to be made without spate, spark, or smoke, This fox material Protects the weld pool agains the atmosphere, serves to clean the weld metal and ‘modifies the chemical composition ofthe weld metal 2.23, Vol. 2. pp. 203-208], Figure 522 Submerged are welding ee a.182 ceaprens weLoING Welds made by the submerged arc process have uniform igh quality: exhibiting good ductility, high impact strength, high densi). and good cotrasion Fesistance Mechanical properties ofthe weld are consistent as good as the base mate ‘The combinations of bare-rod electrodes and granular ox are clasiied under AWS.AS.1 of AS.23, They ae designated FXAX-EXXX whore the fist X following the Fis the fist digit ofthe tense strength (je, 7 for 70 si). the second X isa letter indicating te condition of feat weatment (ie. A for as-welded and P for postweld heat treated), and the third X indicates the lowest temperature at which impact Srength ofthe weld metal meets or exceeds 20 fe 1b (27 3). When the third Xi 6, for example, it means the Chaepy V-notch impact strength is atleast 20 fell (27 3) at “60°F (51°C). The three Xs follwing the letter E indicate properties of the electrode “The designations appear in Table 5.13.1 under the SAW process, ‘The submerged are method is commonly used in shop-fabrcatedsteet opera- tions using automatic or semiavtomatic equipment. Gas Metal Arc Weiding (GMAW) Inthe GMAW process the electrode continuous wite thats fed froma coil shrough the electrode holder, « gun-shaped device as shown in Fig, 5.2.3, The shielding 1s ‘entirely from an exterealy supplied 24s 07 gas mixture. The distinguishing features of this method ate the high rates at which Mller metal canbe treaterred, and ihe p2se0Us ‘hild that is uniformly provided sound the molten void, Special uses of this mettod are described by Craig [5.7] Lyttle [58], and Dillenbeck and Castagno [5.9 (Originally this method was used only with incrt gas shielding, hence, the name MIG (metal inert gs) has been used Reactive gases alone are generally not pa the exception is COs (carbor dioxide). The use of CO, has become extensive for welding of stele, either sione or in a mixture with inee gases ‘Argon asa shielding gas works for welding virtually all metals; however, itis aot recomimtendad for stcls because of ts expense and ie fcr tha other shielding gases and gas mixtures are acceptable. For welding carbon ste! and some lowalloy steels, recent research [5.9] indicates the best overall performance is obsained using 80% (CO; and 20% helium, Traditionally, it has been recommended [5.10] 0 use either & cre ] Figure $2.3 Gas metal are welding (GMAW),52 BASIC PROCESSES 199, imisture of 75% argon and 25% COs. or 100% CO:, For lov-ally steels where | toughness is important, the recommendation [5.10] isto use a mistue of 60 %9 70% helium, 25 t0 30% argon, and 4 © 5S CO, “The shielding 2as serves the following funetions in addition to protecting the smolen meal fom the stmospher. 1 1. Controls the arc and meta-tansfer charetersis 2. fects penetration, width of fusion, and shape of the weld region 3. Affects te speed of welding, & Controls undereuting By mixing an inet gas with areotive gas the are may be made more stable and the spatter during meta transfer may be reduced, The use of CO: alone for welding stec is he least expensive procedure because ofits lower cost for shielding gs, higher welding speed. better joint penetration, and sound deposits with good mechanical properties. The only disadvantage is tha it gives harsh and excessive spate. ‘The electrode material for welding carbon stels is an uncoated mild tel, eoxidized carbon manganese steel covered under AWS AS.I8 and listed in Table 5.13.1 (ee also Table 23.1). For weiding alloy stel a deoxidized owalloy material is necessary. ‘The GMAW process using CO, shielding is good for the lower carbon and low-allay scels usually wed in buildings and bridges. Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) ‘The FCAW process, developed in 1958, is similar to GMAW, except that the contin- ously fed filer metal electtode is tubule anc contain the lax materia within is ‘core. The core material provides the same Funcions as does the coating in SMAW or ‘the granular flux in SAW, For a continuously fed wire, an outside coating would not ‘remain bonded to the wite. Gas shielding is provided by the flux core (self shield) Dut additional shielding is frequently provided by CO, gs, Flux cored are welding has become a useful procedure for fold Welding in severe cold weather conditions [5.11] a5 well as to speed up high-rise construction [5.12] ‘The electrodes wed for obtaining weld metal having minimum specified yield strengths of 60 ksi (415 MPa) or less are covered ender AWS AS.20, and are desig- nated E6XT or E7XT, lor tensile strengths of 60 oc 70 ki, respectively. When itis desirable to produce weld metal having yield strengthexceedig 60 ks (415 MPa). the clectrodes are covered under AWS AS.28, and are designated ESXT, ELON, and ELIXT, having tensile strengths of 80, 100, and 110 ks (380, 690, and 760 MP), respectively. Electrogas Welding (EGW) ‘The EGW process is « machine process used! primarily vertical position welding, shown in Fig. 5.24, Either fn eored or solid electrodes may be used, This method is used to obtain a single pass weld sach as forthe splice in a heavy column section ‘Weld meta is deposited into acuity created by the separaied pate edges on two sides194 cuaptens waione Diverates ro =x ‘Siete wasps |} | Be pas? Cone wei Figure 524. Flectroges welding wit Handbook (223)) Mx cere eletrade, (From Welling snd water-cooled “shoes or guides o ep the melten metal in its proper location on ‘the other two sides. The gas shielding is provide ether by the flux core electrode, by externally supplied gas, or both Electrosiag Welding (ESW) ‘The ESW process, shown in Fg. 5.2.5, is similar toolecteopas welding, excep that the \weldings ctully done by the heat produced through the resistance of the slag the flow of current. The molten conductive slag pros the weld and melts the filler ‘metal and the plate edges. Since solid slag isnot ccnductve, an arc is requited to start the process by melting the slag and heating the plas. Since resistance heating is used for all but this initial stage, the ESW is really nolan are welding process. The side _Buides, or “shoes”, may be nonconsumable as in Fig. 5.2.5, or they may be con- sumabie, The electtoslg process allows welding rearly any thicknoss of material in ‘one pass both clectrogas and electroslag welding become economical as the thickness of weld required becomes large. Because ofthe Sow weld travel speed used in this process, 2 Weld with relatively coarse grain siructre and low notch toughness isthe result, ‘An excellent review ofelectroslag welding hes been provided by Raman 5.14). ‘Schilng and Klippstein [5.15] have reported research on electroslag welding for bridges, and Pease, Wood, and Fisher [5.16] reported experience wit elecioslag ‘welding on welded bridges.54. WELDABIUTY OF STAUCTURAL STEEL 138, — aoe Figure 825 Nonconsimable guide method of ‘ectonag welling (hee letrodes) (Frm Weld Handboot (223); Stud Welding “The most commonly used process of welding 4 metal stud ty abe materia! isknowa sare sud welding, an essentially automatic process but similar in characteris the SMAW process. The stud serves as the electrode and an electric ate is ereated from the end of the stud tothe plate. Te stud is contained ina gun which controls the timing during the process. Shielding i aecomplished by placing a ceramic ferrule around the end of the stud inthe gun. The gun placed in postion and the are i created, during which wwe the ceramic ferrule contains the molten metal. After short iastant of time, the gun drives Yoe stud into the molten pool and the weld is completed leaving a small fillet arourd the stud. Full penetration across the shank of the stud is obtained and the weld is completed usally in kes than one second, 5.3 WELDABILITY OF STRUCTURAL STEEL “Mest of the ASTM-spcifcaion construction steels ean be welded without special precautions or special procedures. Section 5.13 aiscases the need to select the proper electrode 0 join a particular grade of stel anda sumamtry of the “msgshing” elec {wodes and the base stoa is given in Tale 513.1 ‘The weldability fa stel i 2 measure ofthe ease of producing crack-free and sound structural joint. Some ofthe readily available structural steels are more sited to welding than others, and ate diseussed in Chapter 2. Welding procedures should be based om asea!'s chemistry instead of the published maximum alloy content. since most mill runs are usually belo the maximum alloy limits se by its specification. Tae 3.3.1 shows theideat chemical analysis of thecatbon sews, Most mild steesf196 chapreRs weupIa TABLE S31 PREFERRED ANALYSISF ‘CARBON STEEL [57] FOR ‘S000 WELDAaILITY Nem Pecans Element range %)___speol ene Masginee to Stoo Oma 030 Sur 03s ma beso well within this range, while higher-stength steels may exceed the ideal analysis shove in Table 5.3.1 ‘Whea @ mill produces a run of sted, it maintains « complete recor of its chemical content which follows all shapes made from the particular ingot. H the HE: an neg tener L a oe Ce) tXr4 _ a igure 58.1 Posible wld defects Inadequate Joint Penetration Tnadequat joint poneteation means the weld extends a shallower distance through the ‘depth ofthe groove than specified, s shown in Fig. 5.8.1, where complete penetration ‘vas specified. Partial joint penetration is acceptable ony when iti so specified "This defect, elaiing primarily to groove Welds, occurs from use ofan unsuitable groove design for the selected welding process, excesively large electrodes, in- fuicient welding current, or excessive welding rates. Joint designs prequalified by AWS [5.25, Sec. 2.6 through 2.10) should always be used Porosity Porosity occurs when voids ora number of smal gus packets ae trapped during the ‘cooling process. This defect results from using excessively high current or bo kang an arc length. Porosity may over uniformly dispersed through the weld or it may be a large pocket concentrated at the root ofa Bile weld ora the rool adjacent 2 backup59 INSPECTION AND CONTROL 208 plate in a groove weld, The later is caused by poor welding procedures and careless tse of backup plats, Undercutting Undetcuting means a groove melted into the base material adjacent the toe of ‘weld and let unfilled by weld meta. The use of excesive current or am excessively Fong are may burn or dig vay a portion ofthe base metal This defect is easly detected Visvally and can be corrected by depositing additional weld materia Slag Inclusion Cracks Slag is formed during the welding process as a reslt of chemical resetions of the Imeled electrode coating nd consists of metal oxides and other compounds. Having lower density than the molten weld meta, the slag normally float to the surface. ‘here upon cooling, its easly removed by the welder. However, too rapil a cooling ‘ofthe joint may tap the slg before it can rise to the surface. Overhead welds as show in Fig. 5.7-1d are especially subject to sag inclusion and must be earelullyinspevte, ‘When several passes are necessary 10 obtain the deste weld size, the welder must, emove slag between each pas, Failure to properly do sa isa common case of slag inclision, (Cracks are breaks in the weld metal either longitudinal or transverse 10 the line of Weld, tat result from internal stress. Cracks may also extend from the weld metal ino the tase metal or may be entirely in the base metal inthe vicinity of the weld Cracks are perhaps the most baer of weld defects: however tiny cracks called imicrofisures may not have any detrimetal effec ‘Some cicks form asthe weld begins w solidify, generally caused by brite constituents, ether brite sates oon o alloying elements, forming along the grain ‘boundaries. More uniform: hesting and slower cooling will prevent the “hot” cracks from forming. Cracks may aso form at room temperature parallel to but under the weld inthe base material. These crack arise in low-lloy steels from the combined effects of hydrogen, a brite martensite microstructure, and restraint t shrinkage and distor. tion, Use of low-hydrogen electrodes along with proper preheating and postheating sill mininize such “col” cracking 8.9 INSPECTION AND CONTROL. ‘The enormous success and grow in recent years in the area of structural welding of buildings and bridges coutd not hae occurted without some racans of inspection and control. The welding industry has led in the development of guidelines which. if followed, vinually insure a sound wel. The inspection and control procedure sbovld begin before the first are is sruck, continue throughout the welding procedure. and if necessary a pretest ofthe joint should be made to assure is satisfactory performance.210 Since such close supession i nor posible on every weld made the follow Hons will serve asa geideline to ehieve good structural welds: 1. Establish good welding procedures, 2 Use only prequalified welders |X Use qualified inspects and have them present ‘4 Use special inspection techniques when iecessry ‘Good welding procedure can be developed from recommendations from the AWS, AISC. and the manufactucers of welding supplies and equipatent. The proce duce to be followed will depend on the chemical and physical properties of the ‘material, the types and sizes of wel, andthe particular equipment wsed [Al welders should be required to have passed an American Weng Society (Quatifieation Test before being permsted wo make a siuctural conesion. Although {his is usually considered adequate, i doesn't prove the ability of ee welder to make weld at the actual ob site, particulary ithe welds are onus or dificult and were hot specified inthe Qualieation Tet. Happily, most welding contractors execie ‘ontzol over their welders in sich sitio “The use of qualified welding inspectors at ajo ste generally has te effect of causing Welders (0 perform ther Bet wort, feling tha the inspector is able © recognize the quality of ther welds. The welding inspector should be a competent ‘welder and be able to recognize posible defects Any poor or suspicious welds should be eu out and replaced “The simplest and least expensive method of inspection is visual bat ts depen- in = ® 4 op614)3 + 21] + afo2y9 + 80.8) = a4 it Tet aoe + 2] SF] + ate ay + 80.87 = 4 in ‘ , {©)Campute the components f force on the wel points A and B. From the dee shea. 0.75 kipstin, | Figure S483. Example $18.1258 EXAMPLE S182, CHAPTER 5 WELONG From the torsion T about the centroid of the configuration, nok =253hin = he 245 aaB ‘shin ‘The vector som gives the resultant force R, R= VGRF > GAS TOTP = 3:95 kipsin Determine the weld sire required fo the bracket of Fig. $.18.3 when the service had is IS kips (80% live load and 20% dead load). Compare the results using (a) elastic (vector) analysi from Example 5.18.1 and (b) stength analysis as described in Sec, 5.17, both with AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design, Assume the plate thickness does not affect the eesult (stiffened seats and bracket plats are treated in Sees. 34 and 13.5) Solution (@) Elastic (vector) method. The grvity factored load according t0 LRFD is computed, P= 12D + 1.6L = 1.2(02)15 + 1.6(0.8)15 = 228 kips ‘The maximum load (kips/n.) on the weld due tothe factored P wil be (using the result from Example $.18.1 for ? = 15 kips), R, = 3:96(228/15) = 6.02 kips/in, Wald resistance ye = 0.75a(0.707)(0.60 Fx) (0.75a(0.707)(0.60)20 = 22.34 ‘The weld size required i obtsined by equating the design sirength and the factored load, Re = 230-605 a Use &-in, B70 fillet welds 0.27, say din (b) Strength analysis. Divide the horizontal 6-in, weld into six pars and the vertical 8-in, length ato 16 sezmens of 1/2-in. each, though tis considered adequate to use 1-i, segments, Using Eq, 5.17.2 and solving by teal in the ‘manner used for Example 5.17.1 the instantaneous centers found o be located ‘0.1134 jn, from the vertical eld line. Negative means the center is on the same side ofthe vertical weld line asthe applied load P. The solution details are in Tables 5.18.2 and 5.18.3,B 4518 ECCENTRIC SHEAR CONNECTIONSELASTIC (VECTOR) ANALYSIS Sea Ne Segment eng te 1 to to os os os as my om 1387 he sae p18 cha Ton ‘TABLE 5182 GEOMETRY AND PARTIAL RESULTS, EXAMPLE 5.162 my ta) ey) ie) a0 3s opes co1uss tm 42 1b} nase oma in ds os ons! onsen imo $28 403 ims ones foo $9 te ODE ama a0 S14 ois boss ans 3 ool on03t? as Sa: oa036 ais fe gaia onnsie as Sr Golds ones 3s $63 O0ls3—Onosia is He doias—oaniss ors fre ais paraco as S56 oss bins = -aratn) TABLE 5183 SOLUTION FOR EXAMPLE 518 a (Ry mm on sh poy oni et BST Bom ons eo at Borsk nie 933 gat Bais) dlea bra Sa obi Dame $38 “022 Ooi2s bongs nos abs boas coat nas one cao oa tone as Tash P, pa 2(354.35), Tao - 00138 Bas 51.06 kips From Eq. 5.174, and mulipying by 2 because of symmery, gives ky, Dir), = 212552) = 51.03 kips 27 ‘The nominal stength Py = 51 kips. This s the strength using {-in. weld with ETD electrodes and the SMAW process. The design strength Pi 0.75(51) =258 CHAPTERS WELDING 38.3 kips, The eld size equired is P, ~ 228 kips = 47. = 383555 i 2281025), 38S Required weld size 0.13 in () Use £RED Manuat [1.18] tables, p. 8-187. For in weld using E70 electrodes 140 ~ 1,80)/8 = 1.525 = 60/8 = 075 07075 as anit 121 1.36 1329) M2 4290 137 = 1.20 16 10 121 “Table va CC, DL = 1.2011.0)(498 = 384 kips ‘As may be noted, che LRFD tables give essentially the same res obtained in part (). () Summary. The weld size ¢ requted usiog 670 electrodes and the SMAW process is Elastic (vector) method, required a = jin Strength analysis, required a As will always be the case, the elastic vector method is conservative 5:19 LOADS APPLIED ECCENTRIC TO THE PLANE OF WELDS When an applied load is eecentic « the plane of the weld configuration, as in Fig. 5.19.1, the strength method of analysis may still be used ss long asthe plane of the welds is rigid The weld plane is rigid in Fig. 5.19.1 hecause fe welds are on each rh He TY Figure 519.1 Welds in shear and bending519 LOADS APPLIED ECCENTRIC TOTHE PLANE CF WELDS 259, side ofa plate: ie. there i sufficient rigidity between the two lines of weld such that there will be no bending of the material Being welded in the plane > the welds Asdlscussed in Sec. 5.17, the strength ofa segment of weld depends onthe angle 6 ofthe resisting force Rt the ani ofthe weld. It makes no difference whether Ky acts stan angle othe pane ofthe welds (Fig. §.19.1) or whether i acts in the plane ofthe welds (eccentric shear asin Secs. 5.17 und 5.18) “The situation in Fig. 5.19.1 is commonly refered a as shear and bending, which is actualy the stress condition on the bracket plate supporting the lead P. The welds must cary the loads inthe same manner that the members being connected cates them. The stresses are shown in Fig. 5.19.2 For loading of the weld configuration in sber and tension, one must realize that the weld segments subject to compression are not fre to rotate; tus, if a strength analysis is made, the compression region should be assumed w hav> a compressive Sees distribution howicen the pioces being welded. Dawe and Kulak [5.41] reported ‘that relatively good agreement with tests was obtained using any of triangular, parabolic, or rectangular stress distribution on the compression side of the neutral ‘The LRFD Manual [1.18] does not contain tabes forthe case of shear and bending. The tables for eccentric shear are suggested [1.18] tobe used forall cases ‘where “the connection material between the Welds is Slid and doesnot bend inthe plane ofthe welds.” Alternatively, the elastic (vector) method is conservative and rltively easy 10 ‘use for loading in shear and tension, ‘Thos, there are four methods (Nos. 2 and 3 are relly identical) suggested for 4. Strength analysis dividing the weld on the tension sie ofthe neural axis into segments the resistance of each depending on the ange the resistance makes withthe weld axis using the formulas in Sec. 5.17. The weld on the compression side of the neural exis is assumed wo have cay resistance parallel to the weld axis. The compression force from bending is assumed Ge) kek cal r rT] LU nes of weld sting in shear and bending.260 EXAMPLE S19. CHAPTERS WELONG to be carted by direct compression of the pieces being welded using a wiangulat distsbution with the yield stress at the exteome compression fiber, The instantaneous cenit is then located by til in a manner similar ‘othatilasteated for eocentrc shear. Details ofthe procedure are described by Dawe and Klak [2-41] 2, Strength analysis exactly as for eoeentrie shear. In this procedure all weld segments, both or.the tension and compression sides ofthe neutral ans, are assumed to have resistance. This procedure will give the values in the LRFD ‘Manual tables 3, LRFD Moa tables 4. Elastic vector analysis ‘Compute the sizeof £70 filet weld required for the shear and tension connection in Fig, .19.3a using the SMAW process. Assume the column and the bracket plate do ‘not contr (stiffened seats and bracket plaks are rested i Secs. [3.4 and 13.5.) The nad is 80% live load and 20% dead load, and Load and Resistence Factor Design is tobe used, Solution (@) Compute the factored Joa P, P, = 1.2(0.2)10 + 1.6(08)10 = 15.2 kips (b) Use the traditional elastic (vector) method. The weld segments are treated as lines having thickness of unity (1.0). Te dceet shear component is assumed tbe carved equally by each segment of veld, Pp _1s2 N= 4 bE, ~ RANG ‘The tension component (horizontal) due to the moment Pe is = 0.76 xipsin, Me _ 182108 (Ry = ME = 2S — 9.74 npssin, where J = $3(2(0)(10)'] = 166.7 in* jl HPs L E tS] igure 519.3 Example $194)st 519. LOADS APFLIED ECCENTRIC TO THE PLANE OF WELOS 261 The resultant force Required 8, = VO76F + (Q.73F = 2.84 kips/in, “The design strength of E70 electrode fillet weld is AR, = de(.60F ex} = 0.75(0.707)(0.60)70 = 22.30 and the fillet weld size a required is 84 Required 0 =0.13in. say hin Da (6) Use LRFD Manual [1.18] bles, p. 8-163, For weld using E70 elec- trodes, c/L- Cable symbol a) = 6/10 = 0.60 k=0 Find C= 1.50 ‘Take value = 4P, = CC, DL = 1.50(1,0)(0)10 = 15.00 Kips Required D = 152/150 = 10 Roquiced weld size « = 0/16 ~ 0.06 i. say jn The clastic (vector) method is as expected more conservative than the strength method represented by the hy the LRFD Manual tables. The minimum desirable Size wo be used for this situation is probably = in, Use chin. E70 fillet welds. mi Design for Lines of Weld Subject to Bending Moment [Even when there ate moderate reurns atthe top of lines of fillet weld, a.estimate of ‘he length required may be abtaned by using the same approach as used to determine ‘the number of bolts ina line in Sec. 4.12. In Fig. 4128, R/p has units kips/in, which becomes the design strength atthe top of the lines of weld For moment alone on one line of weld, 5 ins (519.1) Since the maximum value of Ris OR, on, (6192) Required L, [Equation 5.19.2 for welds corresponds to Bq 4.12.29 for bolts, Since itis correct only formoment alone, R, should be entered asa reduced value to acount for direct shese. EXAMPLE 5.19.2 Determine the length required to carry the lad indicated in Fig. 5.19.4, when 75% ‘of the load is live load and 25% is dead load, The weld tobe used i 5-in, E70 filet Weld. Use AISC Load and Resistance Facior Design.262 Figure 5.194 Example 5.192. Solution (4) Compute factored load, P, = 1.210.250 + 1,6(0.75}40 = 60 kips (Estimate length of weld L required by usng Eq, $192: AR, = 0.75(a(0.707}0.60)70 = 22.34 kipsin, 22.35/16) = 6.96 kipsin. M, = 60(4) = 240 in.kips per 2 lines of wold fero40rD) NV 6iest} A reduced value of 4R.,,has been used to accoun: forthe direct she Since the }-in. returns af the tp add something: uy L = 10 in When the res havea specified dimension a isthe case here, the weld is tobe placed to provide full strength over the spectied dimension, The returns resist the moment Pye but probably not much 10 resist P, 36a shear foree. For these small returns, it is optional with the designer whether or not to include them in the strength computation. () the returns are neglected, the LRED Manual ‘can be used to obtain an approximate result, as fells e/L (Table symbol a) ~ 4/10 = 0.40 e=0 Find C= 2.00 ‘Table value = 8P, = CC DL = 2.00(1,0)(D}10 = 20.0 D kips Required D = 60/20 = 30 3.0 effct, 8) tables, p. 8-163, Required weld size For £ = Sin 16 Find C= 1,72, cequiced a = 0.22 in. say Sin, (¢) Elastic vector) method. The actual weld configuration has the -in returns which make the center of gravity ofthe weld configuration le loserSELECTEDREFERENCES 263, the top than the mi-depth asuumed in part (©), LRFD Tables 8-38, “Coef- fciens C for Excentrially Loaded Weld Groups.” are indicated to be used also ‘sen lad is notin the plane of weld group. This is acceptable for to vertical Lines. However, for other weld configurations having the load applied out of lane, ii prudenco use a conservative elastic (vector) analysis ‘Locate the center of gravity of the configuration, eo 20S 100g, 30 + 05) ~ 21 476 “The direct shear component (R),iscomputed assuming that none ofthe shear is cated by the returns, -2.0 2 * Tio) ‘The tesion component (8) du the moment Peis Ro. 3.00 kipsfin Le x 4 2L{S ~ 4.67)? + 210.5)14.76) = OP yo 47 4767 = 1903 i? sa ts (= EE «const “The resltant force is Reguied 68, = VEDOF + (OOF ~ 6:71 pain “The design stength of E70 electrode in, filet weld is AR, = 6 (0.60Fxs) = 0175(0707)($)0.60)70 = 697 kipstin, ‘The design teat J, exceeds the 6.71 kipsin. required: thus, L = Oia. is adequate Wel = 10in Additional treatment of eccentric load on welds i to be found in Chapter 13 on ‘connections, SELECTED REFERENCES 5.1. K. Winterton, “A Brief History of Welding Technology.” Welding and Mesa! Fabrication, November 1962; December 1962 5.2. “100 Years of Metalworking” Welding, Brazing and Joining Jone 1955 5.3. H. Carpe. Electric Welding and Welding Appliances. London: D, Van Nos- teand Company, 1920 The tron Age264 3, 33 56 sa. 58 si 543 314 Sis. 516 3.7, 5.18 5.19. 5.20, 521 522. 523, wets Preston M. Hall. “77 Years of Resistance Welding," The Welding Engincer February 1954, 54-35: March 1954, 36-37; Apri 1954, 62-63. WL Mishoe. “Te Centenary of Modern Welding, 1885--1988—A Commem- sxaton.” Welding Joarial 68, Apil 1986, 19-25. D. W, Morgan. “Classication and Use of Mild Steel Covered Electrodes Welding Jaurnal. §8, December 1976, 1035-1038. E. Crag. “A Unique Mode of GMAW Transfer." Welding Journal, 66, Septersber 1987, $155, KA. Lytle. “GMAW—A Versatile Process on the Move.” Welding Journal, 62, March 1983, 15-23 VR Dillenbeck and L. Castazno. “The Etfects of Various Shielding Gases and Associated Mixtures in GMA Welding of Mild Steel” Welding Journal, 66, September 1987, 4549. (See aso letter from Nils Larson, Chairman, Commit tees C50 and ASS, American Welding Society. and sutor’s reply, 67, March 1988, 6) AWS. Welding Handboot, 7th ed, Vols. 2 and 3. Miami, FL: American Welding Society, 1978, 1980 ——. “Office Building Columns Field Spliced with Self-Shilded welding Wire,” Welding Journal, 68, October 1986, 53 "Seif Shielded FCAW Speeds High-Rise Construct” Welding Tourn, 63, April 1984, 47-49, ef-Shielded FCA Welding is a Breze in the Windy City,” Welding Tours, 67, Masch 1988, 47-48, 'A. Raman. “Eleetostag Welds: Problems and Cure.” Welding Jounal, 60, December 1981, 17-21 CC. G. Schilling’ and K. H. Klippstein, “Tests of Hlectroslag Welded Bridge Ginders" Welding Journal, 60, December 1981, 23-30, A-W. Pense, J.D, Wood, and J, W. Fisher. “Recent Experiences with Eke teoslag Welded Bridges.” Welding Journal, 60, December 1981, 33-42, ‘Omer W. Blodgett, “Distortion ... How to Minimize it with Sound Design ‘Practices and Controlled. Welding. Procedures Phos Proven Methods for Steagitening Distorted Members,” Bullein G261. Cleveland, OH: The Lincoln Electric Company. (No date) Omer W. Blodget. “Shrinkage Control in Welding,” Civil Engineering, November 1960. 56-61 E.R. Holby. “Weld Appearances May Be Deceiving,” Welding Journal, 63, May 1984, 33-36, I.E, Jones. “Inspecting for Fatigue.” Welding fourna, 62, May 1983, 24-24, R. Fenn, “Ulrasonic Monitoring and Coateol During Are Welding,” Welding Journal, 64, Septemiver 1985, 18-22 Paul D. Watson. “Design for Welding Examination,” Welding Journal, 61, Febcuary 1982, 32-35, C.M.Fortunko and R-E, Schramm, “Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluations of Bute Welds Using Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers,” Welding Journal G1, February 1982, 3946, Ronald Selner. “Dye Penetrant and Magnetic Pacticle Inspection,” Welding Journal, 61, February 1982, 28-31SELECTED REFERENCES 265 525. AWS, Structural Welding’ Code—Stel (ANSI/AWS D11-98), 13th edition ‘Miami FL American Welging Society, 1994 [sume a8 2.24] 526. 1. A. Donnelly. "Determining the Cost of Welded Joints.” Engineering Jounal ASC, 5,4 (October 1968). 146— 197. 527. Omer W. Blodget. "How fo Deetnine the Cost of Welding." Bullen 6610. (Cleveland, OH: The Lincoln Electric Company. (No date) 5.28. [. J. Butler and G. L. Kulak. "Strength of Fillet Welds as @ Function of Di tion of Lead.” Welding Journal (Welding Research Supplement), 36, M: 1971, 2315-234, 529. Lome J Butler. Shubendu Pal, and Geofiey L. Kulak. “Eccentrically Loaded Welded Connections,” Journal ofthe tructaral Division. ASCE. 98, STS (Mey 1972), 989-1005, 530, G, L, Kulak and P. A. Timmler. “Tess on Eeventrically Loaded Fillet Welds, Structural Engineering Report No. 124, Department of Civil Engineering, Un versity of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta. Devember, 1984 (23 pp). 5.31. Peter Swanne. “Rational Design of Fillet Weld Groups,” Journal ofthe Siruc tural Dission. ASCE, 103, STS (May 1581), 789-802, Disc, 108, STS (May 1982), 1197-1198, 5.32, Peter Swannel. “Weld Group Behaviog." Journal ofthe Structural Division, ASCE, 107, STS (May 1981), 803-815, 5.33. Vernon V. Nei, "New Constitutive Law for Equal Leg Fillet Weld," Journal of Structural Engineering, WAL 8, August 1985, 1747=1759. 534, Raymond H.R. Tide. "Eccentically Loaded Weld Groups—AISC Design ‘Tabiex” Engineering Journal, AISC, 17,4 (4th Quarter 1980), 90-95, 15.35. Raymond WR. Tide, Disc. of “Rational Design of Fillet Weld Groups. Journal fof the Siructura Division, ASCE, 108, STS (Nay 1982), 1197-1198. 15.36, G, Donald Brandt, “” General Solution for Eecentric Loads on Weld Groups.” Engineering Journal, AISC, 19, 3 (34 Quarter 1982), 150-159 5.37. G. 8. Miazga and D. J. L. Kennedy. "Behavior of Fillet Welds a a Function of the Angle of Loading,” Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 16, 1989, 1583-599. 5.38. D.F Lesikand D.J-L. Kennedy, “Ultimate Strength of Fillet Welded Connee- tions Loaded in Plane,” Canadian Journal af Chil Engineering, 17, 1990, 55-67, 5.39, D. J. Kennedy, G. 8. Miazgs, and D. F. Lesik “Diseussion of Fillet Weld Shear Suength," Welding Jourral, 8, May 1990, 44-46. 5.40, Kenneth M. Loomis, Wilkam A. Thornton, and Thomas Kane. “A Design Aid for Connection Angie Welds Subjected to Combined Shear and Axial Loads,” Engineering Journal, AISC, 22,4 (4th Quarter 1985), 178-196, 5.41. John L. Dawe and Geoffrey L. Kulak. “Welded Connections under Combined Shear and Moment.” Journal of the Struesural Division, ASCE, 100, ST4 (April 1974), 727-741 5.42. AWS. Symbols for Welding, Brazing and Nondestructive Examination (A24~ 93). Miami, FL: American Welding Society, 1993, 5.43, Mucray B. Temple and Sheri S. S. Sakla. "Balanced and Unbalanced Welds for Angle Compression Members” Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 21, 1994, 396-403266 CHAPTERS WELONG PROBLEMS: All problems are be done according tothe AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design fr Allowable Stress Design es indicated by the instroctor ll given loads ate service Toads unless otherwise indicated. Whenever possible, show all answers on 8 design sketch (drawn to scale) using appropriate welding symbols. .1._ Specifically iden the AWS DI.1 Jint Designation for each ofthe follwing prequalified” but joints made by the submerged are process (SAW). Specify the proper thickness for each of the plates, a8 well asthe groove angle, root ‘opening another requirements forthe welds. Dra the cross-section For each weld, The given loads are 85% live ocd and 13S dead load. Refer to AWS 24], ASD Manual [1.7] section "WELDED IOINTS,” of LRFD Meat. ‘ual [1-18] Table 8-36 “Prequaliied Welded Joins”. The given joints are (@) Squate-aroove weld, complete penetration; (b) Single-V-gr00ve weld ‘complete penetration; (6) Single-V-groove weld, complete penetration, and {@) Double-Vgroove weld, complet ponctiation wre cid Problem 6. 