LOW-SPEED AERODYNAMICS From Wing Theory to Panel MethodsMcGraw-Hill Series in Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineering, aan D- Rede, 3 Universi of Maryland Ania Fmt of reba ate eh Tego Gx mais ee fren Ft a ee Hoe Wh ra Pepe Seite fing te coma ar Sansome: scar Dans - eran: Prom Wg They Pane etd sea soy ad hws Con! sera Aen ene spin ond cof Pg Sr Siu ooloy Er eon Se Ye nd ow vs ph Dror LOW-SPEED AERODYNAMICS From Wing Theory to Panel Methods Joseph Katz Allen Plotkin Prfesars of Acrospace Engineering nd Engineering Mechanics ‘Son Diego Sie Universi ‘McGraw-Hill, Inc. eeu ade uaF Aucin Caen New Dah re san foe So Paae Sagat Say Tayo TowEye ce ime ed sy ve his congo by MC prea tierra rth et era ei em rien prion oe Pa ‘Tee Shen ee Jot Coan a ohn Mort Se ey ane Henan ibe of Congres Cagle eh (at a ‘Teper ai rom wing ear Josh fran Ale Ps ABOUT THE AUTHORS Joseph Kats is Professor of Aerospace Enginering and Engincering Mechan- ier at San Diego State University where he has been a faclty member since 1986, He received the degrees of BSe, MSe and DSc, the latter in 1977, in ‘Aeronautical Engineering from the Technion rae Istitte of Technology He was a faculty member in the Mechaical Engineering Department of the ‘Technion frou 1980-1984 and headed the Avtomotive Program fom 1982 1084. He spent 1978-1980 and 1984-1986 at the Large Seale Aerodynamics Branch of NASA-Ames Research Center asa Rescarch Associate and Senior Research Associate, respectively, and has maintained his tis 10 NASA, through grant suppor. He has worked inthe 40” by A full sale wind tonne fand bas developed panel method capable of calculating three-dimensional Unsteady fowfeds and applied i to complete aircraft and rae car conigurs ‘ont. He i he author of more ‘ces in computational and Allen Plotkin s Professor of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechan- ics at San Diego Stte University where he has been faculty member ‘nee 85, He graduated from the Bronx High Scho of Science, recived BS land. MS degrees from Columbia University and a PhD from Stanford University in 968. He was a faculty member in the Department of Aerospace Engineering of the Universty of Maryland from 1948-188. In 1976 he received the Young Engineer Scientist Award ffom the National Capital Section of the AIAA and in 1981 received the Eagincering Sciences Award from the Washington Academy of Sciences. He isan Associate Fellow of the [AIAA and served two terms aS a associate ctor ofthe ALAA Jourmal from 1986-1991, He ie the current contributor to the World Book Encyclopedia articles on Aerodynamics, Propeller, Streamining, and Wind Tunnel. He is the author of approximately 40 journal aftiles in aerodynamics and fd mechanics,CONTENTS Preface 1. Introduction and Background LE Deseo of Fd Motion 12 Chose of Coordinate Sy 13 Patios, Steakines, an Steamnes 14 Fores in Fd 13 Integral Fem of the Fis Dynami Egations 116 Diereatl Form of he Fad Dynami Equations 1.7 Dimensional Azali ofthe Fit Dynamic Equations 18 Flow wah High Reyoods Numer 19 Simiariy of Hows 2. Fundamentals of Inviscid, Incompressible Flow 21° Angular Velocy, Vority and Grelation 22 Rat of Change of Vor, 23. Rteof Change of Chalton—Kebin' Theorem 24 Inotatona Flow and the Velocity Potential 25 Boundary and Iniy Conditions 26 Beroul’s Euan forthe Presare 27 Simply and Maliply Connected Rens 28 Uniqueness ofthe Saation 29 Vortex Quantities 2.10 Two-Dimerslonal Vortex 2A TheBlor Sevan aw 2212 The Velocity Induced ty 2 Saab Vortex Segment 213 TheSeam Fancon 3. General Solution of the Incompressible, Potential Flow Equations 5.1 Sttemest fhe Potential Flow Problem BBRSaneuee battexoeeneunR a8 &a 3 uM a5 a6 an a Mo aia nas sue 3 as te ae 5 2 3 Sa ss “ 62 rt oe ‘s ‘ec i re ewuese ties rete oo Ske Se rams Seo aan Serna ten tri Sera gpa eee eros diane sbrmer terri ‘Sie Remmi du the Flow oer th inde an the Sphere ‘Smal Disturbance Flow over Three-Dimensional Wings: Formulation ofthe Problem Defniton fe Problem ‘he Bounry Conon onthe Wing Sarna nc she iting alee ‘Sete wing wih Noro The Zero Ange of At routes Wing st Arle of Ata —Lifing Stas Te Arora Lads Tisai Theor of Seal: Ditubance Comptes Pow Small Disturbance Flow over Two-Dimensional fu in Nn hi Zr Age Atak Feet clit tng rein pl aces nd Menon Tn A Moanin Cohan ov Thin Ao Theory Exact Solutions with Complex Variables Summary of Compe. Vale Tory econ Poem Sime Be SC Cat sem a Sings Slions 632. Powsnacorme ‘nis For Rt Jokowat Tere eicoeal Mapping sede akon Tanorason chi matte Ao $32. Lact ede ttn $53 Flow Soma toa erie 634 Grose Ata 655. Siomaneontom Asta eeu yeseszeeae gessee 100 3 110 10 2 us a 141 16 6 155 15 66 re a uA a ta a a z H i 2 0 coma te Aci with Fie eating Edge Ange 159 ‘Summary of Presare Dsrbtons for Exact Ai Solutions ist ‘Method 0 tnages 1 Perturbation Methods 13 "Thin Arfl Problem me ‘Sexond Order Slaon m Leading age Soution 1 Matted Asymptotic Expansions te ‘Tin Aira In Ground et 1 ‘Three-Dimensional Small-Disturbance Solutions. 193 Fite Wing’ The LiliagLine Model LL Defnton ofthe Problem B12. The Lifting Line Mode! ‘The Aerodynamic Loads ‘The Elin Lift Dsibation Genel Spunvise Cxeulaion Distribution 8.6 Twited Elipse Wing 17 Concasons rom Lifting Line Theory Slender Wing Theory ‘S21 Detntion ofthe Problem 4822 Solution af the Fw over Slender Pointed Wings £25 TheMethodof RT Jones 82.4 Conlon rm Slender Wing Theory Slender Boy THeory 1431. Axsymmettc Longitudinal Row Pa Slender Body ot Revelation 432 Tranterse Flow Past Slender Body of Revolution 433. Preme and Fore Inormation 1534 Conclusions fom Slender Body Theory Farid Clelatio of laduced Drag Numerical (Panel) Methods ‘The Boundary Conditions Redon of the Problem ta Set of Linear Algerle Equations ‘Acrodyami Leaie Fretminary Conieratons, rior oExtalishing Numerical Soltions ‘Steps toward Constrcting « Numeral Slaton Enample Sot of Ta Af wih be Lampe Vortex Element ‘Acouting for Ete of Compresiliy abd Viscosity Singularity Elements and Influence Coefficients “Two-Dimensional Peat Sing Elements IDI "Two Dimensional Point Source 104.2 Two-Dimensional Pi Doablet102 u 4 na 3 na us ne 10.13 Two Dimension! Pot Vortex "Rab Dimension! Constant Sire angulanty Elements 1021 Constant Seng Source Disb 10.2, Constant Seng DoubetDisbton 1025 ConfaneStength Vortex Distribution ‘Ro Dimersonal Linea Stengh Singliy Elements TOL Linea Sorc Distrbton [032 tiner Dost Distbation 1033 Linear Vertex Dstibton 03.4. Ouadebe Double Dstbvion ice Dinensoal Cotat Stent Singlity Element foi Queda Sure 1042 Qundrserl Doablet 10.43. Constane Double Pane Egialnce o Vortex Ring 10.44 Comparison of Near Far ield Formos 1045 Contant Seng Vortex Lie Seancot 046 Vortex Ring 1047 Homesioe Vores "Tice Dimenonal Higher-Order Blea ‘Two-Dimensional Numerical Solutions ‘ott Sigua Sltions TnL DacreteVorex Method hid Dherte Source Method ‘Contant Suengh Singularity Solution (Neumann B.C.) IUD Contant Serene Source Met 32. Constant Srength Dovblet Method 23. Contant Stregth Vortex Method Constant Peat (Drschlet) Boundary Condon Methods ToS Combined Source and Doubt Method. 1132. ComfancStenth Doble Method Lary Varying Stgaiy Stengts Methods (Using the Neuman Be) TAL. Linen Source Mead 1142. Liar Stengh Vortex Methods {tary Varying Sigal Stents Methods (Using the Diet BC) TSS Linea Soure/Double Method 1152 Linear Dublet Nests Based on Qvdratc Doble Dastibuton (Using the Drclet Bc) 61 Linea Soure/Quadeatie Double Method 11.62 _Guadre Double Method ‘Some Consions About Piel Methods “Three-Dimensional Numerical Solutions Lifting Lie Solution by Honesoe Element Modeling of Redetom fom Sold Boundaries iting Saface Slaton by Vortex Ring Elements ne 2? at BS Bs Be Bs Bo ii BR 4 12 conmomah Inroaton to Panel Coes A Brie story Fine Order Potent Based Panel Methods Higher Over Panel Methods She Slaton nt Panel Codes Unsteady Incompressible Potential Flow Forman ofthe Prot ad Chace of Coeinatn Netto of sltion ‘tical Pal Considerations Computation of Preses Examples the Utesty Boundary Condon Sima of Slaton Methodsiony Srdden Aeration ofa Fat Pte Unntendy Motion of cr Dimensonl Ti Ail ‘sendy Mtn of Sender Wing ‘Alon for UrsteayAiUsg the Lamged Vortex Element Serco ah nce Ra Cnn steady Lifting Sure Stony Vortet Rig Elements Uy Fetes” : Enhancement ofthe Potential Flow Model ‘wate Rap ‘Conny Between Poti Fw ané Hoda Layer Sober Inhont of Vosos Fr Efe on Al Deng Pow oe Wage High Ange tact Fone Astnal Pest Fae Ces Appendix A: Airfoil Integrals Appendix B: Singularity Distribution Integrals Appendix C: Principal Value of the Lifting Surface Integral J, Appendix D: Sample Computer Programs Index “1 m2 421 2 a & 6 S12 313 en 573 379PREFACE ‘Our goa in writing this book i 19 presenta comprehensive and uptodate treatment of the subject of inviscid, incompressible, and iotaionl aerodyna Imic, Over the ast teveral years there has been a widespread use of Computational (surface singularity) methods forthe solution of problems of foncer to the lowspeed aerodynamics. A need has developed fora tex, fo provide the theoretial bass for these methods as well ab 10 provide a Snooth transition fom the asia small-dsturbance methods ofthe past 10 the computational methods ofthe presen. Thi book was writen in response to this need A unique featore ofthis book is that the computational approach (from a single vortex elemento a three dimensional panel formulation) is Interwoven throughout so that I Serves asa teaching tool inthe understanding ‘ofthe asical methods swell aa vehicle for the reader to obtain solutions to complex problems tha previously could not be dealt with i the context ofa textbook. The reader wil be introduced to diferent levels of complexity in the ‘numerical modeling of an aerodynamic problem and willbe able to assemble ‘odes to implement solution. "We have purposely limited our scope to inviscid, incompressible, and inrotational aerodynamics so that we can present a truly comprehensive ‘coverage of the material. The book brings together topics curently scattered ‘throughout the Hteatue, It provides a detailed presentation of computational techniques for three-dimensional and unsteady lows. It includes a ssematic tnd detailed treatment (including computer programs) of two-dimensional panel methods with variations in singulanty type, order of singular, Reumann or Dirhlet boundary conditions, and velocty- or potential based spproache, "This book is divided into three main parts. Inthe st, Chapter 1-3, he base theory i developed. In the second part, Chapters 4-8, an analytical ‘pproach 1 the soltion ofthe problem is taken. Chapters 4, 5, and 8 deal tit the smallsturbance version ofthe problem and the clascal methods ofiy nonce thins theory, litingtine theory, sender wing theory, and slender body nai eon ro sons vi ome val theory apertura. Leo penning igerordersma-Ssurbance approximations are ae rd art Chopes 9-14 presen asatemate Keatment ae net seu stbuion echage for obaning numeral OF a premble potential flows A general mothoslogy fot sas CO, meta soluton developed and apped to « srs of azemblng © rams Scotyoum clemens (iwoimenonal, ee ‘Sten, nd steady podem re ested). a Jeuged tobe sed textbook fru course in ow speed 110 Se Sie the ached enor or the sear graduate els sma be covered in 2 oneycar couse and n one-quaiet Toe com ee can be consncted by hig the Op that the orem fe to empbosoe. For example, a senor elective couse that irri on to-dimenonal ad eroyoamie ght include CRAs Haan ee aital Ia A hone! adie course that emphasized 12s Aarau ofthe subject might ile Chapters 13,4 5-7, 8, 9 arnt ours at enphassed mmeil approach (pel methods) am Chater 123 and 9-1 wih a tenment of fe and pot ih i ean assumed thatthe reader atk Bs couse in aan ana mahematilDockground tat ides a exposure Ini eh pata erential cqunon, and ome aries sor cael fen topics covered by ti text a ned y the Aid dynannin bec of the omer nature ofthe Bid dynamic equation, Sema IS" maniycaprientl approach fc ding with mest ch a chad development programs. 1h wider seme, sch an a auch a win tunnels large computer codes where the pron wes cmening an tesing eas ith sone ink aor incr cre rena te cs of apercomputer and sophscated Uo i thee famed for spied models tht low or a 38y Seer man pyc fet (ee having simple Ming vortex in ee oe mmediely tel ta he Ast wing ina tandem formation has the age i) re acca aerodynamic and hydrodynamic problems, the casi cal med ncn bourdry layer long body’ sce surrounded nae ot an Bowel, has produced important enpnecring ls, This ae eee the son ofthe ini Nw ooh the presse pron Seacquenty the foes wach a hit and induced drag. Then, 8 setts the wea ow inthe thin boundary ayer allows for the eae daa as non eee Tis methodslony hasbeen wed sucesflly too heat nary fo tot alan ahd mare esl dss eae o developments computer capacity and sped, the inv eee ee Soap and dealed geometses (uch as aplanes, cae) so rately ths apponch (Panel method), Tes, for (he eat sae era! cond arte min ols of fowseedaroyaamiests all ver the word, eee for a lea and sstematc explanation of how and 207 (or thease) hse meds werk Ts tok lone tong o Tespond to thr ned "We would keto thank graduate todents Lindsey Browne and especially Steven Yon who developed the two-dimensional patel coda Chptr 11 and {hecked the integrals in Chapter 1, We woul ket acknowedge the helt omments tom te following collagues who read all ot part of the ‘runs Hol Ashe, Richard Magan, Tua Sarpy nd Mion Van Dates Alen Phtkin would tke to thank he teachers Richard Stalk, Ktshaamurhy Karmel, Mit Van Dyke, and Trmgard Flgge-Lou, his parents Clare and Oscar Pltkin for tir ove and support, snd his Siren Jeanie Anne and Seman Roe, and expel his wife Scena for thet Inve, suport and paicnce. Joseph Kate woul ie othr sparen Janka {nd Jeo Katehi chien Sey, Ronny, and Danny ard hs wife Hida or {hic ne, support and patente suppor of he Low- Speed Actoynamic Branch 3 NASA Ames acknowledged hy Jonph Kat fo tt apration that inated this project and for thei elpdrng pst years the Yara Sager f developing the metho presented in this Book McGraw sa the authors msl Hk o thank the folowing reviewers for eht manybepl comment ad suggestions: Leland A. Carbon, Teas AEM Unversiyt Chien-Yen Chow, Unverty of Colorado; Fred R. De Sarnetie, North Carolin State Univerty, Bares W. MeCormick, Penn syria Sine Unvery;and Maurice Rasmussen, Uaiversty of Onahoma Joseph Kate Alten loinLOW-SPEED AERODYNAMICS From Wing Theory to Panel MethodsCHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ‘The diferent equations that ae generally used inthe solution of problems relevant to low-speed aerodynamics are a simpli version of the governing ‘equations of fid dynamics. Also, mos engineers when faced with finding 8 Solution toa practical aerodynamic problem, find themselves operating large ‘computer codes rather than developing simple analytic models to guide them in thei analysis. For this reason, it is important to star with a bret {evelopment of the principles upoa which the general fd dynamic equations fate based. Then we willbe in a positon to consider the physical reasoning tehind the assumptions that are introduced to generate simplified versions of ‘the equations that sil correctly model the aerodynamic phenomena being studied. IC hoped that this approach wil give the engineer the ability t0 pprecate both the power and the limitations of the techniques that will be presented in this text. In this chapter we will devive the conservation of matt and momentum balance equation and show how they are reduced to obtain ‘the equations that wll be used in the est ofthe text to model Hows of interest to the low-speed aerodynamics. 1.1 DESCRIPTION OF FLUID MOTION “The Aid beng studied here is modeled as 8 continuum and infinitesimally all regions ofthe ful (with «fixed mass) are elle lid element or fluidTICLE 1 ac 3 east fom oer a il ewe fm» Sy fed cone ae nnn toe a gg ert te a Stn ing sutpen sa ie ree saci verte pare pant of ew, wich aes the approach of sic rt aot srgee ame terete Fae ornd The potion of any fd parle P (Se Fg 11) 8 £9 Epler Yo Zor) 29) the position of P at some iil time £= 0. (Note thatthe wee tg at he re (3 epee the vet with component Jo aaa fe velo of ths price ae then gen by = 0 and the accleration by co a3) Fe the evauaton ofthe motion of “te Lagangianformlation requis th 7 x ai, Fx no a aetone oon ta ew eal te Enerian method, proves the pa swmonsenon as aacnonono 3 istration offlw variables at each instant during the motion. For example, if ‘cartesian coordinate system is used, the components ofthe uid velocity re ‘Bren by wm ute,y.2.0) veeley.2.0) i) wm we, ¥, 58) ‘The Eulerian approach provides information about the Mud variables that is consistent with the information supplied by most experimental techniques and iia oem that 6 appropriate for most practic! applications. For these reasons the Eulerian description of fd motion isthe mast widely wed 1.2 CHOICE OF COORDINATE SYSTEM For the following chapters, when posuble, primarily a cartesian coordinate system wl be used, Other coordinate systems such 35 curvilinear, etindrcal Spherical et, will be intwoduced and used i necessary, mainly to simplify the Treatment of certain problems, Also, ftom the Kinematic point of view, 3 ‘aeful choice ofa coordinate system can considerably simply the soto of ‘problem. As an example, consider the forward motion ofan airfoil, with constant speed U, ina flid that i otherwise at eest—as shown in Fig. 11 Here, the origin of the coordinate system is attached to the moving airfoil and the trajectory of afd particle mserted at point Py at =O is shown in the figure. By following the rajecoros of Several parties, a more complete escripion of the Howeld is obtained in the figure. Itt important to ob- serve that fora constantwelocty forward motion ofthe ail, im this frame of reference, these tuajecory lines become independent of time. That ix i ‘various particles are introduced atthe same point in space, then they wil follow the same trajectory. Now let's cramine the same flow, but from a coordinate systom that i fixed relative to the undisturbed id. At = 0, the airfoil wae a the ight side of Fig. 12 and asa ceult oft constan-velociy forward motion (with a speed ‘UW. towards the et sie ofthe page), later at =r i has moved to the new Postion indicated in the figure. A typical patce's trajectory line between a noume 124 osm arose 10 and ty for this cae, i shown in Fig, 12. The part's motion sow ‘pends on time and ne trajectory ha be established fr each partie norte crample depict the importance of good” coordinate sytem elec Far mnny problems where a constant velocity and a fied geometry ey ate present the seo ody fed frame of reference wil esata Steady of time independent flow. 1.3. PATHLINES, STREAK LINES, AND ‘STREAMLINES ‘Thvee sels of curves ate normally associated with providing a pictorial ‘Bacon ofa fuid motion pathlins, streak ines, and streamlines, Pathines. A curve desebing the trjgctory of a fd clement is called « rung ox parle path. Pahines are obtained inthe Lagrangian approuch aan togrtion of the equation of dynamics foreach fd parte, If the a fchd of + Suid maton given i the Eulerian framework by Ea. (1-4) weed tsed frame, the patline for particle at in Fig, 1.1 can be anes yan iatcgrtion of the velocity. For steady flows the pthlines in the eeitcd fame become independent of ine and canbe drawn a the