INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMICS

WITH LAND REFORM AND

TAXATION
DR. ABRAHAM C. CAMBA JR.
Department of Economics, San Beda College, Mendiola, Manila and
Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Sta. Mesa, Manila

DR. AILEEN L. CAMBA

Graduate School and Department of Economics
Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Sta. Mesa, Manila

Lecture 4
THE PRODUCTION POSSIBILITY FRONTIER AND
OPPORTUNITY COST CONCEPT

CONTENTS

6.1 Production Possibilities Table

6.2 The Need for Choice
6.3 Production Possibilities Curve
6.4 Law of Increasing Opportunity Cost
6.5 Allocative Efficiency Revisited
6.6 Unemployment, Growth, and the Future

HOMEWORK

REFERENCES

6.1 Production Possibilities Table

Because resources are scarce, a full-employment, full-production economy cannot have
an unlimited output of goods and services. Consequently, people must choose which
goods and services to produce and which to forgo. The necessity and consequences of
those choices can best be understood through a production possibilities model.

Simplifying assumptions:

1. Full employment and productive efficiency. The economy is employing all its
available resources (full employment) and is producing goods and services at least
cost (productive efficiency).
2. Fixed resources. The available supplies of the factors of production are fixed in
both quantity and quality. Nevertheless, they can be reallocated, within limits,
among different uses; for example, land can be used either for factory sites or for
food production.
3. Fixed technology. The state of technology – the methods used to produce output
– does not change. This assumption and the previous one imply that we are looking
at an economy at a certain point in time or over a very short period of time.
4. Two goods. The economy is producing only two goods: mango and iPods.
Mangoes symbolize consumer goods, products that satisfy our wants directly; iPods
symbolize capital goods, products that satisfy our wants indirectly by making
possible more efficient production of consumer goods.

6.2 The Need for Choice

Given these assumptions, we see that society must choose among alternatives. Fixed
resources mean limited outputs of mango and iPods. And since all available resources
are fully employed, to increase the production of robots we must shift resources away
from the production of mangoes. Inversely, to increase the production of mangoes, we
must shift resources away from the production of iPods.

A production possibilities table lists the different combinations of two products that
can be produced with a specific set of resources (and with full employment and
productive efficiency). Exhibit 1 is such a hypothetical table for a mango-iPod economy.

Production Possibilities of Mangoes and iPods

with
Exhibit 1
Full Employment and Productive Efficiency

Production Alternatives
Type of Product A B C D E

Mangoes (in hundred

thousands) 0 1 2 3 4
iPods (in thousands) 10 9 7 4 0

• Unrealistic extremes – at alternative A, the economy would be devoting all its

available resources to the production of iPods (capital goods); at alternative E,
all resources would go to mango production (consumer goods).
 • An economy typically produces both capital goods and consumer goods, as in B,
C, and D. By moving from alternative A to E, the production of mangoes
increases at the expense of iPod production.

MORE NOW vs. MORE LATER!

Because consumer goods satisfy our wants directly, any movement toward E looks
tempting. In producing more mangoes, society increases the current satisfaction of its
wants. But there is a cost: More mangoes mean fewer iPods. This shift of resources to
consumer goods catches up with society over time as the stock of capital goods
dwindles – or at least ceases to expand at the current rate – with the result that some
potential for greater future production is lost. By moving towards alternative E, society
chooses “more now” at the expense of “much more later.”

By moving toward A, society chooses to forgo current consumption, thereby freeing up

resources that can be used to increase the production of capital goods. By building up
its stock of capital this way, society will have greater future production and, therefore,
greater future consumption. By moving toward A, society is choosing “more later” at the
cost of “less now.”

Thus, at any point in time, an economy achieving full employment and productive efficiency
must sacrifice some of one good to obtain more of another good. Scarce resources prohibit
such an economy from having more of both goods.

6.3 Production Possibilities Curve

The data presented in a production possibilities table can also be shown graphically.
Using a simple two-dimensional graph, we represent the output of iPods (capital goods)
on the vertical axis and the out put of mangoes (consumer goods) on the horizontal
axis, as shown in Exhibit 2. When we connect the points with a smooth line, we get a
curve called society’s production possibilities curve.