52. Specifically deity the AWS DI.1 Joint Designation foreach fhe flowing “prequalified” butt joints made bythe shielded metal are process (SMAW), ‘Specify the prope thickness foreach ofthe plates or determine the service Joad eapociy assuming the load is BSS ive load and 15% dead ad Indicate any thickness-related Fnitations and draw the cross-section foreach weld Refer to AWS DL [2.24], ASD Manual [1.7] section “WELDED JOINTS. ‘oF ERED Manual [1.18] Table 8-36 "Prequalined Welded Joins.” The givenProaLes 267 joints are (a) Square-sroove weld, complete penetration: (b) Double-bevel: groove weld. complete penetration; (e) Double-tevel-groove weld, partial penetration: and (d) Single-V- groove weld Problem 5:2 ‘53. Determine the service load capacity T of the connection stown when the submerged are process (SAW} is used The oad is 85% live load and 15% dead Toad. Use (a) A36 steel, and (b) AST2 Grade 65 steel. Assume appropriate electrode material is used Protlem S3 5, Specify the fillet welds required to develop the strength of the coniection shown. State the maximum service load T permitted tobe eatried. The ad is 906 live load and 10% dead load. Specly the proper tx-electrode material Using the submerged are proces268 CHAPTER S WELDING cleo Problems $4 155, Specify the plate thickness and weld size w be used for the joists in the accompanying figure. The lads are 70% lve lcd and 30% dead Ioad, State ‘Weld materi tobe used forthe shielded metal are process (SMAW), Compare ‘A36 and AS72 Grade 50 steels foreach joint. Indicate the preferred design for each joint, s 7 Problem $5 ‘546. For the joins in the accompanying Higue, satisfy the requirements stated in Prob. 5:5. Problem 5.6PROBLEMS 269 '517._Design the reinforced lap joint shown in the secompanying igure. The plates are 7 in. wide of A36 steel and the SMAW process is used. Refer i AWS Joint Designation BTC-Pd (LRFD Manna! p. 8150). The given lead is 256 dead Toad and 789 live load, Problem 5.7 ‘88. Selecta pir of channels and design the fillet welds using the SMAW process “The loading s 85% lve load and 15% dead load. Compare for) A36 sel and (by AST2 Grade 60 sel Problem 58 ‘59, Design the tension plate attached to the wide ange (W) section a well a the welds, assuming the SMAW process i used, The loads 70% live load and 30% ead load, fa. Use A372 Grade 42 see 1 Use A372 Grade 65 see. Use A572 Grade 42 steel, with fillet welds instead of groove weld 4. Use A372 Grade 65 see, with filet welds instead of groove weld Z | | | Problem S9270 CHAPTERS WELDING | S40, A.5x3 1% angle of AS72 Grade 50 steel is connected by its lng keto a fuse pate, Develop dhe maximum serie lod api (25% dead ad 75% live load) of the angle and use a balanced filet welded connection with the | SMAW process. State the service ood capacity. Use the following arange- ‘weld om toe and back, with none on end, in. weld on te and $i. weld op back, an none on end. tt -Ho k Pe Problem 8.10 5.11, Design a balanced connection for two 7X4! angles connected by ther long legs to a }-in. gusset plate. Develop the maximo. service load capacity (205 ead load; 60% live load) and sate is value. Use 372 Grade 60 steel and the SMAW process, Detail the joint to balance the loads using the shortest possible overlap. S12, Design the welds indicated to develop the ful strength of the angles and rnin mize eccentricity. Assume service loads 20% dead loud and 80% lv load. Use the SAW welding proces. a. Use A36 steel bs. Use A572 Grade $0 ste! fe Use AST2 Grade 65 sel 4. Use A36 steel, but omit weld on the end of angles fe Use A872 Grade 65 steel, but omit weld on the ends of angles, TE, = Problem 5.12 | waht 5.13, Asume 8 9-in-sde plate used in aap joint mustcaery 30 kips dead load and | 115 kps live load, and a possibility exits of some accidental eecentricty that cannot be compute. To insure a tighter joint, a 1!~in-diam plug weld isto be | used. Determine the thickness ofthe plate th amount of lap, and the weld sizeProsieus 271 for te best joint. Assime the gusset plate wo which the 9-in. pate is welded oes not control any ofthe design, Use AS72 Grade 0 steel and the SMAW process Problem 5.3 5M, Determine the minimum length of Sin order to develop the fll sength of C12x20.7 welded wo a-i pate. Use the same size fillet weld over te en- tire length, and assume i is to be placed by the SMAW process. Asume service load is 385 dead load and 65% lve oad Problem 8.14 Problem Ss 5.8. For the connection shown inthe accompanying gue, what i the maximum 5.16. required desig strength $R..? The load is 90% lie load an 105 dead oad ‘What weld size is indicated if E70 electrodes are used with the SMAW process? 2. Use svength analysis (ie, locate the instantaneous center by a) D. Use ASD Mzmual tables, “Eccentric Loads on Weld Groups.” of LRED Manual Table 8-38, “Coefficients © for Becentrically Loaded Weld Groups. . Use elastic (eetor) method, For the connection in the accompanying figure, sais the requirements of Prob. 5.15,ore CHAPTERS WELONG Problem $16 5.17, For the bracket shown in the secompanying gue, calculate the service load capacity P (90% live load and 10% dead iad) based on the weld. Neglect the returns at ends and assume the SMAW process is 1 be used, ‘9 Use strength analysis (1, cate the instantaneous center by tial). 1. Use ASD Manual table, “Becemtric Loads on Weld Groups,” or LRFD Man tual Table 838, . Use elastic (veetor) method. Problem 5.17 5.18, Compute the maximum acceptable service lad P for the connection of the ‘ecompanying figure. The load is 85% live lose and 15% dead load. Ignore the ‘effet of returns atthe lower end of the connetion ‘2 Use strength analysis (ie, loate the instananeous center by tra. Bb, Use ASD Manual table, “Becenttc Loads on Weld Groups,” or LRFD Man: sual Table 8-42, «Use elastic (vecto) method. 5.19, Repeat Prob 5.18, exept use jin filet weld on the side and The ste! is AST2 Grade 50. on the endPRosens 273 Problems 5.18 and $19 5820. Compute the service load capacity P forthe welded bracket of the accompany- ing figure. The load is 70% live lotd and 30% dead load. Neglect the returns atthe outer ends ofthe C-shaped weld coniguration. The weld size in. and [E70 electrodes are used inthe shielded metal are process a. Use strength analysis (Le, locate the instantaneous center by tia), DB. Use ASD Manual tables, “Eecentri Loads on Weld Groups,” or LRED Manual Table 8-42, «Use elastic (Vector) method. S21. Repeat Prob. 5.20 the vertical dimension ofthe weld configuration is 12 in, instead of 8 in 522, Repeat Prob. 5.20 ifthe vertical dimension of the weld configuration is 4 in Instead of Bin ‘523. Compute the theoretical weld size required for the racket of the accompany ing igure when the SMAW process is used, The load is 60% live load and 40%274 chaPteR s WELDNG ‘dead load, Neglect the returns at the outer ends of the C-shaped weld configuration ‘a Use strength analysis (ie. Jocae the instantaneous center by tri. 1, Uke ASD Manual tables. “Eccentric Loads on Weld Groups.” or ERED Manual Table 8-38. ce Use elastic (¥ector) methou. Problem $23 524, 525, 526, 527. Repeat Prob, 5.25 ifthe vertical dimension is 12 in. instead of 16 in. Repeat Prob, 5.23 ifthe vertical dimension is 8. instead of 16 in. Repeat Prob. 5.23 ifthe horizontal dimension & 4 in, instead of 16 in Use the elastic (vector) method to derive a general expression forthe required weld size onthe seat angle ofthe accompanying gure in terms of the factored Jad P, the leg length L, and the eccentricity eof the applied load. Assume [E70 electrodes with the SMAW process are used. Use the following assump- fa. Ignore the returns atthe to, '. Use an average return of 1/12: and Use a return equal t twice the weld size Ife = 23 in, and L = 6 in, determine the weld size needed to carry P= 38 kips (30% live ad and 205 dead load, For the weld size selected, check the capacity Pusing all three assumptions, and also compare with the sult using the ASD Manual, “Seated Beam Connections,” 0° LRFD Manual ‘Table 9-7, “All-Welded Unstitfened Seated Connections.”528, tll : Paosuens 275 For the bracket of the accompanying figure, determine the length L required ‘shen using fin filet weld withthe SMAW proses. The load i 7D live nd and 30% dead load. Verity your seslt using the fllowing procedures: fa Surength anayss (Le, locate the instantaneous cen by til). 1. ASD Monuol tables. “Eecentric Loads on Weld Groups,” ot LRED Manat ‘Table 8-38 (© Elastic (vector) method. ct at Problem £28 529. [Repeat Prob. 5.28 ifthe service Jo is 40 kps 1830, For the bracket of the accompanying figure, satisfy the requirements of rob. 528. Note that AS72 Grade $0 sec is used instead of A36, Problem $30Chapter 6 Compression Members Part |: Columns 6.1 GENERAL In this chapter, members subjected to axial compression forces ere to be treated Referred to by various term, such as column, stanchion, post, and strat these mem bers are rarely if ever actually carrying only axial compresion. However, whenever the loading isso arranged that either the end rotational restraint is negligible othe Jain is symmetrically applied from members framing in atthe column ends, and bending may be considered negligible compared to the direct compression, the mem= ber ean safely be designed as a concentrically loaded ecluma, Tt is well known from basie mechani of materials hat only very sort columas| can be loaded fo tir yield stress the usual situation is that buckling, or sudden bending as a result of instability, occurs prior to developing the full material strength of the member, Thus, a sound knowledge of compression member stability is neces sary for those designing in stuctura steal. 6.2 EULER ELASTIC BUCKLING AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Column buckling theary originated with Leonhard Euler in 1744 [6.1] An initially straight concentrically loaded member, in which al fibers remain elastic until back Ting oceuts is slightly bent as shown in Fig. 6.21. although Euler dealt with a ‘member built-inat one end and simply supported at the oer, the same logic is applied here othe pin-end column, which faving zero end rotational restraint isthe member paving least buckling strength, ‘Atany locaton <, the bending moment Mon the member bent slighty about the x principal axis is M= Py 20 and since g. WH 22)ERELASTIC BUCKLING AND HISTORCCAL BACKGROUND 277 Stoo framework, sing parc the estrior cols, Southeast Recreation Foclty. Unversity af Waconsie-Maaloen Campus. Photo by C. Smo the diferent equation becomes a &s ° (623) [Afier letting = P/E the solution ofthis second-order linear differential equation may be expressed y= Asin ks Boos ke (624) Applying boundary conditions, (a) y = 0 at = = 0; and (b) y= 0 at z = L, one ‘obtains for condition (a), B = 0: and for condition (b), = Asin kL (623) Satistaction of Eq. 6.28 may be accomplished in three possible ways; (a) constant A= 0. i.e. no deflection; (b) LL = 0, te. no applied load and (@) KL = Ne, the Figure 62.1, Euler column,278 CHAPTER 6 COMPRESSION MEMEERS requirement for buckling «© oseur. Thus (na t) 7 0 ‘Me fandanenl busing node np-rardeeston(s = ash =/L.tom Peet etiscarna © fhe ersten rascanssih k cicps 29 oxi rms fae compre es ng! = A? pee ponte BE 20 Euler's approach was generally ignored for design because test results did not agree with it, columns of ordinary length used in design were not as strong as Eg, 62.7 would indicate CConsidere and Engessr [6.2, 6.3] in 1889 independently realized that portions ‘of sual length columns become inelastic priorte buckling and that a valve f F should be uted that could acount for some ofthe campressed fbers being strained beyond the proportional limit Te was thus eonsciousy recognized that in fact ordinary length columns fil by inelastic buckling rather than by elastic bucking. ‘Complete understanding ofthe behavior of concentrically Ioaded columns, how- ver, Was not achieved until 1846 when Shanley [6.4, 6.5] offered the explanation that ‘ow seems obvious. He reasoned that it was actually possible for acolurmn to bend and Sill ave increasing aval compression, bu that it begins to bend upon reaching what iscommonly referred to as th buckling load, which includes inelastic fleets on some forall bers of the eross-sectios. Those inelastic effects are discussed in detail in See. 64 ‘An extensive historical eview ofthe development of column theory is given by BG. Johnston [6.6]. 6.3 BASIC COLUMN STRENGTH ‘To determine a basi column strength, certain conditions may be assumed forthe ideal column [67]. With regard to mates, it may be assumed (1) there are the same ‘compressive stress-strain properties throughout the section; (2) no iitial internal stresses exist such as those due to codling after rolling and those due to welding. Regarding skape and end conditions, it may be assumed (3) the column is perfectly straight an prismatic; (4) the load resultant acts through the centoidal axis of the ‘member antl the member begins to bend; (5) the end conditions must be determinate ‘so thats definite equivalet pinned length may be established. Furter assumptions regarding buckling may be made, as (6) the small deflection theory of ordinary ae62 BASIC COLUNNSTRENGTH 279 bending is applicable and shear muy be neglected; and (7) twisting or distortion ofthe cross-section does not accur during bending ‘Once the foregoing astmptions have been made sis now agreed [6.8] that the strength of colomn may be expressed by re KL Ir where _£, = tangent modulus of elasticity at sess. /A, A, = gross cros-sectional area of member KL/t = effecuive (or equivaiens pinned-end) slenderness ratio 1K = eficcuve length factor (treated in Sec. 69) = length of member = radius of eyration = V7, 1 = moment of inertia 113s wellknown that long compression merabers fal by elastic buckling and that short suioy compression members may be loaded un the material yields OF pechaps ven into the srain-hasdening range. However, i the vastmajonty of usual situations, Iailure occurs by buckling after « portion of the cross-section hs yielded. Ths is Known as inelastic buckling ‘Actually, buckling under axial load occurs on's when the aforementioned as- sumptions (1) through (7) apply. Columns are usually an integral part ofa structure and 3s such canno! Behave entirely independently. The practical use f the tem Duckling is that st isthe boundary between stable and unstable defections of ‘sampression member, rather than the instantaneous condition that occurs in the ‘soled slender elastic rod. ‘As previously mentioned, for many years theoretical determinations of column strength did not agree with te sesults, Tet results included effects of initial rocked ness of the meme, accidental eccentricity of load, end restraint, lol of lateral buckling, and residual sess. typical curve of observed strengths Was a shown in Fig, 6.31, Design formulas, therefore, were based on such empirical results. Various oan Figure 63.1 Typical range of column scength ¥8 slendenes aio280 CHAPTER® COMPRESSION MEMBERS straight-line and parabolic formulas hase Seen used, as well as other more complex expressions, mn order fo Ht the curve of test results in ¢ reasonably accurate, yet practical manner sommary, Euler elastic buckling governs the strength for large slendornoss ratios, yield strength P, = F, A, controls for short columns, and a transition curve rust be used for incestic buckling 6.4" INELASTIC BUCKLING Since ordinary length columns buckle when some of ther fibers are inelastic, having 44 modulus of elasticity less than their inital elastic value, the logic of Engesser Consiere, and Shanley is explained in this section, generally following Bleich (69. pp. 8-20}, Basic Tangent Modulus Theory uke’ ery praned ont sutons where compresive sets slow he atc Timi ects unterly over te grnr-secon when mabe ebm os Ex ose [6] and Consisre (62) mere tft in the ona ot viable ‘Sects ot tsi To Emer tangent motu ney he coum remains Srigh opto th stato alread th dls tty a aaron i the sues-sain curve: The slaionips ae shown i Fig. 64. The theory presi! hat at acertain sts Fy = Po te meme could segue am sbi Sctecedshpe and tat he anata Fi goto by B= fie Ths Exper model ales equation o Became ne Fea.” Ri sore ise tangent modus od d,s he get modal of elas at wren Fe Ts hor, however, sl i not agre with est ests, gvng compte ads lover than mewsted ate capacities Fe pencil smn tat asd his ‘Snent modus tery to be cosdered erent the ember chaages froma sight oon rn no san eve as place a 1999 Engen changed his theory easonig tet daring ending wou es under meee san Cl fre agent mods) and some Aer ar nba hg rods he ress Stain therefore aconbined ate shoal be sd for te mado com) Double Modulus Theory ‘To examine the process of column bending at stresses beyond the elastic limit, con- Sider the section of Fig. 4.2 from which Engesser’s double modulus, or “reduced” Imodvlus, is developed. This concep had logic to it which was generally accepted bat ave compuced strengths higher than test values. Not until Shankey's explanation was the inconsistency resolved64 NELISTICEUCKING 281 Figure 642 ulin282 CHAPTER COMPRESSION MEMBERS Acunstable equlbrivm, the sess st the neutral exis ection L-1 oF Fig. 6.8.2) remains ast was prior the deflection 5 oscutring. On the loading fibers where strain is increasing the stress increase is proportional o£, — de, whereas on the unload ing fibers the decrease in stra relieves th elastic part of the sri: thus the sess decrease is proportional to the elastic modulus E ‘As shown in Fig, 6.4.3, the strain on the cross-section wil be linear. At the ‘extreme unleaded fiber, applying Hooke’s Law the stress becomes (642) and at the loaded fer fen (043) sa) Thos « rom Foun = Es 4) For smal curvature, tw tay ‘ radius of curvature Ef dz de* ae) Where £, = Engesser's double moguls, “The internal resisting moment fr the stress condition of Fig. 6.1.2 gives igure 64.3 An element de long th ais ofthe corm inthe ‘useable equilibrium postion64 elastic eucKLNG 263 and from linear sess distribution and Eq. 6.45, f= fi wig, = Eat f= Somes =ry = BLE" yo — oan, + oD [Ors + ie aw which, using Eq. 6.4.8, gives ” Pan 08E [nen , Using Eq. 6.4.11, its sen the terms involving 8 cancel each uther in Eq. 64.9, thus sung ef sas, afin dT. The increased compressive force dC is computed using the tangent ‘modulus E; while in the region of strain reversal the elastic modulus E is used to ‘compute dT, The double modulus theory which sinilarly treated louding and uaload- ing fibers, did not accept dC > aT but rather ony considered equiibniam positions rear the perfectly straight one. For practical purposes, the increase of capacity from P10 P, (Fig. 6.4.48) can bbe neglected for design use, Therefore, the tangent modulus load may be treated asthe calla, Le the load at which bending begins. 6.5 RESIDUAL STRESS Residual stresses are stresses that remaia in a member after it has been formed into finished product, Suc stresses result fom plastic deformations, which in structural Steel may result from several sources: (1) uneven cooling which occurs after hot rolling of structural shapes; (2) ead bending or cambering during fabrication; (G) punching of holes and cutting eperations during fabrication; and (4) welding Under ordinary conditions those residual stresses resulting from uneven cooling and welding are the most important. Actually the important residual stresses due 10 ‘welding are really the result of uneven cooling, “The mechanism of residual stress duc to uneven cooling is teated in the Welding Handbook (2.23, Volume 1, Chap. 7] and the effect of residual sires on compression Structural members appears in the Guide o Stability Design Criteria for Metal Struc- tures [68, pp. 33~43] prepared by the Structural Stability Research Council. This Tater pobication willbe extensively eeferre to asthe SSRC Guide, In wide-fange or H-shaped sections, after hot rolling, the anges, being the thicker parts, coo! more slowly than the web fegion. Furthermore, the ange tips Ihavng greater exposure tthe air cool more rapidly than the egion a the junetion of65 RESIDUAL STRESS 285 240 = Masicum cormpresive Figure 65.1 Typical residual stress pate on colle shapes flange to web. Consequently, compressive residual sess exists at flange tips and at id-depth ofthe web (te regions that cool fase), while tensile residual tess exists inthe lange and the we'> a the regions where they Join. igure 6.5.1 shows typical residual stress distrbution on celled beams, Considerable variation canbe expected ss the qrue pattern willbe a function ofthe dimensions of the section ‘Av this poiat one might wonder whether the general column strength equation (£4, 63.1) discussed inthe preceding section stil applicable, The theory is aplt- ‘able, bat ll ers inthe erose-secton cannot be Considered as stressed to the sme level under the action ofthe compressive service Wad, The tangent modulus Eon oe fiber isnot the sme as that on an adjacent ier. Tn a rolled steel shape the influence of residual stress on the stessstrain curve is shown in Fig 6.5 2 using avecage stress on the gr0ss atce as the ordinate Itis noted ‘that residual stess in an elastic-plastic materisl such as steel gives the same effect as ‘that obtained fora material such as aluminurn, which is noc linearly elastic when it contains no residual stress. Thus, assuming the tangent modulus concept applies. columa stength may be saw be based om inelastic buckling because the average stees-stain Curve is nonlinear when maxinum column strength is reached r xX ‘gure 652 lotuence of residual stress on werage ses sain curve288 ChAPTERG COMPRESSION MEMBERS Figure 65.3. Typiil residual swe disbuton in welded stapes Whereas it was once believed the nonlinear portion ofthe average sres-stain curve for analy leaded compression members was due entcely 1 intial curvature nd acldenaleecenriity Huber and Beedle [611] hae verified that residual tess ' the primary cause, and the other factors have a telatvely minor effect. Residual resseS at flange tips of rolled shapes have been measured as high as 20 ksi (138 MPa), high percentage ofthe minimum specified yield stress sees such as ‘A36. Residual stresses are essentially independent of yield stress. depending instead ‘on cross-sectional dimensions and configuration since those factors govern cooling rates [6.12]. ‘Welding of buileup shapes is an even greater contributor to residual stress than ‘cooling of hot-rolled H-shapes [6.13]. The plates themselves generally have lite Fesidual stress initially because of relatively uniform cooling after ralling. However. after the heat is applied to make the welds the subsequent nonuniform cooling and straint against distortion cause high residual stresses. Figure 6.5.3 shows typical residual stress paterns pa welded Hand box builtup shapes, ‘One should now that compressive residual stresses typically occurring at lange tips are higher ia welded than i rolled H-shaped sections. Thus the colums strength fof such welded shapes wil be lower than corresponding rolled shapes, On the other hand, che welded-box shape, having tensile residual stres in the corner regions that ‘sontebute most othe stiffness asa column, wil be stronger than arolled shape having the same slendemess ratio, Sherman [6.14.6.15] has studied residual sesses on rolled tubular members. Having accepted that residual stresses exist, such information must be used 10 ‘obtain a column strength curve (average sires ¥sslendernes ato) that ea form the basis for design, Umi the early 1950s, colamn design vas based on many formulas, all of which tried to empirically account for column behavior exhibited by tess. By ‘learly indicating thatthe tangent modlus ws the propor esterion for strength and by identifying the role of residual stes, she Column Research Count (now Struc- tural Stability Research Council [68] has made a significant contribution55 COLUMN STRENGTH CURVES CLUDING RESIOUKL STRESS 287, 6.6" DEVELOPMENT OF COLUMN STRENGTH CURVES, INCLUDING RESIDUAL STRESS ‘The following analytical approach. parerned after Huber and Beedle [6.11] end Beedle and Tall (6.16), i intended to show the foie to obtain a cok strength equation. Clunn stength ca be obtained by two general methods One method is io use the residual stress distribution, either the Steal variston from measurements ‘comathematis! model alo wth he stes-stain elton forthe masa a smallest specimen of hese). “The otter method iso determine experimentally an average sess rla- sionhip hy testing hoc length of rolled shapes containing fea sess, Corny strength can then be determined from the text els ing the tangent modulo the experimental curve in combination withthe appropriate slendeeness ratio. Knowledge ofthe residual ress pattern isnt wsed in ths second approach Yu and Tall[617}have diseussed these approaches in deta Johnston (618 ]and Baverman and Jodnstn [6.19] have tated the tangent madslas application 1 in clastic bukling of colin. “The ollowingdevelopmentis made wth the objective of biting & relationship totween average externally applied sires and he slenenes rato Ths, the capacity cf amember an be obtained by a imple mutation of safe tes times pros ae, ithe regard to wha the atl stes is at ay pint in he erosion or Whats the ue residual stress patter, “Asa starting pont conser tel which as 2 mae s perfectly elastic util a Stein 6,8 achioved and then ie pov (ie, constant sess with increasing Strain). coupon et fom the web «alle shape exhibits such bebavor, as shown by the doced lines in Fig 6.5.1 The slid lines indicate the behavior of an H-shaped rolled section inlading esa ses, ‘To aecout forthe effets of early yielding because of residual stress, consider cone fer at a distance» trom the as of zero stain caused by bending (Fig. 66.2). ‘he bending is aken a an iafinitesimal amount consent with eqliums a he Figure 66.1. Comparison of coupon with H-shaped rolled section containing cesta srs258 CHAPTERS CONPRESSION MENGERS Stes = Se sens Figure £62. Sees on Hora ate x fom axis of er strain de to bovding tangeat modulus Toad. The bending moment contribution from stress on the one fiber is AM = (stress}area)(moment sem) = (GE,x\dAN(x) (66.1) which forthe entire cross-section Becomes n= [ verano [ aoe wen [From elementary bending theory, the radi of curvature is ret : ws ‘equivalent BT” £7 ) Me fine era [nea [ava woo wip teaed neato mainen ain sano abe in tnd ee nee fare fg 1 td I< FE = Band forf =F, £~ 0) be bending stfess of yielded parts be- ‘comes 7et0; however, the buckling strength will be the same as a column whose ‘moment of inertia I, i the moment of inertia ofthe portion remaining elastic, Equa ‘bon 6.64 then becomes Ely p te 7 a The essa whic he enna may bein end fom Eg 63.134 “en, m Fudy 667) \cKLi55 COLUMN STRENGTH CURVES INCLUDING RESIDUAL STRESS 269 ln order for Eq, 6.6.7 © be useful. the relationship between F., and J, must be established, ‘Case A. Buckling about Weak Axis ‘A reasonable assumption will be thatthe Banges become Fully plastic before the wely Yields see Fig. 6.6.3), Let = proportion ofthe Bange renining clastic = 2b = A,/ay Then Eq 6.45 becomes! (668) ifthe web is neglected in computing L Applying the tangent modulus definition, tenn ingens a incremental elastic strain P/A. aaa Z EA=Aa= + DAVE wai wae A, vba {SPOUT are tage {TENS ve Shing 6610 dea 68,687 ses wou 2) sin hich includes the elastic web effec, for buckling with respect othe weak axis (y=). Case B. Buckling about Strong Axis Again, assuming the web is elastic, but neglecting its contribucon toward the moment (of inertia gives approximately Le. p2Add/Dy chek 4 Ee (66.13) igure 6.63 Portion of section that has yielded260 CHAPTER COMPRESSION MEMBER Ir the elastic eb is included, 2a, = BAK ree = 's the approximate equation using Eq 66.11 fork, of more exactly using Eg. 6.6.16 in Bg, 66.7 gives PE [BA/E~ 24/3 aan eae | am for busking with respect tothe tong axis (2-3) rom the foregoing development it pares tat wo equations are necessary «> properly determine column strength of l-shapel setions: one fo stong-axs backing and one for weak-axis Duckling. Although the value L/1 isnot itl & function ofthe residual sess dstribution provided tat ais he general geomet sc requirement a shown in Fig. 66.3; nevertelesy the cata tess ry, Compued 1 the buckling land divided by the gros area, hs a elaionship wth KE] that dos depend on residal stress. "Noe tha if the stes-stran curve forthe meri sno lste-paste ie. if 2 is neither nor zero, then the mote Beneral equation, Eg, 6.64, must be Wed insead of Eq. 665 EXAMPLE 66.1 [Establish the column strength curve (F.. vs KL) for weak axis buckling of an [shaped section of steel having a yield stress of 100 ks (690 MPa) exhibiting pecfect elastic-plastic strength ina coupon test (Fig. 6.6.40), and baving Phe very simplified residual stress patern shown in Fig. 6.64a, Neglect the contribution ofthe web. Soluron. For any external load the strain on every fibers the same. Until a fiber reaches the strain ¢, at first ye, the applied loud is p= [pana65 COLUMN STRENGTH CURVES INCLUDING RESIOUAL STRESS 201 ters puncte pl ep Peta aan sf pas D/A = 2F/3 the entire section remains clastic, 4p tis robe for Fs Fethes, in which eae Bis Ean we FS te (asp) B/3} 100) When Fy = PIA > 26/3, the Hane ips have yielded making Jes than thaw = 65.4 (point 1, Fig. 665) ony Pos 26, _ =°EiL/1) 3 REY ~ BRED 1 7 SE 23.2 (point 2, Fie. 665) for average stress infinitesimally greater than 2F,/3. When F., = Pit = F, Ee KLIP = 189 (point, Fig. 66.5)202 CHAPTERS cOMPRESSIONMEMERS Figure 665 Columasisngth curse for Example 66 | ‘when the total load P= F,A. The results are shown in Fig 6.65. I there had been no residual ess at Fi, Baas pin rg 68) EXAMPLE 662 Establish the column strength curve forthe more realistic linear distribution of resid- ual stress shown in Fig. 6.66. Consider weal-axis buckling of an H-shaped section of steel for both (a) F, = 36 si (250 MPa) and (BF, = 100 ksi (690 MPa), Neglest the cllect of the web, ont (Reine paten (8) Conse ei op Figure 666 Data for Example 66.2. Solution. For an average superimposed stess f section romains clastic (Fig. 6.6.72): therefore & PA = 2/2, the entre Evand Por an average stress due 1 applied load greater than 26/3, part of the eros section is plastic and part elastic, asin Fig. 6.6.7. Duing this stage, che change instress is nor the same on al fibers, because the modulus of elasieit is not the185 COLUMN STRENGTH CURVES INCLUDING RESIDUAL STRESS 203 Figure 66.7 Suess dsteibution with ina esha ses same om all fibers. PELL Rie 1, 2/12 _ 8x 7) 2G/ize oF neglecting the effect ofthe web, _ Sxtela/b? fe iY which gives Fas a function of two variables, x/b and KL/r. An addtional relationship is reqred. The total load during the elasto-plastic stage can be en ppaafee afte) «a ») ow294 CHAPTERG COMPRESSION MEMBERS ‘which isthe shaded area of the stress diagram in Fig, 6.6.76, Prom similar triangles on the dotted triangle of Fig 66.7, 26/3 28/3 T Solving for f -[-3]4 © @ Thus @ ‘which is used in combination with Eg. (a). The results are presented in Fig 668, ke Fe 7 3 wo Se 030 ose | awn) wT a das ngs | des ‘wo | Bo a on om | ms ol maa om pas | 317 ur] kos 02s os | ma us| ott st om oer | ur a] barns ein | sss “ka | oan te If the we of the section were to be include, 1/7 could easily ined the web terms, Furthermore, Eq, (b) could also have inloded the web terms. Such inclusion ‘ofthe effect of the web brings in the variable 4,/A and in most cases the eect is small Finally, curves similarto those of Fig. 6.6.8 can be obtained by using an average stress-strain curve for a short length of roled shape a5 referred to eater in this section, in which case Eqs. 6.6.12 and 66.18 can be used with the £, obtained from the “eross-section” sres-seain curve.67 SORCSTRENGTH CURVES 295 Bod: Figure 668 Colums suenath cures showing elect of restual sess (B = 29,00 hs). Soaton for Example 662. 