cse (row over the rol shown in Fig. 11 Seay ies, In many cases of experimental flow visualization, partis fret jena smoke) are introduced imo the Bow a fixed point a space The (ee cseeeSing al ot these particles is called a streak ine. To construct teak ao oar tn Lagrangian approsch, draw a series of pathlines for paris eShag through a given point in space and at particular instant f time Bonnet the ends of these pales, Sowaines, Anothct set of curves can Be obtained (ata given time) by Hines sear racalll to the local velocity vector, To express analytically the tea don da steaming at certain instant of time, at any pint Pi the Aid, Seen’ must be parallel to the streamline element dl (Fig 13) “Therefore, on 2 steamline: axaieo a9 aston a eae Spa ie bak ET smootenot wo sxeonnan § 1 te velo vector is @=(u 1: ), the the vesor equation tec oh owing i an seaon Ea: (9) way vas =0 dew de=0 «6 de —udy=0 on itera equation form ae dy de rarer (1.6 Jn Eg (1.6), the voy (mt function ofthe coordinates ot xine. Hever or ent fos he eteaines ee Indepndet of ine tnd Steam, pains a steak ines Boome Het shown 14 FORCES IN A FLUID Prior to dicusing the dynamics of fd mation, the types of th ype of fore ha act 09 4 fi element should be dented. Here orcs sch shady forces pr nit Imus f, and surface forces that aa rst of the sre vector tll be Gime Tey nes einen of oy snc wi he fn'the ease of gravitational or magncic forces, and thet magn Propetonal el ma ™ 2 > defi the Suess ver € aL point cones the force Facing on pana ares S (shown in Fg 14) with wing am outward normal to SThen 1m order to obtain the components of th mens of the stress vector, consider the forse oie on oii aa acceso nF ing to Batcheoe* (p10 this equim yields the com 4,3, and x direction ne rteas es 2.3 an6 warn arnonecs whee the sbi 1, 2 and 3 denote the tee coors don. A TSS SERRE EY he met eulitanrea the ommety o he a wer emp ta = ee mpm te on shemale, rere Re eater ate ine decom on fice who Ow in Fig 16 Nov Ue aeton, hi nal nota aloe 9 simpler normal pots aon andthe sascip I. 2, and 3 dnote te rene tects, an 2 especie Fr expe, and ase may ane “The stress components shown on the cubical Hid element of Fig 1.6. can be Severe tie Melee seanvenon so mAcHOIN 7 summarized in mates form or in an indicia frm as follows: (Es-E25) a8) ‘Also itis customary to sum over any index that is repeated, such tha Sema for 11,23 a9) and to interpret an equation with a fee index (asin Eq. (1.9) as being valid forall vales ofthat index. For a Newtonian fd (where the stress components ry are linear inthe derivatives 34/2), the stress components ae elated to the velocity Held by (Gee for example, Batchelor,” p. 147) (10) whore 1 isthe viscosity coeticient, pis the pressure, the dammy variable ks Summed from Ito 3, and 6 isthe Kronecker deta fonction dened by 1 ol is) When the Bud is at rest, the tangential stresses vanish andthe normal stress component becomes simply the pressure. Thus the stress components become -p 0 0 wel o -p 0 aay 0 0 -p teresting eas of Eq, (110) isthe one-deree-o-reedom shear onary and a moving infite plate witha speed U. (shown out pressure gradieas. This flow i called Couete flow (se, Another fw between in Fig. 1), Fw betwee 8 sina (oe ‘er as ing pe ie{or example, Yuan, p, 240) and the shear stress becomes uae ay Since there is no presste gradient in the flow, the Aid motion in the x eSSuow fs eaiely duc tothe action ofthe wseous forces, The fore F onthe ‘te cane found by integrating, on the moving upper surface 15 INTEGRAL FORM OF THE FLUID DYNAMIC EQUATIONS “To develop the gvering integral and dierent equations describing the Moa, rus oper of he i are vestigated a8 arty rae er olume that saonary and submerged inthe fd Fg 18). These aay deniy, momentum, nergy tad any change ith ine For Mot the a Bowing tough the con volume che um of sree atom othe property the con! volume and the nate of his ae the cmv) vue trough is boundaries. Avan example the ree mu canbe aad by tering the change nd Sst ce ert wlume (ev) The mass my Nithin the conta volume ben meu [oa 3) nhete dV is the volume element, The aecumulaton of mass within the control volume is amen 8 3 “The change in the mass witia the coatol volume, duc 10 the mass leaving (ma) and tothe mass entering (mq) through the boundaries (6) [ones aw oa (13) neacoumnon o saxcacin 9 here s the velocity vector (u,v, w) and pqsm i the rate of mass ea {ios and noemal tothe surface clement dS (wis the outward normal), as Shown in Fig. 18. Since mass is conserved, and no new material is bei produced, the the sum of Eq, (1.132) and Eq, (1.14) must be equal to zero: me 3 pave pia Equation (118) isthe imepral representation of the conservation of mas. I simply states that any change inthe mass ofthe fd in the contol ‘lume is equal to the rate of mas being transported across the contol surface (es) boundaries. Ina similar manner the rate of change in the momentum of the id towing through the contol volume at ay instant dima). [ds the sum ofthe ‘sccumulation of the momentum per unit volume pq within the contol volume tnd ofthe change ofthe momentum across the contol surface boundaries: as cas) nga 8 fos 5 {easy + [ onta-mas G16) This change in the momentum, as given in Eq, (116), scoring to Newton's second law must be equa othe forces JF applied tothe uid inside the contro volume: lon. mgs Se aay ‘The forces acting on the Mud in the conto volame in the x direstion are sitter body forces pf pet unit volume, oF surface frees, pet uni ‘Bscussed in Section 1.4 (oe) [ oars [nas aw ‘whore mis the uit normal veetor that points outward from the contol volume, BY substituting Eqs. (1-16) and (1-18) into Eq, (1.17) the integral form ofthe momentum equation ia the {direction is obtained: 2f onare[, miarnes=[_acarf nnas i ‘This approach can be used 10 develop addtional governing equations, suchas the energy equation. However, for the fid dynamic eases that are being considered heey the mass andthe momentum equations are suficent to eseie the Bud mation10 rows seroomaes 1.6 DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF THE FLUID DYNAMIC EQUATIONS gation (118) and (1.19) are the ites forms ofthe conservation of mass Fava rscniom equations In many cases, though. the difrential repre aa meemore ‘rcfl. Tn ogder to devve the diferent form of the Sin Bt mse equation, both integrals of Eq (1-18) should be volume sarees can be atcompliahed by the we of the divergence theorem (See ele!” p39) which states that fora vector [ease [veer om iain way er hn he et id Me ton ty te ean nt) eee trowel on of the Rud (rghchand sie) aside the contol volume, In EQ. GLanh Wis the gradient operator, and, in cartesian coordinates, cor in india form wher isthe unit vector iJ fr j= 1, 2.3). Thus the indica form ofthe Sheps ewe becomes [nase [Sar um) ‘An application of Eq, (1.20) t0 the surface itera trm in Eq. (115) transforms it 0 a vole integral [nanese [,crner “This allows the two terms tobe combined as one volume integra ea [.Qev-eg)aveo subere the tme derivative s taken inside the integra since the contol volume ae Borause the equation must hot for an asbitraty conta volume ior the Mud, then the integrand is aso equal to zero, Ths, the TE diferent form of the conservation of mast or the continuity tquaton is obtained: a 269. pa= a Bv-pa=0 a rover neo wacnoRD HL Expansion of the second term of Eq. (1.21) yields 2 Beq-vp+p¥-a=0 (12ta) and in cartesian coordinates: 2 vB a2) By wing the material deratine Padyg eben darted Di aan ay oe Bq, (1.21) becomes. vp Pe. pe-qn0 ate ‘he muti dsvatie D/DY represen the rae of chang flow paride For tmp e selon oa parce gen Da Dr ters am ‘An icompecabe Mui i 8 Bid whose clement cannot experience ‘olan change Since by Jfniton the mas of «Bud elements constant, the Thi ments of tn tcompresible uid must have constant deny” (A tomogencous incompressible id i therefore »constan-dnsty Bund) The ‘ont equaton (E9,(020) fora ncompresabe Ru reduces a au 20 3 Vara yt ae” 029 Note that the incompressible coin equation does oth oe ht ity equation doce met hve kine derive She tie penn an bn seen Dom "To obtain the dierent frm of th 3 momentum equation, the diver feng een (9) mpd oe me ital tm of Ea [manee[_vemaer [pnnas=[ Seav ‘Substcating these results into Eq. (1.19) yields [[eoorrre-m-S}er-0 aan12 onsen atnoowecs ‘ince this integral olds for an arbitrary control volume, the integrand must be ero and therefore a 23% Ue 4.25) Lipa tt ons eheSe 6242.3) os) the continuity ‘Expanding the letand side of Eq (1.25) fest, and then sng ‘equation, wil roe the lefthand side t0 Duetouaee[ etn] eee elo (Note that the fad sceeration fs which axonding to Newton's second law when multiplied by the mass per Totume most be equal EF) eligi form ofthe acceleration term ato Ea. (2.25), tne iicnta form ofthe moneatam equation besomes a= Fo: 2 eof tt 129 erate dann) din atsan cones . fe, Oty te ane ee BE 128) 2p, ng He esr on See Ste Be a8) Pe 2 Ft He (1.26 ts Me (135) ‘oa Nemoian id testes components ate given by Eq. (10) an by Fae Ege (ie), he Naver tkes eats are ‘anes o(2bease) =a and in earesian coordinates: (Strate) =~ valet srnoveenon ato aaceonin) 13 Sr ng drm ey ca $103) 9 Cee ee sod boundaries (Fg 19) bth he noma nd angel ele components “will reduce to zero: 4.=0 (onsolid surface) (1.28 {on solid surface) (2a) ‘The numberof exact solutions tothe Nav because of the nonlinearity of the diferent Stokes equations is small fie rn pon Hower, ny tions some terms ean be neplected 40 tht simpler equations can be bined: For camp, by suming constant vat ewe (1.27) oS +4-¥4)= tsp + ura +BT0-0) 29 Furthermore, by assuming an incompressible uid (for which the ‘omtnsty equation (Bq. (1.23)) 8 V-q=0), Eq, (1.27) seduces to (heat) =et-to eon oe See Be qev asp “This equation i called the Euler equation14 onsen ssroowners ‘ncune jinn ort ater, In situations when the problem has cylindrical or spherical symmetry, the se of appropriate coordinates can simpy the solution. AS an example, the ‘eedamenat equations foram incompressible Nuk! with constant viscosity are (SeSete. The clindial coordinate system sds in Fig: 110 and for Ere example the 7.8 coordinates are im a plane normal co the x coordinate ae eermors , and D/Dt in ther, 8, x systems ate (sce Pai'* p38 oF Yuan, p.132) a2) ax) ay “the continuity equation in elinrieal coordinates fr an incompressible ‘uid then booomes eee a WB) om oacousti w eacronnes 1S Tpke erste ye. A spherical coordinate system withthe coordinates , 8, i described in Fig. LiL The operators @, Ve and D/D! in the r, 6g system are (Karamchet chapter 2, of Yuan p. 132) V (oS tae riind i) oo 3)*zanG6 0936) arog an : sin 839 ee “The continuity equation in spherical coordinates for an incompressible goin 0), 1300 7 ind 30 tind ag"? Gee ‘Te momentum equation fran incompressible fui is (Pap. * decton cord 2 2) Frag) Oo) Atte to mea 36) u(t aay16 towsran sexoomanaes — When a two-dimensional low field is treated in this teat, it will be described either cartesian coordiate system with coordinates x and zor it sesermponding polar coordinate system wth coordinates and 0 (see Fs {LD Ie thie polar coordinate stem, the continuity equation for an Jotoaprssibe fd is obtained from Eq. (1.35) by eliminating 34u/3r and the ‘neon anomentum equations fr an incompressible fui are ideal Eqs (1.36) and (137), spectively. 1.7 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE FLUID DYNAMIC EQUATIONS the previous section (Ba vie and thet solution, even by numerical methods, arr cam be elected in certain regions of the flow felt, while, the saeekcat pct features a til etained, then a set of simplified equations aor ear ined (and probably solved with less effort), I this section, some of ‘Re SSations for simplifying the governing equations wil be discussed. aes fo determine the relative magnitudes ofthe various elements in tne grvcmingfeental equations, the following dimensional analss vr simply, consider the Rid dynamic equations with constant Propertis (icons, and p= const): v az peer)ememrrer 09 “The fist step i to define some characteristic or reference quantities, relevant raccoon we mcnatcine 17 toe phy polem ote it Reference length (6 wis hor) occ eed ees am pt ceric ie (one ee of» Foc poses, of L/V Reference per te eam pesine =) : Baty tres (ee: mania o eth protons) With he nd of these character quate we can defn 1 ‘nondimensional variables: : onde artes (146) If these characteristic magnitude tudes are properly selected, then all the non: dimensional values in Eq. (46) willbe ofthe order of 1. Next, the governing ‘equations need to be rewritten sing the quantities of Eq. (146). As an ‘ample, the fist term ofthe continuity equation becomes 13) asp ee _ BGS S5+35) wow ‘The corresponding equations in they and z dtetions canbe obtained Re sien ons can be obtained by the procedure, Now, by multiplying Eq. (187) by L/V apd Eq. (48) byLip? we end up with ee +(ora) ee ate snes (146) a fries te a me va erent (wil ee of Ste I and te eathe serene ome ean tft y ie tones ear ee te panne, he cin enon aa ree ane ode of ape and for tna) 2) am acm ae apo Tn te monet MSS a nodineanal um L oo 1.51) ak c bch is time constant and spin the impoance of simedependent sree SOs ecm wd frm ft Rondimenstonal member Pate same were the characte tine the ee of the rt aperiodic ee wake eigen) Pein & ‘putts Lae eee 1.52) Gow V cee! ee Stouhal number i very small, perhaps due to very low frequencies, then {he time-dependent Bist term in Eq (1-50) canbe neglected compared fo the terme of order “The second group of nondimensional numbers (when gravity i the body force and fy the gravitational acceleration g) is called the Froude number, find sands forthe ratio of inertial force to gravitational force: : (1.53) Ve = Smal values of F (note that F"? appears in Ea. (150) will mean that body forces sch as gravity shouldbe inched inthe equations, in the case of ree Surface river fows, waterfalls, ship hydrodynamic, et. For the flow of ges, from the kinetic theory point of view (see Yuan,'? 1.257) the viscosity can be comnected to the characteristic velit of the Imoleules« and to the mean distance A that they uavel between collisions (mean tee path), by ame$ Substituting this into Eq (1.6) vil: yl neo (I) ‘This formulation shows thatthe Reynolds number represents the scaling of the ‘elocty-times length, compared 1 the molecular scale ‘The conditions for neglecting the viscous terms when Re2>1 will be dlscussed in more dual athe ext secon. For simpy, a the beginning of this analysis an incompresible id was assumed, However, if compressibility isto be considered, an adtonal rondimensional number appears that is ealled the Mach number, and isthe Fao ofthe velocity to the speed of sound a 7 os [Nate thatthe Euler number ean be related to the Mach number since lp~4" (sce abso Section 4.8). Density changes caused by pressure changes ate negligible if (see Karamehet* p.23) wo Me wear Bar Mer a9) 1nd if these conditions are met, an incompressible uid canbe assumed.8 FLOW WITH HIGH REYNOLDS NUMBER The mont important outsome of the nondimensonaiing process of the lng ent shat ow he eve magne of he rms apPestng {be cquaton can be dcrmined and compared If sed, small mach a needling insipid equation ht ae ease ose bat sl Sam th dominant peal eet. Tec of fe cominlty eatin al terms hive the same mage and tone is be negted. or the momenta eqeation the rte mateo he come ante obaned by sbtting Eas 0511.6) no Bert, an fortes deton ve et aa Before proceeding further, et sexamine the range of Repos number and Mach amber fr some typi enginccingprblews, Since the vacoty of Meets haha and weer very sal ge vary of paces Wacetngpotlems (aa Towspeed aerdynams, hydrodynamic of se et ce) al win the Re range, a shown it Fi. 13. So fr Saations hen the Reynolds umber sig te cous terms become small Sune to th ee terms of onder ia Eq (10). But before melting ) we rsx (S] ” ‘tind pevoounon we mcestoin 21 NUE aie eo mopbeutee) ~ ow repon no gt Reo mater fw. these terms, a closer look atthe high Reynolds sumber flow condition is ceded. At an example, consider the flow over an airfoil, as shown in Fig. Tri In general, bad on the asumption of high Reynolds number the ‘iocous terms of Eq. (1.60) (or 1.30) canbe nplete inthe outer ow regions (outside the immediate vicinity of a solid surface where Viq~ order 1) “Therefore, in thi outer flow repion, the solation can be approximated by solving the iacompresbe continuity and the Esler equations: vea=0 ao a ve Ae qevqat—T 2) Equation (1.62) ea rst onder partial ferential equation that requires 2 boundary condition on one velocity component on a solid surface compared to 2 boundary condition on the velocity vector needed for Eq. (1.30) in the Previous section. Sine the fw is assimed tobe inviscid, thete is ao pisical ‘eason fr the tangential selocty component to be 2er0 on a satonary solid Siiface and therefore what remains fom the no-ip boundary condition (Eq (128, 6) thatthe normal component of velocity mast be 2210 qe=0(onsolid surface) a.) However, closer investigation of such flow Bld reveals that aca the slid ‘oundarie in the fd, shear ow derivatives suchas Wg become large and the viscous ters cannot be neglected even for high values of the Reynolds number (Fig. 1.19, As an example, near the surface of a steanlined two-dimensional body submerged ina steady ow inthe x cretion (with no oy forces) the Navier-Stokes equations can be reduced to the classical2 sowsren ascot: poundary layer equations (see Schlching,'* p-131) where now x represents ‘Satan along the body surface and = is eased normal to the surface, The fmomentum equation in the x direction 20 yt) 2 2H aden) = Bank ry sada he norma 2 deo 4 1. on 008) So, in conclusion, for high Reynolds aumber fows there are two dominant regions in the Bowed 1. The outer flow (away from the slid boundaries) where the viscous effets Ie negligible. A solution for the inviscid flow in this region provides information about the presse distribution and the related forees. 22. The thin boundary layer (neat the solid boundaries) where the viscous “Tiectscannot be neglected. Solution of the Boundary layer equations will ‘provide information about the sheat suess distribution and the related (ition) forces. For the soltion of the boundary:ayer equations, the no-lip boundary ‘condition & applied on the solid boundary. The tangential velocity profle {tude the boundary layer is shown in Fig. 14 and its seen that as the outer ‘Reon approached, the tangential velocity component becomes independent Ofrs The ntrface betwoen the boundary-layer repion and the outer fo feqion isnot precy defined and occurs at aditance 9, the boundary tayer {Hlekne. trom the wall For lage values of the Reynolds number the ratio of {he boundary ayer thickness toa chracterstc length of the body (an sirfi's Chord. for example) is proportional to Re"! (se, Schlichting," p 129). ‘Theriore, the normal extent of the boundary-layer region is negligible when vicwed on the length scale ofthe outer region “A detailed solution for the complete Rowfeld of such a high Reynolds number How proceeds follows: 1. A solution is found forthe inviscid ow past the body. For tis sotuion the ‘stnaryconton of zero velocity normal to the sold surface applied at the surface of the body {which & indistingushable from the edge of the oundary ayer on the scale of the chord). The tangential velocity Pottponeat om the body surface U, is then obtained as part ofthe inviscid SStuion. andthe presture distribution along the solid surface is then ‘determines, 12. Note that in the boundary-layer equations (Eqs. (1.61) and (68) the Presure doce mot vary across the boundary layer and is suid tbe server avo excronine 23 impressed on the boundary layer. Therefor, the wrface presture distribu tion i taken from th invited solution in (I) and inserted into Eq. (1.6. ‘Also, Uris taken from the invited solution asthe tangential component of the velocity at the edge ofthe boundary layer and is used asa boundary ‘condition in the solution ofthe boundary ayer equations “The solution fora high Reynolds number flow field with the assumption of an invicid Buide therefore the frst step towards the solution of the Complete pysicl problem. (Acditional iterations between the iaviscd outer ffow and the boundary-layer repo in search for an improved solution are posible and are discussed ia Chapters 9 and 14.) 