Each point on the production possibilities curve represents some maximum output of
mangoes and iPods. The curve is a production frontier because it shows the limit of
attainable outputs. To obtain the various combinations of mangoes and iPods that fall on
the production possibilities curve, society must achieve both full employment and
productive efficiency. Points lying inside (to the left of) the curve are also attainable, but
they reflect inefficiency and therefore are not as desirable as points on the curve. Points
inside the curve imply that the economy could have more of both iPods and mangoes if
it achieved full employment and productive efficiency. Points lying outside (to the right
of) the production possibilities curve, like point Z, would represent a greater output than
the output at any point on the curve. Such points, however, are unattainable with the
current supplies of resources and technology.
 The Production
Possibilites
Exhibit 2
Curve

6.4 Law of Increasing Opportunity Cost

Because resources are scarce relative to the virtually unlimited wants they can be used
to satisfy, people must choose among alternatives. More mangoes mean fewer iPods.
The amount of other products that must be forgone or sacrificed to obtain 1 unit of a
specific good is called the opportunity cost of that good. For instance, the number of
iPods that must be given up to get another unit of mango is the opportunity cost, or
simply the cost, of that unit of mango.

In moving from alternative A to alternative B in Exhibit 1, we find that the cost of 1

additional unit of mango is 1 less unit of iPods. But as we pursue the concept of cost
through the additional production possibilities – B to C, C to D, and D to E – an
important economic principle is revealed:

THE OPPORTUNITY COST OF EACH ADDITIONAL UNIT

IS GREATER THAN THE OPPORTUNITY COST OF THE
PRECEDING ONE.

When we move from A to B, just 1 unit of iPods is sacrificed for 1 more unit of mango;
but in going from B to C we sacrifice 2 additional units of iPods for 1 more unit of
mango; then 3 more of iPods for 1 more of mango; and finally 4 for 1. Conversely,
confirm that as we move from E to A, the cost of an additional iPod is 1/4, 1/3, 1/2, and
1 unit of mango, respectively, for the four successive moves.
Note about the opportunity costs:
• Opportunity costs are being measured in real terms, that is, in actual goods
rather than in money terms.
• Marginal (meaning “extra”) opportunity costs, rather than cumulative or total
opportunity costs.

The above example illustrates the law of increasing opportunity costs: The more of a
product that is produced, the greater is its opportunity cost (“marginal” being implied).

Shape of the Curve. The law of increasing opportunity costs is reflected in the shape of
the production possibilities curve: The curve is bowed out from the origin of the graph.
Exhibit 1 shows that when the economy moves from A to E, it must give up successively
larger amounts of iPods (1, 2, 3, and 4) to acquire equal increments of mango (1, 1, 1,
and 1). This is shown in the slope of the production possibilities curve, which becomes
steeper as we move from A to E. A curve that gets steeper as we move down it is
“concave to the origin.”

Economic Rationale. What is the economic rationale for the law of increasing
opportunity costs? Why does the sacrifice of iPods increase as we produce more
mangoes? The answer is that economic resources are not completely adaptable to
alternative uses. Many resources are better at producing one good than at producing
others. Fertile farmland is highly suited to producing the ingredients needed to make
mangoes, while land rich in mineral deposits is highly suited to producing the materials
needed to make iPods. Thus, the lack of perfect flexibility, or interchangeability of
resources is the cause of increasing opportunity costs.

6.5 Allocative Efficiency Revisited

Any economic activity – for example, production or consumption – should be expanded
as long as marginal benefit exceeds marginal cost and should be reduced if marginal
cost exceeds marginal benefit. The optimal amount of the activity occurs where MB =
MC.

Consider mangoes. We already know from the law of increasing opportunity costs that
the marginal cost (MC) of additional units of mangoes will rise as more units are
produced. This can be shown by an upsloping MC curve, as in Exhibit 3. We also know
that we obtain extra or marginal benefits (MB) from additional units of mangoes.
However, although economic wants in the aggregate are insatiable, studies reveal that
the second unit of a particular product yields less additional utility or benefit to a person
than the first. And a third provides even less MB than the second. So it is for society as
a whole. We therefore can portray the marginal benefits from mangoes with a
downsloping MB curve, as in Exhibit 3. Although total benefits rise when society
consumes more mangoes, marginal benefits decline.

Exhibit 3. Allocative Efficiency: MB = MC

 Ph15 MC
MB
and Ph10 MB = MC
MC

Ph5
MB
0
1 2 3 Quantity of mango
(hundred of thousands)

The optimal quantity of mango production is indicated by the intersection of the MB and
MC curves: 200,000 units. Why is this the optimal quantity? If only 100,000 pizzas were
produced, the marginal benefit of mango would exceed its marginal cost. In money
terms, MB might be Ph15.00, while MC is only Ph5.00. this suggests that society would
be underallocating resources to mango production and that more of it should be
produced. The production of 300,000 mangoes would represent an overallocation of
resources to pizza production. Here the MC of mango is worth only Ph5.00 to society,
while the alternative products that those resources could otherwise produce are valued
at Ph15.00.