6.7 STRUCTURAL STABILITY RESEARCH COUNCIL (SSRC) ‘STRENGTH CURVES Parabolic Equation—Basis for Allowable Stress Design Based upon the methods discussed ia See, 66, column strength curves can be ob: tained for weak- or stong-ans buckling with various istibuions of residual ste. For most practical situations it has been reported that an assumed linear disttbution cof residual sees inte Manges ress i reasonable average column curve [6.20] Furthermoc, the development inthe previous section (Egs. 6.12 and 6.17) shows {hat forthe some slendernes rao, Heshaped cout sections allowed bend athe ‘weak diction can cary les load than clues permite to bend only inthe song 15, 63)58 LOAD ANO RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN 301 i Figure 68.1 Crit columa sues Fs Kv asoniog 9 Load and Resstance Factor Desig r rious eld sre. Since Q = 1 for all rolled H-shaped sections (Standard W, S, and M shapes) listed inthe LRFD Menuol Column Load Tables for F, = 36 and 50 ks, the develop- ‘meat ofthe fogic Behind the use ofthe Q factor is reserved for See. 6.18 in art Ion plate buckling ‘The cttieal stress equations, Eqs. 6.7.7 and.78, are shown in Fig. 6.8.1 for FF, = 36, 50, 60, 70, and 100 ksi, LRFD Specificaton section references for axial ‘compression sre given in Table 6.8.1 ‘ingly Symmetric Double Angles and Tees Hot rolled double anges and tee sections usually buckle in the flexural mode based on Lr with respect to the or y-axis. However, since the shear center (see See. 8.3) does not coincide with the centroid of the section, a torsional effect is possble ‘Though the subject of wrson snot reated until Chapter 8, the reader should noe the LRED Manual tables “COLUMNS” giving design axial strength @,P, for double angles and structral tees include the effect of the fexurabtorsional buckling limitTABLE GA) AXIAL COMPRESSION ise SPECICATION REFERENCES ‘Spenco senione Tepe URED) ——_ASDIES) cling i fo Linsey ast oot Bs Bs. ‘Senders Wnts Br Br Brace fame detniton 2.1 ea Etec eng eee e e ‘Column oats ais 8 8 Baitep members fa a Slo compen cements Arpente B53. Apenin 38.2, ‘sate in the calculation of Fg. Since torsional stiffness i significantly seated vo the cenbe of the thickness of the elements (flanges and web) this effect will only be ‘significant on sections having very thin components, soch a ight gage sections. The rmodifcttion of A in the F, equations to account for exural-torsional buckling is given in LRED-Appendix F3, The double-angle member has been specially treated by Astaneh, Goel, and Hanson (640), Zahn and Hazijer[6 41) and Galambos (6.87), audi eet cf alanced ele conection ha renee by Temple nd aia 8.43] Built-up Sections ‘The compression meme strength of built-up sections isaffected by the shear transfer strength of the faseners attaching the elements together, and the slip-esistance of these comnectors, A double angle compression chord member ofa truss can behave as 4 single element compression member only when the two angles are adequately attached to each other so that when the flexural bucking limit state is reached there will be no relative axial movement (shear deformation) of one angle relative 10 another. The strength of built-up sections as affected ty fastener strength, spacing, and installation (lip-resistance) of bolts has been studied by Libove [6.39] and Aslani and Go! (6.89, 6.5} and design rules are given by Duan and Chen [6.82]. Column Strength as Affected by Connector Spacing When the controlling buckling mode “involves relative deformation that produces shear forces in the connectors between individual shapes,” 4 modified slenderness ratio (KL is used. For the double angle section, ths willbe the ease when the controlling flexural buckling occurs in the plane parallel t9 the outstanding legs ‘O-ans for LRED Manual properties). When the controlling esural buckling limit sate js based on slendemess KL/rin the plane parallel tothe back-to-back legs (canis {oe LRED Manuel properties) the angles will move parallel to each other and the connectors will not effect the compression strength,Te moifed slendemes ato (Ars ao depend one speeiance orth mons TREDEL pane 1 Forse bled cameos ay ai 84) 2. For welded comectors and for fully-tightened bolt connections: (#), = (ee +082 5(2) (6x5) where endernes ratio of the built-up member acting as 8 unit (for the y-axis ia double angle members) ~ largest slenderness ratio of sn individeal component (fr the (ais of a single angle for the dawble angle member) (22), = ties omesed saenen deo re etre sinner a gerd anita oper os scares an cpa Se Sle tas of ita ope fener en es & = column slenderness ratio of individual component relative to "0 ts centroidal axis parallel © member axis of buckling ‘The application ofthe modified slenderness ratio w the double angle member applies only when (KL/r), exceeds (KE/i),: however, the modified ratio should also be checked when‘K1/r), ithe larger by only small amount. In effect, the modified value always replices the (KL/n), forthe double angle member. ‘Tubular Sections ‘The formulas for Fare applicable for tobular sections. Additional information on tubular compression members is salable inthe work of Sherman (6.14, 6.15, 6.23] a well ss Snyder and Lee [6.34, 6.38], Chen and Ross [6.36], and Ross, Chen, nd ‘Tall [6.37], For round columns, see Galambos [6.38] Single Angle Sections ‘The steenath of single-ancle struts (1.2. compression members) has received conser able attention in receat years. For many years AISC recommended against using204 CHAPTER 6 COMPRESSION MEMBERS single-sngle compression members because oftheir having the torsional (ee Chap. 8) ‘or flexual-ioesional See Chap. 9) lit states for strength. The full weatmentof single fngles is outside the scope ofthis book For the design of singl-angle members subject to compression, bending, and beam column action the reader is teferted to Specficarin for Load and Resistance Factor Desig of Single-Angle Members (6 83] published by AISC. ‘Many researchers contributed to development of that specification. including Kennedy and Murty (6.42, 643], Woolcock and Kitjporachai (644), ETayem and Goel (6.45, 6.46]. Chueame: [6.47], Galambos (687), Elgaaly, Dagher, and Duvids (690, 691}, Adluri and Medugula (6.92). Zureick (696). and Bathon, Mueler, and Kempner [697] ‘Other Non-Symmetrical Sections ‘Seetions such as exuciform (see Smith [6.48]) and Z-sections require special consid ‘eration using the provisions of LRED-Appendit F. The srength of bule-up sections ‘connected intermittently by fascnerssaflected by sich fastener spacing as discussed above, 6.9 EFFECTIVE LENGTH Discussion of column strength to this point has asumed hinged ends where no ‘moment rotational restraint exists, Zero moment restraint atthe ends constitutes the ‘weakest situation for compression members having no transverse movement of one tend relative to the other. For such pinned-end columns the equivalent pinned-end length KL is the actual length; thas K'~ 1.Das shown in Fig 69.1a. The equivalent pinned-end length is referred to as the effective length Figure 69.1 Bifetve length KL: no jit wanslation69 EFFECTWELENGHY 905; For most real situations moment resituint atthe ends does exist easing the points of zero moment (inflection pois) to move away from the restrine! ends as shown in Fig. 69.1b, , and d where the effective lengths KL then ate tedaced In many situations its dfcult, or perhaps impossible. to adequately evaluate the degree of moment restraint contibuted by adjacent members framing ita, ‘colums, by «footing and soil under it, and indeed the fll interaction ofall members of ascel frame Whether or not the degree of end restrain can be ascertained accurtely, the designer must understand te concepts of braced frame and wnbraced frame A more {extensive treatment of frames is given in Chap. 14 Braced Frame AA bvaced frame, acconding to LRFD-C2.1 is one i which “lateral stability s po- vided by diagonal bracing, shear walls or equivalent means.” The vertical braving system must be “adequate” as determined by structural analysis". to prevent bckling ofthe structure and to maimain the atral stability of the structure, nluding the overturning effects of drift. under the factored lads..." Note that a vertical column in a braced frame would have no sideways movement of is top relative to bottom, Figure 6,9. illustrates effective lengths for columns ia a braced frame. Once it thas been determined that a frame is braced, the bracing is presamed to provide soy ‘needed lateral restraint, a in Fig. 6.9.28 and c: therefore, the joints are sesumed Dot ‘© move laterally (atleast in first order structural analysis) and an individual ealumn ‘may be designed aif isolated once the effective length factor K has been determined From Figs. 6.9.1 and 6.3.2a nd c, one may observe that end restraint in braced frames always reduces the distance between inflection points; that i, reduces the effective length KL from the pinned-end condition. The effective length fact k wil always be less than uni, Unbraced Frame An unbraced frame, according to LRFD-C2.2, is one in which “lateral stability ‘depends upon the bending stifines of rigidly connected beams and eolumrs.” The ‘buckling of an unbraced frame is one of siesmay where, for example, the lop of 3 column moves tothe side relative to the botiom. In Fig.6.9.20 and dan unbraced frame is shown having sidesvay buckling. The buckled shape and therefore th effec- tive ength ofthe columns will depend onthe sitnesses of the participating members, in fexure, The effective length KL may be obtained by matching the buckled shape of column with a portion of the pinned-end column buckled shape As shown io Fig. 62, KL will always exceed L, ‘To understand why the minimum value of K in an unbraced frame is theoreti- cally 1.0, examine the rectangular frame of Fig. 69.2d. The silfest situatior would ‘be when the eam i infinitely sti thats, itcaanot bend, The inflection pon. would then be at mid-height and the buckled shape would be a in Fip.6.93a, ‘The practical situation in an unbraced frame ie that K is always greater than ‘unity, Furthermore, there is no simple way of obtaining a value ber than evalvatingAlignment ‘Adjustment of Alignment Chart K Factors for Inel 69 EFFECTIVE LENGTH 907 the end gestrait, LRED-C2.2 requites that K “shall be determined by stuctoral, analysis.” Charts for Evaluating Effective Length Factor K For ordinary design, its entely impractical w analyze an entire frame to determine ts bucling strength and te effective lengths for the member ‘aidusimesigatrs hae provided charts permit ea) determination of frame ‘ching loads etfesive lengths for commonly encouiered tuations. Effective lenth actors Kaze given by Aruleson and Woodward [6.28] for stepped columns. Sadho [631] for columns having 2m intermediate al Joad, Lu [649] for gabled frames, Fraser [6.84] for pin-baved rane columns, Soman (685 fo ross bring Roeaters and Sear [6186] for colomns in one-story busing, an Wesson [6.50] for one-story. one-by feames, ving verieal loads applied to the columns at st intermediate poine in addition t the load st the top. Galambos [6.51] has pressed them for one: and two-story, one-baywide frames, and Gurfakel and Robinson [82] have given K values for Ue general ease ofa clase rotationally resiased colunn (both wth and without siesway elastic rests’). Switzhy snd Wong [6.53] have summarized buckling ie data from which eetive lengths can be obtained for frames one-bay wie and pt five stores high “The mos commonly wed procedure for obsving elective length (0 we the alignment chars originally developed by O. J. Julian and L.S. Lawrence, and pre= seoted in cet by TC. Kavanagh [6.4] The alignment chart method 09g Fig. 64 ip also sugested by the LRFD Commentary as satsying the “anjis™ rewirement of LRFD.C22 © get “adequate” vales. Dumontel [6.93] has pre- Seoted equations equivalent the alignment chars, nd Loi [6.94] bat given a ‘Simplified Ferma erste For simple stutions, one may use Fig. 6.9.5 from the SSRC Guide (6.8) For braced frames itis alvays conservaine 0 take the K factor as unity, and Some interpolations psstie fom Fg. 6.98. For unbraces Games, xcept pechaps fr the flagpole-type situation of Fig. 69.3. ease (@, an arbitrary selection of Kis not sasactory for desig, tle Column Behavior ‘The design of columns imardinary construction involves slenderness ratios KL/rin the inclasti Dckling range (ie, A= 4Sor F, > about O.SF). The inelastic icing strength is given by B9, 6.31, 6, 5 63. fa agi fea where Bs the tangent modulus of elasticity at tres P./4,.. Whea the aligoment chart {s used to evaluate K there i an implicit asbmption that elastic bustling conte "The ern Was Frew in deta inthe ion (980) feet PP 883-85),308 CHAPTERG COMPRESSION MeMseRS Figure 694 Aligomest Chen for effective length of enumns in consauous HL, clus frames (646), where G = Gest ‘When the column is inelastic andthe beam is clastic, an adjustment may be made in the restraint factor G used in the alignment chart. The G factor would then become ZUEHL Gnas = FET = Sound BL (9) were = F882 (A Vesey BB Fesnsn Bg. 683~ \O87 oeseo (69.2) “The procedure of using Fg. 6.9.2 and various simplifieations for practical use Ihave boon discussed by Yora [6.55]. This provoked considerable discussion by Adams [656), Johnston [6.57], Disque (6:58). Smith [6.59], Matz [6.60]. and Stockwell [6.61] The LRFD.Commentary C2 endorses Yuru's procedure as modified by Disque [6.58]. The Yora-Disque procedure was presente inthe contest of Allowable Stresseo EErCWELeIT 90 Teepe Te] | i] 7 | | 1 tit I t a aera oe TF Renan fe Tanston foe _ | Fee Tire Figure 69.5 Elfeive length fctors for cemally loaded cols having saous ieaized end condons (Adeped Hom Ref. 83, 52) Design where £,/E could be approximated as fy/F. For LRFD the numerator of Eq {69.2 may be taken as P/A, since if properly designed the strength dP, will approx ately equal P. Note that Eq. 69.2 becomes Mesa, OP AF ial, AF owl, “Thus, it seems reasonable to nse the nominal sts Pf, wer Eactored load asthe numerator of Ed. 69.2 and ¢ times Eq. 6.8.3 as the denominator, Values of B (Eq, 69.2) have been tabulated for 436 steel in Table 69.1. The ERED Manat [1.18] calls these "Stiffness Reduction Factors” and also includes values for F, = 50 ksi, Harichandran [6.8] has summarized the procedure, and noted how easily mistakes can be ade. For truss compression embers, end fetraint may be present and joint transla- tion is prevented 50 that K might logically be less than 1.0. Under static loading, ‘ress in all che members remain in the sane proportion 1 one another for various Joads If all members are designed for minimum weight. they wil achieve ultimate310 CHAPTER 6 COMPRESSION MEMBERS ‘TABLE 68:1 ADAISTHENT 9, OF RESTRANT FACTOR GTO ACCOUNT Poa NELASTIC BUCKLNG-FOR #99 STEEL TEseas Eqeaa & Ba 038 2s Oa yer na jes BD Ost 28 One fo 3 os ox oda Mt fe 82 iso oe 0k on ss O03 Be os on oa Le had Ons oe oD 287 Ons ba 77 wo 3 Orr oa 43a mi bo om Oat jon 32 us hs Cao oss 403 mea loa oe bk 7 sel 27 om wo 13 ms wis 9 as oe Bs os feta oss fer 3D ise sos? Oss 8 Sis isa a8 Oss SLT 38 ima 92080 om 55D ies 93 Bn oe $83 308 Nos nas oe 03 2s ws O98 bes See 300 Har et oe de eT Mss 7s om at 3 He? ira O36 om 620 1s 0st om 60s m3 ost on Ss 3 0 O98 om 5 m8 bas 9% ban 3 Hs er O99 capacity simultaneously under ive lead. Thus restraint offered by members framing ft joint disappears ora eat i greatly reduced. The SSRC, therefore, recommends {sing A= 10 for members of « russ designed for fixed- position Joading. When esigning for moving load systems on trusses, K ean be reduced 10 0.85 because contiions causing maximum sess inthe member under consideration will not cause ‘maximus stress in the members Teaming in to provide restraint (6.8) "When the adjacent members framing at the ends of s column are heavily loaded compression members, they may have a destabilizing effect instead of stabilizing the rember being considered: in effect a negarive G-fator. Bridge and Fraser (6.81 have presented a procedure to account for such negative G-factors.630 LREDOF ROLLED SHAPES (WS, pNDAN) 311 | i i ‘The application of the K factor approach 10 the unbraced frame containing & i leanet” column is presented in See. 145, \ | | | 6.10 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN OF ROLLED SHAPES (W, S, AND M) ‘SUBJECT TO AXIAL COMPRESSION In this section reference will be made to the LRAD Manual, Part 1 which gives propettis ofthe rolled shapes and Part 2 which contains Column Load Tables. All ‘examples ofthis section use W'shapes that sais the 0/2 and mits to prectude Focal Buckling: ths, Q 1.0. Section 6.18 teas the subject when @ <1. General Procedure ‘Whether Load and Resistance Factor Design of Allowable Stress Design is used, the strength of a compression members based on its poss are A, The sreagth isalays Il 1 function of the effective slenderness ratio KL/r, and for short columns the yield ‘cost F, of the steal, Since the radius of gyration r depends on the Section selected, the design of compression members is an indieet process unles coin load tables are available. The general procedore ta satisty Bq. 6.8.1 ie: 1. Compute the factored sevice load P, using all appropriate oad combina tions, as discussed in Sec, 1.8 2. Assume a eritical stress F, based on an assumed KL, 3. Compute the gross area 4, required from P,/(b, Fo) 4A Select a section. Nowe that the wth/thicknese A; limitations of LRED- “Table BS. 1 prevent local buckling must be satisfied, This is escussd in Parc Tl ofthis chapter, paruoulaly See. 6.16. ‘5, Based on the larger of (KEL/s), oF (KL/n), for the section Selected, compute the extcal tess F, ‘Compute the design strength dy = ¢ FA, forthe section, : Compare ¢, P, with P,, When the strength provided does not exceed the strength required by more than a few percent the desizn would be accept able otherwise repeat Steps 2 through 7 EXAMPLE 6.101 Select the lightest W section of A36 stel to serve as 2 pinned-end main member slum 16 fUlong w carry an axial compression load of 95 kins dead lead and 100 kips five load in a braced structure, as shown in Fig. 6.10.1. Use Load and Resistance Factor Design and indicate the fis three choices, Solution (2) Obeain factored fads P= 120 + 161 1.2195) + 1.6(100) = 274 Sipsa2 CHAPTER 6 COMPRESSION MEMSERS Fe reue 6104. tsane 6101 by Estimate tenderness ratio and obtain estimated F,. Since the assump. tion of hinged ends is made, the effective length KL equals the atual length ie, K = 10. Considering KL ~ 16 fas a moderately long length, the sender” ress ratio might be estimated at about 70 to 80, For rolled W shapes contained jn the LRED Manual Column Load Tables fr F, ~ 36nd SOksi,Q = 1.0, thus the special provisions of LRFD-Appendix 8 are not involved, From Fig. 6.8.1 ‘one might estimate F, ~ 27 ksi (KL/r ~ 75). Alternatively, LRFD Formula (2-2) or LRFD "NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 3-36 could be used. The Fequired area may then be computed. P. __ae F, 0.85(27) Sec ecton Sine Sckling nt ook deionised om xa} eitcnelietbesah ete oa hea whe Seana dso en cto rite etn a it mneateceat can cantor we see By SMe ny rv sont we ne hinge Colm on Ts in AFD a (18) Pao maps ts 6a gh a a ce es Met enone nce pekinese Weta th chek he WH eso Hom r= mons re atts 0ssia8 0148 = 193041) «26s he etaniet ele Dpto [Nate that LRFD Manual “NUMERICAL VALUES” TABLE 3.36 provides a tabulation of @, for values of KL/r Required 4, = = 11.9 sq in Ml sain410 LRFD OF ROLLED SHAPES (5, AND M) SUBLET TO ANIAL COMPRESSION 319 Since the design stength #P, exceeds the factored load P,, and sinve 99 other section having this area has a lower ry, the WS%AB isthe lightest section available, Deeper sections will B heavier, a fll: es Fe Ps Sector (sain) uy 8) he) ware B07 Ico wide? ek 42h ave Wiso 18? 3 NG Te Wiss 186 top aH? cice EXAMPLE 6102 Select tie tightest W section of A36 steel to serve as amain member 30 ft Jongte.carry an axial comtpresson load of 50 kips dead load and 110 kips live loadin a braced Struetut, as shown in Fig. 610.2. The member is assumed pinned a top and bostom and in ation has weak direction support at mid-beight. The mic-height brace also prevents twisting of the coum atthe brace location. Use AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design Soluion “€} Obtain factored loads P= 120 + 1.6L = 1.2(50) + 1.6(110) = 236 Kips () Select from LRFD Colma Load Tables. The effective length factors K for buckling in ether the strong or the weak dizection equal unity: ie, ean ce weit iit Syncs soph a, evens ire 6.10.2 Example 6.102at EXAMPLE 6.103 CHAPTER © COMPRESSION MEMBERS K, = K, = 10.Sinoe the Column Load Tables are computed assuming (KL) ‘controls, enter thes tables withthe effective length (KL), Ths enter with P.=236kips; (KE), = 15 Starting with the shallow W8 sections and working toward the deeper sections, find WEx40 GP. = 238 Kips fr, = 1.73 Wi0xas GP, = 267 Kips re = DIS WIDxds dP, = 257 Kps rir, = 265 Since the actual support conditions are suck that (KEL), = 2(KL).i n/n, = 2 ‘weak axis conteols and tabular leads give the correct answer. Thus, WLOXA5 and W12%45 are obviously acceptable Since r/r, for W8%40 is less than 2, strong axis bending contrts. The strength may be obtained {rom the tables By entering with the equivalent (KL), that corresponds to (KZ), = 30 1, For equal steagth with respect to the x- and pees, (xD, rr,” WTB 173 he W340 has a desig strength ¢, P, of only 208 Kips therefore it is not acceptable (@) Check of section. I is always advisable to make a final check of the Equivalent (KL), = 13h apparently acceptable section: wioxas, (KLIN, APL OFA, 20.1(13.3) = 267 kips > (2, = 236kips] OK Use W085. 20.1 ksi (129/201 = 896, OF, Selec the lightest W section of AS72 Grade 60 steel to serve asa main member 22 Jong to carry an sxial compression load of 100 kips dead load and 200 kips live load ina braced structure, as shown in Fig 610.3. Assume the member hinged st the top snd fixed at the bottom for buckling in either prineipal direction. Use AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design Solution (@) Obtain factored oad PL = 12D + 1.6L = 1.2(100) + 1.6(200) = 400 kips (b) Select the section. For tis problem there are no ARSC Column Load ‘Tales avilable for the direct selection of a section. To get an estimate of the Fequired section, use the Column Load Tables for F, ~ Oks. Since the mem630 LARD OF ROLLED SHAPES (H S,AND M915 Figure 6103 Example 6.103 ber is fixed at one end, in accordance with Fig, 6.103, asume K = 0.8 Select, for (kb, = O8G2) = 178 Rand 30] - suf 2 al ~ “(a hy WIOX49: dP = 369 hips for F, WIDKS3: 4, P, = 390 kips for F, = 50 ksi ‘There can be no assurance that sections selected using the catio 50/60 will, “satisfy design requirements: however, sbch a procedure will serve asa fst ral 4400 kips with F, = 60 ks. Using Eq. 6.7.3 © ob- rains ~ a ‘Then wing AISC ‘NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 4,obain Fu .FolF, = 0.465 Fax = 0.465(60) BPs AEA, Tis, he W049i no acepable eck wiows me QFIF, = 0.808 .F., = 0.468(60) = 28.1 si BP. de FeAy = 28.1(15.8) ~ 443 kips > [P, = 440 bps] OK Use W10%54, AST2 Grade 60, Though the calculation is not shown here @ = 10 for ths section when F, = 60 ksi. The limits for 0/21, and dj, are ‘iscussed In Sec. 6.16, and the mits appear in Table 6.16.2. a316 CHAPTER COMPRESSION WEMBERS EXAMPLE 6.104 Design column A of the unbraced frame of Fig 6.10.4 as an axially Joaded com) sion member carrying a dead Toad of 55 kips and a live load of 220 kips asing 'A36 stel nthe plane perpendicular wo the frame the sjstins braced, with supports ft top and bottom of 21-1 height. Solution (a) Obtain factored toads P, = 12D + 1.6L = 1.2155) + 1,6(220) = 418 kips (b) Select a preliminary site as a bass for evaluating dhe effective length factors K. While itis rare that a frame member would be designed as axially loaded, it may occasionally he proper for some interior members having sym- metrical loading. Note is also made thatthe axially loaded member 1s one boundary for the more typical beam-colum imerzction formula discussed in Chapter 12. It is given that (KL, = 21 1 fr the plage perpendicular to the frame: thus, preliminary member might be determined ftom interpolation in the LRED Manual Colarin Load Tables. (kt), = 218 Find WI272, 6, = 449 hips (©, Evaluate the effective length factor K. Using 1 = S97 in for Wi2x, compute Gqinaccoraees wit Fi 694 and died in LRFD Comment BE Eaamny S912 Goo = Seams 3882)/40 = 8 Gyyon = 30 (secording to LRED Fig. C-C2.2) Using Fig 6.9.4, Figure 610.4 Uabraced frame for Example 6.104Sat AULONABLE STRESS DESIGN 817 Find x, = 1.8 (KD), = 18021) = 378 For equal strength about each axis, (4) Selet sections from LRED Column Load Tables W272 fr, < 18 Equivalent (KL), = 37.8/1.75 = 216 f &.P, = 440 kips OK WITH: i> 18 (KD), = 211 eB, = 387 Kips NG (©) Make final check on W12%72, £ = 597 in!, At this point it may be ‘noted that the Yura—Disque modification on G for inelastic bucling Coulé have been made. The lower the slendernes ratio the greater willbe the eduction On G. The following will lustrate the procedure, Compute the slendeeness ration, (xt), 1.82912 “ny, From Table 6.9.1 for she slenderness ratio 85.4 find, = 0.71 Now the elastic G vale most be reduced; ths, Goce = Gani B.) = 0.64(0.71) = 045, From the Alignment Chart, Fig, 6.4, ind , = 1.75. This will make 0 significant diference to P, for this problem, KL/r becomes 83, @.F.,= 21.3 ksi from LRFD “NUMERICAL VALUES” TABLE 3-36 OP, = OFoA, = D13QL1) = 449 kips > [P, = 418 kips] OK Use WI272, A36, am 854 Sal 6.11 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN ‘The safety requirement for sally loaded columns in Allowable Stress Design (ASD) sccording (© ASD-E2 may be stated Lk (uy Where f, = service load compression stress = P/A, P = service load axial compression force _gr0s cross-sectional area of column FF, = allowable sires at service load = Eqs. 679 or 67.10 Equations 6.7.9 and 6.7.10 are used for typical rolled W sections satisfying the loc buckling imitations on widih/thickness ratio for plate compression elements given in ASD-B5.1, Table 68.1 gives ASD Specification section references for members subject ro anal compression.“ S18 CHAPTERE COMPRESSION MEMBERS i EXAMPLE 6.11 ‘Check the adequacy of the W105 section forthe condtions of Fig. 6.10.2 i the ‘Allowble Stress Design were used. This s the section selected by ERED in Exam- ple 6.10.2, A36stecl is used and the service Joads are SO kips dead oad and 110 kips lve load Seti 3 camps snd on (AL, 00012 gy (RD, _ bonsya ae voor (6) Compae lobe ses F Compt rit (64.67.11) won ina a ot ap aus fe ie efi. fio ET Vs Sine he cnlig Ko 89.6 ks thn, olsen ed spat ps rms eu a ing Ey 9 ROSE anon A0DMUMINICAE VALLES TABLE [26 9.6 26 [6.7.11] 2c? . Ten _ oa ee) 37 ae aC (6 Comparison o sees f= Ba Io 2018 <1, = 43k) , 3 “The W10x4S certainly is not overstressed; however, the sevice load stress fs low. If the next lighter WIO is checked it will be found satisfactory. Check Wioxse: (xD, _ 1.905) si ee Ge 909 ving = 14 st P_ 160 Le Ra Tes Bol < [A = Mtb) Om In this case ADowable Stress Desigo is less conservative than Load and Resis- tance Factor Des Use W103 6.12" SHEAR EFFECT ‘When built yp members are connected together by means of lacing bars, the objective 'S to make all of the components act asa unt. As a eompression member bends, Shearing component of the axial aad arses. The magnitude of the shear effet inexe SHEAR EFFECT 318 reducing column strength is proportional to the amount of demation that cas be nite 10 shear. ‘Accoring fo the SSRC Guide (6.8), shear in columns is caused by: 1, Lateral ad, resulting fiom wind, earthquake gravity, 9 ether cause 2 Slope, with respect to the line of thrust, due both (© unintentional snl curvature and added curvature developed ding the bucking process. 2 End eccentricity of loa, inteoduced either by the end Connections or fbr cation insertions. Certainly the shear fom lateral load must alvays be coasidered indesign tems 2 and 3 should atthe least be estimated. AISC Specifications (1.5, 116) teuite providing an arbitary shear resistance (in addition w any computable shea) of 2% Of the compressive stemgts of the member for lacing bars in laticed columns (see Fig. 6.121, Solid- webbed sections, sud as W shapes, have les shear deformation than do Janiced columns using lacing bars and/or baten pes, Furthermore, a8 shown later, shear has af insigalicant effect om reducing column sirengt for sit-webbed shapes and may safely be neplected. The shear fect should not, however, be neglected for laced columns. ‘Toinelude thecffeet of shear, the curvature resaltng from shear should be added to the buckling curvature to abtain the toral curvature. It is well knovtn that aM pds vain pf (2) after recognizing that M. = Py from Ea. 6.2.1 (se Fig. 62.1) se ost dase tn ent Figure 6323. Types of latices cotumns,a CHAPTERS COMPRESSION MEMBERS The slope @ due to shear deformation is ee ees SESS Ere Thear modulus ~ AG 6.122) where fl 8 8 facor to correct for nonuniform stress across various eros: seotional ‘shapes. The shear cantrinuton to curvature becomes wv PB ‘ i AG ds AG oom) ‘The total curvature ithe sum of Eg. 62.3 and 6123, vic gives 4. Pf 1) bleach? 124 which is of the same form as Eq. 62.3: therefore the modified form of the Euler critica load is (6225) In accordnace withthe previous discussion on basi column strength, G and Ecan be replaced by the tangent modulus values, Gand E, and £/G, = 2(1 % and Lean ‘be replaced by the effective length KL. Farther, combining the shear effect with KL ives Fy= (6.12.6) A @ KLIP where a, = VIF 20 > Ae ByTRL/FP. Ts the shear effect may be accounted for by an adjustment tothe effecave length For W shapes when bending about the ‘weak axis, 8. averages about 2 Using a = 0.3 for steel, typical values for a are Kufr= 50 = 1.01 = 70 = 100s =100 = 1.003 For stendernes ratios les than about 50, yielding controls, so thatthe shear effeet on slid H-shaped coluras is equivalent to an increase in effective length of less than 1%, which ean be safely neglected, Latticed Columns. ‘The lacing or baten plates used to de together the main longitudinal compression elements are themselves subject w axial deformation. For instance, from Fig. 6.12.23,619 DESGNOFLATTICED MEMBERS G21 Figure 6.12.2 Shear deformation in laces column. the lengthening ofthe diagonal gives slope 7, over the panel length « and from Fig, 6.12.26 the shortening of the horizontal bats gives slope ys over panel length ‘a. Because the lacing cements ate tlatvely small in cross-section, the stiffness of Sich members resi te transverse sear 8 considerably less than foe sold- webbed ‘embers, Detaled reatienaf the cours with lacing, batens, or perforated pats is avalable in the SSRC Guide [0.8] and elsewiere [6.62-6.55), ‘The Structural Stability Resexch Counci [6 8] reports the suggestion of Bleich [6.9] that “a conservative estimate of te infuence of 60° oF 45° lacing, as generally specified in bridge devgn practice, can be made by modifying the effective length flor” K toa new foewr aK. as follows ForKk > 40, a = VIF SOARED (127) retEea ants one) Such effective length modification will rarely affect the design of short columns in braced systems, 6.13" DESIGN OF LATTICED MEMBERS Under most specfeations, laticed members are designed according to detailed em- Pirical ules, most of which are related to local Duckling Fequizements. Two examples follow that illustrate some of the provisions of LRFD-Es (similar to ASD-EA) as well, 1s general procedures for built-up sections, The reader is selerred to Blodget [6.65] wwno has summarized the AISC provisions along with ether information concerning Duilep section design EXAMPLE 6.131 Design a laced column as shown in Fig 6.13.1, consisting of four angles to carry 100 kips dead load and 475 kps live load axial compression, with an effective length KL of 30 fe. Assume all connections will be welded and use A572 Grade 50 steel Solution (a) Establish the depth h of section. The radius of gyration of four ange column depends only on fad essential322 (CHAPTER 6 COMPRESSION MEMBERS Figure 6134 Details of Example 613.1 selecting establishes the slenderness ratio, and vce versa. Appendix Table A shows the relationships between the radius of gyration and the geometry of the «cross-section. Thus from: text Appendix Table A, r= 042 KL 360 _ 857 ‘Approximate SE = 36 — $57 P, = 1.2(100) + 1.6(475) = 880 kips ‘equres Appr. Fe “hy wy rah ain me sT SS Lsxsxf A= 2348 2 wo 4k7 OB Samet abe 2 8 6A USK m9 727sB13 DESIGN OF LATTICED MEMBERS 923 ‘The 20-in, section is prefered, since the Boor area occupied is likely more important than the additonal 0.44" sq in, of ‘cross-section, Investigate 4-LSKS%E, assuming Q = 1.0, 1,1, = {136 + 5.861100 ~ 1.48)"] ~ 1756 in ft_ [rise nan = yb= VES = 8.66%n. (Approx 0.42020) = 8.40 in.) KL | Logo 7 B66 4.2, = 4,4, = 7S(QRAH) = $18 kis = (P, ee 4155 with b= 20, 1) Local buckling control. For Q = 1.0 to apply, angles must satisfy ‘width thickness limits of LRFD Table BS.1 1 prevent local buckling. In this fo-10, vay e127 a, = VI> 300K = VIF S007ELEF = 1.08 “Thus the effective length should have been increased 8% due 10 shest. The neglect of end restraint probably is, in most cases, qual tp about the samme increase in effective length. 