19. SIMILARITY OF FLOWS ‘Another interesting aspect ofthe process of nondimensionalizing the equations inthe previous section that two diferent flows are considered tobe similar the nondimensonal numbers af Eq. (1.0) are the same. For most practical ‘ses, where gravity and unsteady elects ae negligible, only the Reynolds and the Mach numbers aced to be matched. A posuble implementation of this Principle sn water o wind-tunnel testing, where the scale ofthe model ders from that of the actual ow conditions For example, many airplanes are tested in small sale fist (.g 1/508 scale), In order to Keep the Reynolds number the same then either the tispeed othe st density must be increased (e. by factor of 8). Tiss a Iypialconfht that test engineers face, since increasing the airspeed 5 times Wall bring the Mach number to an unreasonably high range. The second iermative of reducing the Kinematic viscosity ¥ by compressing the air i osile in only vey few wind tunnels, and in most cases matching both of {ese sondimensional nimbers i diicale. ‘Another possibilty of applying the similarity principle to exchange ‘ids between the setual andthe fest conditions (eg, ter with air where the fio of Kinematic vaconity i about 1:15). Thus a 1/1S-tale model of a ‘bmarine ean be tested in a wind tunnel a true speed conditions. Usual tis beter to increase the speed ia the wind tunel and then even a smaller scale ‘model canbe tested (ofcourse the Mach number not always matched but for {ch low Mach number applications this i lesser) REFERENCES 2 Yom 5 Puno 9 fla Meh Prete Hal Egat Cit N10, 3 Ki Fons aa Fe Pat coher Yous 11S. Raum sii flr Fd teraz, RE Keeger, Mal, FL 1980 1 Seto Rou Laer Teor, Mere New or2 sowareen asnovmaucs PROBLEMS: LL, Te east component of «two-dimensional fw ld ae given by woolerastinil hee Ais 8 constant. Does this ow say the incompressible cominy 1.2, The velocity components of hee dimensional, acompresible fox are piven by wae» ve natfare Determine the uations ofthe eames passing through poit (11,1. 13, The vlc component of 2 two-dimensional ow are Bien by (6) Deen i ow sty the incompressible contiuty equation? 1A The two-dimensional nsmpresbe, visor, laminar fow between two parle {ater du tow conan pressure gadet dp ale Poiell flow (down i Fix. 115). Simply the cotinuty and momeatum equations for this case and ‘gay the bouncy conion o the wal (ay = 4/2). Determine the velo ‘Seman fe) Between the plates ao the Sherog Suess rule #1) om the wal CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF INVISCID, INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW In Chapter 1 it was established shat for fows ‘ffets of viscority are eflectively confined to thin Boundary layers and hin wakes. For this tetson our study of low-speed aerodynamics wl be limited 10 ows ouside these ited repons where the flow i assumed tobe inviscid and incompressible, To develop the mathematical equations that govern these flows and the tools that we wil ned to solve the equations iti necessary 10 study rotation in the Mid and to demonstrate is relationship tothe efets of sony, Tt is the goal of this chapter to define the mathematical problem (ciferetil equation and boundary conditions) of low-speed aerodynamics ‘hose solution will ccupy us forthe remainder of the book. 24_ ANGULAR VELOCITY, VORTICITY, ‘AND CIRCULATION ‘The arbitrary motion of « uid clement consists of translation, rotation, and formation. To ilstate the rotation of a moving Hud element, conser at rf the control volume shown in Fig. 21. Here, for simplicity, an ‘nites rectangular element is sclestd that being raslted inthe? =O lane by velocity u, 0) of corer. The lengths of the sides, parallel 2s26 Lousmen nscomasace ‘Reco of cng ad emer to the x and y direction, are Ax and Ay, respectively. Because of the velocity ‘variations within the fuid the clement may deform and rotate and, for ‘example the x component ofthe velocity at the upper corner (a0. 4) of the ‘clement’ wil be. ut (3u/3y) Oy, where higherorder terms ‘in the small ‘quanti Ax and Ay are neglected. Ata later time (eg. e+ At, tis wll ‘hase the deformation shown at the righthand side of Fig. 21. The angular ‘velocity component, (note positive direction in the figure fllows the Fhtchand rule) of the fd clement can be obtained by averaging the instantaneous angular velocities of the Segments 1-2 and 1-f ofthe element ‘The instantancous angular velocity of segment 1-2 is the diference in the linea velocities ofthe two edges ofthis segment, divided bythe distance (Ax): ae 1p ntelative velocity Yar 8" a Angular elo of segment 1~2~ 28th 1 and the angular velocity ofthe 1-4 segment is (eranen ay ‘The 7 component of the angular velocity of the fluid element is then the average ofthese two components Bae 3y ‘The two additional components of the angular velocity can be obtained simituty, and in vector form the angular velocty becomes wn ixa en rmonseneas or wc, ccurasonc ow 27 1s convenient to define the vorticity & a8 twice the angular velit. ee eam -(B-8) eeme3) Now consider an open surface S, shown in Fig. 22, which has the closed carve C as fs boundary. With the use of Stokes’ theorem (see Kellogg" p. 53) the vorticity onthe surface 5 canbe related tothe line integral around C: [vxa-nas~[ aes-fad where m is normal to S. The integral on the right-hand side is called the Creulation and is denoted by T, rofea ey This relation canbe illusteated again with the simple fuid element of Fig. 2.1 ‘The circulation AP ie obtained by the evalation ofthe cosed line lateral of the tangential velocity component around the Bid element, Note thatthe positive direction corresponds to the posive dection of ‘eran Benes nd oe iteraFor the general three dimensional case these conclusions canbe summarized as ey “The circulation is therefore somehow tied to the rotation in the Buid (cg. t0 the angular velocity of solid body type rotation). In Fig. 2:3 to fxamples are shown to ilsrate the concept of etculation. The curve C {Gashed lines) is taken to be s ice in each case. In Fig. 234 the Roweld ‘onsite of concentric cela sueamlines in the counterciockwise direction. It {8 clear that along the circular nteraton path C (Fg. 2-2) q and in Eq, {0.3 are postive forall dl and therefore Chas «postive cxcuation. In Fig, ‘owes (oad watt (eatin. 2.3) the flomfild isthe symmetric flow of a uniform stream past a circular ‘finder. lis cler from the symmetry that the eicuaton is zx for this as. "To itstrate the mation of # Mud with rotation consider the contol volume shown in Fig. 24a, moving along the path . Let us assume thatthe Sisous forces ate very large and the ud wil rotate as a rigid body, while Following the path In this case V xq 0 and the flow i called roainal. For the fid motion described in Fig. 246, the shear forces in the fid are feglble, and_the Aid wil not be rotted by the shear force of the reiting fd elements, Tn thi case Vq=0 and the fow is considered to be erotional rxounentaion nse, comrmesate RoW 29 Beat Aecen 22 RATE OF CHANGE OF VORTICITY ‘To obiin an equation that governs the rate of change of vorticity of Hud Clement, we start withthe incompressible Navier-Stokes equations in cartesian ‘oondinats (E4. (1.30), Basen a Tecan wane ee ing tery =9f gx: atari at es) Now take the curl of Eq, (1.30), with the second term on the Itch side Feplaced by the righthand side of Eq. 3). Note that for a scalar A, ‘Pu VA = 0 and therefore the pressure term vanishes % Be ox(gxtye vats vey e6 “To simply the result, we use the following vector identity, Ux Xa Sa HE TOF -g en song with the incompressible continuity equation and the fact that the tortciy is divergencetree (noe that for any vector A. V-TXA=0). If we "so assume that the body force acting i conservative Jiotational, such as ‘rviy) then vxteo andthe rate of change of vorticity equation becomes svat ve e830 toworen seroomnacs “The inviscid incompressible version ofthe vorticity transport equation i then De, Di For fow that is two-dimensional, the vorticity i perpendicular to the flow direction and Eq. (2.8) becomes 4 ey) em am and the vortcty of each Aud element i seen to remain constant. “The vorticity equation (Eq. (28) strongly resembles the Navier-Stokes ‘equation and for very high valves. ofthe Reynolds mumber ii seen that the ‘ori that created atthe solid boundary convected along withthe flow itt much farer rate than i can be flied out across the Now and so it femains inthe confines of the boundary layer and tailing wake. The fd in the outer portion of the Howeld (the part that we wll study) i seen to be effectively rotaton-free (irotational) as well as inviscid. "The above observation can be ilustrated for the two-dimensional case ‘using the nondimensional quantities defined in Eq. (1.46). Then, Eq. (2-10) ‘canbe rewritten in nondimensional form ne Dir Re. where the Reynolds number, Re, is defined in Eg. (1.56). Here a two- ‘mensional flow inthe x-y planes assumed and theelore the vorticity pnts in the = diection. The lefthand side inthis equation {5 the rate at which ‘vority fs accumolated, which & equal tO the rate at which i is Being [enerated (ocar the slid boundaries of slid wurtaces). It cleat from Eq (20) that for high Reynolds number flows, vorticity generation is small and ‘an be neglected outside the houndary layer. Thus for an rotational Suid Eq (22) veces 0 7 2.109) ov av au_ aw By: ae ea 2 em ae a 23. -RATE OF CHANGE OF (ARCULATION: KELVIN'S THEOREM ‘Consider the crulation around a fd curve (which always passes through the ‘same fd portcles) in an incompressible inviscid ow with conservative body rrowmenisor mmc, coumemais now 3 forces ating. The time rate of change ofthe cicultion ofthis Bud curve Cis gvenas orp Debi Since Ce a hid curve, we have D4 > Phen and Batmag {2arfada ex or baa ew = ‘coordinates and time only i $4" dq= fe d(q'/2)=0. The acceleration wis ‘bianed from the Euler equation (Eq. (1.62) and is op aa—v(2) oe Substitution into Bq, (2.14) yields the result that the circulation of a Mid curve fra ews since the integral nd a closed path is zero and the ‘work done bya conservative force around a closed path is also zero. The result {in Eq. 2.18) isa form of angular momentum conservation and is known as Keluin's theorem (ater the British scientist who published his theorem in 1), which stats that: theme rate of change of dcuation around a closed curve consisting ofthe same Mud elements i 210. For example, consider ‘lol a8 ia Fi. 2.5, which prior to 1=0 was a rest and then at 0 vas Suddenly set into constant forward motion. As the iol moves through the nouns 25 Cet ned by an oi ert ey et ine man,32 sows sencones ‘ida circulation Fuga develops around it a order to comply with Kelvin’ theorem a starting Yortck Fen tst exist such thatthe total relation around ‘ine thet surounds both the sro and the wake remains unchanged DTaP Dar ° e169 “This is posible ony i the starting vortex ctculation wil be equal 10 the “avoi’sGreulaton, but is rotation sil be in the opposite direton 24 IRROTATIONAL FLOW AND THE ‘VELOCITY POTENTIAL, Ie hasbeen shown that the vortity nthe high Repos number flows that ae beng studied conned to the boundary layer and wake regions there the infos of vsonty is nok nelle and so Is appropriate (0 ‘Some an iotatonl es well sini low outside these confined regions {ne rents of Section 2.2 and 2.3 wl be wed when i necessary to del {pons of srt the Bowe) emer the following ne itera in «simply connected exon, along the ine € [nde [vérovay ower am Ie ow sin oh rep ten wd deo xt Gierental (ee Kreysei"p. 741) of s potential © that i independent of the Integration path € and a function of the location ofthe point PCs, 2): eenae[femreeere am where ys an arbitrary reference pont. & i alle the velocity potential and The welowty a each point can be obtained ass gradient ave ew and in cartesian coordinates ea “The substitution of Ea, (2.19) into the comity equation (Eq. (1.23) leads to the following diferent equation forthe velocity potential Piqe¥ FO =0'-9 e2y which is Laplace's equation (names after the French mathematician Peete S Deru ie. n'y sant of compel enna sn oan itanal ai Ne tw Lapses eunton Ine rsmwusras cr mnce, sconmmnas now 3 ieremial equation. Since the Bud's viscosity has been neglected, the no-ip ‘boundary condition ona solid-fuid boundary cannot be enforced and only Eq. (1.2) required. In more general form, the boundary condition states tht ‘the normal component ofthe relative velocity between the Maid and the solid surface (which may havea velocity qy) i 2210 on the boundary: a @-a-0 em “This boundary condition is physically reasonable and is consistent with the proper mathematical formulation of the problem a willbe shown later inthe hap For an icotational inviscid incompressible How it now appears thatthe ‘elocty eld ean be obtained from a solution of Laplace's equation forthe "eloctypotemial. Note that we have not yet used the Euler equation, which Connects the velocity to the pressure. Oace the velocity field is obtained i i necesay 10 alo obtain the presure dstnbation onthe body surface to allow {ora cakeulation ofthe aerodynamic forces and moments. 2.5 BOUNDARY AND INFINITY ‘CONDITIONS Laplace's equation forthe velocity potential isthe governing partial diferentia uation forthe velocity fr an invecd, incompressible, and ctotational flow. Wisan ellipse ciferenial equation that results in boundary vale problem, For aerodynamic problems the boundary conditions need to be specified on all, sold surfaces and at infty. One form of the Boundary condition on soldi interface s given in Eq. (2.22). Another statement of ths boundary fenaiton, which will prove useful in applications, is obtained inthe folowing way, Let the sli surface be given by Foyt ax in cartesian coordinates. Particles on the surface move with velocity qa such that F remaine zero. Therefore the derivative of F following the surace priles mast be zero: Dy pad fa tF=0 em APE qe FF 25 since the nowmal othe surface is proportional tothe gradient of F ve ive 29 1 Eq, (2.25) is now substituted into Eq, (2.24) the boundary condition2, gr aPP. eee am Grae ae am Linn. the turbance ad tthe oy moving though a Bi tat was iiialy af rest decaye to 2er0. In a spaced frame of reference ‘eboty of such fd (at fet therefore zero at infinity (Far fom the solid boundaries of the body) 228) tim 26 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION FOR THE PRESSURE “The incompresible Euler equation (Eq, (1.31) cam be rewritten with the wse of Eq. (25) 8 A_qxgevEas—v2 gps vSay—ve em For rotational flow §=0 and the time derivative of the velocity can be a9,.2. 8-39 ex Let a assume tat he body frei conservative wih potential, tee en 1 gravity is the body fore acting andthe = axis points upward, then E =~. “The Tuler equation for incompresbleirotational flow with a conservative body force (by substituting Ege. (2.30) and 2.31) into Eq. (2.29)) then becomes Bye 9%), wleskeh 2) 0 em ation (22) ite quty ia pens nto ie ty Bree t+ ec 233) ptt ar ‘This is the Bernoull (Dutch/Swiss mathematician, Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1752) equation for inviscid incompressible iertational flow. A more (ful form ofthe Bernoul equation i obtained by comparing the quantities tn the lefthand side of Eq. (2.33) a two points in the ai, an aitrary pont nd a reference point at infty, sa). The equation becomes ew rronueers of min, MEME How 38 I the reference condition is chosen such that E=0, const, and ‘4-0 then the pressure p at any point in the ld ean be called from ram ee eae et 235) Ie the ow is steady, incompressible but rotational the Bernoulli equation (Ea. (2.3) f sill vad with the time-derivauve term set equal to 2er0 if the fonstant on the righthand side js now alowed to vary from streamline 10 Streamline. (This beeanse the product qX' is normal 19 the steamine ld their dot product vanishes along the stamline. Consequently, Eq. (2.3) ‘an be used in a rotational uid between two points ying on the same ‘sreamline) 2.7. SIMPLY AND MULTIPLY ‘CONNECTED REGIONS ‘The reson exterior 10 a two-dimensional airfoil and that exterior (0a three-dmensonal wing or body ae fundamentally diferent in a mathematical ‘eve and lead to velosity potentials with diferent properties. To pont out the ‘ifernce in these regions, we ned to introduce a few base definition. ‘A redublecuve ina epion canbe contracted toa point without leaving the region, For example, in the fegion exoror (0 ah alto, any cane surounding the airfoils not reducible and any curve not surrounding it i reducible. A. simply connected region is one whete all closed curves are reducible. (The region exterior (0 a iite thee-dimensional body & simply ‘onnected. Any curve surounding the body can be translated away from the body and then contracted.) A barrier isa curve that i inserted into a region but sno apart ofthe resulting modified region. The insertion ofbarier ato region ean change i from being muliply connected t0 being simply ‘connected, The degree of connectivity of a region isn +1 where m Is the Iinimum number of barirs needed to make the remining region simply onnected, For example, consider the region in Fig. 26 exterior to an aif Draw a barrier from the trang edge to downstream init. The orginal repion minus the batier i now simply connected (aote that curves in the region can no longer surround the sifoi). Therefore m= 1 and the orginal repion i doubly connected ‘Consider irrational motion ina simply connected region. The circle tion around any curve i given by refaraafro-anfao ax Sa ve ‘Fw ee ta fl ns Gb commce eo.6 Lowsmsn sitoorans (C Tepe ies sha pl commeed en. With the we of Eqs. (24) and with 50 the circulation i sen to be zero. ‘Ala Rinse the integral of d around any curve i 2210 (Eq. (2.36), the ‘clot potential i single-valued ‘Now conser ierotational motion in the doubly connected region exterior toan gol a shown ia Fig. 2.7. For any curve not surrounding the aro, the “ove real forthe simply connected region apply and the culation is zr. Now inert bari as shown inthe figure. Consider the curve that consists of Crud Ca, which surround the iro and the two sdas ofthe barrier. Since fhe tegon caluding the barr i simply connected, the eieulation around this cave i seo, This leads tothe following equation: faa-fearfras [aa [Note that the rst term isthe ctculation around C; and the