Generalization:

RESOURCES ARE BEING EFFICIENTLY ALLOCATED TO ANY PRODUCT WHEN

THE MARGINAL BENEFIT AND MARGINAL COST OF ITS OUTPUT ARE EQUAL (MB
= MC)

6.6 Unemployment, Growth, and the Future

UNEMPLOYMENT AND PRODUCTIVE INEFFICIENCY

With unemployment or inefficient production, the economy would produce less. For
example, the economy is falling short of the various maximum combinations of
mangoes and iPods. A move toward full employment and productive efficiency would
yield a greater output of one or both products.

A GROWING ECONOMY

When we drop the assumption that the quantity and quality of resources and technology
are fixed, the production possibilities curve shifts positions – that is, the potential
maximum output of the economy changes.
Increases in Resource Supplies. Although resource supplies are fixed at any specific
moment, they can and do change over time.
• A nation’s growing population will bring about increases in the supplies of labor
and entrepreneurial ability.
• Labor quality usually improves over time.
• Although we are depleting some of our energy and mineral resources, new
sources are being discovered.

The net result of increased supplies of the factors of production is the ability to produce
more of both mangoes and iPods.

Advances in Technology. Our second assumption is that we have constant,

unchanging technology. In reality, though, technology has progressed dramatically over
time. An advancing technology brings both new and better goods and improved ways of
producing them. As with increases in resource supplies, technological advances make
possible the production of more iPods and more mangoes.

Economic Growth and

the
Exhibit 4 Production Possibilities
Curve

Thus, when either supplies of resources increase or an improvement in technology

occurs, the production possibilities curve shifts outward and to the right. Such an
outward shift of the production possibilities curve represents growth of economic
capacity or, simply, economic growth: the ability to produce a larger total output.

Present Choices and Future Possibilities.

An economy’s present choice of positions on its production possibilities curve helps
determine the curve’s future location. A nation’s current choice favoring “present goods”
(consumer goods) will cause a modest outward shift of the curve in the future. A nation’s
current choice favoring “future goods” (capital goods) will result in a greater outward
shift of the curve in the future.

Exhibit 5. Future Location of the Production Possibilities Curve

Goods for Goods for

the future Future the future
Future
curve Z curve

Current Current
curve A
curve

Goods for the Goods for the

present present

PHILIPPINES JAPAN

A QUALIFICATION: INTERNATIONAL TRADE

An economy can circumvent, through international specialization and trade, the output
limits imposed by its domestic production possibilities curve. International specialization
means directing domestic resources to output that a nation is highly efficient at
producing. International trade involves the exchange of these goods for goods produced
abroad. Specialization and trade have the same effect as having more and better
resources or discovering improved production techniques; both increase the quantities
of capital and consumer goods available to society. The output gains from greater
international specialization and trade are the equivalent of economic growth.

REFERENCES
Case, Karl and Fair, Ray. (2002). Principles of Economics (6th ed.). USA: Prentice Hall.

Mankiw, Gregory. (2002). Principles of Economics (2nd ed.). Forth Worth, Texas: South-
Western/Thomson.
McConnell, Campbell R. and Brue, Stanley L. (2002). Economics: Principles, Problems, and
Policies (15th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Samuelson, Paul and Nordhaus, William. (2005). Economics (18th ed.). USA: McGraw-Hill.

Stiglitz, Joseph E. and Walsh, Carl E. (2002). Economics (3rd ed.). New York, NY: WW Norton
and Company, Inc.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Aileen L. Camba and Dr. Abraham C. Camba Jr. are a wife-and-husband
duo. They are dedicated to the challenge of explaining Economics and
Finance ever more clearly to an ever-growing body of students. They are
passionate about their subjects and about the free expression of blogging.
Please visit their weblogs:

• http://quantcrunchtutor.blogspot.com
• http://get-globaleconomictrends.blogspot.com
• http://tourism7aroundworld.blogspot.com
• http://homebusinessinternetlifestyle.blogspot.com

They can be reached at (632)517-5785 or (63)9056648384, or email them at

quantcrunchtutor@gmail.com.

Be my rock of refuge,
a fortress of defense to save me.
– Psalm 31:2