9 Redesign the column of Example 6.13.1 using a welded perforated tox shape (Fig. 6.13.2) The factored load P, is 880 kips as computed in Example 6 13. Solurion. One important advantage ofa welded shape isthe number of indivd- tual components in the shape is minimized. Four plates can be used for this ‘welded shape, whereas a bolted or riveted section requires four angles in addi- tion w plates.619 DESIGNOFLATTICED MEMBERS 925 ae ae fl oh p Lf, lo} " i hate Figure 6132. Details of Puample 613.2. (2) Select tal section. Using text Appendix Table All for a box shape, r= 040% KL. 360 _ 900 77 O84 ca = 4h ‘a o Mego Fe acta oy “air iy “ai satay ty Flot nae = Zig 61> (aE = a1) v6 asa ae aa Be BP BP tt ce 7 en) I ketone y= Bld Without performations, 2PLs— 16 and 2PLs— 2 X15 are probably accept able, satisfying bt ratios in ageordance with LRFD-BS. Usually, however, such shapes ae used on bridges where access is rquited for maintenance so that perforations may be desirable ‘Assume perforations io be 8 in. wide (frequently one-half or less of total width) and f= 18 i,926 CHAPTERS COMPRESSION MEMBERS Net area saitable 4.75 sin ~@l = 118% 1564 in? 537) & Fi, = 344 Asi (TABLE 3-50) ars GP. = b:Fird, = 34.4(24.75) = 852 kips < [P, = 880 kip] NG ‘Tey 2PLs— 218 and 2PLs—}17 (pertorated: 4,=270sqin. 1, = 1175in* L=IHdint 1, = 660in KL _ .0G0)12 F660) GP, = GFA, = M2270) = 923 kips > [P, = 980 hips] OK (b) Check proportioning of plats (LRED-) S46; GR, = M2 Msi (TABLE 3-50) 1. Check byt ratio for entire perforated plate (LRFDTable BS.1): xs] a 2. Check bt rato for unstfened portion within hole (LRFD-Table BS. <[.-Zh- 107] 0K VE 2. Check proportions of aces les (LRED-E4) Length of hole th of hole = 2(8) = 16 ine-max Lene OI 2 Length of hole = 28) = 16 = { between nearest lines {Transverse distance cost Clear spacing between holes = 17 in. minPart I: Plates 6.14" INTRODUCTION TO STABILITY OF PLATES. Allcolunin sections, whether rolled shapes or built up sections, ate composed of plate lements. Up to this point inthe chapter, consideration has been giver only to the possibilty of buckling ofthe member based on the slendermess rato fr the entire «exoss-section. It may be, however, that a local buckling will ccur first in one ofthe Plate elements that make up the eross-section, Such local buckling means tht the bled element will no longer take is proportionate share of any additional fl the column js to carry: in other words, the efficiency ofthe cross-section is reduced. ‘The theory of bending of plates and elastic stability of plates are subjects tht ‘Should be studied in depth by the advanced student in structural engineering, The briet trcatinent that follows is intended wo give the reader the peneral ied of plate buckling necessary to properly vse and understand current siel specifications, The general approach and terminology fllow that of Timoshenko [6.66, 6.67] [Before one can teat the stability problem, the diferential equation for bending of plates is required, just asthe differential equation forthe bending of « beam, Eq. 6.22, was used inthe slender colums stability treatment in See. 6°. Differential Equation for Bending of Homogeneous Plates First. the strains wil be obtained in terms of displacements. Let h = plate thickness {and ur, and w equal the displscements in the x, y and z dictions, respectively Referring to Fig. 6.14.1.consideran element of alate dx di. and assume no stetching ‘of the neutral plane at: = 0, Examining a slice ds dy de of the plate clement locted Y Figure 6.141. Plate element, eoordinte tie pte tem dition,328 ‘CHAPTERS COMPRESSION WEMBERS. Figure 162 Deformations of plate element in x plane. ata distance: Hom the neutral plane shows, in Fig. 6.14.2, the coordinate unit strains fe 6 and shearing stain, Thus ut Marmu A ae: (tata) (6.14.16) 1a18) Expressing the displacements inthe plane ofthe plate in terms ofthe lateral defection ve as shown in Fig. 6.14.3, and recognizing that postive slope gives a negative Aispacement w oft, one establishes ow a (6.142) Flqure 6143 Deformation of plate clement perpendculse tthe sy plane, | i | | | |614 INTRODUCTION TO STABLITY OF PLATES 329 Substitution of Eqs. 614.2 ito Egs 6.14.1 gives strains i t2ems of curvatures for redirection bending, -diection bending. and twisting uw 5 6.1430) (6.1430) (sw | ae aw a ~Grntwa) Me | 69 Next hing tse of Hooke’s Lav expressing strains interms of the stress, 5 normal stresses the and yoereeions, ad the SDE eS, + ple - mad (6.849) 1 Lino, + 6 4.45) plowes ot 6 Yon fF (6.14.40) ‘where j= Poissea's sala (see Sec. 2.6) and G = shear modulus of elasticity For any sress condition, sach as 0, = ~9, tbat gives pure sheas on an element rotated 45" tothe ais the Work done by the equivalent systems of Fig. 6.14.5 mst be a constant: foe, — foe, @ Ey (6.145) Substituting Eqs. 6.144 into Eg. 6.14.5 gives Seo, ~ ya, + wo, ~ 6) We, ar, maximum # = os thus 1 +uteed) z E oma (6.145) © » Figure 8.144. Equvatent stems390 CHAPTER'S COMPRESSION MEMBERS Solving Eqs. 6.14.1 for stresses in terms of strain and substituting Eqs. 6.14.3 or the strains give stresses in terms of curvatures, au, PH to on SE (ES + ZH) (o.t470 ou 24) en oes. 149 ‘ae ay Next itis necessary to relate curvatures and bending moments. Referring t0 Fig, 6.14.5. and using the righthand rule Tor postive wits seen Uh the moments er unit width are ee font raps G1 (0 tous Note that plate bending involves double curvature (a dish-shaped deflection surface forthe plate), The narrower and longer in pln plates, the more the bending causes curvature t be one directional. A beam ia special ease ofa plate since it has ‘narrow width and long span, For beams, the Poissons ratio (1) effet is neglected For instance, ifthe member is narrow inthe y-direction and long in the x-direction, Eq. 6.14.8a for the plate would become HEP aw a eee (149) Figure 6.148 A plate element in bending. (Nowe that forces om fies at = Dandy = 0 not shown)614 INTRODUCTION TO STABILITY OF PLATES 931 were the partial derivatives disappear because is no Yonger a fanetion of y. Uf Eg, 6.14.9 is multiplied by the width bc change from moment per unit Wideh in the yodizection to total moment, Eg, 6.149 would be the differential equstion for beams, fe Mo eS (6.14.10) shore 1 = 28/12. "extheory of plates the sign convention is that M, i the bending moment caused by stresses, aeting ip the w-irection, In beam theory, the usual practice is have the subscript on M rofer tothe axis of zero sess in bending: that i. the neutral ais, ‘Thus, for the span inthe «-directon and the width inthe y-direction a8 assumed foe Ey. 6.14.10, M, instead of M,) would have been used in beam thea. since the yas isthe neutral axis about which bending occu, ‘To continue the derivation of the plate bending differential equation, consider the equilibrium of all forces and moments acting on the plate element. Moment ‘imation about the x-and y-axes and force summation inthe z-ditection gives three ‘equations Figure 6-14.6 is a free body of he plate eemem sawing only the feces involved with moments about the y-axis “Taking moments about the y-axis gives Med + Medea — Med + Meade + Me dy de — We 7 (2.4) + Mra) ag ara o epietemnast gure 6146 Free-boy forces iavaved in rotation about (Forces imolved in eotation about the 1x 2 shown.)992 crweTEAe COMPRESSION MEMBERS Neglecting nfntesirals of higher onder and eividing by dv dy aM, 9M -0,=0 (ony Similarly for moments about the sais, 1812) Force equim inte (6.14.13) Using Eqs 6.14.11 and 6.14.12 for Q, and Q,,andsubstittion into Eg. 6.14.13 gives aM, 7M, , aM, as ay? © aeay 6144) Defining D = £r'/[12(1 ~ 4)] and substinuting Eq. 6.14.8 imo Fg. 6.14.14 ‘ives the differem equation for bending of homogeneous plates, fw yt ate of Se 2S Atha 14.19) Equation 6.14.15, if written for a beam of wih, the ciferentat equation for tad aw eS = 6.1416) where gb is the load per unit length along the spen ofthe beam, Buckling of Uniformly Compressed Plate ‘The following approach is esentally that of Timoshenko [6.67] as modified by Gerstle [6.68]. Realizing that q is a general term representing the transverse toad ‘component eausing plate bending, iti desired to find the transverse component of compressive force N, when the plate is deflected ino « sightly buckled position ‘Taking summation of forces inthe z-direction on the plate element of Fig. 6.14.76 ives (on 4 ARLE PN G2) gy as = ges (1417) Ox ae ay ie which upon neglecting the higher-order infinitesimal terms gives anne was634 INTRODUCTION To STABLITY OF PLATES 993 {IT} =n I > Figure 614.7 Uniformly compresed plate Te diferent eiaton Ba, 6.1415, hen beams Sng ote tw at apap tayo Bae ich sa par! dere equation where i function bth The efcction w can be expressed asthe product of an 3 function (X) and a function (Y), Further, buckling may be assumed give sinusoidal variation in the xditecion, Thus w= XIX) (61420) (14.19) being ta) = sin ‘ter the X fnctionstses the 2e0 deteebon aad ro moment conions of simple support atx = Oand x = a, Substitution of Eq. 6.14.20 io Eq, 6 14.19 gives, after cancelling the common tm sin maf, (Sr) sro a ae CT) SC) - (6142) an ordinary fourth-order homogeneous diferent ‘The Solution may be expressed in the form Y= C; sinh ay + C5 cosh ay + Cy sin By + C,e0s By (61422) EP ET = SES wheub CHAPTERS COMPRESSION EMBERS Ths the eat plate defetion eatin i we = (sinc, snh ay + Cocos ay + 6, By C, 008 6) (6.14.23) which mus satisfy boundary conditions. Assuming the waxis as an axis of symmetry {rough the plat, i, identical suppert condition along the two edges paraliel 10 the direction of loding, the odd function coeficien: C, and C; must be zero. Thus okay + CcoBs)sin™® 61428 Using simple support conditions at y = b/2 and y = —b/2, requires that at y = =o), b BY iy ME cosh 3 + 6, c05 8) sin MEE (6.1425) es 9 (cercomad Fora solution other than C3 = 1, the ‘only way Eq, 6.14.26 can be satisfied in the rel problem is for o cos BE =O. ‘Therefore Sn Fe, Using the lowest value of (6/2) and substituting into as defined below Bq. 6.14.22 gives (6.142)614 INTROCUCTION TO STABILITY OF PLATES 838 Since N, = Fytand D = Er/{12(1 ~ w°) the elastic buckling unit stress may be expressed as (6.14.28) ers Uhete forthe specie case treated here, the elastic pate buckling coeficien is La, bf 14.29) ce [er nd] (429) ‘The bucking coefficient isa function othe typeof tres (in this case unifam compression on two opposite edges) and the edge support conditions in this eae Simple support on four edges) i addition tothe aspect ratio a/b which appears sireey inthe equation ‘The equation for pate buckling, Eg. 6.14.28, is eatrely general intermsofLand the development eading up oi for sone case may be considered illustrative ofthe ‘mocedure, The integer m indicates the number of halswaves that oecut in the = sinetion a buckling, Figure 6.14.8 sows tha there i a minimum value of for any siren numberof half-wave, i. the weakest condition, If noted tha this weakest tation accuts when the length isan even multiple of wath, and that mule equals the number of half wanes, Ths, sting a/b = mgivest = 4. Further, a m becomes laser the equation becomes flatter and approaches a constant vale af fr lage a/b ti, This gives for the elastic buckling sitess equation of plate elements under uniform compression slong two edges and simply supported along the two rages parallel to the loud, (6.1430) Faure 6148 Buckling coefcien or unifcrly compres plae— smole sappor longitudinal edges (Ea. 61429),336 ‘HRPTERS COMPRESSION MEMBERS 6.15" STRENGTH OF PLATES UNDER UNIFORM EDGE COMPRESSION ‘Since rlled shapes, a8 well as built-up shapes are composed of plate elements, the column sitength of the section based on its overall slenderness ratio can only be Schieved ifthe plate elements do not buckle locally. Local buckling of plate elements aa cause premature fare ofthe entire section, or at the loss it will cause stresses to become nonuniform and reduce the overall strength Th Sec. 6,14 the basi approach to elastic stability of plats was developed. The theoretical elustie buckling stress fora plate was shown to be expressible as ne 1 wba ‘where ks a constant depending on typeof stress, ede support conditions, and length to width ratio (aspect rato) ofthe plate E the modulus of elasticity, Poisson's rato and bjt the whdth/ thickness ratio {In general plate compression clements can be separated into two categories: (1) sstfened elements: those supported along two edges parallel to the direction of com= pressive stress; and (2) unstiffened elements: those supported along one edge and free ‘on the other edge parallel to direction of compressive stress. Refer to Fig, 6.15.1 for ‘ypical examples of these two situations. For the elements shown in Fig, 6.15.1 various degrees of edge rotation restraint are present, Figure 6.15.2 shows the variation ink with aspect ratio a/b for most of the idealized edge conditions, ie, clamped (xed), simply supported, and free. ‘Actual plate strength in compression is dependent on many of the same factors ‘that affect overall cohumn srength, particularly cesidual stress. Figur 6.15.3 shows {ypieal behavior of a compressed plate loaded to its ultimate oad. Assuming ideal clastc-plastie material contsining no residual stress the stress distribution remains ‘niform uni the elastic bucking stress F, is reached, Further inerease in load can be {achieved but the portion ofthe plate farthest from is sie supports will deflect cut of its original plane. This out-of plane deflection causes the stress distribution to be ‘onuniformeven though the lsd is applied through ends which ae rigid and perfectly steaght ro fa r [6.14.28] i a cA ; ik bo) (Bement sie (0) Phmens pete ‘ose nine) oc eipetaned ee Figure 618: Stifened snd unstiffned compression eemens(618 STRENGTH OF PLATES UNDER UNFORMEDSE CONPRESHON 397 I ane Lame nd ree i — tnatsgnsmy | ea it seeyeimy | Figure 6152. Elastic buckling cosficiens for sompeession ia at rectangle plates, (Capes from Garard and Becker (69]) Figure 6.15.3 shows that plate strength under eye compression consists of the sum af to component; (1) elastic or inelastic buekling stress represented by a, 6.14.28, and (2) post buckling stength. Also one should note the higher post buckling stengts asthe width-g-thickness rato b/becomes larger. For low values ‘of bjt, not only will post-buckling strength vanish, but the exaise plate may have Yelded an reached the strain-hardening condition sothatF./F, may become greater han unity. For alates witous residual stress (referring 1 Fig. 6.13.4 three fegions must be considered for establishing swrexgth elastic buckling (Fuler hyperbola), Yielding (segments AB, 4'R, and A°B), and stain hardening. If F/B. is defined a8 1/42, Eq, 6.14.28 for plates then becomes as)308 CHAPTER 6 COMPRESSION HEMBERS — 2 [fates _ ; a Figure 6153 Behavior of plate under edge compression. nis observed from Fig, 6.154 that, when compared wth columns curve 2), plates {carves b and) achieve a sain hardening condition at relatively higher valves of & Inthe earlier discussion on colori the value of A at which strain hardening com rmences (was assumed tobe zero because of is celatvely small value, The values (Of hy for columns and plates under uniform edge compression for F, = 36 ksi (248'MPa) are given as follows from Haaijer ad Thirimann [6.70} rey ing es Bees Fu tage fale porn ‘araeo-o fy area AT ee Figure 6.154_ Plate bucking compased with clumr bucking. (Adapted from Ref. 670)616 ASIC WIOTHTHICRNESS LIMITS TO ACHIEVE VIELO STRESS 229, From the above. the impoitant factor determining Ais whether the plate elemest is supported along one or both edges parallel to loading, while the degree of rotational ‘estrant along the lozded edge (imply supported or fixe) has essentially no effect. Thus curves b and c of Fig. 6.154 each can represent two cases. where point A’ has been taken at A = 0.46 and point A” at Ay ~ 0.58. Sinee plates as well as rolled shapes contin residual stress the true strength shouldbe represented by a transition curve, Fig, 6.15. between the Euler curve and ‘he point at which strain hardening commences ‘When considering inelastic behavior, the modulus ofcasticty used for calcula fing strain in the direction of maximum stress should be the tangent modulus E Examination of Eq. 6.14.4a shows that for inlastic strains in the x-direction but elastic tain inthe y-direction, F cannot be factored out. Bkich [69] fas shown the sltion for his case of using different & values, and suggests arbitrarily using V7 88.4 mulipie for Eg. 6.14.28 In summary. the strength of plates under edge compression may be governed by (1) strain hardening, low values of A; (2) yielding, at A, = say 0.5 10 06: 3) ‘inelastic buckling, represented by the transition curve (some fibers elastic and samme yielded): (4 clastic buckling represented by the Euler hyperbola, at A about lt; and (3) post-buckling strength with stessredisebution and larg deformation ay for h. areater than 1.5 For design purposes, performance criteria must be established to decide what range ofA, values may be acceptable in design and how conservative (and simple) or Uieral (and relatively complicated) should be the speciation expressions for plate strength 6.16 AISC WIDTH/THICKNESS LIMITS j, TO ACHIEVE YIELD STRESS WITHOUT LOCAL PLATE BUCKLING FFor a beter understanding of the background for these requirements the reader is limited to delve into the subject of plate stability and strength as introduced in Secs. 6.14 and 6.15. However, it may be sufficient for many purposes merely lundertand that components such a flanges, webs, angles, and cove: plates, which are ‘combined to form a column section may themselves buckle locally prot tothe entire section achieving its maximum capacey. Typical elements are shown in Fig. 6.13.1 ‘The buckled deflection of uniformly compressed plates is shown in Fig. 6.16.1 where to categories are apparent: (1) “unstflened” plate elements having one fee edge Parallel to loading: and (2) “stiffened” plate elements supported along both edges parallel lading Pats in compression behave essentially the same as columns and the basic lastic buckling expression corresponding to the Euler equation for columns has been derived as Eg. 6.14.28, a RT GAP Where isa constant depending on type of sees, edge conditions and length to widkh ratio: is Poisson's ratio, and b/r i the widih/thickness ratio (see Fig. 6.16.1), ‘Typieal k values are given in Fig, 6.15.2 FE [6.14.28]CHAPTER § COMPRESSION MEMBERS 7 tome Aref LBS Figure 616.1 Buckled diction of uniformly compresed plats. [tis known that for low bjt wales, strain hardening is achieved without buckling ‘occurring, for medium values of b/r residual stress and imperfections give rset Inelastic buckling eepresented by transition curve, and for lage b/r buckling occurs in accordance with Eq. 6.14.28, Actual strength for plate with large b/s ratio exceeds buckling srength, ic. they exhibit postbuckling strength. Thus strength for plates ‘may be shown in dimensionless fashion as in Fig. 6.162. “To establish design cequirements, the desired periormance must be ascertained. ‘The ocal buckling ofa column component may logically be prevented prior to achiev ing fall strength of the column based on its overall slenderness ratio KL/r. The performance requirement would then be Fa rere 616.) Figure 6.16.2 Dimensionless presentation of plate stength in edge compresion16 ASIC WIDTH THICHNESSLMITS TO ACHIEVE VIELO STRESS 941 meaning that acceptable ratios would vary depending on the overall senderaess ratio ofthe column. Ifpostbeckling irength were considered. the relationship would be additionally complicated, For many years he AISI Specification [1.11] for cold-farmed stoel hes used the approach of Eq 6.16.1, and aso inladed treatment of pest-buckling strength, AISC ILRED and ASD-Appendix B) also includes similar provisions to consider post- buckling strength. Gace buckling of a compression element has occurred. the efficiency ofthe clement t cary Yad is rece. ‘Design limits are generally simplited w assure the compression clement wil reach yield stress F, without local buckling occuring, even though the slenderness tatio of a column may prevent the element from reaching yield stress. The ‘width thickness (ratios Avo prevent local buckling nti the yield stress is eeached tre the A, vals of LRFD and the noncompact limits in ASD-BS “The requirement achieve yield stress without Joes] buckling is a E, RO ee Using 4 = 0.3 for sel, and E = 29,000,000 psi and F, in psi. 8 5120 yf enna be sno 6.163) hich is epresented by point A at A.= 1.0 on Fig 6.16.2, a point lying above the ansition curve. Thus afeduced value of A, should Be used w minimize the devon, ‘between F and the amition curve which accounts for resi sess and imperfec= sions. Thus A, = 0.7 i taken as a tational value, which gives fr B/t fk = sso 6.16.0) a BF (6.162) » 51204.) where F; is in psi, Table 6.16.1 shows wide/thicknes ratios for sasious situations of Uniform compression. The coefficients wed by AISCsince 1969 tend wimpy greater saceuracy in criteria than is justified. The original coefficients were established wsing Fin psi alter some rounding they formed the bass ofthe 1963 AISC Specifeation ‘The present values ave obtained by dividing by VTO00 so that can be used inks ‘Table 6.16.2 gives evalunted limits A, from LRED and ASD-Table BS.1"* fr seseral diferent yield stresses For rolled and welded box shapes, tensile residual stresses ats induced a the ‘corners as discussed jn Sec. 65. When compressive external loads are applid, the tensile residual sess F, must ist be reduced zero, alterwhich additional compres sive load causes compressive siresses at the corners. Thus, when the nominal stress JA, is Fon the erose-section, its atually (F, ~ F) atthe important gions near stars bey e ina ws °° ASD-BS. docs nt we ema fr Adc a fr aoncompa” leSA2 CHAPTERS COMPRESSION MEMBERS ‘TABLE 6.161 ASG WIDTH THICKNESS RATIO 1 LBATS FOR PLATE ELEMENTS: SUBIECT TO UNIFORM COMPRESSION" Bucking Ut ae shea! cetomiee bt ‘50-65, ‘semen Poems eeree Fes sh FMP a ‘ai & ‘s ‘8 ‘e rte: _ _ _ “a Sige antes ees ONE WANE WINE (large! aw FE oN OSV (© Sime tte 1am NOSE sy aE sutens (a) Une hes fangs sch 28, ‘aha secon rsng)VFE RIVE IV, ever plas cor st60/VE, n00n/VE, HIVE amv, 6 Oshes So WIV S000/VF SVE eat, ny spp wad adage app tee “Ep rein eins at bow j cd ~ 4.0 er spl fos fe od ap eto the corners of the box shape, Since the superimposed stress levels actually les than Fthe limit A, could be permitted igher than ifthe residual stress were compressive. For sffened elements, sich as ysiform thickness plates and perforated pate, the 1986 LRED Specification used V(F, — F,) in place of VF, in the denominator ofthe width/ thickness ratio limits. The 1989 ASD Specification retained the more conservative equations (without the subtraced F,) used forthe past several decades. No the 1993 LRFD Specification has reverted to thas limit expressions historically wed H For unsifexed elements the stress a the free edge is predominant and residual ssress fs generaly low or compressive; thus no reduction Fis (oF was) appropria 6.17 AISC WIDTH/THICKNESS LIMIT A, TO ACHIEVE. SIGNIFICANT PLASTIC DEFORMATION Sometimes plate elements ofthe cross-section must not buckle until hey have under= _g0ne significant compressive strain exceeding the strain, a first yield, that i, strain {nto the plastic region, a8 showin in Fig. 617-1 The lower the width thickness ratio, the greater the compressive strain ¢ that can be absorbed without buckling. In axially Tnaded columns thefe would be no need forthe ability undergo plastic san because607 Als WIOTHTHICKNESS LIMIT TO ACHIEVE PLASTIC DEFORMATION 243, TABLES(62 WIDTH/THCANESS RATO 2, LIMITING VALUES? FOR PUATe ELEMENTS" TO REACH YIELD STRESS IN AXIAL COMPRESSION LRED-BS apd ASD-85 7 Stucwadenete «ws “@Seleanees = 277d? kkk (8) Fane a7 esata as {o) Steno es 2 6 iho tes R27 10) aon cts Hangs a sible etn ce ae ae mr rareT) ( Petorwedpins <2 HO HS ag 3? '6) Ones 2 ose oR? ha BD Fira) Sct goments 20-300 —a80—waO~aBD«70D Ties G@Sitesmeks = 6S? WO ag as () Semarwee 42 ates Sa Suites 1a) Unio ish Raney oo tba eto Bs al 33a 33 pS 26 () Pebrawepins <6 Os ep? Sia (6) Otars fo M3 8582s the overall strength ofthe column based on its KZ would not require plastic defor- ‘mation, However in beans, es discussed in Chapter 7, the anges might e required to undergo significant plas strain without having toca buckling occur Referring to Fig. 616.2, A, must be resticed not exceed yf stain hardening is tobe reached without pate buckling. From Fig. 6.154, A should not exceed about 16.46 for unstiffened compression elements and 0.58 for stiflened compression ele~ ments, Figure 6.17. Phase and strain Hardening si ep0R5 of serra elatonsip foe tetms CHAPTER 6 COMPRESSION MEMBERS Por unstiffened elements. Eg. 6.1614 with A, = 0.46 gives bs mobs or vay terra) 1 ONE VES ’ When k= 0.425 (4s es vale, a, 6.171 gives 4 be BS ina 1 VE, ksi ‘ 7 Since residual stress effects disappear inthe plastic range and material impr factions have less effet, Eq, 6.17.2 isan overly severe limitation. Furthermore, the strain at onset of san hardening is 15 to 20 times and that amount of plastic strain is not necessary even for achieving the plastic moment strength discussed in Chap- ter 7. The LRFD-BS.1 A; limits and ASD-BS.1 compact section limits are intended to achieve compression plastic strain about 7 to 9 times ,, about one-half the strain hecessary to reach strain hardening. Thus, the unsiffened compression element limit Ais b6s: 6.173" VRS For stiffened elements, Ea, 6.164 with A, = 0.58 gives b fx E Sere BV (ira) when k= 4, the minimum value assuming edge rotational restraint as the hinged ‘condition (actually the & Ties somewhere between values for Cases A and C of Fig. 6.15.2), Eq. 6.174 gives b 187 je (ars) 1° VER wus) LLRED and ASD-BS.1 prescribe the limit forthe stiffened compression element as 190 1° VE, ksi A tabulation of the limits, Eg. 6.17.3 for unsiffened elements and Eq. 6.17.6 for sitfened elements, appears in Table 6.17-1. Additional discussions relative to local buckling limitations to develop plastic strength ate given by Lay [6.71] and MeDer- soit [6.72] 76)" oe St. with in MP (673) (78)18 AlSG PROWSIONS FoR THE STRENGTH OF PLATE EI 35 TABLE 617-1 WOTH/THIOHNESE RATIO, LAAT. FOR PLATE ELEMENTS TO ACCOMMCOATE, PLASTIC STRAIN AXIAL COMPRESSION Unetferadaenenis —Situned olrors Fe URPDansASDS5! LAFDang ASD-ES1 ish gay ea eras qsirs) ae es a7 2 so ‘00 Ba & ho oF BS S380 a Bs tte ua BS ed 5 Bs 6.18* AISC PROVISIONS TO ACCOUNT FOR THE BUCKLING AND POST-BUCKLING STRENGTHS OF PLATE ELEMENTS. ‘As discussed in Sees 6.15 and 6.16. plate elements in compression, either “stifened” on “unsiffened™ (se Fig. 6.16.1), have stength afer buckling has occurred, 1, post-bucking strength, Sifened elements havea large post-buckling srength while tnstffened elements have only a litle. However since the strength of such elements can be evaluated, thee is good reason to provide for its use as has been done tn the Specification for he Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members [1.1], fist imroduced in 1946, From Fig. 6.18a it apparent thatthe nominal strength P, of a stiffened element might be expressed as [pear 181) Imolving sn integration of @ nonuniform stess distribution; or alternatively, an “effective width” concept (Fig, 6.18.1b) may be used: 2, = Slow Li Faa —(siffened element) (6.182) where be = effective width over which the maximum stress may be considered ‘uniform and give the corezt total capacity, Figure 6.18.1¢ shows that Eq, 6.18.1 isequally valid forthe unstifened element except thatthe stessdistnbution is not symmetrical about the center ofthe element Ifa retnced S256 fog < fw is used, the unstiffened element capacity could be written (Fig. 6.18.12), P, fog = Aen fs (unstiffened element) (oas3) ‘The AISC and the AISI [1.11] have chosen 10 teeat thin elements according 10 Eqs 618.2 and 6.18.3 although actually either equation could bave been used for346 CHAPTER 6 COMPRESSION MEMBERS fe [xa] “| Figure 6.18.1 Plate elements under anil compresion, swig atl ress ‘isibution and an equivalent stem. cither type of element. Because of the large post- buckling strength ofthe stiffened tlement, one can imagine that it has buckled and part ofthe element is no longer Sctive. On the other hand, the unstiffened clement, ith elatvely litle postbuckling Strength may be thought of as not buckling Because ofthe use of a reduced stress Effect on Overall Column Strength For design, itis desired to use gross section properties thus for stiffened elements Aan = Qe fan ares (184) and for untiffened elements, P= Ef Ayne ® Qi fa Aven (6185) fo where Q, and Q, may be thoyght of as shape factors, o: form factors. ‘A compression system composed of both stiffened and unstiffened elements syould be treated a unstiffened fr establishing the sires, then the effective width forthe stiffened elements is determined USing fan, = fy~ Thus the total capacity would be Po fare (86) wich gives Sexy Aen, FEE nad ft Aone) = Q,Qefor roe (e187) From Eqs. 6.18.4, 6.185, and 6.187, itis clear tha the effect of premature eal buckling before the srength ofthe overall column has been achieved is to multiply the ‘maximum achievable stress ty the form faetors Q. Neglecting the possiblity of s hardening the maxim ses isthe yield stress, whict is therefore tobe moltiplied by 0.618 AISC PROVISIONS FOR STRENGTH OF PLATE ELEMENTS 947 Load and Resistance Factor Design. For the equations used in LRFD- Appendix E3, A, will become A.VQ and the shor column equation becomes Ey 682. as follows For ANO= 15; Fe = (0.65808, [68.2] Allowable Stress Design. Forte basic SSRC parabola used in ASD, Eq. 6.7.1 fr short columns becomes: ror thee, rex or[s— f(t arel where Q = 0, 0,. From Eq. 6.18.8, when F, = (6.188) (QF. 2 the slenderness ratio is (189) Wherever VO > 1.5 in LRED, of KL/r > C, in ASD, the effect of local buckling on overall coluran strengths nepligibe: thus, for slender columns the Evler {equation isthe bass of strength Since the form factor Q is used to account for the reduetion inefficiency ofthe cross-section instead of maulfying the cross-sectional properties, whether or not Qs Jess than unity the nominal strength P, i computed as the product of F times A, and "be radius of gyration ris that of the grass section in the computation of KL Form Factor Q, for Unstitfened Elements Referring back to Fig. 6.16.2, ene may noe that when Qi ess than L.0t means that ‘A. > Au. A transition parabola could have been used to compute the reduced stress, For simplification a straight line has becn used fr single angles as shown by Curve ‘Ain Fig. 6.18.2. The straight line uses A. = 0.7 asthe maximum for which F,, =F And takes the proportional limit Aya, at V2, approximately the same as for overall column buckling. However. because of some post-buckding strength the theorticl uler-type curve (Curve C) has been raised to give the AISC curve (Curve B). Many slfferent expressions could have heed used with the same logical results LLRED-Appendix BS.3.a and ASD-Appendix BS.2.a give similar stress rede tion equations for unsiffened anges and the stems of tes. These other equations are approximately proportional to VA, as may be noted by reference to Eq. 6.16.4 and Table 6.16.1, The table contains the K values used for the other unsttfened cases The limiting proportions for tes given in LRFD-Commentary E3 and ASD- ‘Appendix B, Table A-BS.1 are to preclude torsional buckling a5 & failure mode, This concept is discussed in See. 8.11 Although Q, as been defined t this point as FF, when overall bickling of {column occurs (based on its KL/r) the average stress P./A, is always less than F, ‘This means local buckling ofan unstfened element will reduce the efficiency ofthe cross-section only when Fay forthe plate element is less thal) Fenn348 CHAPTER COMPRESSION MEMBERS mh AF eT Figure 6182 Pate stength for unsitfened compression element (single angle) Inti one edge hinged and the other fre. (LRFD-Appendis BS nd ASD-Appendix 83.28) ‘Thus, in general, for columns o,= fn = Hips (6.18.10) and for compression Ha (6.18.11) Form Factor Q, for Stiffened Elements “The concept of using an effective width over which stress maybe considered uniform, ‘even though it is atually noniform, was developed by von Kirmn (6.73] and later modified by Winter [6.74]. Winter's equation, the format of which has been used by the AISI Specification [1-11] since 1946, is - taro io-oe 4] ous ser f = Py te cng eet (oe. 6181) oh his tnd ‘The form and constants of the equation were essentially determined 10 agree with experimental results, Substituting £ = 29,000 ks gives be 2f,o- 1] te Bio Ge wisn638 ASC PROVISIONS FOR STAENGTH OF PLATE ELEMENTS 949 Experience with light gage ste showed thatthe coofivient of the second term in Eq. 6.18.13 could be reduced. Since 1962 rhe equation used by both the AISE Specification [1.11] andthe AISC Specification has been essentially unchanged. 