second is minus the steltion around C;- Als, the contibutions from the barter cancel for ‘Moudy ow (ince the barier cannot be along a vortex sheet). The circulation ‘Sound curves C, and C; (and any other cures surrounding the airfoil once) te the sume and may be nonzero. From Ea, (2.36) the veloty potentials not nlecaled if there a nonzero circulation 28 UNIQUENESS OF THE SOLUTION “The physical problem of finding the velocity ll fr the Now created, say. by {he motion ofan sro or wing has been reduced tothe mathematical problem ‘taolving Laplace's equation forthe velocity potenal with suitable boundary Conditions foF the velocity on the body and at infinity. In e spacesixed feteence (ame, this mathematical problem is ve-0 esta) te on body am) FO50 tron @316) rowan or erm, eeocnesnis now 37 Since the body boundary condition is on the normal derivative of the potential and since the flow’ la the region exterior to the body. the Mathematical problem of Eqs. (2.372, b ) called the Neumann etterior problem. In what follows we wil answer the question "is there a unique Solution tothe Neumann exterior problem?” We wil discover thatthe answer [Ssiferent for «simply and mitply connected rion Tet us consider a simply connected region fst. This wil aply tothe region ‘outside of 1 threedinensonal body but care must be taken in ttending the results to wings since the lowed isnot rotational everywhere (rakes). Assume that there ate two solutions ©, and @; to the mathematical problem posed in Eqs. (2.374, b, c). Then the diference = sates Laplace’ equation, the homogeneous version of Eq. (2.37), and G39). ‘One form of Green's (George Green, German mathematician, early 1800) theorem (Ret. 1.5, p. 138) is obtained by applying the divergence theorem t0 the fencton @ F@ where @ 8 a solution of Laplace's equation, [the lid region and $s its boundary. The result is [re-voa- [ous aw [Now apply Eq. (2.38) to @p forthe region R between the body B and an abiteay surface © surrounding 10 get, [reorvooa’=f an2eas[on%8as aa) If we let ¥ go to infinity the integral over E vanishes and since 39o/3n= 0 on B we ate Ltt with [reo-ve.av ow Site eg ary petra el nw ma be 0 ad Sateen oS ce She eo he See ee cee athena eng eel er ne ie a a eek Sit come eo veto he al ia fe 28a al sna 0-0-5 Green's theorem is now applied to the function @p inthe region @ between the airfoil C and the conve © surounding st Note thatthe integrals are sil ‘volume and srfaceintcgrals and hat the integrands do not vary normal to the Plane of motionInsert barter joining Cand and denote the two sides ofthe barrier 1s b~ and b+ as shown inthe figure. Note that mis the outward normal. b= find ~is the outward normal 1o b+. Equation (2.38) then becomes [¥0-¥04v [eo%eass [o.Zeas +f en%eas-[en28us ay “The integral around Cis zero fom the boundary condition and if we let Ego infinity the integral around 3 i ero alo. Let ©; be @, on b~ and @ be @aon by. Then Ea, (281) i a bas m2) [vep-vonav=[ = “The normal derivative of 2 is contiauous across the bari and Eq. (2.42) an be written in terms ofan integral over the barr: 5 as-( os Pas | 05 [ee-senav=[ ces-enites aa) Ii we reintroduce the quantities ®, and and rearrange the integrand we get [v0.80 (er-ar e010) Bas aan [Not that the circulations associated with flows 1 ad 2 are given by Tyo T=0! 95 acme or some, aeons oe 3 and are constant, nd finally [re-rearae-r[ Se ass Since in general we cannot require tha the integral along the barr be zero, the soliton 0 the Neumann exterior problem is only uniquely ‘etermined to within a constant when T= (when the ulation i specie {par of the problem statement) This result can be generalized for multiply ‘onnected regions in'a similar manner. The value ofthe ciculation cannot be Specie on purely mathematical grounds but wil be determined later on the Basis of phytal considerations. 29 VORTEX QUANTITIES In conjunction withthe velocity vector, we can define various quantities such 1S steamines, steam tubes, and stam surfaces. Cortesponding quantities fa be defined forthe vortciy vector that will prove tobe useful later on it ‘he modeling fling ows, "The fed ines (ein Fig. 2.2) that ate parallel to the vorticity vector are called wortex tines ad thes lines are described by gxat=o 8) Uwhete dls a segment along the vortex line (as shown in Fig. 29) In cartesian ‘Thordintes, this equation yields the dfeental equations fr the vortex ines: ae dy de See en “The vortes lines passing through an open curve in space form a vortex surface and the vortex lines passing through a closed curve in space form a Yortex tube. A. vortex filament is defined as @ vortex tube of infinitesimal ‘rosesectional af. "The divergence ofthe vorticity is zero sine the divergence ofthe cut of we vous 2940 tower ascomnacs any vector is identialy ze: -oxqe0 on) Consider, at any instant, a region of space R enclosed by a surface S. An pplication of the divergence theorem yields fs ads [-¥-gav=0 2.49) At some instant i time draw a vortex tube in the fw as shown in Fig 2.10 ‘Apply Eq” (2.49) tothe region enclosed by the wal f the tube S, and the ‘surfaces 5, and S; that cap the tube. Since on S, the vorticity i parallel to the surface, the contibuion ofS, vanishes and we ae et with [seur-[seete[tvear-o em) Note that wis the outward normal nds deton shown in he re I we note n a being postive inthe recon of the vortcty, then Eq (250) sense a i then Eg, 2.50) [es [At cach instant of time, the quantity in Eq. (251) is the same for any osescctonal surface ofthe tube. Let C be any closed curve that surrounds the tbe and Hes on its wall. The cucuaton around Cis given fom Eq. (2-4) as: [6xes-ont esy rex[ene cons. e2) andi seen to be constant along the tube. The results in Eqs. (2.51) and (2.52) xpress the spatial conservation of vorticity and ate purely kinematical IE Eq, (2.52) is applied to a vortex lament and mi chosen parallel to the vorticity vector, then Te= G45 = const es and the vorticity at any section of vortex filament is seen to be inversely ‘proportional to ts crosesectional area. A consequence ofthis result i that rwaons or mvc. necurmramr ow 8 ‘wore filament cannot end inthe fd since zero area woud lead to an infinite Vale fr the vorticity. This limiting ease, however, is useful forthe purposes [ot modeling end 30H convenient to define 2 vortex filament with a fied Sioulation, veo cros-sectonalaea, and infinite Vortcty as a vortex fament tri concenrated vorticity ‘Based om results similar 19 those of Section 2.3 and this section, the German sient Hermann von Helmboltz (1821-1854 developed his vortex theorems for inviscid lows, which an be sommarizd a 1. The strength of vortex filament i constant along its length. 2. A vorter filament cannot start or end in a Sud (it must form a closed path ‘or extend to ini). 1 The fd that forms a vortex tube continues to form a vortex tube and the freagi of the vortex tube Temains constant as the tube moves about {hence vortex elements, such as vortex ines, vortex tubes, vortex surfaces, te wil remain vortex cements with ime) ‘The first theorem is based on Eq. (2.53), while the second theorem fotlows from this, The third theorem f actually combination of Helmholtz’ third and fourth theorems andi a consequence ofthe invsld ow assumption (Eq. 29). 240 TWO-DIMENSIONAL VORTEX ‘Tlustrate a flowficld frequently called» two-dimensional vortex, consider 3 two-dimensional rgd cinder of radius rotating in_a viscous id at a Constant angular velocity of 0, a8 shown in Fig. 2-112. This motion ests in ‘Tow with culo steaming’ and therefore the radial velocity component i enon Conzcquent the continuity equation (Eq. (135)) in the 78 plane tecomes eg : eng es) Integrating this equation resus in ana ess) “The Navier-Stokes equation in ther diretion (Eq. (1.34). afer neglecting the body force terms, becomes -2 50) a__ P Since gis a function of + only, and owing tothe radial symmetry of the [lobiem the presure must Be ether function of ofa constant. Therefor, [ denative will not appear inthe momentam equation inthe @ direction42 sonseap sercomvacs “Teo dientin owl! ound onda oe ning 8 ph 0 (&4.139, es and since gy sa function ofr only, Lye, 4 ote. oa arr 238) Integrating wit expect ils ie are where C; is the constant of integration, Resrrangng this yields 4 pew C. soammats on wm, Ninna now 43 and after an adtiona integration G en rE es) au) rr) i, =0, and by using the fist “The second boundary condition is satis on boundary condition, the velocity becomes Re, From the vortex flament results (Eq, (253), the circulation has the same sign 1S the vorticity, and is therefore postive in the clockwise direction. The ‘Srultion around the Gce of rads, concentric with the eylinde, i found 4 eon suwre rofl erte=aes? ee des on The pi yn ree : wk es) “This velociy distribution is shown in Fig. 2.116 and is called vortex flow. If ‘eo then the velocity becomes very large near the core, as shown by the (aahed lines. “thas been demonstrated that Tis the circulation generated by the ‘tating. cylinder. However, 10 estimate the vorticity” in the Aid, the Integration line shown by the dashed tines in Fig. 2.1le is suggcsed Tnegrating the velocty in a clockwise dzection, and recalling that 4, ~0, results ia ioral Sar" a fardeoearesccrigsirtanae-o-ar “This indicates that this vortex flow is iotational everywhere, except atthe {ove where all the vortty is generated. When the cove size approaches 2610 (R20) then this fow ie called a irrowtional vortex (excluding the e9te point, whore the velocity approaches infty) “The three-dinensional velocity field induced by soch an clement is Served in the next section.44 towsrap sexcomsace 21 THE BIOT-SAVART LAW 2» sei wher erty § cn ext and the poem i to detemin the vey eld aa eu f+ Enown orton, We my expres the welt field as the curl of a vector field B, such that ae . a-0x8 26 Since the cut of gradient vector is zr, Bis indeterminate 1 within the fashent ofa seal fen of posdon and tine, nd can be selected such vps e68) ‘The vortity then becomes Bevan Px (Tx B= TT By spplring Eq. (2.65) this reduces to Poisson's equation for the vector potential B va 2.66) The solution of this equation, using Green's theorem (eee Karamchet, p. 38 ‘Here Bis evaluated at point P (which sa distance rom the origin, shown in Fig. 2.12) and isa rest of integrating the vorticity & (at pote) within the saunas of avin, Nou ow 4S See ‘volume V. The velocity fils then the curt of B aa LP, Before proceeding with this integration, let us consider an infinitesimal piece ‘ofthe vortty fame fas shown in Fig. 213. The cross section area dS is selected rach that i nmal to & andthe direction dl onthe flame ee A asta Also the etculation Fs av=asat46 cower AERO MIAN and carying out the cur operation while keeping, and ted me get, a _ axe iene" hema? Substation of this result back into Eq. (2.67) results in the Biot-Savart law, which states vxr, z 08) ‘rin liferetial frm 7 6%) ‘A simitar manipulation of Ea. (2.67) leads to the following result for velocity due 194 volume dStDULON of vor - 27) 242 THE VELOCITY INDUCED BY A STRAIGHT VORTEX SEGMENT In this section, the veloc induced by & sight vortex fine sepment Sea Bl onthe gS iw Is ea at vor ie tat or end in-s fuid, and the following ucssion fe aimed at develop the Sntribtion of «segment that isa Secon of »contineow vortex tne The Sortex segment spaced st abitary onenaion nthe ay.) frame with Constant season Tar shown in Fig. 214. The veloc ioduced by tht mamas or ico, nccummsam: now 47 ‘vortex seyment will hive tangential components only. as indicated in the gure. Alto, the difference tyr, Between the vortex segment andthe point P ie According tothe Biot-Savart law (Eq. 2.682) the velocity Segment don this ine, ata point Pi rom the fiat itis clear that teduunp and dl Substituting these into Age ‘his equation canbe integrated over a section (1-2) of the straight vortex segment of Fig. 215 aoa Ey fianndr= Ejoas-omby 08) “The results ofthis equation are shown schematically in Fig. 2.15. Thus, the {elo induced bya straight vortex segments function ofits strength T, the stance d, and the two view angles By. Bs For the two-dimensional case (infinite vortex length) B=, B= x and wed Lenaed am Fare ei voter ne at sans it OF 234, B= 2 Serer ca r ag en ich is exactly haf ofthe previous vale "Equation (2.685) can be modifed to form that is more convenient for ‘numerial computations by sing the definitions of Fig 2.16. For the gener three dimensional cae the two edges ofthe vortex Sepment wil be located by fad; andthe vector connecting the edges is wenchBeton of te vw ngs wet fe he mem ed fe te ely ined erated cy cos Siem Sgt et 4s shown in Fig, 2.16. The distance d andthe cosines of the angle are then Ine ial ‘he reton othe velit ays ora he plane create and the vortex edges 1, 2 and is given by e stilanets ined and by substituting these quantities, and by mukiplying with this re ‘vector the induced velocity is fe ee aaineee Gon) en ‘A mot deta pode for sng tis mala en te (1,2) ves tens and Pa own pve a Scion a ae 2.13. ‘THE STREAM FUNCTION Consider two arbitrary streamlines na two-dimensional steady fom, mensional steady fow, shown in Fig. 217. The vloity along these lines Hs tangent to them Xai ude wade =0 as nnonwenraiso tice neonemts ow and, therefore, the fx (volumetric low rate) between two such fines i Constant. This ow ate between thee two Cu¥es rice f gen [deena en where A and B are two arbitrary points om these lines. If salar funtion ‘Ylers) for this fox is to be intoduced, such that its variation along a steamine wil be zero (according to Eq. (15), then based on these two tquations (Eqs. (1.5) and (2.73), elation tothe velocity is am Substituting this into Eg (1.5) or the streamline results in wy, py = 2 ae + Mew de + ude =O ay ae ds er “Therelore, dW along a streamline is zero, and between two diferent stteamlince d¥ represents the volume Bux (Eq. (2.73). Integration of this uation resus in econ. on steamlines ew Subtiuing Eqs. 274 it the continuity equation ih au, oe yaw a ar eae Bra? and therefore the continuity equation is automatically satisied. Note thatthe Stream function is vali for viscous low, 100, and if the irtatonal flow requirement is added then G, = 0. Recall hat the y component ofthe vorticity em ou _ ow a a &0 sowstan sncomace and therefore for two-dimensional incompressible rotational ow MF satis place's equation reno em 114s possible to express the two-dimensional velocity in the x-z plane as , wi eanixew Thus anixey en Using tis method, the velocity in eylindical coordinates (fr the 6) pane s obtained: (90a) (a0) ‘The relation between the strcam function and the velocity potential can ‘be fund by equating the expressions forthe velocity components (Eq. (220) and Eq, (2.74), and in cartesian coordinates oy ob ow wa ae ey oie or ‘These are the Cavchy-Riemann equations with which the complex flow potential will be defined in Chapter 6 Laplace's equation in polar oordinates, expressed in terms of the steam funeson, is nd in indica coordi em) ex) ‘To demonstrate the relation between the velocity potential and the stream function, fecal that along a streaming aV=udz—waem0 ea nonunion, enone row SI and smarty long 2 constant potential tine 40~ude+wde=0 es) Since the slopes of the seeamlines and the potential tines are_ negative fenprocals, these lines are perpendicular to one another at any pot in the fow. [REFERENCES {Ln Advncd Engrg Matas, 5a, Wey, New Yok, 10, PROBLEMS 2.1. Writ the alr version ofthe inviscid incompressible vortty inca! eaorinats fran anism ow 123, Frat the boundary condition of Eq. (2.27) fr ace (and a sphere) whose fabs varying suc hat =a) ima id 3s at iy. 2.3 (6) Conder an incompressible otal fow na Bid epon V with Boundary S. Find an equation for hence energy ie he region 5am nepal ve 5 (@) Now comer the two-dimensional ow between concentne inde with {di and b tnd veloty components qn and go Air (where AS ‘stn Cia the hei energy nthe Bai io ang the revel om o 2.4 (a) Find the velo induced at the contr of square vortex ing whose ‘Goulaton Tan rhose sides ae of agth 2 (by Find the vay slong the 7s nce Wy acca vortex ing that es the e-y plane, wae raise and Srealtion nT and howe center i the cgi of eordtes. 2.5 Fad the steam funtion f0F# two-dimensional flow whos veloy component ewe 2Avand w= "22 port equationCHAPTER 3 GENERAL SOLUTION OF THE INCOMPRESSIBLE, POTENTIAL FLOW EQUATIONS 1m the previous two chapters the fundamental id dynamic equations were formulated andthe condtons lading to the smplied ind, compre sible, and irotational ow problem were dicured. In this chapter the feet methodology for obtaining the elementary solutions to this poarel ne ‘problem wil be developed. Because of the linear nature ofthe poetal Ron Problem, the diferent equation doesnot have o be soled doa Alowfelds having diferent geometry at their boundaries. Tnsead, the iene, {ary solutions will be distributed in a manner that wil satly ech indeed Set of geometrical boundary conditions ‘This approach, of distributing elementary soltions with unknown teenth allows « more systematic methodology for resolving the lowes a both ofthe cases of “asia” und numerical ethos 34. STATEMENT OF THE POTENTIAL FLOW PROBLEM For most enginering applications the problem requires a solution in a uid domiin V that usually contains a soli body with nldtonal bousdavce wat may define an outer low boundary (eg. Wing a wind tunnel). a sown Fig 3.1 If the fw inthe fad sepia is considered to be incompscecle ot 2 Loos orm ena ronemmat ow square 53 iy ouation rete 0 eno oy ett oom the «erty in he i, he est component norm ‘iy tanaecod tote sd boundries ma bef, and ira bay ed coor se iottional then the cont vo-n=0 62) ’ ina fame isa yector normal tthe body’ surfs, and 64 is measured ilrferenc that atachet Yo the ody Abo he dsturtane rated by the totion ould decay far (r=) from the ody lin (60 =) = 0 iy betesn the andre ai sheer (9.2) adhe eat veloky sites anh 8a) (or be vlsy ny sen bys observer moving with te 32 THE GENERAL SOLUTION, BASED ON GREEN'S IDENTITY : ste hema theatl poem of te prevodi teal Sig anc nto re yy pl teed en sty tah any Sy cased one ith he oe Bruny Sehr oon Eg (3.3) nd 3) fo yd {SPT The nm ns eed sh ht ays ins tie Ist mrt ¥ Now he ete appearing in he rn, re (cain Ex (129) neeplcedy he veo 8/70," 0 ; {Sci alr fnctont of poston. Thi rsa fe [iore,-sey-aas-[iare-arana 09 ‘omen wed define the potest rmoen,4 tone scorns ‘This equation is one of Greens identities (Kllog,"?p,215) Here the surface integral is taken over ll the boundaries 5, inclading 8 wake model Sy (which ‘might models surface across which a dscominity in the velocty potent ot the velocity may oct) S25et Set. ‘Also, let us st oat and @=0 os where @ isthe potential of the flow of interest in V, and ris the distance fom 4 point PCy, 2), a8 shown in the igure. As we shall ve later, ©, i the potential of source (or sink) and is unbounded (I/r—>-=) as Pis approached fandr—>0. In the ease where the point Pi ouside of V both and ®, satisfy Laplace's equation and Eq. (3.4) becomes [(¢v0-003) -nas-0 a6 Ot pr te te cs when te pnt i ite he eon. Te Pom P mut tow te exit ton the pon of meas ed ‘Crean by tal per fas Ovae of eee ao ‘Emaningregon¥ the eal & sss Lapses ogantos PUI} Simin 0 andy) becomes, Loca (P8272) aso 66) ‘To evaluate the integral over the sphere, introduce 4 spherical coor system at P and since the vector m points inside the small «phere, ‘VO =~ 30/ar and V(L/r)= ~(U/Pe, Equation (3.64) nom becomes ae 0 -[,,C2+8)a5+[(bve-ov!)