MAJOR CHANGES IN COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THAT OCCUR DURING DEVELOPMENT Attention: Schunk (2012) states that sustained

attention is difficult for young children, as is attending to relevant rather than irrelevant information (p. 460). Young children are exposed to numerous stimuli and that is why gaining their undivided attention can be challenging. It is evident that young children like to be involved in many tasks at the same time, e.g., coloring, playing with toys, dancing, and watching T.V. As children grow older, their activities and behaviors are shaped and monitored by significant others (classroom facilitators, parents) with whom they interact. Classroom facilitators, for example, are responsible for guiding the learning process and for modeling strategies that will help students remain focused on important task aspects task completion (Schunk, 2012). Encoding and retrieval: Schunk emphasizes that as information processing capacity expands, better cognitive processes can be applied (Schunk, p. 460, 2012). Processing capacities expands mainly because of maturational and biological changes that affect children (brain development). These maturational and biological changes provide individuals with a better understanding of how to employ procedural and declarative knowledge and learning strategies in the achievement of goals. Developmental changes primarily involve learning how to make better and more efficient use of existing perceptual and attentional processes (Schunk, 2012). Learning how to set-up academic goals can be a skill that, if developed correctly, can be applied in ones personal and professional life; thus, facilitating the process of transfer and automatic attention. It is said that childrens use of strategies improves with age. These strategies can be taught and enhance childrens memory and understanding (Schunk, 2012).

Cognitive development is clearly depicted in older children. Older children tend to be more curious and they do not give up easily when they cannot find the solution for a particular problem. Schunk (2012) believes that older children are more likely to conduct an exhaustive memory search and not quit when the needed information does not come to mind immediately. Older children also have learned different ways to access information, such as by thinking about different situations when that information may be useful (p. 461). For example, older children will ask different family members the same question several times until they find a response that matches their interests. When a desired response is not found, children start referring back to parents actions/decisions in previous situations. Metacognition: the literature states that metacognitive improvements are a hallmark of development as children acquire methods for monitoring their level of understanding, asking themselves questions about what they have read, and summarizing information (Schunk, p. 461, 2012). As children grow, their critical thinking skills develop and they start using abstractions as part of the interpretation of newly acquired material. Additionally, children become aware that they are in charge of their learning process and that they have the capabilities of constructing most of what they want to learn (self-monitoring and self-regulation). They also start selecting different learning strategies that will lead to better performance. A great example is when children get involved in writing or reading assignments and they connect their ideas to family events or a movie they have recently watched. Reference: Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

REFLECTION ON DEVELOPMENT For Chapter 10s reflections, I would like to zero in on my comments on Schunks ideas regarding school transitions. As a Counselor, I am responsible for conducting presentations at the high school level on transition issues between high school and college. During these presentations, I emphasize the differences between the two environments in terms of responsibility, support, and stress levels/peer pressure. I help students understand that at the college level they are treated as adults and they bear responsibility for their actions and inactions. I also mention the importance of self-identifying if they have a functional need that may impact their academic performance, acting as independent adults, arranging their own weekly schedules, arranging for and obtaining their own personal tutoring, and contacting their instructors. In my workshops, I always invite parents to attend as sometimes they do not know how the college system works. The purpose of having both parents and student is simply because, as stated by Schunk (2012), transitions can produce disruptions in routines and ways of thinking and because of students developmental levels at the time they occur (p. 464). Pursuing this further, parental involvement is a critical factor influencing childrens self-regulation, which is central to the development of cognitive functioning (Schunk, 2012). Therefore, parents need to be aware that their children will have increased workload with a faster pace and that harder work of better quality will be required for earning a passing grade. To help with this transition, I also have participated in the design and instruction of a college orientation class called Academic Strategies. Tulsa Community College has decided that this class needs to be mandatory for high-school graduates and for any other individual that is entering college for the first time. In this course, classroom facilitators become coaches and teach students how to:

1. Use personal and social strategies to succeed in and enjoy the college experience and to become involved in college and community activities. 2. Identify and apply college and academic terminology. 3. Construct short-term and long-term goals, balancing personal skills, interests, personality, and values. 4. Construct and monitor weekly/ monthly time plans to balance work, school, family, and social activities. 5. Locate and apply college resources and support systems and incorporate these into the learning process. 6. Analyze and modify study techniques and behavior patterns to successfully complete homework, reading assignments, exams, and special projects. 7. Apply critical and creative thinking skills to identify and solve academic and social problems (includes math and science strategies, information literacy techniques, collaborative learning, diversity issues, and conflict resolution). 8. Demonstrate application of basic paragraph and essay organizational techniques.

Schunk (2012) explains that in addition to its role in cognition and learning, development has effects on childrens motivation. [] Within any developmental period, not everyone is motivated in the same way, especially if a person feels anxious about transitioning from one setting to another (Schunk, p. 474, 2012). When I teach my class, I always explain to my students that at the college level those that are eager and willing to succeed will be more likely to survive and adapt to the demands of higher education (understand that motivation becomes more differentiated and complex). In doing so, I give my students the opportunity to selfevaluate their behaviors against the standards and I teach them how to become self-efficacious

individuals as they engage in activities that match their interest (beliefs, values, and goals correspond better with choices and performances).

Reference: Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

THE EFFECTS OF LEARNING THEORIES ON DEVELOPMENT Discussion Question: Schunk (2012) explains that field dependent and independent learners do not differ in learning ability but may respond differently to learning environments and content. Because field dependent persons may be more sensitive to and attend carefully to aspects of the social environment, they are better at learning material with social content; however, field independent learners can easily learn such content when it is brought to their attention. Field dependent learners seem sensitive to teacher praise and criticism. Field independent persons are more likely to impose structure when material lacks organization; field dependent learners consider material as it is. With poorly structured material, field dependent learners may be at a disadvantage. They use salient features of situations in learning, whereas field independent learners also consider less-salient cues. The latter students may be at an advantage with concept learning when relevant and irrelevant attributes are contrasted (p. 479 & 480). With this information at hand: 1. What strategies would you use, as a teacher, in an online-learning environment to ensure that your students with different cognitive styles are learning and staying motivated? 2. How would you use criticism and/or feedback to evaluate the performance of field dependent and independent learners in your class? Reference: Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.