19 LERED- Appendix BS.3b are piven the following: 1, For tangs of square and rect lac seotons of uniform thickness SiGe] nae nase 22] lie ath ‘The difference between Eqs 6.18.14 an8 6.18.15 can be explained partly by the Aiference inthe assumed rotational restraint (moment along the. supported edges, Fig. 6.18.16) ‘Additional discussion of she effective width for stifened elements in compres- ‘inns available inthe work of Korol and Sherbourne (6.75, 6.76), Dawson and Walker [6:77], and Abdel-Sayed [6.78] Sharp [6.79] has considered siffened element hav ing one edge sifened by a lip. Kelyeearaman, Peko2, ard Winter [6.80] have pro posed an elfetive width expression for unstiffened ements ‘Since a column cross-section may include unstffened elements, whiz under present design procedures utilize reduced average stress rather than an effective ‘Width, the controling stress on unsifened elements is used 38 the applicable maxi- man. sess acting On the siffened elements, Thus the stress fis f= (6.18.16) and the design eqieent that P* Aaa, 18:17) Sastiting a, 6.18.17 it Ey, 6.18.16 ss ha T= Fg (ers) snd from Eq 61811 iwses9) Thus, (61820) ie ah same, 00] «sree NGL” avs 1 - S6f, 30 (18s) Sa sata fen950 CHAPTER 6 COMPRESSION MENBERS Note that 0, casa i Fit LRFD-Appendix BS 3e. In atber words, wher. Q <1 F, is redefined as OF, the LRED Specification. Finally, Q, as defined by Eq. 6.18.4 is Aur _ bet br a. [ois] Where Agr = Ayu ~ 200 = bee Design Properties In computing the nominal strength, the following rules apply in accordance with LRED-Appendix BS. For axial compression 1, Use gross area 4, for Py = Fu Ay 2. Use gros area to compute radius of gyration r for KL/r For flexure 1, Use reduced section properties for beams with flanges containing stiffened clements Since the strengths of beams do not include @ fetoss relating 0 thin compres son elements, tis appropriste to use section properties based on effective area, For beam-columns: 1, Use gros area for P. 2. Use reduced section properties for leure involving sffened compression elements fOr, and M, 3, Use Q, and 0, for determining P 4¢ For F, based on laterl-torsional backing of beams as discussed in Chap ter 9, the maximum value of Fis Q, Fy when unslffened compression clements are involved Effective Width in Allowable Stress Design {In Allowable Stress Design, the nominal strength P, would have to be divided by a factor of safety to give the allowable bad P. Dividing the nominal strength piven by Eq. 6.182 by the factor of safety FS, gives wen pele Pes rs “The term (fua/FS) may be thaught of as the allowable stress F,. The important conclusion ere is thatthe eflertive width 2 to De used in computing the allowable ‘apaity at service load ithe same be used in computing srengihP,. If Eqs. 6.18.14 ‘or6.18.15 were used directly the service load stresf would have fst be multipied Uy the factor FS, Instead, ASD-Appendix BS.2b changes the formula by replacing f 1821).28fio- 223 | fon 6.19 DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS AS AFFECTED BY LOCAL BUCKLING PROVISIONS Design of single and double angle steuts, structural tes, elded buileup [shapes and most ether bale-up sections, including box type sections, involves the close attention to wideh/thicknessTimitatias to prevent local buckling. Mest colled W. S, and M shapes have proportions such that local bucing will aot occur (that is, O = 1.0) Dror to achieving the steenath of the section based othe overall tenderness ratio Kir. ‘The following examples illustrate situations where @-< L0, EXAMPLE 6194 A double angle compression sbord member for the uss of Fig. 6.19.1 consists of 2—L8%4>:t, having short legs back-to-back. The 2¥--long member is braced inthe Dlane of the uss every 7 ft, but only at the ends inthe transverse direewon. Assume the two angles are atiached together with fully-tightened bolts and the spacing of ‘connectors i lose enough thatthe double angle member reaches is maximum axial load stength.* Neglect any contribution o lateral support rom the roofing. Compute ‘the maximum axial service compression load this member can be permitted (0 cart. ‘The service lad is 30% dead load ané 70% gravity lve load, Use AS72 Grade 80 ste and Load and Resistance Factor Design, Solution (@) Check local buckling. The in. legs ofthis double angle member are unstiflened compression elements. Check whether or not widththickness ratio A eweeds A, of LRFD-BS, - 2-1, 2) VE V30 Since A > A, local buckling will reduce the seetion efficiency. Using LRED- Appendix BS.3.a, the reduction factor Q is “The pol edt rng lating oe comnts nen th 40 ang a di cos in Sed and ont a ERED.952 CHAPTER © COMPRESSION WENBERS Py IE Figere 619 ample 690 0, = 1340 - oooter{2 VE = 1.40 ~ 00044716) 35 = 0834 (6) Compute design strength 6, P,. Fer axial compression, properties of the gross section ae used, From the AISC Manual properties of single angles land properties of double-angle strats with short legs back-to-back, A, © HLS sain 1 = L08in, = 4.0m. for in, gusset plate 1.0 for trass members as discussed in See. 6:9, (KL, _ LOO _ yg (KD, _1.0028)12 | 108 5 4 ‘Using LRFD-Formula (A-BS-15), Fa, 68.2, with A, given by Eq. 6.73, fF 50 BS = eerpno hi 6731 Assuming. which gives ANG = LL1VORS = 1014 <5 For AVO = 15: F, = (0.658}0F, (682) = (0.688900 17}(0.834)50 = 27. Bs Fe = 08527) = 2. Ks 0,2, = BFA, = 23.115) = 265 kipst P= L2Pp + 1.6P, = 1210.37) + 1,600.10) = 148 OP, = P= LAP 265/1.48 = 179 kips (maximum service load capacity) Th dest agree with thi ge inthe LRED Mantal “COLUMNS” tbls or ‘those turns ra ss of oan te to anges toga LRP #8) an {iene tue ool bul tm acerance ih ERED: Appentt The asin inclg esa orc! fueling 259 kp aut 2 ve than comped hove Tor hotraed ‘fete hay token 0 ude ec. Wha ey th esos, chs ‘SS1 oe at tage ecto ay wed Revue sonl Pog mas be ete819 DESGN OF MEMBERS AS AFFECTED BY LOCAL AUCKLING 959 "EXAMPLE 6.19.2 Design a double angle compression member for use asa spreader strut for hoisting Jarge loads as shown in Fig. 6 19.2. The led Sad is 60 tons of which 35 tons is ve load including impact. The remainder is dead lod, Use F, ~ 60 ksi and Load an Resistance Factor Design Solution (2) Compute factored load Py. AI 4101 slope at in te strut is 120 tons (240 Kips), r= 12(2}om + v4(S)ouy = songs ble the compressive load (©) Esimate the slendemest ratio, Assume K = 1.0 and ete 10 Fig, 6.19.25 atest Appendt Table Al w estimate = 029 n= 02 Win, les ane ed, r, = 02968) = 232 in KL 1.0;0)12 Estimate RE 2 (©) Sel ston. Hom LRED "NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 30, estmste = 19. (60/50) = 33k F318 OF, 2 iy L804 fn = 249 in A, = 19.2, KL /r = 964. Tis is a tarer arcu than scemdy neces fever, te nex lighter angle (A, = 15.3948) wit not be adequate. Te ssinted 6, obtained by ieratog the Fy = 30 {Sisal inte too the yl sess probly high for Lr ne 100 ‘Aplyng URED. Appenat Baa for singe enpes. be gyema) <(.= ot abe <(.-4- 2. (= gdige ita) «(n= d= BS - 8) 10s Required A, 16.3 4 in Figure 619.2 Example 6.192384 CHAPTER 6 CONPRESSION MEMBERS > 135 _ 138 (Fx 28) < (38-28 2, = 1340 ~ 0.004471128)V A= 1a: AVO=132<15 ‘Thus the short column stongih formal, Eq. 6 8.2, contcols. Evaluate Fy = 289 ksi 6A, = 2.0bs1 OP, = 4.FoA, = 22.0(19.2) = 423 kips > P, OK le 218x184. Nove tha he srengh exo weer he ESS | is not adegu 200) 0.897 EXAMPLE 6193 Select the thinnes: 12312 structural tbe to carry an axial compression of 60 kips {ead load and 250 kips tive load. "The eNeetive lengla KZ is 18 ft and the member is partof abraced gyster Use F, = 65 ks znd Load and Resistance Factor Design, Note that wbile using 7, ~ 65 ksi illustrates procedure, Grade 50 is the masimum for ‘Sruetural tubes under ASTM. AS0O, Sourion {a) Compute factored lad P, P, = 1.2(60) + 1.6(250) = 472 kips (8) Obzain estimate of required area. Use text Appendix Table AL w ate radius of ayration, = Oh = 0.8(12) = 48: Using Eq, 68.2 for F, with rst trial Q = 1 KL _ 18012) ag a Required A, = Pe a BA,” 085536) Tey 12% 12>< structural tbe (Fg. 6.19.3) 4,= 11.649 in 4.785 (@ Compute srength of selected section. Check b/ on stiffened elements ‘The with bs the fat wideh measured between the “roots ofthe flanges” where the outside radius atthe corners is twice the thickness (See footnote, LRFD Manual, p. 1-123.) B12 4025) 4), (, 2 2389 (a2 Fe BGA =a) > (ne p23) i i i { \ \ | i | | | | |638 DESIGN OF MEMBERS AS AFFECTED EY LOCAL BUCKLING 955: a a Figure 6193 Example 6.193. ‘Local buckling may reduce the efficiency ofthis section, Compute the reduction {actor 0, in accordance with LRFD-Appendis BS.3b, Because the stress fo the siifened clement of a column section will be less than a the A, iitation will actually be higher than 29.5, robs m2 Mfig 82] be BE yo - 089 1814 te (O/T y were = 6 (F which a funtion of 2. For hs ton having 0 wns ened cements 0, = 1.0; thus Q = Q,, Try f = 0.85(53.6) ~ 45.6 ksi as ob- tained from the fs estimate of KL (bas) = (28 2 252) “ Ni Va56 ben MELro 1° Vase ‘Thus local buckling will control the section efficiency forall four sides ofthe tube. The effective area is, dae niet = 116 = 41440 - 37.70.25) 0.09 in. Recompute the KL value forthe tril section, KL _ 18012) _ 5 ayge Rb _ NP) = 45.2: AQ = 0.633956 CHAPTERS COMPRESSION MEMBERS Using F tam LRED-Appeadix BS.3 FSAIShs: OF, = AOA ks nce this does ot agree with the assumed value oF 45.6 ksi, the effective width ie not correct, Repeat using f = 40ct ksi (or something clse to 40.4 between 40.6 and 45.6), which gives Yee Aen ttusiai Q= 091; AVG = 0.647 Rowai: “Ane wats ‘This ime the computed 41.8 ks is for practical purposes close enoveh to the 40.4 ksi assumed, (OP, = FA, = A1.8(116) 5 structural wide, 485 kips) > (P, 65 ksi S72 kip) OK We For design, in adition tothe propertes of rolled structural ting available in the AISC Manual, there is avilable the Manual of Cold Formed Welded Structural Stee Tubing.* containing columa and beams ‘ad tables BNAMPLE 6194 ‘Determine the nominal axial compression streagth P, for the nonstandard shape of Fig, 6.1911 for an effective longth KL equal 08 ft Use F, = 100 ksi and Load and Resistance Factor Desige Solution. In axial compression this section contains vasiffened compression elements cilanges) and a sitfened compression clement (the web). Unstiffened ‘lemonts must be teated first so that the effective stress level may be detee- mined a) Properties of the gross section, 41, = negligible (eb) + 2(5)(05)(10}* anges) = 83.4 in Am 11(025) + 265.0) = 12.75 sin VIA = ViSa/12.75 = 2.56 in (United eens LEEDS, (:-£=$2- 106) (1-28 = 25-03) "Ft Eton, 174, abled bythe Welded Sel Tbe esi, Stra Tate Dison, 522 Westgate Tomer, Cleland, Oba 11819 DESIGN OF MEMBERS AS AFFECTED BY LOCAL BUCKLING 387 efx Figure 6194 Esunple 6.19.4 Thus. since A 2.< 10. However, the web may be overly exible in its restrain rotation ofthe flanges. Thus, LRED-Appendix BS.t4() makes the Q, factor depend on f, which depends on i, of the sffened clement (i.e. web) when k is between 0.35 and 0.763. Compute h/t aad & Acte local buckling mit state causes reduced efficiency: When &, lies between 0.35 and 0.763, as it does in tis ease the formule tion of Q, depends on £. For (elton 4s) < (2 a) VE IK V100/0.603 7 V10070.603 “ vais oons(2) VE LRRD rma ovs.2 1415 — 0.0088(10.0) 5th (©) Siifened element, LRFD-BS.1 2, 0.926 Thus 0, < 10. The swess that acts on the stiffened element is dF here F, includes @,thatis, Eq. 6.8.2. A frst rial may be made assuming 0 = Quethat'is, 2, = 10. HLM ans, AVG = o7m1VOBI = 060388 CHAPTERS COMPRESSION WeNERS From LRFD Manual “NUMERICAL VALUES" TABLE 4, find coefficient 0.702 for A= 0.674: thus, r,s 0rmoF = om G26: = 60s tee hg te) «ms sail! Gone ae ten ag oyaas) = si ren iaeee Ram 1293 ‘The new value of dF, for Q = 2,0, = 0:926(0.950) = 0:880 is AMO = 0.701VERRD = 0.658 0,70910.88))100 Another iteration could be made since 624 isnot identical 1 65.0 upon which the effective width by was based. The tru answer wil be slightly above 6244 and Q will be slightly higher than 0.880, For practical purposes, use 62:4 ks, Thus, 624 ksi BP, = GFA, = O24(12.19) = 796 hips P, = 196/d, = 796/0.85 = 936 kips SELECTED REFERENCES 6.1. L, Euler. De Curvis Flastiis, ddivamennum !, Methodus Inveniendi Lineas Gurvas Maxi Mirimive Proprieate Gaudens. Lausanne and Geneva, 1744 (pp. 267-268); and “Sur le Forces des Colours,” Memoires de” Academie Royale des Sciences e Belles Leties, ol. (3, Berlin, 1759; English translation ofthe lester by JA, Van don Broek, “Baler's Chsie Paper “On the Sttength of Colurnns\." American Journal of Pysics. 18 Uanuary-February 1947), 309~ ait. 6.2. A. Considie, “Resistance des pitces comprimées,” Congrés Intemational des Procedés de Construction, Pats, 1891, 3,371. 63. F. Engesser. “Ueber die Knickfestgheit gerader Stabe,” Zeitschrift des Architekten-und Ingenieur—Vereins zu Hannover, 38 (1889), 455 and 462; also "Die Knicktesigheit gerader Stabe," Zentratblatr der Bauverwaltun, Berlin (December 5, 1891), 483. 64, FR, Shanley, “The Column Paradox,” Journal ofthe Aeronautical Sctences, 13, 12 (December 1946), 678, 65. ER. Shanley. “Toclastie Column Theory.” Journal of the Aeronautical Se ences, 14, § (May 1947), 261-264, 66. Brice G. Johnston. “Column Buckling Theory: Historie Mighlights." Journal ‘of Struchural Engineering, 109, 9 (Septenther 1983}, 2086-2096; Disc. by 7TH. Lin, Zia Razzag, and B, G.Johusion, 10,8 (August 1988), 1930-193362. 5s. 62, 6.13, 64 6.16, 6.7 6.18, 6.19, 6.20, 6.22, 623, oa, 628. SSELEOTED REFERENCES 259 Bruce G. Johason. "A Survey of Progress, 1944-57.” Bulletin No. 1 Colum Research Council, Januaey 1982. ‘Theodore V, Galambos. ed. Gride to Seabitity Devign Criteria for Metal Siac tures Sth ed. New York John Wiley & Sons, 988, Friedrich Bleich Buckling Seng nf Mena! Structures, New York: MeGra Hill Book Company. Inc. 1952, Bruce G. Johnston, "Buckling Behavior Above the Tangent Modulus Load, Journal of the Engineering Mechanics Disision, ASCE. 87, EMG (December 1961), 79-98, A, W. Huber and L, S, Beedle, “Residual Stress and the Compressive Strength of Sel,” Welding Journal, December 1954. 5855-6145, .H. Ving. LS. Beedle, and B. G. Johnston, “Residual Stress andthe Vield Strength of Stel Beams,” Welding Journal, April 1952, 2035-220, IN. R. Nagotaja Rao, FR. Estuar, and L, Tall "Residual Stresses in Welded Shapes.” Welding Journ, July 1964, 2955~306s. Donald R, Sherman. "Residual Stress Measurement in Tubular Members, Lournal of the Structural Division, ASCE, 95, ST4 (April 1969), 633-641, Donald R. Sherman. “Residual Sess and Tubular Compression Members.= ournal af the Structural Division, ASCE, 91, STS (March 1971), 891-90. Lynn 5. Beedle and Lambert Tall. “Basie Column Strength,” Jounal of the Structural Division, ASCE 86, ST? (July 1960}, 139-173. Also Transactions ‘ASCE, 127 (1962), parc. 138-179, (Ching K. Yu and Lambert Tall. "Signigicance and Application of Stub Column Test Results." Jornal ef the Siructural Divison, ASCE, 97, ST7 (uly 1971), Isst-1861 Bruce G. Johnston, “Inetustic Buckling Gradient,” Journal ofthe Engineering Mechanics Division, ASCE, 90, EMS (Deceinber 1964), 31-47 Richard H, Baterman and Bruce G. Jotinyon. “Behavior and) Maximum Strength of Metal Columns," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE. 93, ‘ST? (April 1967), 205-230, Bruce G.Johnstoned,Sirucaraf Stability Research Council, Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, 3d ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1976 Reidar Bjorhovl. “Effect of End Restraint on Column Strength —Practical Applications.” Engineering Journal, AISC, 22,1 (Fest Quarter 1984), 1-13, Reider Bjoriovde, “The Safety of Steel Columns.” Journal the Structural Division, ASCE, 104, ST3 (March 1978), 463-077, Reidas Bjorhovde. “Columns: From Theory to Practice,” Engineering Journal AISC, 26,1 (Fist Quarter 1988), 21-34 Dann H. Hall. “Proposed Stcel Column Strength Criteria” Journal of te Siruetara Division, ASCE, 107, ST4 (April 1981), 649-670, Dise, by Bruce G Johnston, 108, ST4 (April 1982), 956-937; by Za Yan Shen and Le-Wu Le. 108, ST7 (July 1982). 1680-1681; by author, 18, ST12 (December 1982), 2853-2855. 4. Michael Rotter. “Multiple Column Curves by Modifying Factors" Journal of the Srructural Division, ASCE. 108, ST7 (Jay 1982), 1665 1669,360 6.26. Jacque Rondal and René Maquv. “Single Equation for SSRC Column-Strength Curves," Journal ofthe Serucrural Division, ASCE, 108, STL (January 1979), 247-250, 627. E,M. Lui and W, F. Chen. “Simplified Approach tothe Analysis and Design of CColumas with Imperfections.” Engineering Journal, AISC. 22, 2 (Second ‘Quarter 1984), 99-117 6.28, John P. Anderson and James H. Woodwatd, “Calculation of Effective Lengths land Effective Slenderness Ratios of Stepped Columns,” Engineering Journal, AISC. 9, 3 (October 1972). 157-166. 6.29, Carlo'A.Casiglion. “Stepped Columas: A Simplified De neering Journal, AISC, 24, 1 (Fist Quarte: 1986), |-8. 630, Suresh C, Shrivastava, “Elastic Buckling of a Column Under Varying Axial Force.” Engineering Journal, AISC. 18, 1 (Furst Quarter 1980), 19-21 631. Balbir S. Sandhu. “Effective Length of Columns with Intermediate Axial oad.” Engineering Journal, AISC, 9, 3 (October 1972), 154-156. John C. Ermopoules. “Buckling of Tapered Bars Under Stepped Axial Loads, Journal of Siructural Engineering, ASCE. 112, 6 (June 1986), 1346~1354, D-R. Sherman. Temarive Criteria for Structural Applications of Steel Tubing ‘and Pipe, Weshington, D.C: American Iron and Stel Institute, 1976. 634, Julian Snyder and Seng-Lip Lee. "Buckling of Elstc-Piastic Tubular Columns," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, 94, ST1 (lanvary 1968), 133-173, 46.5, Seng-Lip Lee and Julian Snyder. “Stability of Stesin-Hardening Tubular CColumnne Journal ofthe Sractural Division, ASCE, 94, ST3 (March 1968), 683-707, 6.36. Wai F.Chen and David A, Ros. “Tests of Fabricated Tubular Columns," Jour nal of te Structural Division, ASCE, 103, ST3 (March 1977), 619-634. 6.37. David A. Ross. Wai Fah Chea, and Lambert Tall, “Fabricated Tubolar Steel Columas," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, 196, ST! Ganuary 1980), 265-282 6.38, Theodore V, Galambos. “Strength of Round Steel Columns,” Journal of the Siyuctural Division, ASCE, 91, STI (Fabruary 1965), 121~140. 6.39. Charles Lihove, "Sparsely Connected Buil-Up Columns.” Journal of Strue~ tural Engineering, ASCE. 111, 3 (March 1985), 609-627 4640, Abolhassan Astancb-Asl, Subhash C. Goel, and Robert D. Hanson. “Cyclic Outof Plane Buckling of Double-Angle Bracing,” Journal of Structural Engl neering, ASCE, 11, 5 (May 1985), 1135-1153, ‘ol. Cynthia J, Zahn and Geethaed Haaijer. “Etiect of Conrector Spacing on Double Angle Compressive Strength," Materials and Member Behavior. Pr0- ceedings of Strucutes Congress "87, Orlando, FL, August 17-20, 1987, pp. 199-212, 6.42, John B. Kennedy and Madugula K. 8. Murty. “Buckling of Steel Angle and Tee Struts," Journal ofthe Seructural Dssion, ASCE, 98, ST11 (November 1972), 2507-2522, 6.43, John B. Kennedy and Madugula K, 8. Murty “Buckling Art” Journal ofthe Structural Division, ASCE, 108, I 2 Method.” Ei Angles State ofthe (Sepeaber 1982SELECTED REFERENCES 361 1967-1980, Disc, owner of Sructaral Engineering. ASCE, 109, 8 (August 1983), 2025-2029, 604, Scott‘. Woolcock and Sritawar Kitpomchal. “Design of Single Angle Web Struts in Trusses.” Journal of Sreuctural Eneineering, ASCE, M12, 6 (Jone 1986), 1327-1345. Dise. 113, 9 (September 1987). 2102-2107, 645. Adel A. E-Tayem and Subhash C, Goel. “Effective Length Factor for Design of Xebracing System's” Engineering Jownal, AISC. 24, 4 (Fiest Quartet 1986), 41-45, 6.46, Subhash C, Goel and Adel A, El-Tayem. “Cyclic Load Behavior of Angle XeBracing.” Jouenal of Structaral Engineering, ASCE, 112, 11 (November 1986), 2538-2539, 6.47. Guo Ctucnme. “Elastoplastic Buckling f Single Angle Columns,” Journal of Streural Brginering, ASCE, 110, 6 June 1984), 1391-1395, (648, Eding A. Smith. “Buckling of Four Bqual-Lee Angle Crociform Columns,” Journal of Structaral Engineering, ASCE, 109, 2 Febriary 1983}, 439-430, 6.49. Le-Wu Lu, “Elfective Length of Colurans in Gabel Frames,” Engineering Jou nal, AISC. 2 1 January 1965), 6-7. 50, Kamal Hassan, “On the Determination of Buckling Lensth of Frame Columns." Publications, Imeraational Association for Bridge and Structural Engincering, 2-1, 1968, 91-101 (in German), 651. Theodore V. Galambos.“Infvence a Partial Base Feity of Frame Stability.” Journal of The Structural Division. ASCE, Bb, StS (May 1960), 85-108, 6.52. Germon Gurfinkel and Arthur R. Robinson, “Buckling of Etascally Restuined Columns,” Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, 91, STS (Deceniver 1965), 159-183. 6.53. Harold Switzky and Ping Chun Wang. “Design and Analysis of Frames for ity” Journal of she Structural Division, ASCE, 95, ST4 (April 1969), 095-713, 6.54. Thomas C. Kavanagh. “Btfecive Length of Framed Colum,” Transactions, ASCE. 127 (1962), Part Ml, 81-101 6.55. Joseph A. Yura, “The Effective Length of Columns in Unbraced Frames.” Engineering Journal, AISC, 8, 2 (Apel 1971), 37-82: Disc. 9 3 (October 1972), 167-168, 6.56, Peter F. Adans. Discussion of “The Effective Length of Columns in Unbraced Frames,” by Joseph A. Yura, Engineering Journal, AISC,, 1 (Tanary 1972), 40-41 6.57, Bruce G, Johnston. Discussion of “The Effective Length of Columns in Un braved Frames" by loseph A. Yura, Engineering Journal, AISC, 9 1 (lanuacy 1972), 46. 6.38. Robert O, Disque. “Incase KTacor foe Column Design.” Engineering Jour nal, AISC. 10,2 (Second Quatter 1973), 33-35, 6.59, C. V. Smit, Jf. "On Inelastic Column Buckling,” Engineering Souraal, AISC, 13, 3 Thind Quarter 1976), 86-88; Disc. 14 1 (Fist Quarter 1977), 47-8, 6.60. Charles A, Matz. Discussion of “On Inelastic Column Buckling,” by C. V. Smith, Je, Engineering Journal, AISC, M4, 1 (First Quarter 1997), 47-48.962 cHapTERS 66 6.02. 663. 664 665. 5.68, 667. 668, 6.09. 6.0, 6m. 63 674 675 66, 6m, 078, 6.19. 6.0. Frank W. Stockvel Jt. "Girder Stitness Distribution tos Unbraced Columns Engineering Journal, AISC. 13,3 (Thi Quieter 1976). 82-88 Cyius Omie'varan, "Discrete Analysis of Laticed Cohsmns," foil af the Sirucrural Division, ASCE, 94, STH (January 1968). 119-132, Fung 5. Lia, Erast Glouser, and Bruce G. fohnston. “Behavior of Laced and Battened Structural Members.” Journal of rhe Structural Division, ASCE. 96, ST? ly 1970), 137-1401 Bruce, Johnston. "Spaced Stee! Cohins" Journal ofthe Seuctural Division, ASCE, 97, 873 (May 1971), 165-1479. (Omer W. Blodgett, Design of Welded Stracrures. Cleveland, Ohio: James F. Lincoln Are Welding Foundation, 1966, S, Timoshenkoand 5. Woinowsky-Kriezer. Theor of Pave ad Shes, 2a ed Now York: McGraw-Hill Book Compary. Inc. 1959 (pp.79-82) Stephen P. Timoshenko and lates M. Gete, Theory af Elastic Stability, nae New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc, 1961 (pp. 319-338, 351-350), Kurt H. Gersle, Basie Structural Design, New York: MeGras* Hill Book Com- pany, Ine, 1967 (pp. 88-90) George Gerard and Herbert Becker. Handbook of Strucural Stabiliry. Part 1 Buckling of Fat Plates, Tech, Note 3871, National Advisory Commitee for Aeronautics, Washington, D.C. uly 1957, Geerhard Haaijer and Bruno Thirlimann. “On Inelastic Buckling in Stel.” Transactions, ASCE, 125 (1960), 308-344 Maxwell G. Lay. "Flange Local Buckling in Wide-Flange Shapes,” Journal of the Siructural Division, ASCE, 91, STS (December 1965), 93-116, Joha F. MeDermott. “Local Plastic Buekling of A314 Steel Mesnbers."Joernat lof the Structural Division, ASCE. 98, ST9 (September 1969). 18371850. ‘Theodore von Kérmaa, E.E. Seshicr, and L. H, Donnell. “The Steeagth of Thin Transuetions, ASME, $4, APM-S4-5 (1932), 53. G. Winter. “Strength of Thin Compression Flanges.” Transactions, ASCE, 112 (1947), 329-576. Robert M. Korol and Archibald N. Sherbourne. “Strength Predictions of Pate in Uniaxial Compression.” Journal of the Sioctural Division, ASCE, 98, S19) {September 1972), 19651986. Archibald N. Sherbourne and Robert M. Korol. “PostBuckling of Axially Compressed Plates,” Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, 98, STIO (October 1972), 2223-2234, Ralph G. Dasson and Alastair C, Walker, “Post Buckling of Geometrically Impecfect Plates," Journal ofthe Stuetaral Division, ASCE, 98, ST1 (January 1972), 75-94, George Abdel Sayed. “Efective Width of Thin Plates in Compression." Jour nal of the Structural Division, ASCE, 98, ST1O (October 1969), 2183220. Marce L. Shorp. "Longitudinal Stifieners for Compression Members our nal of the Structural Division. ASCE, 92, STS (October 1966). 187-211 V. Kalyanaraman, Teoman Pekoz, and George Winter. "Unsiéned Compres- sion Elements,” Journal of the Siructural Division, ASCE, 103, STS (Septem ber 1977), 1832-1848.ssl 632, 688, 6.84 6.85, 6.86 oat oa 6.99 6.90, 691 692 693. 6.94 695, 6.96, 697 SELECTED REFERENDES 983, Rossel Q, Bridge and Donald J, Fraser. “Improved G-Fasios Method for Eval tating Effective Lengths of Colurons."Jouraal of Sirucrural Engineering, 3. ‘(lune 1987), 1341-1356, Lian Duart and Wai-Feh Chen, “Design Rules of Buil-Up Members in Lead and Resislnce Factor Design,” Jounal of Srructoral Exglacering, 1M. FL (Novesnber 1988), 2544-2554. AISC. Specifcarion for Load aid Resistance Factor Design of Single-Angle Members cffetive December |. 1993, Chicago: American Insiute of Stel Consiruction, 199 Donald J, Fraser. “Uniform Pis-based Crane Columns, Effective Lengths, Engineering Jounal, AISC. 26, 2 (2nd Quarts 1989), 61-65. Sayed H.Stoman. “lective Length Spectta for Cross Bracings,” Jouraal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, VIS, [2 December 1988), 3112-3122, 'A. Rutenberg and A. Scarat. "Roof Bracing and Eifecive Length of Colums in One-Story Industrial Buildings," Journal of Structural Engineering. ASCE. 116, 10 (October 1990), 2551-2566. T. V. Galambos. “Design of Asially Loaded Compressed Angles.” Structural Stabiiy Researce Council Annual Technical Session Proceeding’, 1981 Ronald §, Harichandran, "Sufess Reduction Factor for LRED of Columns Enxineering Journ, SSC, 2Re 3 (3rd Quarter 1991). 129-130. Farhang Aslani and Subhash C. Goel, "An Analytica! Criterion for Buckling Strength of Builtp Compression Members." Engineering Joursal, AISC, 28, 4 (ath Quarter 191), 159-168. M. Bigaaly, H. Dagher, and W. Davids. “Behavior of Single-Angle Compression Members,” Journal of Stevetural Engineering, ASCE. 117, 12 (December 1991), 3725-3741 IM. Elgaaly. W. Davids and #1. Dagher. "Non-Sleader Single Angle Stru.” Engineering Journet. AUSC. 29, 2 2nd Quarter 1992), 49-58, ‘Seshu Madhava Ryo Adluri and Murty K:5. Macugula.“Eccentrically Loaded Stect Single Angle Struts,” Engineering Journal, AISC, 29, 2 (2nd Quarter 1902), 59-66. Pierre Durnin. “Simple Equations for Effective Length Factors.” Brgineer= ing Journal, AISC, 29,3 (3rd Quarter 1982) 11 US. Die. 30, 1 (Ist Quarter 1993), 37; Breata 30, 1 (ist Quarter 1993). 38, Eric M. Lui. "A Novel Approach for K Factor Determination.” Engineering dournal, AISC, 28,3 3rd Quarter 1992), 150-159. FFurhang Asian and Subhash C. Goal, “Araltical Criteria for Stitch Strength of Builbup Comptession Members,” Engineering Journal, AISC, 29, 4 (4th Quarter 1992), 102-110. A. Durtick, “Design Steength of Conceatrically Loaded Single Angle Suuts” Engineering Journal, AISC, 30, (ist Qsaster 1993), 17-30. Leander Bathon, Wendel H. Mueller Ill and Leon Kempner, J. "Whimate Load Capacity f Single Steel Angles.” Journal af Sirucaral Engineering, ASCE, 119, {CLamuary 1993), 279-30064 PROBLEMS Allproblems are to be done according othe AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design for Allowable Stress Designs indicated by the insirutor. A given Toads are service Jods unless etherwise indicated. For each problem, draw thepetential buckled shape ‘oma figure showing the column and is restraints for bath x atd v principal directions. ‘A final check of strength (for LRFD) or sees Toe ASD) must be shown inal design problems. 6.1, For the case asigned by the instructor, select the lightest W section to carry anaxial compression load as indicated. The member i part ofa braced frame, ‘Assuine the member as pinned atthe top and bottom. Deas ve Member Tost ad ara swe caso tees) hess eae 1 ry to» ® ‘sr Grate 50 5} Rs ' om} Be ee) 382 Gate | tb» S72 Grae 6 462. Selec the lightest W section to cary a compressive fond of 200 kps dead load and 625 kips lve load. The effective length KL is 5 ft. Use A36 oF AS72, Grade 50, Whichever is more economical, f the Grade 50 costs 7 more per pound, 63. Compote the maximum service axial compression load permitted on the built up cross-section ofthe accompanying igure. The load is 30% dead load and “70% ive load. The stel used is AST2 Grade 50, and be effective lengths are Problem 6.366. 67. 68, 69. 610, PROSLEMS 985 For the data of Prob, 6.1. consider the member o be fixed atthe Botan. and hinged at the lop and part ofa raced system, Select the lightest W section for the ease assigned, Select te lightest W seston wy serve as an axially loaded columma 28 ft ons, in braved frame, sith additional lateral suppow i the weak diretion at mid -heett. The load to be carried is 65 kips det load and 150 kips live la. Assume the top and botcom ofthe column are hinged, 1. Use AX6 and indicate first and second choles, Db. Use A372 Grade 60, indicating frst and second choices ‘Select the most economical W section to cat an axial eompecs '50 kips dead foad and 100 kips lve load, The member has (A), ~ (KL), = 18 feand is part ofa braced system. Assunte zat relative cost of various steals are 38 follows: 36. 