-nas-0 gay (On he sper wounding P, [45 Ane” (where r=) and w €+0 (and coming a te pros ans ne welsh een Secor do nu ay mucin heal Se) the hem se Ign! van, wee eo em ele “LL. Ble-—eoen Eaton (8) en dso wy=3 | (tr0-o0! on ‘This formula gives the value of (P) at any poet in the flow, within the region Vin terms ofthe values of @ and 9/3 onthe boundaries. If, for example, the point P ies on the boundary Sy then in order to exclude the point from V. the inepration i cated out ony atound the Serounding hemisphere (submerged in V) with radius «and Eq. @.7) o¢r)= | ($90-001) nas ar [Now considera situation when the flow of interest occurs inside the boundary (of 5, and the resulng “internal potential” is, For this Bow the point P {whi is inthe region V) exterior toy and applying Eq (3.6) yields on2.[ (v0,-0,9!)-aus amy es,» pits outa om Sr A. fom of (27) tat ier the Mate he erp we atc sa 9 nd ayia hate ings wa ope a or * 40 =z, [ -9)-(0- ay! aas ar eh (MO OF ‘The contribution ofthe S. integral in Eq, (3.8) (when S. is considered tobe far from 5p) ean be defined as -(P) ouryn2.{ (tr0-e0!) nas 9 1 ae ‘This potential, wally, depends onthe selection ofthe coordinate system and, for example in an inertial syem where the body moves through an otherwise atonary ud & can be selected as «constant in the region. Aso, the wake Surface fs asumed to be thin, such that 3/2 is continuous across it (Which ‘means that no fuid-dymamic Toads wil be supported by the wake). With these ‘Ssumption: Eq. (3.8) becomes e40)= 2. no-9)-(0-096!} nas ‘As was sated before, Eq. (3.7) (oF Eq. (3.10) provides the value of ‘0(P) in terms of © and 96/5 on the boundaries. Metefore, the problem i reduced to determining the value of these quantities on the boundaries. For ‘example, considera segment ofthe boudary Sy as shown in Fig. 3.2: then the ‘erence between the external and internal potentials canbe defined 3s @, oyover 32 ‘The lot poe wd boda, snd the diferene between the somal deriva ofthe eteral nd itera erie 2828, or oe “hee clement ae ele doublet (x) and sores (o) and the miu sgn tel of the normal ves 8 pig int ST properties of hee ‘lemeotry liom wil be iesipatd in he falling scone, With ths Seino of Eq 11 and (22) BG) an be een os on) sin L [0)-me aed bs )jesreun SE St fe neue deci Sy tice by Sina cpae mods ‘Jas eur) Alot) man) Les so "Note that both source and doublet solutions decay as r—+s and automaticaly ‘ll the boundary condition of Eq. (3.3) In order to find the velocity potential in the region V, the strength ofthe dstribution of doublets and sources onthe surface must be determined. Also, Eq. 3.13) does nt specify a unique combination of sources and doubles fr & pticular problem and choke mast be made inthis matter (usually Based om the physi ofthe problem). ts possible fo requie that 39,30 ue ons, and in this case the source term on Sp vanishes and only the doublet ‘tribution remains. On the other hand, the potential can be defined such th %=0 oa5, oP) = =, ‘Genet soni or mi cours, ror ow eoUATING_ ST ‘nd in tis case the doublet term on Sy vanishes and the problem will be ‘modeled bya sures distribation on the boundary. ‘In the two-dimensional case the source potenti is @, shown in Section 3.7, andthe two functions of Eq. (3.5) become a wil be en at oe ow ‘Ao hep he iepion s rund a ie with ads € ad Osco oy) -[, (ar -02) as oars ertanends=0 (5) ‘esate of he ll cic rand Ps ow 2ne compared fe inte lennsne cae) nd Ea Gow cnr op) =— [carve-ovinn-nas 6.16) os I the point lies on the boundary Sy, then the integration i around & semicice with radius € and Eq. (3.16) becomes 1 oP) $ [neve -evinr)-mas G.160) whereas if Pis inside Sy the two-dimensional version of Eg (3.74) i 1 ae ‘With the definition ofthe fr field potential. and the unt elements 4 and @ being unchanged, 4, (3.154) forthe two-dimensional cate becomes een} { [om Zen]as {arve,-,vinr)-nas 166) Lf wZanessoury am Note that 2/2 the oiemation of the doublet as wl be illustrated in Section 3:7 and thatthe wake model Sy inthe steady. two-dimensional ting case i needed to represent a discontinuity in the potential ®, 33. SUMMARY: METHODOLOGY OF SOLUTION In view of Eq. (3.13) ((.17) in two dimensions), itis possible to establish fairy general approach to the solution of incompressible potential Bow problems. The most important observation s thatthe solution of T° =0 can be obtained by dsuibuting elementary solutions (wutces and doublets) onthe problem boundaries (Sp 8). These elementary solutions automaticaly ull {he Boundary condition of Eq. (3.3) by having velocity elds that decay as‘r+0, However, atthe point where r™=0, the velocity becomes singular, and ‘erefore the bai elements are ealed singular soltions. ‘The general solution requires the integration ofthese base solutions over any surface S containing these singularity clemente becase each element wil have an effect on the whole Bai fed. ‘The solution ofa fluid dynamic problem is now reduced to fining the ‘ppropriate singularity element distribution over some known boundaries, so ‘hat the boundary condition (Eq. (3.2)) will be filed, The ain advantage ofthis formulation isis straightforward applicability to nomercal methods, When the potential is specified on the problem boundaries then this type of ‘mathematical problem is called the Dirichlet problem (Kellogg? p. 288) and is frequently used in many aumercalsoltions (panel methods) ‘A'more direct approach tothe soliton, from the physial point of view, § to specify the zero normal flow boundary condition (Eq (3.2)) on the solid boundaries: This problem is known ae the Neumann problem (Kellogg, p 246) and inorder fo evaluate the velocity eld the potential i diferentiied ve aa 2") 8a es ‘))as+ve. 1s) ‘Agtin, the derivative 3/3 for the doublet indicates the orientation of the clement as will be shown in Section 3.5. Substituting this equation into the boundary condition of Eq. (3.2) can seve as the bass of nding the ‘unknown singularity distibation. (This can be done analytically oF ‘merical For a given set of boundary conditions, the above solution technique i ‘not unique, and many problems can be solved by using ony one type of singularity element or ‘any linear combination of the two. singular, ‘Therefore, in many situations additional considerations are requited e-p, the ‘method that will be presented in the next chapter to define the ow nea sharp trling edges of wigs). Also, in a parculartoltion a mixed use ofthe above boundary conditions is possible for various regions in the fowfeld (ep [Neumann condition on one boundary and Dirchet on another) tempting 10 apply this methodology to the solution of particular problems, the features of the elementary solutions are analyzed in {he next sctons. 34. BASIC SOLUTION: POINT SOURCE ‘One ofthe two basic solutions presented in Eq, (313) i the source/sink. The potential of such a point source element (Fig. 334), placed atthe origin of & Spherical coordinate system, ss o- a9) ‘The velocity du to this element is obtained by using Vin spherical coordinates cena OLIN GF NECN, FTEITAL ROW rovATENE 58 ftom Ea, (1.38). This wil result i a velocity eld witha radial component oly. a2) and, in spherical coordinates, 62 th lock inthe rial reson decays withthe ae of and ising ove show Fp 336 Comers res clenen of eng ote 1 cine.) The volumes ow te ough peal aac Sosa gar aperne uae 33 {Smt at seit Ho tn ‘Se y= pe ae.(@ Low senno arnaoyrasacs whore 437 isthe surface area of the sphere. The positive o, then, isthe volumetic rate at which uid is introdvced a the source, wherens s aeatve Ss is the rate at which fow is going into the snk. Note that this insoukcton oy ‘uid at the source violates the conservation of mass, therefore, this pot mast ‘be exlud from the region of saution, Ite point element i acted at» point ‘corresponding potential and velocity will be nd not atthe origin, then the Gm) oxy ‘The caesian form ofthis equation, when the elements located a 32), BETO eae OM ‘The velocity components ofthis source element sre or~ x) 1TH = Hea y=») GIGI FOG O25) oe 2) 2 FIR +O- Wea O20) ‘This basic point element can be iterated over a ine, a ste ora lume V to crete corresponding singularity elements that ‘can be ased for example to construct panel clements. Consequently. these clements can be ‘stablished by the following integra: ss sonal 0% 2 oan ered [aie aay Ciena shoe Stay om No tai 6:29.02, dren he mae eng Pei ii Cn aa ge os tn Ste itn Sal Pa eee Sonny (sy, 2) rey vts.y.2) 13 218 ele wOe.9.2) 8.3.2) or rm occa Fone AW oUATIONG 6H 3. BASIC SOLUTION: POINT DOUBLET “The second baie woltion, presented in Eq (3.13), 6 the doublet o=Ha-v(!) G2» A closer observation reveals that os et sent can be ements of wit sng Tis agent tat he dob . Spel tom he suet cme: Cones poo sat on Setar aletsshorn nig. 3.4 The penta pom due hse iociement i (i er by leting Now, bringing the source and the snk together by leting that iam», and pis rit, the potential becomes en) or sch ‘As the distance 1 approaches 2270, eet andthe diference in length between [| and ¢—I becomes (e-N= [p+ 008 0 men ‘Telnet of pit oe a ik oiax [Not that this doublet element is identical the second term appearing inthe fener equatin f the potential (E. (3.13), oF Eq. (3.28) Weis in the w 633) For example, for «doublet atthe origin, the doublet strength vector (0.0.0) aligned wih the «axis (= and, a cooeinater is om Furthermore, in cartesian coordinates, the arbitrary orientation of p can be expressed in terms of three generic unit doublet elements whose axes ate aligned with the coordinate directions: 0,0) 0.4.0) (0,4) ‘The diferent elements can be derived for each ofthese three doublets by using Eq, (3.32) or by aiferentating the corresponding term in Eq, (329) sing {Fn a the derivative inthe direction of the three aes, The velocity potential sid ie ceo eh gee eno 24) aay ‘Taking 5/30 i the x,y, and = directions yields : (35 ended (3 |G 039 | Sia] Veaad FO Fa Equation (9.34) shows that the doublet clement docs not have a radial Symmetry and it has a dtetional property. Therefore, in artesian coordinates three elements are defined each pointing in the x, y oF = directions (se. for ‘example the element pointing inthe x direction in Fig. 5). Ater perforin ‘exe SOA OFT NcoMNE roa ow Euan 63 Th Reset h sand «Sublet igi be Seni (eps ine? amal tengo he Pert the diferentiaton in Eq. (3.36) n the x dtetion the velocity potentials 965,92) = Eel a O22 37) “The rest of the diflereniation in he ydrecion i 916,9,2)-- 2G -wle-x0 +O-wte-T? 638) nd herent in the x Girectons Oey = Ze -aMle-2eF Hy W HE aIT 0.29) The velocity feld, due to an xdirectiona point doublet (1, 0,0) is istrated in Fig. 3.3. The velocity components due to such an element atthe ‘origin are easly described in spherical coordinates “The velacty components in cartesian coordinates for this doublet a ‘can be obtained by dilerentating the velocity potential in Eq. (337): aes iP + (2 ~ 2a)? = 2 — eu) 6 ax [le aa) HW Ce a su" e=x))= 9) a (= +0- we (12-2) Slew +0 we oe)(64 towsees ascomaece ‘Again, this basic point clement can be integrated over ine a surface § the corresponding singularity elements that can be ‘sed, for example, to construct panel elements. Consequently, these elements [ese for (0,0) canbe established by the following integrals Lf sory 200019) dl hig O-we-aP | OM Bf any 22 Bhi Ow Fe-o OM Af nlto.y sien av Leet Oo 3.6 BASIC SOLUTION: POLYNOMIALS Since Laplace's equation is a second order difercatial equation, @ near function of postion wil Be a solution, too Art By +Ce ow) ‘The velocity components duc to such a potential are 2. Fran, vn Ba ev, where Un, Va, and W. ae constant velocity componsnts inthe sy. ‘ection Hence, the velocity potential due constant fre-stteam flow in the direction i onus os and in general OU Vay Me 6 ‘Along the sume lines, ational polynomial solutions cam be sought ands an ‘example let's consider the second-order polynomial with A, By and C being Baar tate ce 6s) ‘To satis the continuity equation, Peaareec There ae a large combination of constants that will satisty this condition, However, ome combination where one of the constants is equal to zero (e+ '8=0) deserves an intersting flow condition. Consequently A=-c ng this result ino Eg, (3.53) the velocity potential becomes o= aut) os) ener sun crm NOMENA FOBT Rw ROUTING 6S “The velocity components fortis two-dimensional ow in the x-r plane are wa2de a0 we-2Ar os) “To visualize thie ow, the streamline equation (16a) is needed and substituting the velocity components yields ae ae, Pax” 2Az Integration by separation 3 variables results in 656) ay =coms. “The streamline for diferent constant values of D=1,2,3+ ate plated in Fig 36 and, for example, only the frst quadrant of the #-2 plane fonsidered, then the potential desribes the flow around a comme. Ifthe wpe fall of the x-2 pane is considered then ths ow describes a stagnation flow gst a wal, Note that when = z=0, the velocity components u=w =O ‘ansh too--vhich means that a stagnation pont is present atthe origin, and the coordi Seu ect by = oman, Note ha ch quate ees ow ce3.7_TWO-DIMENSIONAL VERSION OF THE BASIC SOLUTIONS Source. We have sen inthe tee-densiona case that source clement wil faves radial vetacy compos ony Tha, he tmosimenal 7 200). Ths drag data is a result of the skin friction and flow separation pattern, which i strongly affected by the Reynolds number, ‘Clearly, forthe laminar ows (Re = 2000) the drag is large owing to larger ow ‘eee Specht Type xen ress for he da coon or finer nd pe a» fain of ‘jc toner Fom Ret 15 Reproduce wi esc of Male separation behind the body, which is being reduced at dhe turbulent flow momentum transfer increases (Re > 0, see Scchting,"* p17). Note that the tise Mw results donot account for flow separation and viscous fiion near the body’s surface and therefore the ag eoeticien! fr both cinder and phere i zero. Ths fact disturbed the French mathematician oAlembert in ‘he mie ofthe seventeenth century, who arsved at this conelsion that the drag ofa closed body in two-dimensional inviscid incompressible ow is 270 (even though he realized that experiments esl in a finite drag). Ever since those early days of Aid dymamice this problem has Been Known a the Alember's paradox. 3.14, SURFACE DISTRIBUTION OF THE BASIC SOLUTIONS ‘The results of Sections 3.2 and 3.3 indicate that ¢solaton 1 the Bow over sbirary bodies can be obisined by distributing. elementary. singuatity ‘olution over the modeled surfaces. Prior to applying thi method o practical problems, the mature of each af the elementary solutions needs 10 be Investigated. For simpliciy, the twodimensional point elements will be 3.20) ter E[ Mom Om 1P wtx G.138) wool Haig 1 [weg BRT dey 6.39) wen 2 nea eee te that te velosty pte in EG.) et in fom tthe Spins of sue (E89) Appntng he wie, 0 ths ceman eet jump te veloky fel Tis nly ek 08). ou “This leads toa discontinvous tangential velocity component given by ast 08) = 22 0) = 3} om) Since the doublet distribution begins atx, the circulation T(x) around a path surrounding the sepment xy is ree [uinondns [Wee reue-xe) 010) which is equivaleat tothe jump in the potential Ta) = (4,04) = 86, 0-) = He @18) VORTEX DISTRIBUTION. In 2 similar manneistributon at a point P(x 2) ie an integral of the influences of the point ‘ements betwoen x= (ig. 321) Lf 4) tan” 144) ee.y-2 [tome om om) : i. oo iam on vee ew npn oe wy ini no B03) ‘and (157) and there i a jumpin this component as z= 0. The tangential ‘elocity components then tz, 08) = 2, 1) oe, 02) 22 ou “The contribution of this velocity jump tothe potential jump, assuming that © 0 abead of the vortex distribution s io senynoe.ts)-0.0)=[ anf wi seni ed eps) ro ee DesSe nec Tecenon-euey=sKw) eee eee och in an aa ee 7 au oe tion nb repaced 9 an equal’ doblet dba such that = date) a= G19) PROBLEMS Me a2 as. a as. Consider» dstnibation of wodimenionsl sources around 2 cele of radar ‘The ware strength 0) per nt ar length. Fd aan expression for the ‘eloaty potential of this source ng. Conse the two-dimensoal fo of «wir ram of speed U past x ware lof strength Q. Find the stagnation points) andthe equation of te stagraton Scale. Pod the wd ofthe generated semi Boy far dowmateam ‘Consider the two-dimensional flow due to x uifrm sen of speed Unite x ‘Sreton, 8 doce vortex of oxltion Fat (0,8), tad to eualstrengih ‘numerbcwse vor at (0.8). Find the stream fanson forthe mit B90 PS Gnd where 275 >, 3 conan Conder the twoimensional flow of «union sean of peed U log wall ‘eth Semieaar Damp of ras Fad thei o the bam. Cone the wo-dimensnl flow of unr steam of speed U pata ie of Iau with cclton Tin thet force the cea apt ofthe {ntglal momentum theorem forthe fd region in between the se and 3 coeente ce at alge distance an.CHAPTER 4 SMALL- DISTURBANCE, FLOW OVER THREE- DIMENSIONAL WINGS: FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM ne ofthe fr inpriant spion of potential fow her wa the Ming sures (wag) Sc te oundry cons on le ace fan consery compte the temp 10 sete pony anal teas some ampli sumptions ted to be inter Ins eopet ie stew b ede min oh nye emanating pote and hese forthe signin ‘technique will be set. ey ene 4.1 DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM Consider the ait wing sown in Fi, 4.1, which moving ata constant inan otherwise undnturbed fu. Acatnan code tem taached 0 the wing andthe components ofthe featean wlosy Q. ihe ry > ag oes Yo and We open. (eae Bow 8 seni nth cordint al of atk a ined wt ange ‘between the free-stream velocity and the x axis and fr the sake of simplicity side sip isnot included at this point (V.