15.

Theories of Failure
Theory at a Glance (for IES, GATE, PSU)
1. Introduction

Failure: Every material has certain strength, expressed in terms of stress or strain, beyond which it fractures or fails to carry the load.

Failure Criterion: A criterion used to hypothesize the failure. Failure Theory: A Theory behind a failure criterion.

Why Need Failure Theories?

To design structural components and calculate margin of safety. To guide in materials development. To determine weak and strong directions.

Failure Mode

Yielding: a process of global permanent plastic deformation. Change in the geometry of the
object.

Low stiffness: excessive elastic deflection. Fracture: a process in which cracks grow to the extent that the component breaks apart. Buckling: the loss of stable equilibrium. Compressive loading can lead to bucking in
columns.

Creep: a high-temperature effect. Load carrying capacity drops.

Failure Modes:
Excessive elastic deformation 1. Stretch, twist, bending 2. Buckling
3. Vibration

Yielding
or

Fracture

Plastic deformation at room temperature Creep at elevated temperatures Yield stress is the important design factor

Sudden fracture of brittle materials Fatigue (progressive fracture) Stress rupture at elevated temperatures Ultimate stress is the important design factor

2. Maximum Principal Stress Theory (W. Rankins Theory- 1850) Brittle Material
The maximum principal stress criterion:
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Ra ankin stated d max principal stress theory t as fol llows- a mat terial fails by y fracturing g when the la argest princi ipal stress exceeds the ultimate u str rength u in a simple tension test. That T is, at th he onset of fr racture, |1| = u OR |3| = u

Cr rack will st tart at the most highly y stressed point p in a brittle mater rial when th he largest pr rincipal stre ess at that po oint reaches s u Cr riterion has s good exper rimental ver rification, even though it assumes s ultimate strength is sa ame in comp pression and d tension

Failu ure surface according g to maximu um princip pal stress th heory

Th his theory of o yielding has h very poo or agreemen nt with experiment. How wever, the theory t has be een used suc ccessfully for r brittle mat terials. Used to descr ribe fracture of brittle materials m su uch as cast iron i Li imitations o o Doesn nt distinguis sh between tension or co ompression Doesn nt depend on o orientati ion of princ cipal planes s so only ap pplicable to o isotropic mater rials

Generalizatio on to 3-D stress case is easy: e

3. Maximum She ear Stress s or Stres ss differe ence theo ory (Guests or Tres scas Theory-1868)- Ductile e Material
The Tres sca Criterio on:

Al lso known as the Maxim mum Shear Stress S criter rion. Yi ielding will occur when the maximu um shear st tress reaches that which h caused yie elding in a simple tension n test.
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Recall that yield ding of a material m occu urred by slip ppage betwe een planes oriented at 45 to princ cipal stresse es. This sho ould indicate e to you tha at yielding of a material depends on the maxi imum shear stress in the material rather r than the t maximu um normal stress. If 1 > 2 > 3 Then T 1 3 = y

Failu ure by slip (yielding) ( oc ccurs when the t maximu um shearing g stress, max exceeds th he yield stress f as deter rmined in a uniaxial ten nsion test.

This theory gives s satisfactory ry result for ductile ma aterial.

Failur re surface according a t maximu to um shear st tress theory y

4 Strain Energy 4. E Th heory (Ha aighs Theory)

T The theory associated d with Haig gh T This theory is i based on the assump ption that st trains are re ecoverable up u to the ela astic limit, and a the energy absor rbed by the material m at failure f up to o this point is a single valued v function indepen ndent of th he stress system causin ng it. The str rain energy per unit vol lume causin ng failure is equal to the e strain energy at the e elastic limi it in simple tension.
2 y 1 2 2 2 U= 1 + 2 + 3 2 ( 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 ) = 2E 2E
2 2 2 12 + 2 + 3 2 ( 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 ) = y

3 stress For 3D-

2 2 12 + 2 2 1 2 = y

For 2D2 stress

5 Shear Strain 5. S En nergy The eory (Dist tortion En nergy The eory or M Mises-Hen nky Theory y or Von-M Misses Theory)-Du uctile Ma aterial
V Von-Mises C Criterion:

Also known as th he Maximum m Energy of Distortion criterion c

Page 402 of 429 Based on a more complex vie ew of the rol le of the prin ncipal stress s differences s.

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In n simple term ms, the von Mises criter rion consider rs the diame eters of all t three Mohrs s circles as co ontributing to t the characterization of o yield onse et in isotropi ic materials. W When the crit terion is app plied, its rela ationship to the uniaxia al tensile yield strength is:

Fo or a state of f plane stress ( 3 =0)

2 12 1 2 + 22 = y

It is often con nvenient to express e this as an equivalent stress, e:

1/2 1 2 2 2 (1 2 ) + (2 3 ) + (3 1 ) 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1/2 or e = 6 xy + yz + zx ) ( x y ) + ( y z ) + ( x z ) + 6( 2

e =

In n formulatin ng this failur re theory we e used generalized Hooke's law for an isotropic c material so o the theory y given is only applic cable to tho ose materials but it ca an be generalized to an nisotropic materials. m

Th he von Mise es theory is a little less s conservativ ve than the Tresca theo ory but in most m cases th here is little difference in i their pred dictions of fa ailure. Most t experiment tal results te end to fall on n or between n these two theories. t

It gives very good g result in i ductile material. m

6. Maximum Prin ncipal Str rain Theo ory (St. Ve enant The eory)

According g to this the eory, yieldin ng will occur r when the maximum principal st train just ex xceeds the strain at the tensile yield point in either sim mple tension n or compre ession. If 1 and 2 are maximum and minim mum princip pal strains correspondin c ng to 1 and 2, in the lim miting case

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7 Mohrs theory- Brittle 7. B Ma aterial

M Mohrs Theo ory

Mohr rs theory is s used to pr redict the fracture fr of a material having h diffe erent proper rties in tensi ion and comp pression. Cr riterion mak kes use of Mo ohrs circle In Mohrs circle, we note tha at depends on , or = f(). Note the t vertical line PC repr resents state es of stress on o planes with same but differing , which means m the we eakest plane e is the one with w maximu um , point t P.

Point ts on the outer o circle are the we eakest planes. On thes se planes th he maximu um and minim mum princip pal stresses are sufficien nt to decide whether or not failure w will occur. Expe eriments are e done on a given mate erial to dete ermine the states of str ress that re esult in failur re. Each sta ate defines a Mohrs ci ircle. If the e data are obtained o fro om simple tension, simple compression, and pur re shear, the three resu ulting circles s are adequa ate to constr ruct an enve elope (AB & AB)

Mohr rs envelope thus represents the locu us of all possible failure e states.

H Higher shear r stresses ar re to the lef ft of origin, since most brittle mate erials have higher stren ngth in compression

8 Comparison 8.
shown in figu ure

A comparison n among the e different failure f theor ries can be made m by sup perposing th he yield surfa faces as

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