10; A372 Grade 50, |, 14; AS72 Grade 60, 120, Redesign the column of Prob, 6.6 assuring wditional weak diretion support atid: Select the lightos W section to carry an axial compression fod of 60 kips dead load and 250 kips ive foad, The member is part of a braced frame and is assumed to be pinned tte top and bottom of ts 30 fe length, and in addition fs lateral support in the wenk direction at 14% kam the Bottom, Use (a) A36 steel (b) F, = 50 ksi (6) F, = 65 ks ‘Select the lightest W section 0 carry an axial compression of 90 ips dead load aa. 320 kps ive load. The member is part of a braced frame. The idealized ‘ipport conditions are that tbe ember i hinged in both peincipal directions atthe op ofa 30 ft height, supported in the weak direction a Uf and 22 from the bottom; and fixed in both directions atthe bowwm. Use (a) A36 steel; (b) F, = 508i) F, = 00 bs Select lightest W section forthe cola shown in he ceompanying figure ‘The loading is 30 kip doud load ant 120 kgs gravity Hive load. The member is built into wall so tha it may be considered as continoousty ace in the ‘weak direction. Nore: Not all of the available W sections are included inthe AISC Manual Column Load Tables, Use (a) A36 steel: (b) F, = 50 ks CF, = Boks, content i Problem 6.10366 CHAPTER © COMPRESSION WENBERS 6.11, Redesign the column of Prob, 6.2 assuming there is no residual sess of scoidental eccentricity such tht the column buckling strengts may be repre Sentedby Euler's equation, Eq. 6.2.8, using KL for L If designng using LRED Pliloxopiny. use , — 0.85 andthe lod factor combinations in LRFD-AS 1. It Using ASD philosophy, use the denominator of ASD-Formula (E2-1) a6 the Factor of Safety. Use F, = S0 ksi and take note that F,, cannot exceed F, 6.12, Use the tangent modulus theory to compute the column strength relationship laverage unit stess Fe, on gross area ws slenderness ratio RL/). Draw the siagram to seale and obtain any F, vals by scaling From your diagram. The steel has F, ~ 50 ks but the stress-strain curve for the material sas show in the accompanying figure. Assume no residual stes. Using your F, curve, select the lightest W section for the loading and suppor conditions of Prob. 62. If LRED philosophy is used take 6, = 0.85 and use the factored Joad combination of LRFD-A4.1. If ASD philosophy i used, cake denomin- tor of ASD-Formul (E2-1) asthe Factor of Safery. Probie 6.12 643. Using the tangent modulus theory: (a) Constrect column strength (Fog = Py/A, ¥8 KL for an Heshaped section, Assume weak axis bending (KL), ontols and neglect the effect of the web. Assume the idealized stress-strain relationship shown inthe accompanying gute co be used for cach ier of the crose-section, andthe residual sizes istrbution in the Mange Probes 6.13PRORLEMS 967 ‘sas shown, (b) Select the Highest W section to carry sdead load of 100 kips| fan & Five load of 200 kigs with an effective longth KZ of 30 ft. Use your ‘consiructed curve as the relationship between F. and KE/r. I the LRED pinlosophy is used take «0.85 and use the fctored load combination in ERFD-A4.1. IF ASD philosophy is used, take the denominator of ASD- Formula (E2-1) asthe Factor of Safety. Use F, = 50 ki.) Solve using the AISC Specification and compare with tangent modulus theory result 6.14, Folow the same requirements as fr Prod. 6.43 m construct column strength curve. This time the residual sess distribution linearly varying as sboxa in the accompanying figure. For (b) and (e) use the loading and support condi ‘ions of Prob. 6.2. a Ph Problem 6.14 16.15, Repeat Prob. 6,14, except for (b) and (c) using the loading and suppest cond sions of Prob. 6:13, 646, Design an interior column (yse W shape) for a multstory rigid frame, No bracing i provid isthe plane of the frame. In the plane pespendiculart the frame, bracing is provided at top, bowen, and mid-height of columns and simple flexible beam~o-coluinn connections are used. The aiah compressive Toad is 400 kips dea load and 1100 kip live load, and bending moments are neglected. Use A572 Grade 50 Stee, és “y a é é J a0 — J -sg 0 J Problem 6.16268 CHAPTER € COMPRESSION MEMBERS 617, 6.8 6.19. 620, at. 622. 623, 624, 625, An axial compression load consisting of 10 kips dead lod 2nd 40 kips live load ist be cattied by a eolumn having an effecdive length KE. ~ 28 1. Use either A36 or AS72 Grade 50 stet, whichever is more economical ifthe A Steel cous 9% more per pound of fabricated see than A36. Satisly the ‘sidth thickness limits, of LRED of ASD-BS.L 8. Design a rolled W section i, Dssign the lightest welded [-shaped section using she plates 6, Design a welded Isced (single Lacing) column consisting of four angks. 4. Design @ welded box with solid plats Design a welded box having two perforated ples Desien as in Prob. 6.17, except he axial loud is 190 kips dead load) and 210 kips live load and KE = 32 ‘Compute the maxinsum service load (25% dead foad and 75% tive load) acceptable fora structural tse WTI23<38 when used ina trss location where itis braved in the plane of the truss at 20-fcimtervas and braced transverse 19 the plane of the truss at 10-fr intervals. Apply the provisions of LRFD or [ASD-Appendix B if novessary. Use (4) A36 steel; (6) F, ~ 50 ksi: (@) F, = 65 ks Selec the listest double angle compression member to catry 110 kips dead load and £30 kips live load. The effective length KE ~ 20 Pt, Assume the backs othe angles are separated by a3-n, gusset plat. Indicate the orient tion of the angle legs (Le. short or long legs back-to-back). I angles are ‘eked fr al thre sess indicate the economical choice if relative coste are {836 (1.0), F, = 50 (1.07), and F, = 60 (1.10). Use (a) A36 steel; (b) F, 150 ksi: 6) A) = 60 ks. Design asin Prob. 6.20, except the member must cary 40 kips dead load and 140 kips live lead, and KL = 16 8 Design as in Prob. 6.20, except the member must carry 30 kips dead lord and 50 kips live load, and KL = 12 fe Design top chotd member fora roof truss to carry 40 kips ded load, 80 ips live lod, and 40 kips wind load acting simultaneously. Assume this lading ‘combination governs the design, The member is braced ip the pane ofthe truss by adjoining web members connecting in at 5-f tervals. The chord is braced transverse to the plane of the truss at 10-ft intervals. Neglect bending due to 00 loads, (Note! Refer to LRFD-A4.1 or ASD-AS2.) ‘a, Design double angle member connected to j-in. gusset places. Di. Design a structural te. Select the lightest structural tse (WT) for use as a 1p chow compression rember to carty 35 kips dead load and 100 kis lve load. Neglect bending. ‘The member has 9-t effective Tength for buckling in either the x-x or y=) plane, Use (a) A36 sce: (b) F, = 50 ki steel: €) F, = 65 hs steel Select the lightest stectural te (WT) 1 serve as the compression chord of a ‘uss to carry 4 kips dead load and 45 kips live Toad. In the plane ofthe truss the chord is braced by adjoining web members that frame in at 5-1 intervals629, 630, 631. 628, PROBLEMS 368 Perpendicular the plane ofthe ris, the chord is braced st 10 by asystem ‘of lateral pustn supports. Use the most economical of A36 0: A872 Grae og steels if Grade 65 costs 12% more that! A36 ‘Compare the sevice axial compressive load permitted on @ 10% 10% 4 struc- tural tobe having an effective length KL ~ $f. The load is 60% ve lose, Use (a) A36 see: (6) F, = 60 ksi fe) F, = 100 ks CConipute the service axial compressive loud permitted on a 128%! sruc- ‘ural tube having an effective length (KL), = 1 for weak axis bending. ned (AL), = 10 for strong axis bending. The load is 35% dead load and 65% live load Use (a) A36 steel; (b) F, = 63 ksi) = 90 bs, Redesign the column of Prob. 6.1, selecting a structural tube instead of a W section Redesign the column of Prob, 66, selecting a structural tube instead of a Wsection Redesign the column of Prob. 67, selecting a structural tube instead of a Wscetion Compute the service axial compressive load permitted on the nonstandard {shaped section shown in the accompanying figure ifthe load fv 30° deed load aad 70% live load. The effective length (KL, = 12 ftand (KL), ~ 6 f Use (a) A36 sec: (b) F, = 60 ksi 6) F, = 100 ksh Problem 6.31 632, Repeat Prob 6.31 except use the nonstandard te section ofthe accompanying figure,Chapter 7 Beams: Laterally Supported 7.4 INTRODUCTION |A beam is defined as a member ated upon primarily by transverse loading, often [ervity dead an live load effects. Tae term transverse loading i takea o include end ‘moments. Thus, beams i a structure may’ also be refered 10 a8 girders (usually the most important beams which ate frequcptly at wide spacing): joists (usually less important beams which are closely spaced, frequently with russ-type webs} purins ‘(oof beams spanning between trusses; stringers (longitudinal bridge beams spanning between floor beams}; gts (horizontal wall beams serving principally to resist bend ing due to wind onthe sie ofan industrial building; frequently supporting corrvgated siding): and lintels (members supporting a wall oer window ox door openings). Other terms, such as header, trimmer, and rafter, are sometimes use ’s beam isa combination ofa tension element and a compression element. The ‘concepts of tension members and compression members are now combined in the treatment as a beam, In this chapter, the compression clement, (one flange) tha is integrally braced. perpendicular to its plane through its attachment the stable tension lange by means of the web, 3 assumed also to be braced laterally in the dlizection perpendicular tothe plane of the web. Thus, overall buckling ofthe com= pression flange asa columa cannot ozcur prior ois fll participation o develop the moment strength of the section, While it ip ikely rue that most beams used in practical situations are adequately braced laterally so that such stability need not be Considered, the percentage of sable situations is probably not as high as assumed. The Important treatment of laters stability is found in Chapter 9. Galambos [7.1] has provided an interesting history of beam design according to various editions of the AISC Specification. 7.2 SIMPLE BENDING OF SYMMETRICAL SHAPES. “The most common design situations involve selection of rolled wide-Bange shapes from the AISC fables, which often becomes routine and may lead the designer into ‘overconfidence in efeatment of beams. It is well known that the flexure formaENDING OF SYHIMETRICAL SHAPES 371 Beams inelatngemen-web ois. chan tubular clans Phy by ©. Sa and W (vide ung) shapes. sang wih C® AMe/t\is applicable ordinary situations. The stresses on the common sections of Fig, 7.21 ony be computed by the simple lexare formula when loads are acting fa fone ofthe principal directions. When any section with at leas one ans of mmncre and lowe throu the seat centers subjected 0 a bending moment in th ebiy Aeetion. the components M,, und Mn the principal dreetons, can be obiarcey and the siress coms 21) Ma, M, where $ isthe seria modulus, defined 36 the moment of inctiaF divided by the distance « trom the center of gravity to the extreme fiber. The subscripts c cade indicate the axis avout which the moment af iertais computed and from which che distance « is measured (see Fig. 72.1), For members without at lest ene oat oe symmetry the reader i oterred wo See. 7.10, eo =pare (CHAPTER 7 BEAMS, LATERALLY SUPEORTED 7.8 BEHAVIOR OF LATERALLY STABLE BEAMS Wren beams have adequate lateral stability of the compression Mange. the only stability iit tae that might prevent achieving maximam momen trength is heal buekling in compression of the flange andlor web plate elements comprising the “The stress distribution 00 a typical wide-flange shape sublected to increasing bending momen is shown in Fig. 7.31. In the service load range the section is elastic asin Fig. 7,32, and the elastic condition exlsts unl ee stress at the extreme fiber reaches the yield stess F, (Fig. 7-316). Once the sruin ¢ reaches «, (Fig. 73.2). inereasing strain induces no increase in sires. This eastic-pastic stress-strain behay- ioe isthe accepted idealization for structural steels having yield stresses up © about = 65 ksi 448 MPa) ‘When the yield sres is reached atthe extreme fiber (Fig. 7.3.16), the nominal moment srengih A, is referred to as the veld manent M, ais computed as Mom, = S. a3 When the condition of Fig. 7.3.1 is eached, every ier has a strain equal © oF greater than e, = ,/E,, eit iin the plastic range. The nominal moment strength Mis hereicerelarred toa the plastic manent Mand is computed sob fossa ne asa where Z = fy dA is called she plastic modulus ‘Note the ratio MY, i property ofthe cross-section shape and is indepen- dent of the material properties. This ratio Is known as the shape factor & My 2 enh aZ (733) For widelange (W) shapes in flexure about the strong axis (1-s) the shape tictor ranges from about 1,09 to about 118, with the usa ave deing about 1.12. One may conservatively say the plac poment strength M, of W sections beat about their ‘rong axis atleast 10% greater than the strength M, when the exeeme fiber just reaches the yield stress, ‘Figure 721 Stren dstiution at terent stages of lang.75. BEHAVIOR OF LATERALLY STABLE BEAMS 973 Figure 7.3.2. Swesscrain dapram for most sacral steel, Desien procsdures have long recognized that beams do exhibit the behasioe discussed above. Extensive testing has adequately verted that plistifcation of the entire cross-setion doe: occur [7.2] assuming latera-trsional buckling strated in (Chapter 9 and local bucking as toated in Chapter 6, Part Il do not oceur), BNAMPLE 734 Determine the shape factor fora retangular beam of width band depth d Solurion. Referring to Fig, 7.3.3 the moment Mf at ist yield is From Fig, 7.3.38, n= [rrana2[” rover ilar ‘The shape factor is then iC Figure 7.3.3 A rectangular secton and W yestion in weakanis bending 2 (Sree iswovhen (Weengv CHAPTER 7 BEAMS: LATERALLY SUPPORTED ‘which iastrates that there isa greater seserve beyond first sild in the bending of rectangular section than in an [shaped section bending about is strong fxis. The ceader is alerted to the fact chat the W shape bent about fs sea axis (Coos) is essentially a rectangular section (two rectangles separated by a ds- tance) (Fig. 7.3.30). nce the plastic moment strength M, hss been reached, the section ean offer no suiivional resistance to rotation behaving as hinge but with constant resistance M, ‘condition known as a plastic hinge. Ina statically determinate beam, such a 3 Simply supported one, having one plastic hinge form will make the structure unstable: ‘one eal hinge at each end anda plastic hinge in the médspan region wil create an lnstable situation, known asa collapse mechanism. In 2eneral, any combination of thre hinges, real or plastic, in a span wil result ina cellapse mechanism Referring to Fig. 7-t,cne may ote thatthe angle of rotation & (radiansfinch) is clastic from service load M until the extreme flber reaches Fat M,, then becomes Partially inclastc until the plastic moment M, is reached. Once the paste hinge bas ‘occurred and the Af/curve has become horizontal, defection of the beam (rotation ‘of the plastified cross-section) increases without restrain. At the collapse condition the elastic deformation duc to beading on the segments between the ends and midspan is negligible compared to the rotation & occurring atthe plastic hinge. Thus, the analysis may treat the collapse situation as two rigid bodes having an angular discon tinuity @, at midspan, As will be shown later ip Sec. 10.2, iis ony for statically ‘determinate situations that one can expect every point along the factored moment ‘lagrams to be proportional to the elastic moment diagram. RRedistbution ofthe moment occurs during loadirg beyond the elastic range in usual statealy indeterminate situation; that, the bending moment digram after @ plastic hinge has occurred will no longer be proportinnal 10 the elastic bending ‘moment diagram, Figare 734 Plastic behavior.74. LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESION 375 As discussed by Yura. Gilambos. and Ravindra [7.3], even ifthe beam has ‘adequate resistance with regard ltera-torsional buckling (Chapter 9} ado Toval buckling (Chapter 6, Par Il) to achieve the plastic moment strength, the actual iit state wil si be failure by laterar-orsional buckling, compression flange local buck Jing. oF web local buckling, but in the plastic range instead of the elastic range. Thus, Prevention of failure by any ofthese instability modes until adequate rotation 8, has ‘ceurred requites limits on the ditance between points of lateral support on the ‘width thickness ratio ofthe compression flange and on the depth/thickness ratio oF the web, 7.4 LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS— LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN ‘The strength requirement for Bears in lad and resistance factor design according 10 LRED-F? iy be stated eM, = M, ay where dh = resistance (i. strength reeaction) factor for flexure = 0.90) |My = nominal moment strength My = factored service loud moment (see See. 1,9) Compact Sections ‘The nominal svength Mf for laterally stable “compact sections” according to LRFD- Appendix FL may be sisted M.= M, 742) where M, = plastic moment strength = ZF, Z = plastie modulus. Eq. 7.32 FF, = specified minimum yield stress Design must account for the fact that local buckling ofthe compression lange ‘or local buckling ofthe web may oecur prior to achieving the high compressive sirain necessary to develop Mf. When the width/thickness imitations A, of [RFD of ASD- BS are satisfied, achievement of only M, i assured (that i, local buckling ata sites below Fis prevented as discussed in Sec. 6.16), The limits A, for preventing local bockling in beams are given in Table 7.4.1, The extrene fiber strain is assured only ‘of reaching ¢, = F,/E.. To achieve greater strain the values of bt (referred to gener. ally as Aby LRFD) must be further restricted. To under lage plastic strain the more severe width/thickness limitations A, discussed in Sec. 6.17 and preseribed for compact sections” must be stifled, as given in Table 74.2, For the welded (Qange and web continuously attached) I-shape, the b/2 limit in 1998 is a fuuetion of fi/,, instead of independent of that ratio as i eadlier ‘Spesitieations, Rolled I-shapes typically have hi less than 40 and neary all have that ‘ratio 55 of less welded T-shapesosimilar proportions can be expected have similar ‘ih, ratios. The 1993 limits tor welded [shapes age higher for proportions similar 4375 chapren TABLE 747. WIOTH THOXNESS LIAS 2, FOR NONCOMPACT SECTION” BEAMS JO ACHIEVE FAT EXTREME PREA ERPS: EAS: LATERALLY SUPPORTED (ursines \ursiteree ange (Sutera) Fetae tne We Bo = Weis ass a7 tor Ga Bo O68 302 * ne 173s vo 67 to aaa m3 0 ss a5 a ae kes iso oss ao” dao a tes ai »” moss es. a to ae ms D068 Bi ss no as 038 isa ma foo" tao tes O68 208 o ws 13826 is? sar ao” aa Iss wo 03 Oe 10, ws ta 00, 17 068 Bs 0 Iss umaz 080 ns a oo” ao Bo 6s 50 10 es Sto oat 3 ns 100° aa na rolled Lshapes, and lower for thin web plate girders. The explanation is thatthe thinner the web the less rotational restraint it offers to prevent flange local buckling. “The reduced hits for by/2a¢ the web A, limit compared with 1986 LRFD ate, for example, 21,7 instead of 24.0 for A36 sel, and 166 instead of 18.3 for Grade SO Steel. Since fh, is low for rolled -shapes, the limit independeat of he, was retained for simplicity ‘Noncompact Sections ‘The nominal strength Mf, for laterally stable “uoncompact_ sections” whose ‘width thickness catios A exactly egual the limits A, of ERED Table BS.1 isthe mo- iment Strength available when the extreme fiber is atthe yield toss F,. Because of174 LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS—LOKD AND RESISTANTE FACTOR DESIGN 377 ‘TABLE 74.2 WIDI}/THICKNESS LawTS 3, FOR COMPACT SEcTION™ BEAMS JO AGHEVE SIGNIFICANT PLASTIC STAAN (AFG 80 ASDS) Ureteras sores ———Sifend danas ——_—Siodeleneis (inéom coereson) (tom somes ‘Serna te BE re woe va tp me 37 sa 33 sos a te a be u a ps ese byURFD-AS nd ASDF] wal ing F = Sk residual sess the strength is expressed as My = M,= (8, ~ FAS aaa) ‘where Mis theesidval moment” tha wll cause the exireme ibe stress tise rem its residual stress F value when there is no applied loud acting to the yield stress F. ‘The elastic section moduias § equals the moment of inertia ivided by the distance «from the neutral axis othe extreme fiber. Por hybrid beams (See Sec. 11.7), where the flange yield stress Fis typically higher than the web yield stress F,,, the sominal momea sient M, must be based fon the smaller of (Fy ~ F) oF Fy Pattially Compact Sections ‘The nominal strength M, for laterally stable “noncompact sections” whose ‘idth/thickness ratios A are less than A, but aot as low as A, smust be linearly eas aieel) otleta sem eueue niet eeu 7 em,= ot (228) M, OK Sok (A572 Grade 50 steel Us M7612) .F, ~ 09060) Seles from LRED Manual table “LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION TABLE 7,” Required Z, 203 in? Try WIOXI9: 7, = 21.6in? heck “cps on” ni 9 ab 742) basen = 3 Bs) den hessecins on =51<92 OK Chock the strength: M, = T6ULSL/1.52) = 753 fexips My © M, = 2,F, = 21.6:50)/12 = 90 fukips 4.M, = 6,(104) = 0.90190) = 81 fekips > 8 Use WIOX ID, F = 50 ksi, OK380 COMAPTER BEANG:LATERALLY SUPPORTED (a) AST2 Grade 65 steel 76102) BE 090065) Select from LRFD Mona! table “LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION TABLE" Required 2, = 156i 1.4 in? Try WI2KI: 2, (Check “compact section” limits A, (Table 742); ane = B= BS ‘www Bi, 210.225) 43> 794 OK In this case the controlling limit state is local buckling of the flange, When A.> A> Ay as above, the tection is clasifed as “noncompact”. CCck the strength. The strength is obtained by interpolation betcea M, and. M, using Eq. 74.4. Fist A, for the flange must be obtained (from Table 7.4.1) as 19.0, which exceeds b,/2, of 88 and the section is ‘noncompact ina) Next M, and , are needed: d= 2.= 1245/12 = 92 ips M2 Sr) mat 10/2 683 ps Tea fom E784 y= 942 - 612 - (8=14) \which is 0.984,. in addition the web had A, > A> Athen have t be computed from Eg. 7.4.4 using i, and A, values for the web The lover of the strengths relating to flange lal buckling and web local buckling ‘would be the correct value of M,. Contin the check, M, = 7611.54/1.59) My = 92.5 fehips bull, = (92.5) ~ 0.890(92.5) = 83.3 fekips > M, OK 71.1 chips 65 ks15. LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAVS—ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN 381 7.5 LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS ~ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN In sccordance with the philosophy of Allowable Stress Design described in Sees. 1.8 and 1.9, Eq. 1.8.8 gives the stoetural safety requirement, a8 follows a =Yo (1.88) ‘hich canbe expressed (eo 7 Ge-me™ say where My = nominal moment strength “18 = overload actors divided by reistance factor FS = 1.67 ~ nominal safety factor in beam dein M = service load bending moment “To obtain Eq. 75.1 n stress" format, divide both sides by the section modulus thus, (4-4) «(n= 2s) tesa Compact Sections ‘As discussed in Secs. 73 and 74, the nominal strength of such sections isthe plastic ‘moment strength M,. Equations 73.2 and 7.3.3 show that M, may be expressed in fermis ofthe shape factor &, as follow M, = ZF, = ESF, (753) Tnorderto compute and compare stresses, a value ofthe shape factor Emmast be chosen inen in fact each rolled section has a different value, For strong exis beading of [eshaped sections a value of 1.10 was selected, Substituting Eq. 7.5.3 with € = 1.10 imo F, on the right side of Eq. 75.2 and using FS = 1.67 gives the allowable sess 1. For Fshaped sections bending about the s-x axis = 96. _ 1108.8, TFs ens, Tn onder for sections wo qualify as “compact” the widh/ thickness ratios forthe ange and web must not exceed the “compact” limits of ASD Table BS.1 (the A, values of ‘Table 7.412). 2. For leshaped sections bending about the y~y axis: F,= O15F, ass) KR 06F, 754)962 CHAPTER? SEMIS: LATERALLY SLPFORTED Forbending about he weak axis the shape factor is 15 for rectangular sections as shown in Example 7.31. In order not to have service lad stresses approach t00 cose to the yield ste, the allowable sures F, for sich sections is permited higher than 0.6, but not fully in proportion othe shape facto. Only the flange need satis compact” mis of Table 14.2 ‘Noncompact Sections. ‘When the width thickness ratios exceed the “compat” nits (efered to in LRED as Ay limits) of ASD-Table 85.1 bat do not exceed the “noncompact” limits ofthat {abie, the nominal strength will not reach M,.AS discussed in Sec. 6.16. the “noncompact limits of ASD-Table 5. are intended to assure the section of reaching the yield stress Fat te extreme fiber, Ths, ifthe “noncompact” limits of ASD-Table BS. (referred tin Sec, 7-498 A, limits) ave exactly me, the nominal strength M, is the yield moment M,, The allowable stress F, from Eq, 7.5.2 then becomes = 56 Fe (ss 167 5 60F, (759) Partially Compact Sections |When the width thickness ratios exceed the “compact” limits but are Jess than the “noncompact” limits of ASD-Table BS.t the strength lies between Ml and M,;there= fore, the designer may Tinearly interpolate between those limits. Note that the noncompact” limits of ASD-Table 5.1 (see Table 6.16.1) are somewhat more conser~ vitive (ke, ower) than the A, limits of LRFD-Table BS, though the purpose isthe sae. The allowable stress celationship is shown in Pig. 7.5. 7 ae ig Figure 751. Allowable stess on H- or t-shaped sections qualifying as "compact setions” except foray excessive wideh-to-thcknes aio St the usifned compression ange element78 SEAVIOEASLIVOF BEAMS 983 Slender Sections When the width thickness ratios exceed che “noncompact” limits of ASD Table BS. the sections are referred 10 a5 “slender” and must be teated in accordance with ASD-AppendixB. EXAMPLE 781 Redesign the heam of Example 7.4.1 using Allowable Stress Design with A36 see, Solution (@) A36 steel. Assume sompact section” since nearly al setions satisfy ‘the width thickness Timits A: thus, che allowable stress F, would be F,= 0.668, Note that rounded values (ie, 0.66 times 36 3.8 ksi: use 24 Asi) are ae- cepted values in accordance with ASD."NUMERICAL VALUES” TABLE 1 “The superimposed service load (1 kip/f) bending moment i Mm wL/8 = 1010978 = 50 en rene, = f= SM a5 igs Select from ASD Manual “ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN SELECTION TTNBLE,” the lightest section having atleast S, = 25 in. Ty Winer 5, 25.4 in? ‘Check “compact” limits (A) of ASD-Table BS. 403 . ‘ Eo yaaa 787 < 108 (Table 7.42) OK d_ 131 f= Ban 473. < 107 (table 742) OK ‘Note that ASD uses overall depth d whereas LRED uses the unsupported height ‘of the web sven though the limit i the Same ‘Check the esural stress -M = 1022(20)'/8 = 51.1 fekips (inelading beam weight) M5112 MSI aa.t ksi = EF = 24 ks) Sear I hsi = [F, = 24ks) say OK Use W122, F236 si, wm 7.6 SERVICEABILITY OF BEAMS Serviceabilty, instead of sirength, may and often does conteol the design of beams. Excessive deflection may cause dumnage to supported nonstructural elements such 3s paruiions, may impair the usefulness of the structure by, for instance, distorting door364 CHAPTER 7 BEAMS: LATERALLY SUPPORTED Deflection jambs 50 that doors will not open or close, or may cause “bouney” floors, These are serviceability problems, often unseated 10 the stength of the floor ssstem. An excellent appraisal of serviceability of sructures is provided by an ASCE. [Ad Hoe Cominitiee [7]. Galambos and Elingvood [7-5] have discussed general Serviceabiiy limit states, and Ellingwood (7.6) has provided guidelines for stee! Structures, Excessive deflection is often indicative of excessive vibration and noise transmission, both serviceability problems ‘recent overall treatment of building oor vibrations, including recommended criteria s provided by Murry [7.7]. Wright and Walker (7.8), Murry (7.9 7.10 Ellingwood and Tali [7.11], Tolaymat [7.12], and Allen [7.13] have tested floor vibrations and the celated human response: Hate [7.14] has proxided a design chart for floor visration, Allen and Murcay [74] have given design criteria for vibrations ‘due 19 walking ‘On rocls a major deflection-related concern is ponding of water; this is specifically treated later i this section, Numerous structural analysis methods are avtible for computing deflections on uniform and variable moment of inertia sections. I genera, the maximum detection ina elastic member may’ be expressed 38, we 8 76.1) {otal service Yoad on the span span length ‘iodulbs of elasticity (29,000 ks o 200,000 MPa for steet moment of inertia Coefficient which depends upon the degree of fixity at supports, the Saati ia moment of inertia alorg the span. and the distibation of Toading, (For 2 simply supported team, B, = 5/384; other values ‘are qailable in the LRED or ASD Manual section, “BEAM DIAGRAMS AND FORMULAS.") For continuous beams, the midspan deflection in the common situation of a uniform leading ona prismatic beam with unegual end moments (see Fig 7.6.1) may be expressed? a5, Basoun 1,— 01M, + MQ] 762) Equation 7.6.2 will give satisfactory results when considered to be the maximum ddflcction for nearly all practical Toadings for beams having uniform moment of tia, Equation 7.6.2 may be verified by the use cf a method such 2s conjugate beam. * See Cn Kia Wing and Chas , Sani, Rind Carte Design Shed (HarpexCaline ‘abla, New Yoo 15821 35Te SERVICEABLITY OF BEAME 965 Figure 7.6. Typical bering forimerior span of comiaueus For uniformly losded simply suppocted beams, Eq. 7.6.1 becomes Swit Son = ey 063) Which upon substitution of MI = wi2/8.f/ = Me/f,ande = 4/2 gives oj: ne = (794) [Equation 7.6.4 can be used asa gond approximation for any simply supported beam as long asthe maximum stress occurs neat micspan, Refer to Table 7.6.1 for typical values |ASD-L3.1 states, "Beams and girdess supporting floors and roofs shall be proportioned with due regard to the deflection produced by desi loads." In addition, live load deflection where plastered ceilings are supported is limited to L/ 360. For the £/360 li wes where fis io ks. (On the other hand LRFD-L3 contains the more general_ statement, “Deformations in siructral members and sructura ystems duc to service loads shall not impair the serviceability of the structure.” Further, LRFD-L say limiting values to onsite serviceability “shall be chosen with due regard tothe intended funetion of the stueture.” When considering defections, it should be remembered that the dead load deflections usually can be accounted for during construction by either camiering {negative Bending) oF thickening the slab or for topping. Its ony the deflection tet ‘cus du to loads applied after construction is completed that may crack ceilings, patltions, or walls Discussion of cambering is available from Bethlehem Stee [7.13] land a paper by Ricker [7.16] Specification requirements for limiting defections are meager because there is no single or standard value forthe tolerable deflection. The acseptable amount mist of necessity depend on the type and aerangement of materials being supported. Fors = 2 oc sin es 6sS88 cuore emuovsisomee tae Stor 263 a Aca uo 980-Commty LA as fovea Fi es a ed ee rea ire) Porta a gi sen heck amy a pointe open a a pron oe oa Law en) Ro rin sts xg ee 7.6.8)" Asumig eerie ses fogs he ASD awe 66, sco Be ASD Conta ast emt es coment wlasalsslfnd te fetes Cam ace eet sat wl gue nph stra ey fee Eos 8 acini acne i ae fess a nce, ase tte Rtn Se acon satan oa Tato ha ba Theor abe te a trconso ne eke wea Shalit epg one M, ~ M,~ 0.1(M, + My) (7.6.9) seer ‘Select the lightest W section to carry a uniform dead load of 0.5 kipit and a ive load (of LOkip/fton a simply supported spn of 42. Adequate lateral support is rovided, ‘The live load deflection is limited to 1/360. Use A372 Grado $0 and Lead and Resistance Factor Design, For SL with FP, 69) 6s78 GERVICEABIUTY OF BEAMS 387 Solution (@) Compute the favored moment Mf, Estimating the beam weight a qo tits we = 12g + 16, 1205 + 007 est + 1.6110) n,L1/8 = 2.28(42))/8 = 504 fekips 8 Kips Mw, (b) Compute required plastic modulus Z, co satisly strength equi Assuming compact section, the design strength &M, is Me = OM, = ZF, Required Z, an Select from LRFD Manual table “LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION TABLE” Try W24X35: Z, = 134 int ‘The section i compact for F, = 50 ks (©) Compute required moment of inertia J to satisfy the deflection Tmt. “The service load moment instead ofthe factored moment must be used sinre deflection is of concern when the structure is being used, not when failure is imminent. The service live load moment i M = wL?