= 0), 1 tis assumed that the Muid surrounding the wing and the wake is iavacd incompresble and rotational te resting velocity field due tothe Thoton ofthe wing can be obtained by solving the contnaty equation ve a were isthe velocity potential a defined i the wing fame of reference {Note that "is the same’ 98 in Chapter 3 an the reason for introducing this Sotuion will become cleat i the next section) The boundary conditions ‘ei thatthe disturbance induced bythe wing wil decay fr from the wing lim 9a" = 0. «2 which is automatically fullled by the singular solutions (desved in Chapter 3) Tach at the source, doublet, or the vortex clements. Alb, the normal Component of veosty on the solid boundaries ofthe wing must be zero, Ths, ina frame of reference atached tothe wing, vor-n=0 63) where nis an outward normal tothe surface (Fig. 4.1). So, basically, the Dloblem redures to finding singularity distribution that will satisfy Eq, (83) ‘Goce this dtibution is found, the velosty q at each point in the fed is nowa and the sortesponding pressure p will be calculated trom the steady state Bernoul equation +8, por8 a ae phe “The analytical solution ofthis problem, for an arbitrary wing shape, i complicate bythe eit of specitying boundary condition of Eq. (4.3) ona faved surface, and by the shape of a wake. The need for a wake model follows immediatly from the Helmholtz theorems (Section 2.8), which state that voray cannot end or sat in the fluid, Consequently, ifthe wing i Inodeled by singularity elements that wil intzoduce vor (as wil be showalater in this chapter, these need 10 be “shed” into the fw in the form ofa wake “To overcome the difcuty of defining the zero notml flow boundary condition oa an abiary wing shape ome siping assumptions re mae Inthe next section, 42_ THE BOUNDARY CONDITION ON THE WING In order to satisfy boundary condition of 9. ($3), on the wing, the geometrical information about the shape of the solid boundaries i required, Tet the wing solid surface be defined st eo ntey) as) and in the case of a wing with nonzero thickness wo sich functions ill dese the upper (7) and the lower (7) surfaces (Fig. 4.2) In onder to find ‘he normal to the wing surface, a function F(x, y, 2) can be defined such th Foe. y.2)m2 (2,9) =0 «9 8nd the outward normal onthe wing upper surface i obtained by using Eg (226) a iva" heres onthe lower surface the outward normal is —m ‘The velocity potential due to the fre'stream low can be obtained by ‘sing the solution of Eq. (3.52) On Ut Mes as) and, since Eq. (6.1) is linear, it solution can be divided into two separate parts «7 or nore. as) Substituting Eqs. (4.7) and the derivatives of Eqs. (48) and (4.9) into the roune 42 eft fr wing thes epper and twee ‘isso eon combi Wty suuesmnice now ova marconeniinal wnt 9 ‘poundary condition (Eq. (6.3) requiring no flow through the wing's solid ‘oundaties result in| SF (20, y, 20,20, an ay ae 1 ve" mm vo" BB ivr 410) ‘The intermediate result of this brief investigation is that the unknown is the perturbation potential ®, which represents the velocity induced hy the ‘motion of the wing in 2 stationary ffame of reference. Consequently the ‘quaton forthe perturbation potential is, vo=0 any and the boundary conditions onthe wing surface are obisined by rearranging 90/32 in Eq, (10) Woonzen (412) introducing the classical small-dturbance approximation wil allow 1s 0 further simply this boundary condition, Assume aged ael lorl Teel, ‘Ten, from the boundary condition of Eq. (4.12), the folowing restrictions on the geometry wl follow: a Blew fiat "mca ha ting mtb hin amp 1 cd. Ab, eon pM emg se ae Sf aie ‘20 pets emmy ot ‘ang reson and cing We sd Ueno Suny cnn aE) bed To mh wae, (413) una~aci (4.14) (15) It is consistent with the above approximation to also transfer the ‘boundary conditions ffom the wing surface to the x-y plane. This it sccomplised by a Taylor series expansion ofthe dependent variables, 6, 30 20 7 Feuzem= Zier O0+nT Sis % 040) (616) ‘Along with the above smallsturbance approximation, only the fst term92 somes aco NS from the expansion of Eq. (6:16) is used and then the first-order approxima tion of boundary condition, Eq, (4.12) (no products of small quantities are ‘ep, becomes, ent=04(2-2) an a 'A more precise treatment of the boundary conditions (forthe two- imensional aro problem) including proceeding to a higher-order ap- proximation wil be-coasidred in Chapter 7. 43_ SEPARATION OF THE THICKNESS AND THE LIFTING PROBLEMS [At tis point ofthe discussion, the boundary condition (Ea. (4.17) is defined fora thin wing andi linear. The shape of the wing is then defined by the ‘onfouts of the upper, and lower m surfaces as shown in Fig. 42, sente.9) ) zante) (4.188) “This wing shape can also be expressed by using thickness function mand a camber fonction m, such that n= Mntn) (4199) nein) 199) “Therefore the upper and the lower surfaces of the wing can be specited Alternatively by using the local wing thickness and eamberline (Fig, 4.2) (4200) (4206) 'Now, the linear boundary condition (Eq, (4.1) should be specified for both the upper and lower wing srlces, (sata) 20) “The boundary condition a infinity (Eq. (42), forthe perturbation potential ®, now becomes imvo: Gate) (4.19) a6 well as the boundary condo tis possible to solve thee simpler sou oerumvce naw ov mneconaamens wo 98 & ——_,, ‘ cue 43 — Brenna of te a canted 2 O60 Seale mp at poten ar ae ree ample rene problems and superimpose the thee separate solutions according t© Eqs (G2ia), and (4.210), ae thown schematically in Fig. 43. Note that this ‘decomposition ofthe solution is valid only ifthe small-liturbance approxima tion is applied to the wake model aswell These thre subproblems ae: 1. Symmetric wing with nonzero thickness at zero angle of attack (fect of tBicknes) vo, an withthe Boundary condition: 2, on, eG, y,02)- 420. 42) where + is forthe upper and ~ is forthe lowe surfaces 2. Zero thickness, uncambered wing at angle of attack (effect of angle-of- attack) 9,0 429 2, Bee, y,08)~-O.0 «29 2. Zero thicknes,cambered wing at 20 ange of attack (eet of camber) va,-0 429) Bey y,04)— 2, 22 (x, 08)= 2 ‘The complete solution for the cambered wing with nonzsro thickness at sn angle of attack is then az 92040540, ay Of course, for a. (428) to be valid al three linear boundary conditions have ‘o be flied atthe wings projected area on the =O plan.94 conser arcomnacs 44. SYMMETRIC WING WITH NONZERO THICKNESS AT ZERO ANGLE OF ATTACK Consider a symmetric wing with «thicknes distribution of (x,y) at ero Shale of attack, as shown in Fig, 44. The equation t0 be solved is ve-0 429) Here the subscript is dropped for simplicity. The approximate boundary condition 1 be flied atthe z 0 plane 40) ‘The solution of this problem can be obiained by distributing base solution elements of Laplace's equation. Because of the symmetry. as ‘xplained in Chapter 3, a souce/sink distribution can be wsed to model the ‘Sow, and should be placed atthe wing section centerine, as shown in Fig. 4. Reval hatte potential duc to such a point source element 0, as) where ris the distance from the point singularity located (t,o 5) (86 Sesion 3.4) Pe VGH FO Tea? 63) [ow if these elements are distributed over the wins projeted area onthe IP plane (oO) the veloty potential a an arbitrary point (9, 2) willbe 1 olen, 0) dod : Liverattooe | O# Note thatthe integration i done over the wing oly (no wake), The normal vloaty component w(x, y, 2) obtained by diferennting Ex. (4.35) frit espet 1 0 9.= 230 ott. dade I Ee ae heal WP HEP °. les, nour * gem arbitrary spans location y 438 SHALL ORTURAACH NOW OWE TEEOUREIOKA mE : Neca moti ens te protien ty suelo nx M90 mit oes oud Ge Seon 3.10 ad he z ‘where + #8 08 the upper and — is on the lower surface of the wing, respectively “This felt can be obtained by observing the volume flow rate duc to 8 ‘x long. and. Ay wide source clement with a strength ofs,y). A two- dimensional section view is shown in Fig. 6. Following the defition of a tur seme Sion’) he vom ow pried y ths elon! i w(x 95 08) = him w(x y,2)= 4 282? 435) B= ole, ye dy ‘But as de—0 the ux from the sides becomes negligible (at 2 =O) and only ‘the normal velocity component w(,y, 0) contributes to the source ux. The fabove volume ow feeds the two sides (upper and lower) of the surface ‘ement and, therefore E~ 2w(x,y, 0+) dx Ay. So by equating this how rate ‘with that proved bythe source distbution, B= 2w(s,y, 04) Ar Ay = olx,y) Ax Ay we obtain asin way dayne 22) as Sins temp) nouns 46 pent fs wee dition onthe == 0 peSubstituting Ea. (4.38) nto the boundary condition results in oy) 2 Bu, an, Bee, 08)=4 Mo, ots 20.2% oo 436) So in this case the solution forthe source distribution i easily obtained after substituting Eq. (4.3) info. Eq. (4.33) for the velocity, potential and Gierenating to obtain the velocity el ands.) 2b 99 ay 0. oe 7 Meroe Lemoore | ) ands. 99) rm Sl geen 0) 96 Lama tel nls.) wenn ate os 1ST Ira AF FWP ew nis.) wtoy Sef a Oe Malem + tee a ‘The presure distribution due to this solution willbe derived later, but it ‘easy to observe that since the pressure field i symmetic, there is no Hit produced due to thickness 4.5_ ZERO THICKNESS CAMBERED. WING AT ANGLE OF ATTACK—LIFTING ‘SURFACES Here we shall solve the two linear problems of angle of attack and camber together (Fig. 47). The problem to be solved is ve=0 423) ih founda conto requiring 0 Row aco he re eae at 39, Poay.0% ‘This problem is anisymmetic with respect to the #ditection and can be AuLoRTURIACE Row Ove TEE NNEONAL HCA 97 A Ponsetieses on” i i seit Y solved by a doublet distbution or by a vortex distibution. These basic Singularity clements are solutions to Eq. (4.29) and full the boundary ‘ondtion (Eq. (02)) at infinity. AS mentioned in Section 29, vortex lines ‘annot begin nd terminate inthe Hid. This means that if he Uting problem {sto be modeled with vortex elements they cannot be terminated at the wing tnd must be shed info the flow. In order to not generate fore in the ud, these fee vortex elements must be parallel to the fea flow direction, at any ‘point on the wake. (This observation i based onthe vector product QT in Eq. (G113)) In the following section two methods of representing liting problems by a doublet or vortex dstrbution are presented. Also, as consequence ofthe {mall-diturbance approximation, the wake i taken tobe planar ad paced on ‘ez =0 plane DOUBLET DISTRIBUTION. To establish the ling surface equation i tems ‘of doublets the various directional derivatives of the term 1/r inthe base ‘oublet solution have to be examined (see Section 3.8). The most suitable ‘ierentation is with respect to 2, which results in doublets pointing in the = ‘Gzection that ereate a presufe jump in this direction. Consequently, this ‘nteymmetic point element placed at, 2) will be used: wl, we ~ 2) aa ew 0-H ‘The potential at an arbitrary point (x,y,z) de to these elements distributed ‘over the wing and its wake, as shown in Fig 48 (2)=0), s 0 92), 1 OTL ie ‘The velocity i obtained by diferentiating Eq (4.43) and leting :—+0 00, the wing. The lnit for the tangential velocty components was derived innouns 4 nt model os te imenio wig Section 3.14, whereas the fimit proces fF the normal velocity component is ‘mote elaborate (ae Ashley and Landa" p14). : a, y, 08) = we 7.08) Fo 5 20282 le.) wee Piel haar To comtrc the integral equation forthe amknown (9), sate (4.44) imto the left-hand side of Eq. (4.41): a0 . 1 ls) geo Y= WF ode (4.48) (en9 ‘ore oe The strong singularity ddscused in Appendix C. Y= in the integrals in Eas. (4:44) and (6.45) is VORTEX DISTRIBUTION. According 1 this model, vortex line distributions wil be used over the wing and the wake, as in the case of the doublet ues 49 Fone vores forthe ing sre mide istibution. This mode is physically very easy to construct andthe velocity ‘Goes wortcx line elomeat dl with strength of AT wll be compated by the Biot Savart law (rs defined by Eq (4.32) arexat an rx) Now if vortices ate distributed over the wing and wake (Fig. 4.9), then if tose elements that pont in the 9 dtection are denoted as 7, and inthe # (dnccon as 7, then the component of velocity normal to the wing (down swash), induced by these elements i BL, EO aay, way appears that in this formulation there are two unknown quantities per point Giorp) compared to one (1) in the cae of the doublet distribution. By Slag tothe Helmholtz vortex theorems (Seton 29) vortex strength i onwant along a vortex line and if we consider the vortex distribution onthe ing to cont of large numberof infinitesimal vortex lines then at any point n/Or and the nal number of unknowns at point is "As nas thown eater (in Section 3.14) fra vortex distribution, 30 _ 1h») ua, 9,08) = SP = 4 OS «a (ta) weno100, sowsexen asmorwanes ‘The velocity potential on the wing at any point x (y= y= coms.) can be ‘obtained by integrating the x component of the velocity along an wise line begining atthe leading edge (L-E) (95 081 [seo mosra, ass wo soe [ rte a0e us ‘cami ings qin re nao 7 eign downvash of Eq. (446) most be equal and opposite in ign tothe normal ‘omponent ofthe free-stream veloc a nlr=n) + ys») BL eG 2) «0 Solution for the unknown doublet of vortex strength in Eq. (445) of Eq, (G30) allows the caelation of the velosiy dstibution. The method of ‘obtaining the corresponding pressure distribution is described in the next 46 THE AERODYNAMIC LOADS Seiion of th eorenentoned problems (ef. te tne ot Wig fren rash wkcly neato Sban ‘he suum Ke proms med ob tnd 0) ang th Bru eases te (ca. n the eeymi ott tan eed cee ing {020 fw cordon sen I hs ceo su detent: Bor et np noon the hing onan selected swe nF ‘hey sy pute fl tenn continuo eee ‘ry and he eatin ea a= (cceoe 28,28, 28 Cl mALLONTUREANCE OW OWE TEEONNGIONA wm 101 Substiuting q into the Bernoul equation (Eq. (4.4) and taking ato account the smalk disturbance sumptions (Eqs. (4.13) and (4.14), and a <1) yields Pq 02 p.-p=fe@'-02) cos a+ 20.c0s0 52 + (22)' (22)" cs +(ns “The pressutecoeicient C, can be defined as pape po at stagation point @=0- and C,=0. The aerodynamic toads, then, can be calculated by taegrating the pressures over the wig surface: Ge ro [pas a ‘Wien the surface shape is given asin Eq (4.6) then the normal to the surface i given by Eq. (47), which with the smalldsturbance approximation becomes: Consequently the components ofthe force Fcan be defined as ai sie, and comet no[ (2 rBlew sy s=[ (2-2) ae os raf mae «sn ewe the subscripts u and [represent the upper and lower wing surface, respectively. Aerodynamics frequently refer to the forces ia the feee-stream ordinates (Fig. 410), and therefore these forces must be wansformed ‘cordingly. For the smalldstubance case the angle of attack is small and ‘herefore the Hit and drag forces are D=Reosat Bina L=-Rsina+ Room a=F,[Note that the evaluation of drag by integrating the pressure distribution is ‘omdere fo be less ascurate than the above formulation forthe Hi. ‘the case when the wing is sumed tobe thin the pressure ditference across the wing Ap is evaluated (postive Ap isin the + direction) as 90-)-[pe-0-28te3.00] Bp =P Pa Po cl “on Ifthe singularity distribution is assumed tobe placed on the x-y plane then the presure diflerence becomes Source itibution. Because of symmety, a 2, e,y,08) = 2265 9,0) a eee a Se ) 2400) - FB ee : ee ee ®, ‘Vere tbat, For the vores ton onthe x lane she presre Nest tehmscied wah vor baton 775) whch psn they ‘retin such at 2 = +h, os, 08)= 214) therfore, the pres irene esos _ avo “The serodymamic moment can be derived ina similar manner and 38 an ‘example the pitching moment about the y axis for a wing placed atthe = =O mouLosrunnnce now ova naeoneiNAL we 108 plane ie seen [_apeecs aw LUnally, the serodynamic loads are presented in a nondimensona form. In the eae of the force coeiciems whete Fis either It, drap, oF side force the the corresponding coeficients will have the form Fe . os (son) ‘whore Sis a reference area (wing planform area for wing). Similarly the Tondimensonal moment coetcent becomes 4a) Here, again M can be a moment about any arbitrary axis and bis a zterence moment arm (wing Span). 47. THE VORTEX WAKE. ‘The analysis followed upto this point suggests that by using distributions ofthe clementay solutions of Laplace's equation, the problem i seduced to fading + foumbination ofthese elements that wil sat the zero normal ow boundary onditon on slid surfaces, However, as in the case of the How over a ylindet (Section 3-11), the solution snot unique and an arbitrary valve canbe selected forthe ciraltion F This problem 6 ilustrated for the aif n Fig. 411, herein case (a) the erulation is zero. In ease (b) dhe cucalation i uch that ‘edge (TE) seems tobe paral at the ede. In ease (¢) rd near the telling edge (this can be achieved, for example, by blowing). W. M. Kutta (German ‘mathematician who was the fst t0 ure this tetiing edge condition in ¢ ‘heoretial paper in 1902) suggested that from the physical poiat of view, ease (©) seems to result in the night amount of circulation, The Kast condition thas States that The low leaves the sharp railing edge ofan arfolsmoorhly andthe Twlocy there is inte, For the current modeling purposes this can be Interpreted thatthe flow leaves the T-E- along the bisector line there. Abo, Since the tailing edge ange finite the normal component of the veloc ftom both sides of te aol, must vanish. For a continuous velooty, thi sible ony if this stagnation point. Therefore, ts wef to assome that ‘he pressure diference thee is also zero pre =O 4) ‘Additionally if the ctculation ie modeled by a vortex distribution, then this can(Te ss Sn) on at eae aig ee (Bow wi hei to gern a ee 9, be expresed as rre20 (403) For ped ing ce (hore he angle eo nF. 4.12) ‘mo Hd even though te ligege acd ot be wagon poh Next, consider the liting wing of Fig. 49. As was shown ia the cse of the cling ecalon nected i gnc Asante ee sutton iat wed to model the It is placed on the wing asthe Yoeed Vortex (9), where the subscript designates the drectn of he creation {esor, But, scoring to Himba’ theorem » votes ae samo bog ei in the Bud, and any change in (ey) must be allowed by Ay ea Shoe 6.9) Comeau, eng wl be motel by cas ‘eength vores ies and is change inthe lc stengih of .tr 9) Sneed then an addtional vores line wi (or bent by 9 tera, line willbe ade (or the wot ine bom by 90°) rls 9) _ Byte y) ye 499 ow sar ped alge, “wsuomunnnce nw ont rts omagion ees 105 “This condition can also be obtained by requting thatthe Now above the wing be vority free. Ths the vortex dsrbuton indaced velocity at point Signy above (2 =04) the wing is 09) BED) ss) 12.) : vt09)= 28 (ses node than the Bow resulting fom this ore dstbton be very fee vem 44) (Pte) dete. oe (area a ich exactly the same result of Eg. (4.6. "The physical meaning i that any change in vorticity in one direction must be followed by a change in anormal diection (as shown in Fig. 4.13, where the wing and the vortex lines ae in the x-y plane). Consequently all vortex lines must be ether iafitely Tong lines or closed vortex rings. In the case of the wing thi means thatthe lifting vores (bound vortex eannot end atthe tring (ese. atthe fp) and must be extended behind the wing into wake Forthermore, fora iting wing a starting vortex erated that may be located far downstream ‘Next, the wake shape must be coasigered. Ifthe wake is to be modeled tyra vorter sheet (fee vortex sheet) then from physical coasidrat be diferent from the bound circulation by not creating loads. The presure dierence scons the sheet is obtained by a generalzation (with vector tation) of Eq, (459), and if there is no pres diference across the Norte shet then p= paxr=0106, cow ssnomancs aero (608) where = (Yay): This means that the velaiy onthe wake must pall othe wake vortices. : a ‘This consideration willbe very helpful when proposing some sim modes forthe iting wing problem inthe following chapter = ‘A small disturbsnce approximation applied tothe wake model results in oxy (6.65) 48 LINEARIZED THEORY OF SMALL- DISTURBANCE COMPRESSIBLE FLOW ‘The potential fow model was based 30 far on the assumption of an incompresile ui. Inthe case when the disturbance tothe Now small ty Dosible o extend the methods of incompressible potenti ow to covet case Ini aml fete of compresbity (eloped uae ow). ‘To lnvestigate this possibilty, the continuity equation (Eq. (121) x reweten fa meni ¥ equation (Eq. (1.21) is rewritten Bed ed (en and the inviscid momentum equations (Eqs. (1.31) are (4.680) Cr) oiee (48) For an senopi i he popaston speed ofthe dsurbance «(ped of ‘sound) can be defined as. mae oe ‘ 2” 5p td comcauetly the pres’ forms inthe momentum equation cat be replaced (¢.g., “ 4) ustosrmnnce now ov mesons woes 107 respectively, and adding them together leads to 20 2, 288 adh Be BU aye ey we et wt aa a ae ay ai 4 a + a wa on oe Replacing the right-hand side withthe continuity equation and rca inotationaity condition (Eq, 212), V>¢q™= 0), results in 3 sing the velocity potential © a defined in Eq. (2:19), and assuming feeestream velocity Qs parallel 10 the + sxe (hus Q. Becomes U.), and that the velocity perturbations cased by the motion ofthe body in the uid are stall, we ge PbS lael0)= GMD 475) “nm oun 4 Moan eet me in which indicates tht a higher speed the lit slope is increasing as shown by Tig 414. Also, note that according to Eq. (474) the = coordinate i being fetched asthe Mach number iacreases and therefore the results for M=0 ind M>O are for wings of diferent aspect rato. ‘Based on the resus of Fig. 4.14 (for + two-dimensional afl), for small-disturbance flows the potential Bow based models ofthis chapter are anpliable atleast up to Ma 06. REFERENCES 4, Aly, 3 tn Landa, ME, Aerie of Wingy and Bar, Adon Wee. PROBLEMS: 444, Comider » two-dimensional partic cambedine with € being i maximum ght The equation of the camerine ithe: andthe feestream components in the sil tame of reference ate (Un, Bese the formula forthe corde poral vector © and the exact boundary ‘Sonne onthe camberine (by wing Eq 410). 