/8 © 1.0(6.2)/8 = 221 feips SwL* _ SW Select from LRFD Manual table “MOMENT OF INERTIA SELECTION TABLE”: ‘Try W20x68: J, [Note that the soction required wo control deflection is larger than the section required for strength; ie. deflection controls, () Chock the W24X68 section: = 1.2(05 + 0.068) + 1.6(1.0) MM. = 503 fekips M,=M, = ZF, © 177(50)/12 dM, = 44(738) = 0.90(738) = 664 fekips > M, OK ‘As expected, the strength considerably exceeds the required strength. Check deflection: 830 in (service live load) = 221 fe-kips SHE = SARITA a « (L ser ~ as(,c00rt8s0 ~ 19? = (65388 CHAPTER BEAMS LATERALLY SUPPORTED Note that the Ine lead deflection and the limit are quite close (within 6%) but the strength consikrably exceeds the requirement (32% greater): thats. deflection controls Ponding of Water on Flat Roofs When members of a Hat roof system deflect, a bow-shaped volume is created which is capable of retaining water. As water Dep t aecumulate, deflection increases to Provide an inreased volumetric capacity. This eyclcal process continues vi either (CD the succeeding defection increments become smaller and equilibrium is reached fr (2) succeeding defection increments are increasing, the system becomes unstable, and collapse occurs. Ths retention af water which rests slely from the deflection ‘of flat soo framing is what i tefertedw as ponding. From a serviceability standpoint, this ponding of water is major reason for sphitng of roof membranes, resulting in costly replacement of both the membrane and the insulation. ‘To prevent ponding of water accumulated on fet roofs, the 1963 AISC Specification required supporting membecs to satisfy the limitation L_ 40 ie (76.10) where i the computed service load bending sess in ki. Using Eq 7.6.4 this would correspond roughly to a deflection limitation L/240 on a simply supported span, Avoidance of ponding is much more complex than indicated by the above limitation. Marino 7.17] has provided an extensive treatment that forms the basis for "he AISC provisions of LRFD and ASD-K2. The fat roo is treated as a two-way ‘stem of secondary members 6a, pulins) clastcaly supported by primary mrem- bers (sy. girders) which ate rigidly supported by walls or colamns, ax shown in Fig. 762. Figure 7.62. Flat oof arangement for ponding anal. (From Marino (7.17)75 SERVICEABLITY OF BEANS 989 LRFD and ASD-K2 give a simple but conservative criterion +096, s 0.5 sane and = 554109 e129" where, (76.13) 6.14" length of primary member, f length of secondary member, ft spacing of secondary member, ft |, = moment of inertia of primary member in ‘omen of inertia of secondary member, in ‘moment of inertia of stel deck supported on secondary members, in per tt ‘The eiterion C, + 0,9C, = 0.25 assumes the supporting members tobe loaded ‘© full swength before onset of ponding. The terms C, and C. indicate the relative sitTnesses ofthe primary and secondary suppor systems, respectively. The right hand side of Eg 76.1 is aStess Index U (See LRFD-Appendix K2) representing the rato ‘ofthe increase in sre sa result of ponded water othe service load allowable ites For instance, assuming that the service load stress in a member supporting panded ‘wate could be permitted to increase to OF. from 0.6F, o 0.66F, the Stress Indexes U vveuld be A Stress Index U of 0.25 isa reasonable lower limit for that quantity: Design aids appest in LRFD-Appendix K2 a5 Figs. AK2.] and A-K2.2. These diagrams show Eq, 7.6.11 to be conservative, the mote so when stresses a onset of ponding are lov. Burgctt [7.18] has provided graphs fora fst check using Eqs. 7.6.11 and 7.6.12. More ‘recently, Ruddy [7.19] has illustrate the procedure fora concrete floor over metel docking and supported by stee} beams and girders, For SL. wth Lan Sin ees, nn nn 6, +086, £025 os sat 76.13) ca90 CHAPTER 7 BEAMS: LATERALLY SUPPORTED Equation 7.6.12 pertains co root decking that is sopported on secondary mem: ‘bers, Since tis contebute litle to ponding. it may be treated as «one-way sjstem in ‘he manner presented by Chinn [7.20], When roof decking isthe secondary member ‘hen it should be treated according wo Ey. 7.6.11 ‘More elaborate mathematical treatment of ponding has been given by Salama and Moody 17.21), Sawyer (7.22, 7.23], Chinn, Mansouri, and Adams [7.24]. Acent snd Stewart [7-25], and Avent [7.25] 7.7 SHEAR ON ROLLED BEAMS Whereas long beams may'be governed by deflection and medium length beams are usually controlled by feseral strength, shor span beams may be governed by shear. ‘Toreview the development of the shear stress equation for symmetrical sections, ‘consider the slice dzof the beam of Fig. 77.1a, shown as a free body in Fig. 7.71b, eee ee eee c= ras ese fies anu 73) ara) a7s) the familiar equation 026)77 SHEAR ON ROUED BEAMS 391 bee fas Lo ' jac a) Fleur seis iavohe in derivation of shear tos equation, Figure 7 is obtained were Qs the fra mament of area about the sani of the eross-sectional fanea between the extreme fiber a ys (Pig. 7.1) and the particular location at&t Which the shear sires is 10 be determined Under usual procedures of steel design, the shear sees is computed ss the average vale over the gross area ofthe web neglecting the eect of uny fastener holes thas sot ann) [Note that large hols eu in aheam web to permit passage f pipes and ducts eequire special consideration and their effect may not be neglected “The following example lusteates that in an T-shaped beam most af the shear fs carted by the web, EXAMPLE 727.1 Determine the elastic shear stress distribution on & W24%94 eam subjected to ‘service lod shear force of 200 kps. Also compute the portion ofthe shear carried by the lage and tha carried by the web. (See Fig. 7.2) Solution (a) Sires at junction of flange and web, V = 200 kips Q = 9.065(0.875)(12.155 ~ 04375) = 92.9 in? 200(92.9), 270010513), 13.4 ks (WED), = 0.76 ksi (ange)392 Figure 7.72. Example 77. (5) Stress at neutral ans Q = 929 + (12155 ~ 0:875)40.515)(05) = 92.9 + 328 = 125.7 in? (125.7) © = aroaqosisy * 181 (Shear carsied by Manges and web, Using an approximate linear varia- vittanges) = 2(3)(0-76\0.875)19.068) = 6 ips Voweb) = 200 ~ 6 = 198 kips Tn this case, 979 ofthe shear is carted by the web. {d) Avecage shear sires fon Web. v 20 Sa,” Taiosis) ‘OO Which is 11.69% below the maximum value Nominal Shear Strength V, in Rolled Beams [As shown by Example 7.7.1 the web isthe element that pr in Ishaped sections, This is true also forthe web (or webs) of “singly or douk symmetfic beams... and channels subject to shear in the plane of the we! (LRFD-F2.) ‘As long as the web is stable, thats instability resulting from shear stressor a combination of shear and bending sires cannot acct, the shear steagts V, of the Section is based on overall shear yielding of the web. Thus, Yana, 078) where 1 = shear yield stress ofthe web stel A. = area of the web = dr, for rlled beams = overall depth for eoled beams 1, = wie thickness77 SHEAR ON ROLLED BEAMS — 989 According tothe “eneigy of distortion” teary (se Sec. 2.6), the shear yield seoss 7, equals the tension-compression yield sre F, divided by \V3 when shece stress Sos alone, ving from Fa. 265, 1 = O58, 265) Thus, it is logical for LRED-F2.2 10 use =; ~ O.6F.. Equation 7.7.8 then be- ¥, = 068.4 (79) Where F,, = yold stress ofthe web, Equation 7.7.9 implies that, stios do not exceed A a8 a 7.107 OVE, ‘The development of Fg. 7.7.10 appears in Chapter 11 (See. 11.8) on plate ‘ders. However, typical of plates as developed in Chapter 6 the buckling strength ‘depends on 2 slenderness rauo; in this ease Mt, as shown in Fig. 7.7.3. From that ‘gute 77.3. Nominal shar sess V/A, vs web lenders hh, for A36 test eas witht eansvere iene Foe, wth Fi Ms, a 710)904 CHAPTER? BEAMS-cATERALLY SUPPORTED TABLE77.1WAXMUS 11, LIS WHEN STIFFENCRS ARE NOT USED (BASED ON LARD P22 AND ASDF) B = ae (yes) —unroree ASF Be ra oS @ us so o1 - Figure one may’ note that maximum shear strength is available when h/t. does not exceed 69.7 (Cor A36 sel), The hi, limits below which Eq. 77.9 & applicable for rolled beams without stiffeners are given in Table 7.7.1 Load and Resistance Factor Design for Shear in Rolled Beams “The shear strength requirement in load and resistance factor design according t0 LRED-F? may be stated AME ora 0.90, nominal stength in shear G6F,.A, (ie Eq. 77.9) for beans without transverse sifeners and rot exceeding h/t, limits given ip Table 7.7.1 factored service Ioad shear (se See. 1.9) Allowable Stress Design for Shear in Rolled Beams ‘Tho safery requirement for shear in Allowable Stress Design (ASD) according to ASD-Fa may be stated Leh 77.42) A, where f, = serve load average shear stress V = service load shear force A, = area ofthe web = dt, for rolled beams = allowable shear stress at service load = 0.40F, for beams without transverse stifeners and not exceeding hi limits given in Table 7.7)77 sieAnON ROLLED BERN 395 Equation 7.7.12 may be obssned from the stength rationship reformat as Ep LSS. ok, eyo rss} 1 y/6 the nominal total ctr of safety is tsken asthe traditional ASD valve of| 1.67, Ri V, for shear, and the right nd sie s the total service lead shear VY then Eq. 1.88 becomes 73) 16 Dividing hoth sides by the we area A, after noting that the sides ofthe equation gives 0.6F,4,andreversing 0748) ‘Traditional allowable sess design has wsed two-thirds of the yield stress a the allowable valve (2/3 of 0.67): thus, the allowable shear sess Fi taken as OOF, "The reader may note thet the LRED i/, limits for we of maximum shear strength are somewhat higher than the ASD limits for use of maximums allowable “tress, This results fom an approximation in k used for LRED; pisopbically there is no difference, Roliod beams wil generally satisfy the lower limit. EXAMPLE 722 Select the Hpmest W section of 36 ste! w carry ave Joa of 19 kips/t and dead Ioud oft kipt in addon othe weigh of the beam). The simply supported span is 5 fe Lateral bracing is adequate for lateral stability, Use Load and Resistance Factor Desian Seluion. Since te oan is hey and the spans srt, te designer should investigate shear ss well as exe (3) Compute factored fads Bf, and V, Wie 12 + LO, = 1201) + L6t19) = 320K 1/8 = 32.0(5)/8 = 100 fips wh /2 = 32.0(3)/2 = 80 kips ‘With these heavy superimposed fous the beam weight will hive tite effec. {@)Selet a seton for exe. Assume “compact ection thea M, v OM, = OM, = ZF, “The design requirement is that 6M, = M,: thus Required Z, = Me = IOP). 37.9 in GF, 0.90136)396 CHAPTER7 GEAMS-LATERALLY SUPPORTED ‘Try W1226 thom LRFD Monual “LOAD FACTOR DESIGN SELECTION ‘TABLE” asthe lightest beam having Z, = 37.0 in. Allsections include ia that table are compact. {eCheck shea, BN = d106F 4 = 0.90(0.6)(36)(12, 54.6 hips Since V, = 8Okipsexeeeds te shear siength provided by W12%26,the section ‘snot adequate, The required web area, for shear i a HOS) ~ T9028) From the bending moment requirement, the next heavier sections are dee sch as WI of WIG, IF 3 WIG ic celecied. its web thickness required will be 4.12/To = 0.26 in, Try WEBI, Z, = 54.0 jn, For shear, 4, ¥, = 0.90(0.6)36)15.88)(0278) = 84.9 kips Which exceeds the factored shear V, = 80.1 kip (including beam weight) and is aveeptable ‘Note that the fi, ratio cannot exceed the value in Table 7.7. ‘i _ unsupported height. 7 _13. ‘web thickness, 0.275. 0.28) Required A, = 412 qin =495 ‘This es than te limit valve oF 69.7 and confirms the use of Fg. 7.7.9 forthe ‘nominal strength V, in shear, The detailed discussion of the use of intermediate stiffeners when h/t, exceeds the value front Table 77.1 appears in Chapter 17 fon pate girders. Note tht the vale for h/t, tabulated in the LRFD Manual for the WI6%<31 #8 51.6 based on an underestimate of the radius atthe junetion of ange 1 web; when the larger tabulated valve i available it be used pou preferably 7.8 CONCENTRATED LOADS APPLIED TO ROLLED BEAMS ‘When concentrated loads are applied to beams, beam hearing at suppor, and rese~ tions of beam Ranges at connections to columns, a fealized yielding from bigh ‘compressive sizes followed by inelastic buckling inthe web region adjacent othe toe Of a fille oocurs in the viinty of concentrated loads, This entire behavior vas formerly combined under the eategory "web crippling ‘Typical of eompression-related Stuations, there are 1wo possible behavios: ielding and instability. The revent AISC Specifications consider three categories: 2) local web yielding, (b) web crippling, and fe) sidesvay web buckling ‘The tansmision of concentrated foads in bear-to-column connections is treated in Chapter 13 and concentrated lnads on plate girdes and related design of bearing stiffeners is teated in Chapter 178 CONCENTRATED LOADS APPLIED TORCLLED AEAMS 397 Load and Resistance Factor Design ‘The requirement of LRFD-KI.3 may be stated OR, = &, 8) where 6 = resistance (suength veduction) factor nominal reaction strength factored reaction R Load and Resistance Factor Design—Local Web Yielding Referring t Fig. 7.8.1, the concentrated reaction R acting on a beam is assumed critica a te te ofthe fillet (a distance & from the face of the bear). The Toad is assumed to distribute along tbe web at a slope of 2.5 to I, Prior © 1985 LRED Specification, the distribution was conservatively taken as 45°. The 1978 ASD and earlier Specifications were based on the work of Lyse and Godirey [1.271 lavestiga- ‘ors(7.28, 729] have shown the 43° slope a be overly conservative; the load actually spreads over a distance (V+ 5K) co (N ++ 7k) for am interior load rather than the dance (N+ 2k) formerly used. ‘The nominal reaction strength R, based on the yield strength atthe toe of she fife on a rolled shaped section is a follows 1. For interior loads where the concentrated 128 sapped ata distance from the end of the member tha is greater than the depth of the meer (5k + NI 782) 2. For end reactions, B= 25k + NF (783) where k= distance from outer fac of ange 19 web toe of filet 1 = length of bearing = & for end beam reaction FF, = sposified minimum yield stress of the web | oot atm cmc be aie er 41 Loc wo yielding considerations fo establishing bearing length298 CHAPTER T BEANS: LATERALLY SUPPORTED The resistance (strength reduction) factor ¢ for local web yielding is 1.0; this refers the waditional lower woul safety factor used to control cal eb yielding than used for ‘overall strength of & member: Allowable Stress Design—Local Web Yielding ‘Reformulating the strength relationship, Eq. 78.1, as Eg. 18.8, > (Be y aay were = service fads "Y= average overioad factor 2 = total servos fod Leting the combined safety fictor 3/5 = FS and dividing Ea. 78-4 bythe rical wea, gives Bo (8. ,) wale) 085) Substioting (96 + ¥)y, and 25k + Nf for A. for the nteror and end stations, Fespetvey and taking FS = 150 give the ASD-KI. imitations 1. For interior loads, 786) 2. For end reactions, en N+ 2D f = 0665, sn) ‘The length of bearing isnot to be taken less than k for end reactions. The 1989 ASD-KI.3 allowable stress fortis lit state has been reduced t O.66F, from the \waditional value of 0.757; somewhat olleting the increase in bearing kngth from ‘he traditional (N + 24) to (N + 50) for an interior bearing location. Load and Resistance Factor Design—Web Crippling ‘To control the stability ofthe web at concentrated loads, in 1986 a provision was added in LRFD-K1.4 whick is based on the work of Roberts (7.30]. The nominal reaction suength based oo this stability exiterion is: 1, For interior lds... concentrated nd acts at d/2 of more from member “ Ne) WE a= wsseL + 3(4 0.88)74 CONCENTRATED LOADS APPLIED TO ROLLE seas 309 2, For end reaerons (i.e, concentrated lod sets less than 2 from member rem aefi (20) (0.89) for Nfé S02. now 1993 equation for the rare case of long bearing length Won a relatively shallow girder is, oxe{r + (8-022) ]yE ose for Nfl > 02. where {|= Mange thickness trove which the concentrated! lad iy tansmited 4 = overall depth of beam ‘The resistance (strength reduetion) factor ¢ is 0.75. Allowable Stress Design—Web Crippling For allowable stress design, ASD-K1 gives the allowable service load reaction R as 05 of , from Eqs. 78.8 through 7.8.10 Load and Resistance Factor Design—Sidesway Web Buckling ‘The nominal reaction strength R, based on sidesvay web buckling as given by LRED- 1.5 conttols for compressive individual concentrated forces applied to members ‘when relative lateral movement between the loaded compression flange and the teasion flange is possible. This phenomenon has been stated by Roberts [7 30} Eigaaly [7.31], and Roberts and Chong [7.32]. Rarely will sidesmay web buckling control on a rolled I-shaped section; however, it ean influence design ofa plate girder. ‘The nominal reaction strength A, based on sidesvay web buckling in accordance with LRFD-K1.S isa fll: 1, When the compression Flange is strained aginst rotation: for th,)/(ba/b) = 23, nn Siro oa( ey] em for (h/t fbb) > 23, R, t= no imi 2, When the compression Mange (snot restrained against rotation: beaneahy = Boa : st.) ron) afb)400 CHAPTER? EAN: LATERALLY SUPPORTED for tyes yy > 17, R, ‘where Ly = largest laterally unbraced length slong either Dange atthe point of leas b= dange width 1, = web thickness = clear distance between flanges les the fle or comer radius for rlled Shapes: distance between adjacent lines of fasteners oF th clear distince betwoen fanges when walds are used for built-up shapes. ‘960,000 when Af, 26: [Nid = 4/10.33 > 0.2; Bq, 7.8.10 applies aa) 0.260)'*) (3610440) i502) 86) [Vaz = 79 4/0.60 oss) Required A, = = 288 sq in. a= an200y| + ( “Thon the design siength dR, © 0.75(S7.9) = 43.4 ips, Since this is less than the factred oad R, = 44 kips, the Bearing length N must be increased. A Sin bearing length N gives bR, = 64.2 kips which exceeds R, and is acceptable (oe tearing pate, N= Sin. x B = Gin (Ge) Determine the bearing ple thickness. The uniform (assumed) be pressure under factored load is LAT ksi ‘Uniform bearing pressure p 56) “The ertcal section for bending is taken atthe toe ofthe flange-to-ed filet, a divance & from the mid-thickness of the web, and the beam flange is —— oer Lae Figure 782 Example 781402 ‘assumed aot to participate. The bending moment is treated as that acting on a cantilever beam, The factored moment M.'s p(B/2 = HN _ 1473 - 0.875) M, 20 cc) Fora rectangular section. the bending strength requirement is © where & = 0.0 and M, = M, = ZF, Fora rectangular section of width Nand thoknes se Example 73. zene ® To satny E(B) sve, 6 = 33206 ts O90N7F. ayy O90NFF = s32y sd for F, = 36 ithe regia thickness besomes faa Required = 2888 atin. tier Use bearing plate. S06", mm ‘Solving for the bearing plate thickness in general, equating 6M, to M, pia/2 — 4 Required r = 7813) 7.9 HOLES IN BEAMS Flange Holes For tension members the effect of fastener oles has been discussed in Chapter 3, where holes are deducted and net section is used. For compression members, since the fasteners occupy’ most ofthe space in the hoe, the fasteners age assumed in design 29 comple fil the holes and a deduction for holes is not made ‘When the nominal strength M, reaches the plastic moment M, certainly tension flange holes reduce that strength; however, there wil be a shift in neutral axis ssoci- ated with a Joss of strength at one flange, an effect that somewhat counteracts the fect of holes. Traditional design has neglected the elect of holes when holes donot Fepresent a significant proportion of the flange area, When the nominal moment strength M, is limited to less than M, by some type of instability the effect of holes is reduced79 HOLES INBEAMS 409 Traditionally, AISC Speciiations have required deduction for ange holes only ‘when the area of holes exceeds 15% ofthe gross Mange, and then only the area in excess of 185 is deducted ‘New in 1993 1989 for ASD). LRED-B10 requires use of gross section provided that O75 Fydu 2 O9F A, on) et lange area gross flange area where As Be Equation 2.9.1 means thatthe net ange area must exceed 0.74 und 0.92 of the gross flange area for A36 and AST2 Grade 50, respectively. in order to use gross area. That isallowing holes upto 25.56 instead of 15% wo be ignored for A36; however. itallows ‘only 8% hoes to be ignored in AS72 Grade 50. When Eq. 7.9.1 i nor satisfied, the fracture limit state overs: in Such a case some deduction for holes seems appropti= fate, When the fracture limit sate governs, ASD-BIO states “flexural properties shall be based on an effective tension lange area Ay a follows” 79.2) For A36 steel, Eq. 79.2 allows use of an effective fange area 34% higher than the ‘computed net aea; however, for A372 Grade 50 the effective Mange area can be taken bnly 8% higher than the computed net area, Logically tbe elfect of holes should fepend on the likelihood of the tensile fracture through such holes being the con- trolling limit state Examples of procedure for considering fastener holes appear in the Chapter 13, section on bean and girder splices. Web Holes The AISC Specifications [1.5, 1.16] permit neglect of fastener holes located in the web largely forthe same reasons fastener holes i the lange may be neglected. Large hos cut into beam webs are entirely another mater. These holes require special ‘alysis and usually wil have wo be reinforced by attaching extra plate materia, often inching sifeners, around the sides of the hole. Design of large web holes in beams is outside the scope of this text. The recent work of the ASCE. Task Committee (733, 734] should serve asa base guide for desiga of beams with web openings. The dliniive work related specifically © the AISC LRFD approach is that of Darwin [7.55] The reader may aso refer tothe work of Bower [7-88-7.38], Frost and Leffer [7.39}, Mande, Brennan, Wasil, and Antoni [7-40], Cooper and Snell (7.41), Chan tnd Redwood (7.42, 743}, Wang, Spell and Cooper [744], Larson and Shah (7-48), Cooper. Snell and Knostman [7-46], Redwood, Barande, and Daly [747], Redwood sand enoya (7-48. Daugherty [7.49]. and Narayanan and Der-Avanessian [7-50] Design tables for rectangslar holes have been given by Redwood [7.1 and a design ‘example is presented by Kussman and Cooper [7.52],404 CHAPTER 7 BEANS: LATERALLY SUPFO 7.40 GENERAL FLEXURAL THEORY igure 7.104 “Ths far, consideration has been given only to symmettial shapes loaded symimet cally for which 7 = Me/l's correct for computing elastic fexual stress. The folos- ‘evelopment treats te general bending of arbitrary prismatic beams Le. beams 3 ial shape with no variation along the length. They are also assumed 1 be fice from twisting ‘Consider the stuight uniforms cross-section beam of Fig. 7.101 seted upon by ‘moment applied inthe plane ABCD which makes the angle withthe x: plane. The moments are represented by vectors normal to the plane of ation (postive moment oe 2 oe Fry » S72 Grade 5 & be i ° ne " se a Py AST2 Grade 30 is os 1a o [AST Grae 6 72. A Simply supported welded I-section beam cattis a concentrated load W at midspan es accompanying figure). The load is 20% dead load and 80% live Toad. For the ase (or cass) asigzned by the istrctor. determine the max= ‘mum service load W that ean be permitted to be carrie. Problem 7.2. Cit or ose cases se table)420 ‘CHAPTER 7 BEAMS: LATERALLY SUPPORTED a 74, 18. 16. 7. veo soa pa re Ste! cose ‘ab ti o0e v vax eS reg 2 aye 30 » As orate so 4 Moris 1a. EI S72 Grade Repeat Prob. 7.1 (cases | 104 as asigned) additionally assuming the lve load deflection may’ not exceed 1/360 Gtos an AISC Speciation requirement). Repeat Prob, 7: (eases $ 0 8 a8 assigned) additionally assuming the live lad eflection may not exceed 1/300 (not ar AISC Specification requirement For the case (or eases) asigned by the instructor select the lightest W section te carry & uniformly distributed dead toad win addition t the beam weight, and a uniformly distributed live load w, as indicated. The member is simpy Supported and deleeton is or of concern, ves the Span exe toed eng ist (i 5 ta ro 5 Aso ‘ to in 3 52 Grae 30 5 te ro 5 ASD Gade 6s A W24X94 beam on a 6 span (Gee accompanying figure) underpins a ‘column that brings 80 kips dead load and 200 kps live load tits top flange ‘at location 25 f from the left support. The cdumn bearing plate is 12 in, measured along the beam, and the bearing platesat the end supports are each Bin, Investigate this heam of A36 stel for (a) flexure, (0) shea, and (6) satisfactory transmission of the ceactions and concentrated Toad (ie, eal web yielding and web crippling. Specify changes (if any) required 10 saisty the AISC Speciation, A WI6X77 section of 36 sce is to serve on a 10 simply supported span ‘The wall hearing length i 10 in. What maximum slowly moving concentrated service load (25% dead load: 75% live load) may be enried?Proaiens 421 ‘78. Determine the size bearing pate required for an end yesction of 11 ks dead load ans 44 kip lise oad op a WI4353 beam of AS72 Grade 60 stl, The beam rests on a4-n.-thick conereie wall (f° = 3500 pi). Specify thickness in muluples of $n, and the length and wid t0 whole inches, 79. (RFD unly) For 8 W12%87 of A36 steel calculate the design shear strength ‘Vand the bearing length N required When the design end resstion &R, ‘equals the design shear srength ‘through 7.13. For the section shown ithe accompanying figure, assume uniform loading in the plane of the web (plane) fora simply supported spam of 12 Mand newiect any torsional effets, Assume the service load acting 8 20% dead fal and '0¢ lve load, and thatthe Tmt state for LRFD occurs when the maienumn sirese reaches the yield sfess Fat one point, Por ASD this means the allow able stress is 0.60 F 1 Determine the maximum uniform service load assuming bending occurs in the plane of leading (2 plane. ', Use te loading determines in a} to cornpute the Heaural sires at points designated by leer, assuming the beam is Fee to bend and not restrained to bend in the yz plane. Use the flexure formula, Eq. 7.10.18 ‘e. Repeat (b) bur use method desribed in Example 7-10.2(b). 4d. IF your instructor specifically assigns and discusses this part locate prin ‘yal anes, transform the moment into components M and M/! abou the Principal axes, compute momen of inertia fan With aspect to these sees and use f= M/S! + MS) fe. State conclsions. 74, The given 8%6%¢angle is positioned with its long leg pointing downward and used as a simply supported beam of 12-1 span, The wrifoem dead laed 0.1 kip/t Gneluding angle weight) and gravity live load is 0.5 kipt, The hori2antal legis tobe restrained by attachments w make the angle ben422 ‘CHAPTER 7 BEAMS: LATERALLY SUPPORTED Be. jeer oblem TAL Problem 7.12 Problem 7.13, vertically. Assuming the attachment tothe horizontal eps simply supported, for what ‘Service load lateral bending moment must the connection be designed? Consider only the unsymmetrical section effec and neglect any torsion. Assume the controlling Yimit state isthe achievement of yield tess F, atthe extreme fiber, i pating He EE Problems 744 TAS, Seloct the lightest WS Section of A36 stec 1 us as a putin ona rf sloped “Ur tn the horizontal The span fe 21 fl che lad is uniform 0.13 kip/ft dead load plus the purin weight and 0.24 kip/f saw load, Lateral stability IsPropieus 428 assured by attachment of the roofing to the compression lage. Assume the load ats shroush th bean cenit. there are no say rods, and biavial bending must be assumed, Any torsional effet can be resisted by the roofing and therefore it ean be neglected. Ab. Sclea she liest W section to carry moments, M, = 145 Chips (15% dead load and 85% lise lod) and the lateral montent M, resisted by one Hane is 30 fekips (205¢ dead Inad and $0& live load), Ta select the eam assume Mf, = 2.M, and that torsion is neplected. Use A572 Grade 50 steel and assume lateral stalilny Goes Bok govees. TAT. Select the lightest W section to cary M, = 275 fekips (30% dead load and 70% live loud) and lateral moment M,resised by one flange is 100 f-kips (20% dead toad and 80% live load, Toselect the beam assume M, = 2M, Use ASTD Grade $0 stel and assume lateral Sibi does not conih 78. Repeat Prob 7.17 but select combination wide Range section and chanel as found in the LRED Manual [1.18] under “COMBINATION SECTIONS,” pp. 106 o 1-107Chapter 8 Torsion 8.1 INTRODUCTION Jn structural design, torsional moment may, ca occasion, be a significant force for \hich provision must be made. The most efficient shape for carrying a torque is 2 hollow circular shaft extensive treatment of towsion and torsion combined with bend- ing and axial Tore is to be found in mast texts on mechanics of materials [8.1) Frequently torsion i a secondary, though not necessarily a minor eifet that rust be considered in combination withthe astion of ater forces. The shapes that make good columns and beams, i. those tha have theie material distributed as far from their centroids as practicable, are not squally efficient in resisting torsion, ‘Thin-wall circular and box sections are stronger torsionally than sections with the same area arranged as channel, I, te, angle, or zee shapes ‘When a simple circular slid shat is wisted, the sheating stress at any point on transverse cross-section varies directly asthe distance from the center ofthe shaft. ‘Thos, daring twisting the cross-section which initially planar remains a plane and rotates only about the axis ofthe shaft In 1853 the French engineer Adhémar Jean Bareé de Saine-Venaat presented to the French Academy of Seiences the classical wsion theory that forms the basis for pretentday analysis * SaintVenant showed that when @noncircular bar is isted, a transverse section that was planar prior to twisting doesnot remain plane after tis ing. The orginal cross-section plane surface becomes a warped surface. In torsion Siwatons the out-of-plane, or warping effect, must be considered in addition t the rotation, or pore twisting, effect.” "Fora summary of Same Nena wk ela Tour and Kat Peron A Ms of sh Rea hi reg of aera, NH 3p Der abs Nes York at “pot Chae an he nm i ef hag of ed tnd note ‘eofued wiht restaoe ft eed ov Lod aed estan Fas Desig The reange or ‘Bintbese chptes sed suscep: to date Desig82 PURE TORSION OF HOVOGENEOUS SECTIONS 425 Inthisebapter primary emphasis is piven tthe recogition of torsion on te usual stcucural members, such as shaped, channel, angle, and ze sections: how the tor sional stresses may be spproximted and how such members may be selected W rest torsional fet, ‘Alo included isa brief treatment of torsional siTaess andthe computation of| torsional steswes on closed thin-wal setions as Well as torsional bucking 8.2 PURE TORSION OF HOMOGENEOUS SECTIONS ‘A review of shear stress under torsion alone and of torsional stiffness scems a desirable ‘beginning prio to considering stuctural shapes in locations where the warping ofthe exossseotion is restrained, ‘Conser a torsional moment 7 acting ona sold shaft of hommogencous material ‘and uniform cross-section, as shown in Fig. 8.2.1. Assume no out-of-plane warping ‘or atleast that out-of-plane warping has neeligibe effect on the angle of twist This assumption willbe nearly correct so longa the erss-section is small compared the length of the shafe and also that no significant reenteant corners exist es further assured that no distortion of the eross-seetion occurs daring twisting. The rate of twist Cowist per uit length) may thezefore be expressed as rate of ist = 2 2) o hick canbe thought of as torsional curvature (rate of change of angle). Since isthe felatve rotation ofthe eros-sections at sand = ds that cases strain, the magnitude & Figure 82.1. Torsion ofa osm shat426° cHAPTER€ ‘TORSION of displacement ata given point i proportional tothe distance rom the center o wis, “The srain angle 7. or unt shar sai, at any element Tron the center is yd = rd Nees) =r (822) Using the shear modulus C. Hook's law gives the unit shear stress ¢ as rae 23) ‘Thus as shown in Fig, 82.15, AT = re dA = ryG dA = abide dA 624) elemental torqueis ‘The total resisting moment for equilibrium is and since dds and G are constants 3t any section, ~% To Wwhete J = fr'dA. Equation 82:5 may be thought of a5 analogous 1 flexure, ie bending moment Mf equals ngiity El times curate dy/d Here torsional moment T equals torsional rgiity Gd times torsional curvabre (fate of change of angle) ‘Shear stess may’ then be computed using Bys. 6.2.2 and 8.2.3, ao fran 2s 26) and sshich gives (823) "Thos as long as the assumptions ofthis development reasonably apply, torsional shear stress is proportional to the radial distance from the center of twist. Circular Sections For te specific case of the circular section of dianeter#, no warping ofthe sections ‘eccurs (1, no assumption is required) and J = polar moment of inertia = a1"/32 ‘Thus, for maximum shear stress at r= 1/2, Rectangular Sections ‘The analysis as applied wo rectangles becomes complex since the shear stress is affected by warping, though essentially the angle of twist is unaffectedshaped, Chann 82 PURETORSION OF HOMOGENEOUS SECTIONS 427 Figure 82.2 Turion of «rectangular section AS an approximation, consider the element of Fig. $2.2 subjected t shar, in ‘which oe (8.2.5) y Fora thin rectangle, neglecting end effects, the shear stress may be expresied as oye = ntl e210 org £9825, ent aan) From the theory of elasticity [8.18.3], the maximum shear stress tau, occurs the midpoint ofthe long side ofa rectangle and aes parallel to it. The magnitude ‘is a funtion ofthe ratio bt (length/wvidth} and may be expressed as A aay snd ea canta mate teed pare 219 riteass vavescra rane eiekoeess _ kasi as) ash 40738 375s sad Ola 0166 0196 022902690268 o281 02010383 |, and Tee Sections As will be observed from a study of Table 8.2.1 the values off, and k; Become nearly ‘constant for large ratios bt. Thus the torsionah constants for sections composed of thin rectangles may be computed as the sum ofthe valus forthe individual compo:428 ‘ents, Such am approach wil give an approximation which neglects the contribution nthe fillet region whece the components aze joined. For most common structural shapes this approximation cases lite eror. thus y= Doe (204) whore is the long dimension aed sth thin dimension of the rectangular slements “More aecurate expressions fer various strctural shapes have been developed by Lyse und Johnston (84, Chang and Johnston [8.5], Kubo, lohnston, and Ene [8.6 and El Darwish and Johnston [8.7] ‘addition tothe torsional properties inthe AISC Manuals torsional design aid Doblications are available by AISC [$8.8], Hotchkiss [8.0], and Heins and Kuo [8.10], 8.3 SHEAR STRESSES DUE TO BENDING OF THIN-WALL OPEN CROSS-SECTIONS: Before treating the computation of stresses due to torsion of thin-wall open sections restrainod from warping, «review of shear sess resulting from general flocute will be developed, Recognition of a torsion situation precedes concern about calculation of resulting stresses. Extensive treatment of thia-wall membots of open cross-secton is given by Timoshenko [8,11] Refeering to the general thin-vall section of Fig. B.3.1, where x and y are fast ine wal Thaitisshowpary, sz Te sare lb td aon Fconp yi ereahacetoatam ee Bai er es tt cerccntencn are cn ee areca vce ee ao repeat Fonte ions arbethersrariion ators reas, Meme: nett ce har feel BS = asin 8.5 TORSIONAL STRESSES IN ‘SHAPED STEEL SECTIONS “The structural engineer must recognize a torsion sitwation and be able 10 apply approximate design methods and perform a siess analysis when necessary, even Thowsh only cecssionally wil torsion be severe enough to control the design of section, Rolled steel sections under uiform and nonuniform wrsion have been studied analytically and experimentally by many investigators The development inthis section is similar © tha of Timoshenko [8.11]. Lyse and Johnston [84]. Kubo, Johnston, and Eney [8.6], Goer (8.12). and Chi and Jolin85 TORSIONAL STRESSES IV LSHAPED STEEL SECTIONS 498 Son [8.13]. Discussions of somie of the practical aspects. along with solutions for Sarious loading and support cases, are given by Hotchkis (8 9] and Tobnsion [8 (4) chars for design are aaa in the handbook from ATSC (8.8] and in the paper ty Johnston [8.14]: and desigo tables using the modified flexure analosy’ nethog developed by the authors are presented in Sec. 8.6, Lin (8.15, 8.16] has sven ade tional and expanded value tables, Application of load ina plane other than the one through the shear center (sce Fig. 8.5.1) will cause the member to ewist unless external restraints prevent sash ‘ising. The torsional stress due to twisting consists of both shear and Resural stress, These tresses must be superimposed on the shear and flexaral stress that lexis inthe absence of torsion Torsion may be categorized into so types: pure torsion, oF as its ofien eae ‘Saint-Venant's torsion, and warping torsion. Pore torsion assumes that crave sectional plane prior to application of torsion remains @ plane ‘ind only element fotation occurs during torsion. A cigcular shaft subjected fo torsion js situation here pure torsion exists a the only type. Warping torsion nthe out of plane effect that arises when the flanges are laterally displaced during twisting, analogous to bending from laterally applied loads. 1, Pure torsion (Soint-Venat's Torsion). Just as lexural curvature (change in slope per unit length) can be expressed as M/E ~ dylde’ ie, moment eivided by Sexural rigidity equals fexural curvature, in pure torsion the torsional moment AF livided by the orsional rigidity GY equals te torsional curvature (change in angle of twist @ per unit fength) Recalling previously derived Eq, 8.25 for T- which now becomes the component Mf, due to pure tersion = Git = Gs 6s.) here AM, = Pure torsional moment (SaintVenant torsion) G = shear modulus of elasticity = £/[2U + 42] in terms of the tension-compression modulus of elasticity E and Poisson's ratio 4. J = torsional constant (see See, 8.2} 4 accordance with Eq. 82.7, stress due to, s proportional othe distance from the center of twist, Figure 85.1 Common tsa loadings44 CHAPTER @ TORSION Figure 882. Tonion ofa Leshuped ston 2, Warping torsion. A beam subjected to torsion Mf. in Fig. 8.5.2. wil have its compression ange hent in one direction laterally while is tension Range is bene in the other. Whenever the cross-section is such that i¢ would warp (Become ‘nonplanar section) if not restrained, the restrained stem bas sreses induced. The forsiona situation of Fig. 8.5.2 illustrates a beam tha is prevented from visting at tach end but the op Mange deflects laterally by an amount «. Ths lateral ange bending causes fleaaral norma streses (tension and compression) as well as shese stresses acrons the Mange with "Thus, torsion may be thought of as being composed of two parts: (1) rotation of elements, the pure torsion pt, and (2) sranvation producing lateral bending, che warping pt "S Diffeenval equation for torsion on t- and chanel. shaped sections. Consider the deflected postion of a lange centerine, as in Fig. 8.5.2, where «i the lateral tlefcction of one of the flanges aa section a distance from the end of the member ibisthetistansle athe same section, and V; (Fig. 8.5.3) ste horizontal shear force ‘developed in the flange atthe section doe to lateral bending. An important assumption Js thatthe web remains plane dring rotation, so that the Ranges deflect laterally an ‘equal amount, Thus the web is assumed thick enough compared w the anges so that isdoes not bend during twisting as a result of high torsional resistance of the flanges Except for thin-veb pate girder, i has been shown [8.6, 8.17] that assuming no lateral bending inthe wed, sno effect on the warping torsion component, is sft ciently correct for practical purposes. Since rarely are thin-veb plate gitders used ‘without stiffeners, and certainly not when torsional sees exit, such eases are not of practical importance ne shear force on ished section85 TORSIONAL STRESSES IN ISHAPED STEEL SECTIONS 495 From geometry, woot (652) for smal! values of . For understanding of torsion on I- and channel-shaped sections Eg. 8.5.2 the single most importanccelatioship. Thetis angle i ivetly pooper. sional © the lateral detection, Torsion boundary conditions are analogous t lateral bending boundsey conkitions, Differentiating three times with respect wo in Eg. 8.5.2 gives fu (Kee ss oat For one flange the cursature relationship is A asa) Where Mis the lateral bending moment oa one flanges the moment of inertia for fone flange about the y-axis ofthe beam, and the minus sign aries from postive bending as shown in Fig. 8.3.2. Alo, since V = di Pay et (856) Using Eqs. 85.3 and 8.5.6 gives (85.2) Referring to Fig, 85.3. the torsional moment component Mf, causing lateral bending of the flanges, equals the ge shear force times the motnent arti This assumes no shear eesstce to Warping is contributed by the web, (ass) 859) where C., = 11/2, often sofered to asthe warping torsional constant ‘Tis toal torsional mementis composed of the sum ofthe rotational par M, and the lateral bending part Mf, which from Eqs. 85.1 and 8.5.9 give a8 pp 28 Ma M+ my = O18 ~ £0.08 (8.5.10) the differential equation for torsion. The torsional moment, depends on the loading {and in usual situations wil be a polynomial in z. Expressions forthe torsion constat J and warping constant C, for various shapes are tobe found intext, Appendix Table 02,428 owerens ronson Revie £9, 85.0, diving by 8 a8 6) db -m @ Fea Fe 1g A? = GIIEC, (A = La of Torsion Analysis of Stel Members (8.8). and for the homogeneous solution of Eq, 85.11 It dh, = A est) vee 85.12) which upon substation ofthe homogeneous solution ses Aen? — Am) = 0 5.13) which eauires iin? ~A3)= 0; m= Om = =A Thus Bre + Ae + A, (514) Which upon using ee Ay perbotc Function identities and regrouping the constants may be expressed = Asin Az + Beosh A + € 5.19) 1_ fen rere a> VEC For the particular solution, since M. i in general some function of m= $0) and substitute into Eq. 85.11, giving e dil) gy « x BIO 65.16) swhece corms on the lft hand side must be paired with terms on the right side. Rarely will fc) be required 10 contain higher than second-degzee terms, EXAMPLE SS Develop, using the ferential equation, the expressions forthe ywist angle gas well, as the frst, second, and third derivatives, Toe the case of concentrated Torsional ‘moment applied at midspan when the ends are torsionally simply supported, Solution. Referring (0 Fig, 8.5.4, its apparent that M. is constant and equal 1 7/2. Thus let {any polynomial) @ Using Eq. 8.5.11 gives85 TORSION STRESSES WiSHAPED STEEL SECTIONS 437 (alent ee GU m1" Figure 854 Case of Bxample 8.5.1. Concerted tonal momen st nidspan: torsional simply supported Adapted eam Hohe (89), ig. 3) ‘The other constant C, may be combined with C of Eq, 8.5.15. The complete selution for tis loading i therefore 5 2+ Boosh as +4 hy O= Asnh Az + Boosh As + C4 soe Consider the boundary conditions for torsional snple support. Thinking ‘ofthe fateral bending of the Mange (since dis proportional to) simple support ccondtions mean zero moment and defection at each end, of for torsion, ono ates O and = een 7 and 23 Gsee-0 © and 23 L ‘mn this case the differential equation 8 discontinuous at L/2; thus, using zero Slope of the flange at L/2, ie." = 0, along with @ = O and fs” = Oat ‘ill pezmut solution forthe tee constants of Eq. (b). From 6 = Oatz = 0, Bee @ Using 6” = 0 sinh As + BAS cosh As @‘CHAPTER 8 TORSION ‘Thus from Ea. © Using a = oat = = L/2. + <2 ) O= AdcoahAL/2 + 355 » ently aaa 36H leon AEA Finally, Ea, (8) becomes sinh Ac Ako pp. eys 8) yp TAY msn ae o- Blom] wi 2a ems © Gosh aL 73 1 equation is ilusrated. The st developed inthe next section, ‘Thus the solution of the diferent ‘equations making use of the derivatives ‘4 Torsional stresses, The shear stress, resulting from the Saint Vena orsion -M& is computed in accordance with the form of Eq, 8.2.11, “ 21) and using Eg. 85.1 gives @s.7) siose distribution is shown in Fig 8.5.58 Thoth shown siform uly sass he ange the stress drops sharply 0 zero atthe Mange ps. “The shear sexe that els Tom Warpig Vries paraboialy acres the wich ofthe receanguse age a stn fr Fig. 8530 a ay’ be competed as ee He (8.5.18) i ‘where Q, = steal moment of area abou the 3-i “The negligible shar cared by the we nol considered, For maximum sbear stress, which actully at at the face of weh But may be approximated as ating at5 TORSIONAL STRESSES WHSHAPED STEEL SECTIONS 499 Figure 83S Direction and disribotion of sae stress shaped ston, ‘he midwidth of the ange, take Q, (ce Fig, 8.5.6) 36 en Bf on ar~3(%) Substiating nd i Ee, $5.7 ino Ha. 85.18 gives 65.19) taking the absolute value. The direction of the shear fow has no effect on the Combing oF shear stresses ‘The tension or eampresion stress dye to lateral bending of Ranges (i, warping ofthe eos-section as shown in Fig, 85.7) may be expressed as (#520) ‘which varies Hineaely across the Mange width as shown in Fig. 8.5.7. The bending ‘moment, the lateral moment acting en one Hange, may’be obtained by substituting Bq 85.2 in Eq. 8.5.4 and nating tht 2/2 is warping torsional constant C, (8521) Figure 85.6. Dintcrsions for computation cof atl momen of ate, Op440 EXAMPLE 85.2 CHAPTER TORSION Foe ST State Figure 85.7 Warping of cross-section ‘Tho minus sign is dropped since tension accurs on one side while compression cceurs fn the other “The maximum stress occurs atx = b/2, which when used with Eq. 8.5.21 gives ren Sh 2) Boh PS a ae Ina summary thre kinds of sresses arise in any T-shaped or channel section ‘due to tofsional lading: (a) shear stress vin web and anges due to rotation of the ‘lements ofthe ceoss-section (Saint Venanl torsional momen, M1); (b) shear stresses ©. im the flanges due «0 lateral bending (warping torsional moment, M,y. and (©) formal stress (tension and compression), dve 1 lateral bending ofthe Manges (lateral bending moment on lange, Mf) (e523) So ‘A. W18X71 beam on 224i simply supported span is loaded with a concentrated load ‘of 20 ips at midspan. The ends ofthe member ate simply supported with respect torsional restrain (i.e, = 0) and the concentrated load acts with a 2-ia, evcentric= ity from the plane of the web (see Fig. 55.8). Compote combined bending and torsiogal stresses epee =F ve av— Figure 858 Daa or Example $5285 TORSIONAL STRESSES WiSHAPED STEEL SecTIONS 444 Solution. ‘The differential equation solution for this type of loading and end restraint was obianed in Example 8.5.1. The solution a9 obtained is Jn accordance with the derivation (see Fig. €5.4), Tis the appli torsional T= 202) = 40 in-kips Recalling from Eg. 8.5.11, ae [= FP cores BC, ~ Via) ~ 395 * 2a _ vee EoD 36 try oe yay Eq. 8.2.14 = #127.635)(0810) + 4847 ~ 1620/0485) = 339 ms 6, < WE. 288970810) W847 ~ 0810" ae 2 12 ‘The above values of J and C.. compare with J = 3.48 and C. = 4700 sven in the AISC Manvals (1.7. 118) computed for rectangular Ranges using mere exact expression for J including the efec of the files atthe junction of fangs to web, Though diferent sources give sghtly diferent values for these forsiomal constants, any of the values are satisfactory for design purposes, ‘The function values required are AL = 24(12}/59.9 = 4.80 Ou 040 oa L118 oz 90 Tie nt tm 3 Sake Ost 282 3m saer (a) Pure tors (SaintVenan torsion). Using Ea. 8.5.17 «= Cidade eof sams ae” weil! ~ asa) 1, coves) 40, eB) Sea) - a(ta2 ToRSICN “The shear stress ¢, is maximum at: = O-and 2e at 9(0810)( Lp 1 (Bange at = = 0} = 3.92 ksi (eb at: = 0) (by Lateral bending offanges (warping trsion). Use Eg. 85.19 for shear stress in anges, Ta ( =n) 260 cash ALTE Tbh ~oosk xe Sars “This shear ress ats at mid. width of he Range 0d the maximum vale ocurs t= L/2 while the minanor vale is 0 (qassrinio) ye Mange at = 122) = 5e¢r9)( Te 0.05 ks 2a [ea aL MO.6)AbKT sinh Az” 8 Which is a masimom at 2 ~ L/2 and zero at: = 0, Thus 40(2.6)7.635) 17.660) 7) B339)098) [5507 (6) Ordinary flexure. Maximum normal stes is pL _ 20(24)(12) flat: = £2) = = Soon B49 ksi fou (Banges at = = 1/2} 1134 bs vo L/2 and are “The shear stresses due to flesre are constant from computed by vo _ 10 1100Be ANK.OGY BETWEEN TORSION AND PLANE BENOING 443, For maximum fange shear-stress. taking the more correct vale atthe face of is ‘web rather than the valoe at mid-idth ofthe ane, (2255289) asno(2252) = 2550 Z 2553 HOT) = 0.27 ks we (lange at: = 0) For maximum web shear tess, 2 = rexssio 282) « 1982 mas iTH0.495), A summary of stresses showring combinations is given Table 85.1. m1 eb ate = 0) = 125 si TABLE 641 SUMMARY OF STRESSES FOR EXAMPLE 65.2 Suppor ‘aapan Type Sross eo eau eri! bende. o has Torso Beng, 5 3 TR as ‘Shur ween ooh erica bending, «| 328 125, ‘Sintboant oso, as o ‘pie tren os ba ‘Newel bed, 8.6 ANALOGY BETWEEN TORSION AND PLANE BENDING 'Becatse the eiferential equation solution time consuming, ané really suited only for analysis, desig of beam include torsion is most conveniently done by making the analogy between torsion and ordinary bending, Consider thatthe applied torsional moment T of Fig. 841 can be converted imo ‘a couple Py times, The force P, can then be treated 48 lateral load acting. the flange ofa beam, ‘The subsituce system will have constant shear over one-half the span, a diag as given in Fig. 85.40. The true distribution of lateral shear which contibutes to4é4 CHAPTER ® TORSION Figure 8.4 Analogy between exure and onion, lateral defection is only that part due t waeping as shown in Fi. 8.54. Thus the substitute system overestimates the lateral shear force and consequently overestimates the lateral bendy moment M, which causes tension and compression siceses Tn most practical design Sitations when i is sirable to include the effect of torsion. the vonipressive stres due o the warping component isthe quanlity of most importance. The shear stess contibutions are noroally not of sigifieance EXAMPLE S61 Compute the siesseson the W18%71 beam of Example 8.5.2 andl Fig. 8.5.8 using the fleur analogy rather than the ferential equation solution. Solution, The substitute system i as town in Fig. 8.6.28, The lateral bending ‘moment i shea My 113(12) = 13.6 fekips acting on one ange, Twice the mament ating on the entire section gives 2M, _ 2(13.6)(12) mes) 158 vaei2) = 206 ks For torsional shear sires, since M, = 7/2 = 20 in-kips, Ma _ 200810) J 339 « 4.78 ksi Mange) For lateral bending lange shear Mess, = VQ, _ 1136590) i, GOOWRIO where @, = (7.639/2)(0.810)7.635/4) = 599 in. c 27 ksi185 ANALOGY BETWEEN TORSION AND PLANE BENDING 445 ee Figure 86.2. Conparson of atal stear on ange due 1 warp wth at foo Sle er exaresnalgy “The resus of the two methods are compared as follows FiexuralDierervah Type ot srass snaogy _equton Conpesion/ension drow = fot fn = U3 +308- 819 kw I9ATLG ‘Wehiteorsiey ae r= Ease s98 = 47k 348 hr Flagentearsroa et ru 02 Same saa SM eM ke ‘The feaure analogy without modification is obviously a very conservative approach, In some situations its yo excessively Conservative sto be practically Useless. Furthermore, che most mmportant design item, the laeral bending ses {19 overestimated by the greatest amount ‘The relation between the flexural snalogy and the tre torsion problere {is bos illustrated by referting to Fig.'8.S.40. Note that the fll torsional shea? Fesilling rom M, and Mis analogous tothe lateral flexure probes. Figure 8.5.4 shows the portion ofthe shear that goes nto rotation of elements, while Fig. §3-4e shouts the portion contabuting 0 ateral flange bending, Irone could correctly assess how the shest de to wagpine torsion compates with te lateral Aowure situation, design for torsion could be greatly simplified without beite rossly conservative Figure 8 6.2b shows the accurate vatlation of V forte peoblem of Exam ple 8.6.1, computed aecording to Eq. 8.5.7, whereupon wo) in which 7/4 ean be thought of a the tera load, which means the shea fom the lateral bending analogy is 7/2h, which is then modified ty she lygerboic function445° CHAPTER ® TORSION ‘The lateral bending moment can thus be expressed for this problem as = 62 (2) (362) or in general. the change in lateral moment between the support and location fof 240 shea i AM, = BX (stea under flexure analogy shear diagram) (8.6.3) where tis a reduction fctor that depends on AL. Tis to be noted that if Eq. 8.6.2 is multiplied by h, and the concentrated moment 7 is thought of as a concentrated load, the analogous moment Mt ‘Gometimes referred 0 a8 bimomen? equals times the simple beam moment. ‘Thus the modified flexure analogy gives wn 0%) ase for the cave of Fig, 8.6.1. 88 ‘Tables 86.1 through 8.6.5 give “exact values for for several common feaing and restraint conditions, For other cases Table {of Ref. 89 (where Mf, equals M, above) orth curves af Torsion Analys of Steet Mensbers [8,8] may be used. In Tables 8.63 and 864, mis the appli torsional Joading pet uit length (say, in-kips M0) “EXAMPLE 862 Recompute the stresses dve to torsion on the beam of Example 86.1, using the modified Rexural analogy method utilizing the 8 values from Table 8.6.1, Solution. The flexure analogy gives My = 136 fekips as previously computed, AL rom Table 86.1 at « = 05, B = O.4, ic, use about 41 percent of the Aexure analogy value. Thus the modified Dexure analogy gives 58 hips 80 (as computed in Example 8.5.2) M,= 1361041) fu a8 ksi which compares favorably with f,. = 8-49 ksi as computed by the differential ‘equation solution using AL = 4.80. For this case that exactly fits a table case, the fi modified flexure analy the “exact” value obtained from he differential ‘equation slution valve.67 PRACTICAL SITUATIONS OF TORSIONAL LOADING 447 8.7 PRACTICAL SITUATIONS OF TORSIONAL LOADING. There are relatively few occasions in actual practice bere the torsional load ean ‘use Significant wisting. and frequently these situation arse during construction. fn sos building construction the members are laterally testrined by aiachments along the length of the member and therefore they are not free to twist Even thot torsional loading exists. it may be self-limiting because ie rotation cannot exceed the end slope ofthe transcerse attached members ‘Torsion exiss on spandrel Beams. wheee seh lading may be uniformly dis ‘sibured: torsion also exits where a heam frames into» giner-on one side aly, where unequal reactions come to apposite sides of a pier. The design of crane Tunway girders insolves che combination of biaxial bending and torsion, and isla trated in Sec. 88 for Iaerally stable beams, Any situation where the loading or easton acts eccentrically (0 the shear center gives rset torsion ‘Analysis for Torsional Moment ‘The determination of the torsional moment in a framirg system involves an elastic analysis where the joints may be rigid or semi-rigid, While the details of such an 'nalyss are ouside the scope of thistext, some discussion is necessary so that at east, the problem is undersood, Goldberg [8.12] has discussed ths subject and presented Aan approximate method suitable for design, Spandrelgiders have been treated by LLothers (8.18). Chen and Jolissaiat [8.19] have provides a simple analysis tehnigue for igi frames Consider an example ofa for framing system (sinilarto Goldbers’ 8.12) as shown in Fig. 87.1. Spandrel beam AB is subjected to torsion because of the Noor ‘beams framing on only one side. Contrary to some ecmmon belief. however, the ‘orsional momeat is nor equ tothe beam reaction dies its eeeentriiy Irom the ‘centerline of the gider web. Moment is tnsmitted across the joins nd the end moment on the beam musi equal the torsional moment en the girder. To atack such ‘8 problem one must frst determine the relationship between the angle of twist and the applied torsional moment 7, For example, in Fig. 8.7.1 the loading system causes equal torsional moments the {points on member AR. Assuming th girder torsonaly simply supported at ends A and B, using cither the dillerential eqution solution formulas oF the curves of Torsion Analysis of Steel Members [8:8] (Case 3, p. 32) for AL ~ 15(12)/31.3 = 3.51, ome finds the angle of twist at point, Gs 0G = 009 1, or by = 62 for Tapplied ata. sion the value of & at point a for T appl 126, 1. 4, = won30) 25448 cuaeTERE TORSION TABLE861 AYALUES, CONCENTRATED LOAD, TOASWAL SIWELE SUPPORT a azoa ar0z | a=03 to bas oo | aay 2a or as | ost 3a bes | bas { ar | ons sa nat | nas | ost | an Pr ou | oa | oer | pas 80 03 | ms | osr | oss 180 oor | nay | os | nae TABLESS2 VALUES, CONCENTRATED LOAD. TORSIONAL FIXED SUPPORTS ulecelateletale | aw os | om | 100 | 09 | 100 | 099 | 100 | ams ne | ane | aos} ase | doe | ase | 099 | O96 20] aor | ao [uss | aos | ose | 098 | axe 30 | ass | ose | cas | nas | oa | oot | oas 40] a3 | am | o7s | oat | o7s | ase | a7 so | gat | a0 | 47 | a7 | oar | aso | ao 60} deo | 863 | 039 | oar | oso | ans | os bo | bas | os: | oar | ase | os | nos | ose mo | 09 | 042 | 0% | oar | ost | ose | oss7 PRACTICAL STUATIONS OF TORSIONAL LOAEING 449 TABLES 6 VALUES UNIFORM LOAD, TORSIONAL SIMPLE SUPPORT a et Gee) io] as | oa | tae | eat fae Bla) oe | ae | ae | ae so} te [te jam fos | tk ao] oh j te |e [ox | ols TABLE S64. VALUES, UNIFORM LORD. TTORSONALLY FRED SUPPORTS SCO ana a( Bee) Ll szcomeret M iw Tao [ao [so [eo [on 3 Losi [ose | om [ows | nar [ore | ast | ose TABLE S65. p VALUES, CONCENTRATED LOAD, ORSIONALLY FIXED SUPPORTS EE t= pipcrive moment by tonre neo be au] dead mT a-0s [enon os 98 a0 ta | bo 099 zn | oo 9s So] tas ast se] oat bis eo) 3s on450 (CMMETER ® TORSION aol, / Figure 87.1 Plan view of for framing Pinally, for Z, = 1, = 7. 262 = wat $= 062+ 20 = w9Z ‘The twist angle 6, must be compatible withthe end slope of the beam: using slope defiction, 7 rm 2a] Moo = My Where Myo © the fxed-end moment for beam ab sta 44, = beam slope at ‘4, = beam slope at 'S = relative defection be«ween a and b “After having established the necessary slope deflection equations for moments, {joint equilibrium and shear conditions ate necessary, after which simultaneous ex tions must be soled. One such joint equation is tha at joint «, T+ My =0 After solving forthe slopes, then the torsional moments canbe found: for the torsional moment sta, T= 4,G3/288 In the Goldberg [8.12] example wing members having properties similar to those of Fig. 8.7.1, the value of T obtained was 1.55 in-kps using an approximate method of satisfying deformation compatiil ‘Suppose one had taken the simple beam reaction for member ab, 0.5(7) 3.5 kips, and assume use of LRFD Manuat Table 92, All-Bolied Double-Angle187 PRACTICAL SITUATIONS OF TORSIONAL LOADING 451 Connections (see Fig. 13.21). Ifthe eccerirciny had been taken 0 the bol line on the ‘ourstanirg kg (24in) the sional moment would have been far too great. hile if the fceentrciy had been taken as one-half the W1O%4S (Fig. 87.1) web thickness (0,350/2),the torsional moment would have been far t00 smal. ‘The proper torsional moment can only be obtained (even spproximatels) by considering éelarmation compatibility. Torsional End Restraint If a torsional situation fs deemed to require analysis the torsional end restraint must be evaluated. Under LRED-A2-2 to basic types oFconsuction ae permitted: Type R (fully restrained) which is the (raitonal “rigid frame” construction; and Type PR (pactiatly -estrained) which includes “simple” or “conventional” framing where there is assumed to be nepligible flexural restraint at the joint, a8 well as “semi-rigid framing where a defined flexaral restraint exists that is lst than Type FR. In ASD- ‘A22 there are three types of construction permitted: Type 1 which i the same is Type FR in LRFD; Type 2 which is “simple” of “conventional” fsmiing and Type 3 whichis “semi-rigia” framing. ASD Types 2 and 3 are included in LRED Type PR. ‘Thecortelation of “simple” and “rigid framing with torsional restraint ie shown in Fig. 8.72, Again, the lateral bending analogy wil help in visualizing the torsional Mowe ane i L ‘ial ing ps Figure 87.2. Tonionleesintconitons. (Adaped from Hotckis [89] Fig. 8)482° chaptEA® TORSION restraint conditions, Figure 8.7.2a shons the analogy situation of zero deflection and moment which correspond tersorally 19 = 0 and déd:* = 0. Hts noted that = O only ifthe simple conecton extends over a siniieant portion ofthe beam depth Figure 8.7.2b shows the analogy situation of zero defection and 2ero slope which corresponds torsionally © & =) and défds = O. Hotchkis (8.9) states the tends ofthe beam must be boxed in (plats A. Fig. 8.7.2) sos ro assure did- = 0. DOjalvo [820, 8.227 has discussed torsional restraint and indicates that “boxing” not sufficient o obtain dds = 0. When “boxing”, that i, welding sffener plates be- teen the toes of anges and extending “hem along the beam fr a length equal othe beam depth is used and the beam isthe welded toa thick column flange the authors believe vei essentially “torsional fked™. Furtheemore, if the column has exible anges column stiffeners (plates B, Fig. 8.7.26) should be provided ‘The Ojalo [6.20] suggestion of welding a length of channel, angle. or bent plate ‘berween the Manges on one side of the web seems tobe a more efficient and econo ‘eal solution, The ends of the member must be welded against the insides of the fanges, and there must be weld vertically along the edges that bear against the web. “Tests of several torsional restraints, including that proposed by Ojal [8.20], have been reported by Heins and Powocko [8,21]. Vacharajitiphan and Trahair [8.23] also 159. ‘Using torsional properties in the AISC Mangels (1.7. 1.18) for the w14%159, VGU/EC, = 1/68.3. Ths, AL = 28(12)/68.3 = 49 (3) = 266 in? Using Fig, 8.63, Bis reduced 1 about 0.3, which further reduces requitedS, 10 about 190 in. Try W14132, AL = 28(12)/732 = 459 B= 031 (Tabe 86.3) 20208)" Wik6s = 1.030) (Check design strength criterion under LRFD-H2. Compute the factored bending P08 Fs = 45. fekips 298it2) , 45.1012) 9745/2 171 +145 = 316 bs < GF, Use Wiax132. ‘Where high torsional strength is roquited, the wide W14 sections are most suitable. For the same weit per foot, deeper sections give a reduced stress from in-plane (of web) flexsre but an increased stress from restraint of torsional warping, The WI2%132 f., = 29-4 ksi) and the W24X131 (f,, = 30.7 ksi) ive about the same maximum total exural sess a the above selected beam, ‘The diferenial eyuation solution gives for the factored lateral bending stress fu du 10 warping torsion 14.3 ksi as compared with [4.5 ksi computed above, The maxim factoréd flange shear sees, is 16.6 si, while that nthe ‘web is 13.5 ksi, bach computed from the differential equation solution. These fare acceptable undet LRED-H2, foc = 166 ksi < [y7, = HOOF, 224 ks) OK Wasi) OK26 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN FOR TOASION-LATERALLY STABLE SEAMS 455 EXAMPLE Sa. Design a beam having trsionally sed ends to carry two concentrated loads of 20 kip «Skips dead oad nd! 1S hips live lo) acting eccentric wo the plane ofthe web by 6 in. 5 shown in Fig. 88.2. Assure for conservativm thal for in-plane (of web) exe beam is simply supported. Use A36 steel. Use Load and Resistance Factor Design Ld AN 7 Figure 88.2 Loading and Sacoret momen for Example B82. Solution (a) Compute factored loads excentricaly applied W, = 1.215) + 1.6415) = 30 kips (©) Compute factored moment Mf,. Bsirmating the beam weight 8.15 Kips the moment M,, Ma, = WAI2) + dwt? = 30(12) + §[1.210.15)]06)? = 389 fekips (©) Consider the torsion effect. The factored concentrated torsional mo- T. = 3016/12) ‘Considering. Th us the analogous lateral concentrated Was ating at cme Mange, the tited-end moments are computa: thes = hab? Ahir a ends) = Bh = 80.0 + 40.0 = 120 4°-kips and in the positive moment zone (nidspan region), agaferconcenerte) TL 299 5 fekips » (24 +12) 7 5(12) ~ 120.0 = 60 F8-ips ‘The above moments are computed without regard forthe redaction facto: the flexure analogy gives Mf values as shown in Fig. 88.25. These values are mote appropriate than using the expression in Table 8.6.5 becanse that expression is for one concentrated lod, The B values from Table 86.5 are reasonable how lever sine the efect of one load on the torsional tessa the other loads sal