42, Atwodimensonal dnbstion of doublet rented in the veri! detion, with nant strength w= (0,5 placed along the x ws (O< <=). Show hai “ruber urbton edema os post Yrtox at he ong and ate == What Fike seengh of the pit vores? 43 Show tat a verter station of stength ye) along the x ai <<) ‘ualat to's dation of doubles oriented ia the vertical decom, ond the ‘engh of his doubt datsbation wted= ff reddsy cae (bow that both singular dsrbains have the sae veloty potential and ‘eloty fet)CHAPTER 2) SMALL- DISTURBANCE FLOW OVER TWO-DIMENSIONAL AIRFOILS: flow problem can be obtained by superimposing clementary Laplace's equation. Thus, the solution consists of finding the “right” combing tion of these. clementary solutions that will fulfil the 2610. notmal ow ‘boundary condition. Using this approach, in the previous chapter the smallistarbance problem for a wing moving with 3 steady motion was ‘stablshed. This treatment alowed us 10 separate the problem into the solution of two linear subproblems namely the thickness and ling problems In this chapter the simpler two-dimensional ease of both the aif with nonzero thickness at zero angle of attack andthe iting vero-thickness afl wil be solved, by using analyeal techniques. These solutions ean then be ‘ded to yield the complete small-disturbance solution forthe ow past thin ‘io $4. SYMMETRIC AIRFOIL WITH NONZERO THICKNESS AT ZERO ANGLE OF ATTACK Consider the two-dimensional symmetric sito, with & thickness distribution ‘of n(x), a zero angle of attack, a shown in Fig. SI, The velocity fed wll be ae nicosrumace now oe meonanaons sates 11 oy “nie ‘or ape of ao obtained by slvng the continuity equation: ve=0 6 wih the boundary condition requiring thatthe ow sormal tothe airfoil upper (Gn) and lower surface (=) Be ze: eu oxy- 4 Buon-2Ho. 62) ‘Tis equation actually sates that the sum of the feeestream and the sift indueed normal velocity components zero on the surface w(s, 08) Equation (5.2) i the two-dimensional version of the three-dimensional thnundary condition (Eq, (4.0) and is the perturbation velocity potenti Recal thatthe boundary condition has been transfered tothe 20 plane ‘Aso the boundary condition requtng thatthe disturbance du to the afi ‘sil eaay far from it (Eq. (4.)) 8 n0t stated because it i automaticaly futile by the source element Because of the symmetry ofthe problem (relative tothe z= 0 plane) the we of a source dntibution fe selected that inherently has such a symmettie feature, These sources ae placed on the x axis from x= O10 6 a shown in Fig. 52. The potential of a source distribution can be obtained by observing the potential due to single source element of strength dy, located a (Fo, 0) on 3tir Sava a Sein esa +21 6sAID onaeen sence ‘The lca rail velosty component 4 duct this element a an a (x, 2) is (the rower ' sda 6 in cartesian coordinates this can be resolved into the x and £ directions as (Gm) sn Bscor8) The Same es Can oe Genpeeten dont i can be obtained by ieremtatng Bae te i) aon ro) As shown in Fig. 52, the sill hicknes fest & modeled by a te creation become F=0.0r(4+4) 69) Tet per a pani obtained tom E38 andi 639) ‘This equation indicates that only the fst two terms ofthe ctulation (shown in ig 5.10) wl have an effest onthe lift and the Integration over the sro of {he higher-order terme wil cancel out. The pitching moment about the y ais x postive fora clockwise rotation; therefore, a minus sign needs tobe icladed ‘then calcoltng the moment Mo relative to the ails leading edge mon [oonee= nou nO os) Sin 60 =o [-$r+2 [ yosnooneae] ‘After some trigonometric manipulation this results in $1405 0%(Aun+a.2 (sm128 cowsusn seroomnacs any ing het or ew sonia (aras-4) ro {i moe M ot eS n tt oh Seeman Womire neseteck Th or pe ed te i en he amet Sn Siem ad te it ames worse ino wich et fe 60 TL 4 «i Ae Similarly the aril section aerodynamic coetiients can be derive: a 6.3) ry ‘An observation of the coecients of the circulation (Eqs. (5.51) and (6.52) reveals that ony the fist term Ay isa funcuon of angle of attack a. Substituting Ay ino the If coeicent equation yells 40.08) gg As [Agreed ‘Also, fr a Mat plated, /dx=0 and thus al terms, except 2a, in Eq. (5.65) wil vanish. Therefore, the terms including the effet ofthe eamberline ae independent of angle of attack and are a constant fora particular chorline shape. This allows us to write the lit coefcient ax G=2aa-a,) 6) where ay, is called the zero-it angle and is 4 function of the camber. Substituting the value of A fom Eq. (5.52) yields sn (05) 1 fee eur Beexo-nae on ALLOMTURBaNe Fo oven wooneNERNA ato 129 By using the B, coefficients of Eq. (5.50) the lif eoetcient becomes ci=2r(0-1,+%) a) ‘Comparing ith Eq. (5.66) indicates tht the zeroit angle can realy be obtained 3 an.= y= (547) ‘The it slope can be defined as 68) Equations (5.66-5.68) show two-dimensional stoi is 2m, and thatthe eamber will have an effect similar to an angle of attack increment ay, but wil not change the it slope. ‘Next, the pitching moment coeticient (Eq. (.64)) can be rewriten, sing the formula fr the lit eoeticient (Eq. (5.62) hus G « +504: Ay) 66) Since the coefciens Ay, Az ae independent of angle of attack, only the fist teem inthis equation depends on a. Therefore, if the moments ar calculated relative to the airfoil quarter-chord point the first term in this equation disappears and the moment at this point becomes independent of angle of ack. This pont i called the aerodynamic center 2 and according 10 thin firfo theory it is located at the quarter chord. Consequently the pitching moment measured at this point is only due tothe second term in Eq, (5.69) (670) 3 for some simple chordlne shapes is demonstrated in the following examples ample I: Fiat plate, As fet example, consider the hin iting mode of symmetic iro that represented by ai plate shown a Fi. 12). For thi para ese thee no camber abd mlz) 0-Conseqent al terms bang ‘raves ofthe camberine wil vanish and the culo secets bene Ane Aran no om ‘Te Seuatin For the at pate sii hen on andthe ft and moment ae obained by substting Eq, (5.71) to Eas. (5.59)130 owsresp atnoomatocs este and bay cor fr tpi ta ange of tk and (5.6; Lx. = ime on Mer -rOla a 14 eM and pig moment eft a Gate an 67) dhe i slope is apnin 2 as was show in Ea (566). The ene of preset feat om ‘Tis fo the symmetric hin aco, the center of prestre and the serodyamie sate ae lated athe quarter shod oat Because ofthe tarfr ofthe Boundery condition the #0 plane, te ii traling oF lating edge canbe at a ceria sal dstance om sane (er longa ni) <0) Asan example, lets save the problem nthe fee seam ‘ordinate tm. a shown in Fig 5128 Inti the fee seam sage a ‘stacks eo, bat the cord can be expres wenn > ‘Substuing this iato Eg, (1) and (2) ies Ava and Aaya a0 which he sume rest ain Eq, (8.71). The bth methods wl ead tothe same este. For the symmetric sil tbe prestue coeicien dierence AC, can be found tom (54a) by subsiating A, and the correrponingeclsion 7m ‘snivommunamce nom over woonmnion smo 13K “6 6 erste tn ems (ith Eg (5.45) this becomes el i rman rn Fi 6 US comperon it ade wih the seal of more acute mhod (eg pe fretted) for NACA G2 sync sil. Tater tht the pre itecme i doy reid ove mst ofthe aia. Nest the eating eg, twee, the ar ne teon wpa th mal hot acute here ‘Example 2: Thin scl with «parable camber. As an example for 3 simple {empmmeticchordine supe coo the puabliccamerine shown in Fi Sirah eben san height. The eatin ofthe camera then 6m some om132 towne sercomners ad the camber pee sqresing this rm by ing he anstonmation 00) get 2 gal ‘Th coins A canbe fund by subting ths no Es (1) and (5 Becate of the orbogona nature ofthe itera fscosn ck mad al ty were m il vans, So ths cs when m= and ony the fet atonal coset wi be nonzero Ande An0 Tis et canbe found immediately by compasing Eq (330) wth te camber ope 65 Acosint)=£c059 Therefore, clearly By = 4e andthe other Boece’ ae ze ‘The it andthe moment ofthe puro camber sol canbe obtained by subtiuing these rent into Es (3.3) ad ( bxpoine(a+28) oe Mx pin (a+45 co) snd he coespontng sry cen ae Ge2s(0¥24) co) cun-F (oe!) 9 When comping this rest for the Ht wth Eg (5.66) the zeros al es (546 the erosional found os ‘hs means ha ths si wil ave sr ER when i pce oa ete Age of stack with» magade of ere = sinwormimncr now over meonmions anions 1 “The center of pres obtained by ving the moment bythe (x) Note tat at =O the center f presse the midchord and asthe ange of ‘Muck incest oven wed te quater hod Abo, inthis ease the pitching momen abou he aerodynamic centr can be lott ng B.(.M. sm Fa-ay wich nates tha the porto fhe momen tht independ of the age [eid tei wah nceed carat (nee mre) of th caer sample 3: Flapped stl, On of the mos frequent asd conto devises the teing.edge fap. The reason for mounting mich device a the ality ge ‘an be obved by examining the (oe =) term fo Eq (7) Ti pes thatthe sero angle s mos iadutnced By the aliedgesepon whete (4 tettore elavely small defections of the Aap atthe ang ede wil "To demontate the elect ofthe tinge ap comider the following sinple example Here the ain sf plane placed onthe «as, and a8 ‘horse postion fc the Bap i deaed by 8. an shown ia Fig 18. The Tring eg of the dered ari now nt the tas But Owing othe Small Gturbancespproanation of he Weunday condo te ero due 1 he {Se ofthis cordnte system ie within the scracy of thin ao theory. med that te soi contiuous, tnd thee 0 sup athe ap binge pan. “The wope of he camber for he cce shown fn the are for 0 eye ‘Te ceticens of as. (S51 and (5.52) ate computed ow only betwen the range resi in Avsat [odenar dao tom) ten-2 f nanan hss emu) 3 sing the vas of he the A, cet to Ea (542 (5.64) the lift and pitching moment coefficients are obtained: a Geaxfasal(i-8) odoinn} om Gun fera (tf) han Zenan] toon sing = 0m es ft a ie ob =item aye ama om Sey=He= 8) +2808,-16n2N18, 599 ‘Te nem th monet he sedan cen, 8, dt te deflection, is obtained using Eq. (5.70) as = C.,.= [hin 20,— Lin 8, 699) 5S THE LUMPED-VORTEX ELEMENT Based on the reaults obtained for the lifting symmetrical aco (at plate), itis Dosible to develop a simple “iting element.”"The vortex dtrbution se such 8 fat plate aro can be obtained from Eq, (348) ae 1O)= 20.1 288 oo hich shown schemata in Fig 5.160. From far Sd pinto view, this Can be fplaced ya single otex ih the same sees ee Sine the if ofthe nme ton L= 90.0 ‘ass a the center of pressure (atthe quartershord for the fat plate), the concentrated vortex is placed thee the iting Bat plate i to be represented by only one vortex F, then the ‘boundary condition requiring zero normal low at the surface can be spected sunummimiaace Row owt moon anos 13S t a uo ol he uae “tamed” this point at a distance kc along the x st only one pont to. Assuming that this pot Keston tus (Fig. 5166) then the boundary condition of zer0 normal velocity can be ‘pecied as + an 698) 5 order forts mode 10 simne the reas of the shin if he Seetpondag wae of the canton fora fat pate (Eq (822) Some thos ‘The solution of this equation provides the point at which the boundary enultion needs to be specified, which is called the collocation point: bel 69) pre ks that account forthe [Note that this representation is based on resus th : Xa odin st he lig ede Th the main eon for Some of the food approximations that can be obtained when wsing ths model, Some of fhe advantages of using ths ling element for the estimation of some {erodynamic effects are shown in the folowing examples. pe: Tandem Toe ppt of hse ml in be ‘Stent eves taf eri Sem one Spt Seas onc ow se poe yd Ta136 onaeen sencomacs ampotiatex mde or tanem siros ‘0 boundary conions atthe two colcaon pins, which regi tha the ‘ermal yeloaty component wil be nro ae msc m0" The nae se ‘pont a each elloation pn eon of the nea ef te oo vrs oh ieee tomal component then peste te pe (10m) 100) ‘The soaton of his ten is ee fe (sam ‘Thus ety the nt lbs larger it due to the upwash indice by the second nfl, and beaise of he mame bat evened interaction the eos ed ‘have les it. As, this eet stronger when the fos oe cose and he Interaction wil disappear asthe dtance inrese, The mporans of tie sgh is that the immediate eects of the Tandem sil configuration cou be ‘timated with mine ert Example 2: Gromd eft. Anoer simple example & the all near the sow wh dy ig te mermaid S10) it sete a aight steumine at he gown plan, to metal ene aifols ate cooideed. Again, sing the lumped voor element, eno ‘elosty composes atte callbation pom do toe nad wore “T/an(2) Phe ntvence ofthe image ve, wich hese tne wee inthe opie deco nd located as nce 2h tthe pinay eae, Emo-w Here r= VAR"FET isthe distance ftom the image eRe tothe exlocton Poin, and sin =(e2}r-Requing that the sumo te contascns oe uicojmumnce now ove mconasiosa sous HIT rouee 518 ‘peor md foro aa in ros sormal locity component the colocation point is er ils +t sent e-a+ 00-0 10 Baer "dart 9) “Asuing i small compare to (equvlent to asuming thatthe eatin ite a) esas were hn) 109 riy-ra==) es ah nt ety ere he va of inion gn pointy ad ny ets the scion an) i be ened ye pronto 56. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Pont TN RIRYOIL THEORY vhs pln tn nero beable wo she pata problems, he ai case eet were comity simp and cre the boundary a to fone apo se pcr, i ae ea new sone int Supe is2mas Ey. (5.6) 1. The it slope of «two-dimensional airfi s 2 a shown by 2. The pitching moment atthe serodynumic center (at c/4) is independent of angle of atck (exeluding aol’ stalled condition). Jou to experimental “These two very important results ate very lose expe the tow angle fac tanger shown n Fig 5.19. When the angle fac138 conan setoomeercs oe End png memset NACA OP i increases beyond the tnits of the small angle of attack astmption, the streamlines do not follow the airfoil surface shape (Fig. 5.20) andthe ow is ‘considered to be separated. This results in Tost of Ii, a indicated by the ‘experimental dat in Fg. 5.19 (for @> 10") and this condition called aro all. 13. Airfoil camber docs not change the lit slope and can be viewed as an tddivonal angle of atack eect (ai, ia Eq. (5.66)) This f shown Schematialy by Fig. 521. The symmetric aii wil have 2er0 lift at eile he aro with camber hasan “elective” ange of aac tht il bya 44 The tallng edge section has a larger effect on the above camber effect. Therefore, i the sito lit needs to be changed without changing is angle FIGURE $29, ~ ~ XS ‘Steam’ fhe ashe) sd seperated () ow nea suivormaaance now ove Toone AMOS 139 ‘of attack, then changing the chordine geometry (eg, by flaps, or slats) at the tain edge region b more elective than a the leading edge region, S. The elect of thickness on the atfoil itis not treated in a satisfactory manner by the small-sturbance approach, but will be calelated more ‘sccurately inthe following two chapes. 6, The twodimensonal drag coefficient obtained by this model i zero and there is no drag tsocated with the generation of two-dimensional lit Experimental airfoil dat, however, mcludes drag due 10 the viscous boundary layer on the airfoil, which should be included in engineering ‘alcultons, The experimental drag coeficent values for the NACA O08 firol are ako plotted in Fig. 5.19 and for example the “zero-lfl” drag ‘coeticient is lose to C, = 0.055, REFERENCES 41 Moran, An Indi Teel and Companion Aeros, Wik, New |$2, Gwen, HL, The Bement of Aerofl and Aincen theory, 28 ee. Cambie Univeisy ipl M. 2. "A New Apia 80 Thin Alf Thery” The Arona! Quay, PROBLEMS {6 Find the camber shape that lead 0 constant peste jump along the sri Chordie for zero angle fata, 152, Cone the flow of uniorm steam speed . nl fateh «past thinM0 vonarsssancomucs 33. ss sii whose camber en by neni whee <1 and costan, Show hat Geinter Canale eshacsy mt pedis Find the vie of for he zero angle to be 2. Find the hinge momen or he Mapped ao of Ea. (0. Conder the Bow ofa ufom set of peed Q. tangle of atak opt 2 hia Sil show oper sare piven bythe araola in Ea (S80) and whose lower terface 20" Fd the Mt coeicent and moment coeiient sou! the leading we Conder te fw of uniform seam of sped Qu at angle of attack past a ‘Spline comssting of orate nate of chord cu dtane hapa (00 ‘hae Find the it coset foreach iol ng ange vortex to represent sch one CHAPTER 6 EXACT SOLUTIONS WITH COMPLEX VARIABLES [Approximate soltions tothe exact potential flow problem are obtained i this book using both clasialsmalldsturbance methods and numerical modeli tis important to have exact solutions available to test the acuracy of the tpproaimatios and to assess their applicability. ta this chapter complex ‘ariables willbe used to obtain the solution to thee model problems: the at Plat, the etula atc, and asymmetrical aii 6.1. SUMMARY OF COMPLEX VARIABLE THEORY Prior to applying complex variable methods o potential flow problems, some ofthe principles are discussed briefly (for more details about the mathematics ‘of complex variables, see Churchill). To begin, fst define the imaginary unit oy fet 1) “Then any complex number ¥ can be writen as Yoarib «2 real and are called the real and imaginary parts of ¥, a where @ and 5nous 64 Conte pae sy eye a et ent oe poet mi Bae oceeauerthe cae ween Yor 6 ifthe exponential term i defined as cos 0+ sin B=” 4) ‘The complex conjugate ofthe complex umber ¥is defined as Yer-ie Otherwise the algebra of complex numbers is similar tothe algebra ofthe term (240), bt noe that =I. As am example the multipin os con number by its conjugate is YP = (e+ Mein A function fof the complex vatable ¥ can be writen in terms of ts rel and imaginary pats a FO) = als, 2) ih, 2) os) Analytic functions of a complex variable are diferentiable, which mens that exists fr al posible paths AY. Now consider the derivative of /(Y) along the WO) _ sy AB +1AH ay 8. ar mer ssunena wom coor vans 13 Similsy, the derivative inthe > drestion is OD ‘Teri the fow can be considered to be ether the fow in a right-angle omar oc Row apunst a horizontal wal. This fow is called stagnanon pont ow andi shown in Fi. 3.6 64_ BLASIUS FORMULA, RUTTAJOUKOWSKI THEOREM sie the fow past a by whose contour denoted by C (Fig. 68). Let ‘aecomponcats a the aereoyamefossting on the bay be X and Zt the sia T dren, reopecveh An eprom ofthe prs ound the ontour and an apa of Bermul's eqn then ess to the Blan {rmols Ge pout in laver.?* pp. 0-8 io . 1 x= woot ay 9 Let the feestteam velocity be Que" and tet the circulation around © tee F (ee Fig. 6.8). Then since the complex velocity is analytic outside of C, ‘me can write W in a Laurent series about Y= 0 (whichis taken inside C) it Ay An Ae ) aaytye ty ty wory=o% a =o act sumo wi couman vanes 149 Now substitute into the Blasvs formula and with the use of the residue theorem we get XID = “ip QT" = pte (6x) X4iz= pQ.teor" (21a) ‘The fore & seen to act perpendicular to the stream Q- and has the magnitude D=0 and L= pQ.F. This result called the Kuita-Joukowsi theorem 6S CONFORMAL MAPPING AND THE JOUKOWSKI TRANSFORMATION The method of solution for our model sirfoil problem is to map the aio (hich is in the physical plane Y =x + lz) to 4 circular cylinder inthe {J +Fih plane through the conformal mapping ¥ = ¥(f). The solution inthe ticle plane has already teen obiained (in Section 3.11), Let the complex potential inthe circle plane be F(f) and the complex velocity W(J). Then the ‘els in the physical plane are FO) =F) x) ae ak ff 1 won Lwin ate (623) The complex velocity inthe physical plane is given as function of the ‘tanformation variable "The following three model problems ae ll special cases of the Joukownki transformation e ig where C willbe shown to be the chord for & ft plate, circu ‘proximately fra symmetscl fo. ‘Consider the mapping trom the seo othe ccle shown in Fig. 6 9. The ‘mplex velocity at infinity in both planes is Que and the transformation has {mo fre parameters, the radius of the Gtcle @ and the center ofthe cle. ‘The complex velocity in the Grcle plane is obtained sith the eid ofthe tests ofthe Bow over a esinde fom Section 311 1 Owes 629 «=F os Sine the sil hs sar aig edge and she ice has no comers the atforaton mit have terial fot (ef 0) te pot ihe Sice plane corresponding to the ail! trailing edge, Denote ths point by f ‘The Kutta condition requires the velocity a the arti taling edge to be fa ves W= O06sdf o£ (62) can oly esis wu=0 629 Jn te sie pln f= CH and te cori is sown in Pe, 69, ote that =~ Cras a ail pot and eh ped ees sil aid « vebcly sngasnty in te fowl eae 1=2¢itatrm'o ¥=-2C13) Fm te hte nse fownee? om Mihi sabe ito Ey, (625 for WU) and he Ket conten sop, we eet ir cm gests a M2 Qaie "9 46 4 2naQaiele“P 29 and the circulation is P=4aQ- sin (a +) (628) ‘The it and lift coeficent are then given by (62) (6230) ‘Let the surface ofthe circle be given by ae om 5 shown in Fig. 6.9. The complex velocity on the circle is then obtained by esc souron wt conn vaaanas 1S substituting Eqs. (6.28) and (6.0) ino Ea, (6.25) W() Que" +210. sin(a + Ble Que-"e™™* = ee eH 4 sin at f)—e6-9 "= 20.fsn (a+ 8) ~sin(a— O)]e-* (631) andthe complex velocity on the airfoil surtace i obtained from Ea, (6.23) wt (6310) Race 1 te comple velo tthe sil lig ee Hows Re mat tod swe us Wf) and df oe netstat tng ce Je€itand ts 2 fatto omg vty od tbe 2ieQtin (a6), 20.0" ey G-w Fa if w(r=5) = beara Using fe = ae, we pet w{r-9) Ron. Eetcos(at 1 0-Lecos(a+) x) 65.1 Flat Plate Airfoil ‘Choose the circle with its center (om, the origin and = C/4. Then from Eq, papeo cise igen yf = Cle" and he creping sii i ‘hh vee fo be 4 fa pla of cord CC Ge Fg O10). Note tat cp et maging152. comaeen srroonines 0 0-52 represents the top surface and x= 0=2 represents the botiom. plex velocity on the plate sufface obtained wing Eqs. (631) and 2isin Oe oye (634) -Vi= GaTEF, and we have fmasina BE fay where the plus sign refers tothe upper surface andthe minus sign to the lower. ‘Note that the trang edge velocity is Q~cor a and that the disturbance tothe stream vanishes a the aguare root of dance frm the trailing edge Also, the ‘locity has a square root singularity atthe plate's sharp leading edge For small a, Ea. (6.35) becomes con grees (634) [Note that with the use of Eqs. (5.3), (548), and (5.71) (and considering the ‘ieren denition of 8 in Chapter 5), the sition is ental to the fat plate Solution trom thin airfoil theory. ‘The streamline patters in the circle and plate planes are shown schematically in Fg. 611. Note that the forvard stagnation point inthe cle Plane sat @= +24 and therefore the forward stagnation pont on the pte a $item sopion oe seemed te i plane xacr soumon wt conn aan 189 “The circulation and lit force are given by Eqs. (6.28) and (6.29) as PexcQ.sina (636) b= mpeQsin a a and the lift oetcent is (Bq, (6.29a)) Gntn sina (37a) 652 Leading-Edge Suction Inthe previous section the force on a flat plate airfoil i obtained with the use tf the KutteToukowski Theorem and i cen 1 be perpendicular to the free Stream diretion. Aw apparent problem arises if we atemp to ind the force By fn integration of the pressure dsinbution, On the surface of the plate the {locity is given in Eq. (635) and withthe use ofthe Bernoulli eqution the prese dference actos the plate i given as “The force Z is perpendicular to the plate and i obtained by inte pressure diference slong the plate to get 2=[ arte apOlia mone 6» ‘Te force obtained by these two diferent approaches isnt the same in either magnitude or dtecton "The diference can be explained by considering the Mat plate as the limiting case of thin airfoil ar ite thickness goes 10 ero, tn this mi the pressure atthe leading edge inceases while the ates upon which it act ‘decreases unin he Mat pate iit the pressure is infite and the reais er Tn ths limit there is nite contibution to the force that must beaded tothe result obtained hy the presue integration. To obtain this force we surround the pat lading edge by small itcle and calculate the force wth the use of ‘he Basis forma, ‘The complex velocity onthe plate is given in Eqs. (6.31) and (6.310), ‘The veloityom the Gcle af the leading edge is obtained by using Eq, (6.31) with =O and @= 7 and is WEN) =H. sina 6%) Near the leading edge fis approximately ~c/4 und therefore we ca take LY 6 sng WO eng” 22 OF Ta 7)184 cowsran arco, 1 the transformation in Eq. (628 snow inverted and i set approxi xual to C12 the transformation becomes ee! (Y + VP Ta) = —F + hivev Fe (6.2) ‘he cms vty in he ending ee repo herr sent Eqs. (6.41) and (6.42)) ees - —- Ovesine WOO Wr fe ‘This velo i ow substituted ito the Blais formula (Eq, (618) to get aiz=!® [ws oa [wa a es of osm ana « (64 This ending ee fore i eno at log the plate i the pte direction (Fg. 612) and called the edingedge aon foes ema The ttl rei now obtained bythe addon af the press orc and the suction force (Eqs. (638) and (640) andthe resultant ore oe te Ferpendcla to the seam and exactly equal 10 the Teall feo te tease rem Gee 1) {enerazation ofthese resus can be applied (0 the tltion of salute ero te hol ple. Anne hs wes the flowing complex acy nthe nourhoa oe an io ie i eaing A wont (645) ‘tthe fre (i) somal the eam Qe NPE Mae tak, Nowe xtc soon cone amanas 188 where A is 9 constant, Then the leading-edge suction force inthis situation is {geen by the Blais formal as X= napa? 46) 653 Flow Normal to a Flat Plate ‘Another interesting solution that can be obtained by this method is the {olution fr the ow noemal to a Nat plate. The complex potential for this ow in the circle plane is obtained by adding the poteatils ofa steam in the = ‘deton and an opposing doublet (the flow is symmetec about midchord and tar zero creation) and piven by a 4) and the complex potential becomes ~S3sin = 2 VICI (648) | : ==. Wor sae) youn TA Junin poe ssh pte tc _ ‘40 = Q.eVI= GIF 69) Both an application of the Kuta-Joukowski theorem and a pressure Jntgration yield the result that there is no free acting onthe plate (recall that this sa potential fw solution without any Row separations!) Based on the results of the previous section, however, ii expected that symmetrically paced tip forces may be acting on the tips of the plate and these wil be ‘portant inthe slender-ving application. ‘Consider the ow in the neighborhood of the left tip where f ie approximately ~c/4, The complex velocity atthe corresponding point 0 the ‘cei obtained by a diferentation ofthe complex potential (4, (647) a5 WiN=-210. (650) ‘The analysis now proceeds in an identical fashion to the analysis in the previous section singe the wansformation isthe same and the complex velocity in the neighborhood ofthe tipi w= 2ee_ (2 sy ‘The tip force i then caleulted and is Pee ws)186 towsrtn sacomsaes TCU a pf a ne in ema ow he mo opie aes ac othe the force acts to the left and from syrmety a tip force of equal magnitude ‘ison the gb tip and points tothe right (ee Fig, 6.13). 654 Circular Are Aitfl “The center ofthe ctl is chosen on the imaginary aus inthe f plane = im res fean Eg (627) a= Cifsee and m =a sin. This results i the creat are EM ahown in Fig, 6.140 with chord c= C. Note that sine the ede Scot tmoogh both cial points A and D, the corresponding points on te Eitalate sharp. Also, pointe BUY = l(a +m)] and E[f = ~i(a~m)) on the ae, at the top and bottom, both transform tothe same point om the afl, Sint ‘The sehematcsteamline pattern forthe flow in both the physic ‘a ce plane is shown in Fig. 614, Note thatthe forward stagnation ois aaa ule oscars when O = + 2a fad therefore the forward stagnatioh fot on the ereular ar can be found ftom the transformation. The velocity § {he taling edge i given by Eq. (6.32) a8, wr) «4 “The it coefficient forthe cicular are sol is given by Ea. (624) a ce BB) os eos “The zero lit angle is sen to be equal to ~P, The maximum camber defined as the rato ofthe maximum ordinate 2 tothe chord ¢ andi 31a "An interesting special case ccrurs when the circular ae set at a cof tack of esto, From above, i appears that the forward stagnation (9) ie a st ming () Sema ection othe sentinel ad ‘sa a plans ata ag ae ta soagetuet158 covsran sstoomrs roan oak atthe leading edge but since «crits point exists there, L'Hospta's Rule must be ved again and with f =c/8-and = B, the complex velocity at the leading edge is w(r=-$) 20 pe™ «9 “This sequal in magnitude othe velocity at the tailing edge andthe ow is seen to be symmetric with respect to the 7 axis, This an example of 4 liking Row with no stagnation points (See the streamline pattern in Fig. 618) find with alow path of equal length for partes traveling along the upper and Tower surfaces. The pressure coetcient i plotted in Fig. 6.16, 65.5. Symmetric Joukowski Airfoil Let the center ofthe circle be taken on the rel axis, wench 50 650) so that from Eq. (627) (66a) “The circle is transformed into the afl shape shown in Fg. 6.17 (note that ¢ should be small) The surtace of the airfoi given by (Eq (6.24), c os 1 «(arama Smet akon ail mpi. Note that ¥(—8) =P and therefore the resaling sitll is symmetric, The chordlength cis ven by = 1(0=0)+|"(0=7)= +2014 55] +3} ¢ co arres naetelenyaciesesny 59) Wecan therfore ae € Che vey the aed tain sg pen bere warmer a 2am a snd he oes when the cord) gen by Ea. (6.288) G=24(1+ ain «a “The thickness ato is approximately equal to 1.296, 64 Aiefoil With Finite Traling-Edge Angle ‘The Joukowski soils have cusped trailing edgcs as has ben seen forthe iat plate, delat are, and symmetric examples. The cusped tailing edge presents Some numeral deus for panel-method solutions since in the neighbor. Ihood of the tralng edge the airfol's upper and lower surfaces coincide Therefor, forthe purpose of providing exact solution otst the rests ofthe ‘panel methods tobe presented later, 2 mapping i introduced here that takes &gon rd wth ite ing le one symmetrical fil with ite teiing-edge angle inthe Y plane to a circle in the f plane. The transformation, which appeared ia van de Vooren and de Jong (602) ‘The center ofthe ctcle i a the origin of coordinates in the f plane and the radius is a (Gee Fig. 6.18). ¢ fe 3 thickness parameter, k conols the twlingedge angle, wile! determines the chord length or the ile f = ae” and the transformation becomes yn,[eon@—D+iasin ol «a the leading oo mami +p 665) Wan be shown that the taling-edge angle (Fg. 6.18) given by r=30-8) 6.06) “The airfoil with 15 percent thickness shown in Fig. 6.19 Tn Section 6.8 and ths section mappings ae preseated that transform specifi aif shapes into circles so that exact solutions to the incompressible Potential Bow problem are obtained. Theodorsen"? developed a. numerical ‘onformal mapping procedure to obtain solutions for arbitrary sirfi shapes land this procedure later became an inteyal part of more recent techniques, A feview of modern methods for numerical conformal mapping can be found in Henri esr sumone went conan vananas 161 on nce tog ce angle ait ‘iS pres ane 6.7, SUMMARY OF PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS FOR EXACT AIRFOIL SOLUTIONS, ‘The exact solutions obtained in this chapter are very wef for the validation of various numerical methods. Therefore, the method of calculation of the curate anulyial pressure dtibution for several aso! shapes is briefly Summarized in this ection Circular Are Thin Aifoil For an airfoil of chord c and camber ratio m/e Jan the radius of the ‘ile in the f plane 2 (Fig. 6.140) where | lee 6 ‘The xz coordinates ofthe circular ar aro are then obtained from Eqs (6.24) and (6.30) (whore (68a ~TGO¥ Ban On +a) dons ons a)“The velociy distibution is then calculated fom Eqs. (6:30), (631), and (6310) 20.sin a+ B)~sin(a~ 8)} in (A? + BF) + a? (B os @— Asin 8) : (eae) ree _ 2Q.fsin (a + B)~ sin (ar ~ 8) ext P ee eines Aes aaeaoasvee (ead) new where A= cos! 6~sin! ~sint B2sin Bsn 8 B=2cos Bsn 8+ 2sin fi cos 0 The pressure coeficient is then obtained directly from nulls equation as (670) [Note that for f= 0 the equations forthe velocity components reduce to the at plate case, whichis presented in Eq (635), Symmetic Joukowski Airfoil For an arf of chord c and thickness parameter the rads of the cic in the / plane is 2 (Fig 6.17) where +far0 6) tee i cd i 1 ive) «55 ‘Theos ea regen ne. (657) 8 ° = (67a) (oe vemre ssc som emt cone vats 163 e zeasingl - ee cor) aan (como) + asin The velocity distribution is obtained from Eqs. (6.30), (61), and (6.310) (where w= =e 18) u=294{in a ~sin(a~0)] (e- (A sin 0 B cos 8) + BLA con 0+ Bain 8) a a (4-fe) +8 s0sina sale) (4t-2)acns tint) BtAsn = Ben we worm) a) +B ox) -2see sin 6(acos 0“) and the pressure coeticiet is aeulated by using Eq (6.7) ‘The Van de Vooren Aioil “The parameters fr this alto are shown in Fg, 6.18 where the chord length is and given from Eq, (6.65) 38 ae Wo ory Hore € isthe thickness parameter and k the taling-edge angle parameter (Gee Eq, (6.66) and a isthe radius ofthe ie inthe f pane “The, coordinates ofthe Van de Vooren sro are then given in Ea (603) a8 Fir teos ko, cos 19854 sin RO, sin k—03] (6740) id [sin k8, cos (k — 1); —cos k@, sin (k~1)@:) (6.74)where Here, depends onthe quadrant where 0 is being evaluated (has a valve of 0 im the fist quadrant, 1 inthe second and til quadrants and >in the fourth ‘quadrant, ‘The velocity distribution is then given from the solution in the cece Plane plus the transformation (Eq (64}) a6 sina sin (a= 8) FE (0, sin 0+ D.c0s0) (6750) Des 1 sin sin(a~ 0) (Dc0s @~ Dssin 8) (6756) — Di+ DF A-=cos(k~ 198, cose, + sa (K 1) sn {B= sin(k~ 10,605 £0, ~ 08 (k~ 1) sin ke, De=all-k-+ke) D,= A(acos 8 ~ D,)— Basin @ Dz = Alasin 8)+ B(acos O- D,) ‘The pressure distribution is again calculated by using Ea, (6.2). 68 METHOD OF IMAGES Sine the slton for the fw pst dis of aerodynamic interest ean be ‘epee by sutaledsrbtons of sng sltons to Lace’ ea ten, si portant to say the repens of tee ingle Slaons sh the presence of addon founda, malay sah oboe to dal wih {wound planes and win sun! wal ee "AS ample, consider a two-dimensional source of suengh @ 4 iste om ae la sown in i 8.20 noi sete ‘oor stem whose orn the sure and whose tats pre o the wall Inthe absence ofthe wal the ekiy poem fhe sore Coe 67 Since we would expect thatthe only singularity inthe ow fds due to the source, we look for 2 solution ofthe frm o-SivrFP+e, om where & satisfies Laplace's equation, hat no singularities for »>—h, decays {infniy, ad exactly cancel the normal component of velocity at the wall flue to the souree 30 that the wall boundary condition is satisfied. The boundary condition on i therefore 2, oh 1, yet, 67 ae a oo From symmetry considerations, an_"image™ source at (0,—24) is investigated a4 posible solution, Tis velocity potential is 0) = VE FETIP 67) and substitution into the boundary condition at the wall shows that itis Sttsfed. Sima image solutions fr a doublet and a vortex are shown in Fig. (21. The complex potenti forthe orignal singularities ps their images are fetecase wn in Fig, 6:22, The complex potential for this Fea myelin CY — 1) +n 0 +18) +I — 2h) +n (428) 42 “ss Each pair of images can be combined as _ nr sity tana stn (14 2 exc seumone wi comm vasanas 167 ante cant tre eet cmpler petal bcos ronal (1625) oa “The use ofthe following identity from Gradshteyn and Ry2hik (Ref. 65, p m. sinha Af (1445) (645) leds to the closed orm sltion othe complex pei oo Fo =Zinson™ (x) For a clockwise vortex of relation T hetween parallel was, an application of the erative image procedure previously wed for the source tents t the slution shown in Fig. 623, which consists ofa stack of clockwise fortices at Y=, 42h, 24h, ~. and stick of counterclockwise vortices at "Eh, 3h, 45h," From before, the complex potential for the clockwise ack i F ipaiant® Foy=Einsion =) The use of another identity fom Gradshteyn and Ryzhik, aa (6.88)‘eats inthe following complex potenti for the vortex between wall 699) We have considered images ofthe singular solutions in plane wall (or sroundeffect applications) and between parallel wall (or wind tunnel ap. Pliations). Another possible application is the interaction ofan aif mith fe ake or the wake of another aol (or unsteady motion) an since we have shown that an airfoil geometry can be transformed though conformal mapping into a ctl, the image sjsem fora singular slution inthe presence of eee Wil be stad, “The circle theorem due to Milne-Thomson*® states that ifthe complen potential F(Y) represents 8 fow without singularities for [VI =e, then (650) roy=non+a(S) opr he sane ow tiny th earner of aso te ore he clon BC) rend nt ge function that takes complex values for real values of x, (x) is the function tas he coresprng oe sop er se natn ‘of x, and A(Y) is obtained by writing Y instead of x.” Gare amp ea hte RO) U¥. a norm sean ne rr Foneuy sue wa ich is simply the stream plus doublet solution previously derived. Now let FO= Zin %) om hich is the complex potential fora souree of strength o at ¥= Yo. FY) is (699) and the complex pots (4. 690) al for source ouside a ctcular cylinder becomes roy=Z[nr-wo+m en) aw ‘Te folowing manipulation will pat the above Feu in the form of a sreopiahle image stem ron=Z [imor—n9 +10( . Sketch some srcamles, (62, Cones the low of + aslo stem of speed. soures of strength a (0. and. fn the x rection past wo a) Find the stagnation poi) and ice the sigicance of of2n0.2. (6) Sketch some seals (lig the Sgmtion streamline) forthe exer 2-0, a>, o/250.0~, and 0/240. (63. Conte the ow fs uniform ream of speed. at marge of tack pst lips of somites a and (a) Show that the tasormation maps the lips nto ice of ads (a +0) the plane () Stee the steams a the Bow. Wht ae the aloe of for he stagnation ois in he cl plane? Use tes vals ps the fess (2) 0d the agaation posts on he lise (9 Pot the prearedtbtion on the ips for a= 1,125, and a = 30ATE towsreen arscomoncs 6.4, Cones ow ound fat pat ht ie long the ~

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