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The gas turbine is the most versatile item of turbomachinery today. It can be used in several different modes in critical industries such as power generation, oil and gas, process plants, aviation, as well domestic and smaller related industries. A gas turbine essentially brings together air that it compresses in its compressor module, and fuel, that are then ignited. Resulting gases are expanded through a turbine. That turbines shaft continues to rotate and drive the compressor which is on the same shaft, and operation continues. A separate starter unit is used to provide the first rotor motion, until the turbines rotation is up to design speed and can keep the entire unit running. The compressor module, combustor module and turbine module connected by one or more shafts are collectively called the gas generator. The figures below (Figures 1 and 2) illustrate a typical gas generator in cutaway and schematic format.
Fig. 1. Rolls Royce RB211 Dry Low Emissions Gas Generator (Source: Process Plant Machinery, 2nd edition, Bloch & Soares, C. pub: Butterworth Heinemann, 1998)
* Condensed extracts from selected chapters of Gas Turbines: A Handbook of Land, Sea and Air Applications by Claire Soares, publisher Butterworth Heinemann, BH, (for release information see www.bh.com) Other references include Claire Soares other books for BH and McGraw Hill (see www.books.mcgraw-hill.com) and course notes from her courses on gas turbine systems. For any use of this material that involves profit or commercial use (including work by nonprofit organizations), prior written release will be required from the writer and publisher in question. Please note that several topics in the gas turbine handbook, for instance Turbine Controls, Instrumentation and Diagnostics; as well as Performance Optimization and Environmental issues are not covered in this authors material on this CD. The Gas Turbines book in question is several hundred pages long and besides the basics, covers some of the more complex and lengthy work in recent gas turbine development. Condensing it all here was not practical. What is here however, does give the reader the basic theory and practice of gas turbines in simple cycle and combined cycle mode, in power generation service.
Fig. 2. Schematic of modules: f: fan section, ag: low pressure compressor, bg: high pressure compressor, nd c: turbine, e: shaft, h: combustor (Source: Process Plant Machinery, 2 edition, Bloch & Soares, C. pub: Butterworth Heinemann, 1998)
Figure 3 below shows a gas turbine cutaway with its basic operating specification. Note this particular turbine model can be used for both 50 and 60Hz power generation.
Fig. 3. Alstoms GT-8C2, 50/60Hz gas turbine with basic specification (Table 1: base load at ISO conditions) (Source: Alstom Power) Table 1. GT8C2 (60Hz) (ISO 2314: 1989) Fuel Natural Gas Frequency 60 Hz Gross electrical output 56.2 MW Gross electrical efficiency 33.8% Gross Heat Rate 10,098 Btu / kWh Turbine speed 6204 rpm Compressor pressure ratio 17.6:1 Exhaust gas flow 197 kg/s Exhaust gas temperature 508 C NOx emissions, gas dry (corr. to 15% O2, dry) < 25 vppm
Claire Soares
Figure 4 shows another cutaway of another gas turbine. This gas turbine is used in 60Hz power generation service.
Fig. 4. Siemens V84.3A, 60Hz gas turbine. Note partial hybrid burner (24 burners) ring
The basic gas turbine cycle is illustrated (PV and T-s diagrams) in Figure 5. A comparison can be drawn between the gas turbines operating principle and a car engines. See Figures 5 and 6. A car operates with a piston engine (reciprocating motion) and typically handles much smaller volumes than a conventional gas turbine.
Fig. 6. Comparison of the gas turbine and the reciprocating engine cycles (Source: The Aircraft Engine Book, Rolls Royce UK)
Fig. 7. A simple cycle gas turbine plant, 100 MW simple cycle power plant, Charleston, South Carolina USA, powered by Siemens gas turbines. (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)
Power generation applications extend to offshore platform use. Minimizing weight is a major consideration for this service and the gas turbines used are generally aeroderivatives (derived from lighter gas turbines developed for aircraft use). For mechanical drive applications, the turbine module arrangement is different. In these cases, the combination of compressor module, combustor module and turbine module is termed the gas generator. Beyond the turbine end of the gas generator is a freely rotating turbine. It may be one or more stages. It is not mechanically connected to the gas generator, but instead is mechanically coupled,
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sometimes via a gearbox, to the equipment it is driving. Compressors and pumps are among the potential driven turbomachinery items. See Figure 8 below.
In power generation applications, a gas turbines power/ size is measured by the power it develops in a generator (units watts, kilowatts, Megawatts). In mechanical drive applications, the gas turbines power is measured in horsepower (HP), which is essentially the torque developed multiplied by the turbines rotational speed. In aircraft engine applications, if the turbine is driving a rotor (helicopter) or propeller (turboprop aircraft) then its power is measured in horsepower. This means that the torque transmission from the gas turbine shaft is, in principle, a variation of mechanical drive application. If an aircraft gas turbine engines operates in turbothrust or ramjet mode, (i.e. the gas turbine expels its exhaust gases and the thrust of that expulsion, propels the aircraft forward), its power is measured in pounds of thrust. See Figure 9 below.
Fig. 9. Propulsive efficiency is high for a propeller and low for a jet. (Source: Rolls-Royce, UK)
Fig. 10. Gas turbines in offshore service: Offshore platforms produce their own power. Power plant selection is generally an aeroderivative (for weight considerations) gas turbine in simple cycle operation. (Source: GE Power Systems)
In marine applications, the gas turbine is generally driving the ships or ferrys propellers, via a gear box.
Fig. 11. Gas turbines in marine service: SGT-500 Industrial Gas Turbine 17 MW, Application: Two SGT-500 power packages for FPSO vessel in the Leadon oilfields (Note the SGT-500 was Alstoms, formerly ABBs GT-35, designation changed after Siemens acquisition). The Global Producer III from the Swan Hunter shipyards at Tyneside, UK, heads for the Leadon oil field in the UK Sector of the North Sea. This vessel is an FPSO (Floating Production, Storage and Offloading) vessel, and power on board is provided by two SGT-500 gas turbines. One WHRG (Waste Heat Recovery Generator) for each gas turbine heats process water. The SGT-500 is a light-weight, high-efficiency, heavy-duty industrial gas turbine. Its special design features are high reliability and fuel flexibility. It is also designed for single lift, which makes the unit suitable for all offshore applications. The modular, compact design of the GT35C facilitates onsite modular exchange. (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)
Claire Soares
GT24/26
GT11N2
Fig. 12a. Pictorial Examples of gas turbines, some with main operational parameters (Source: Alstom) Table 2. Alstoms GT 24/ GT 26 (188MW 60Hz, 281MW 50Hz). Both used in simple cycle, combined cycle and other co-generation applications.
In combined cycle, approximately 12 MW (GT26) or 10 MW (GT24) is indirectly produced by the steam turbine through the heat released in the gas turbine cooling air coolers into the water steam cycle.
Table 3. Alstoms GT 11N2, either 60Hz or 50 Hz (with a gear box). Used in simple cycle, combined cycle and other cogeneration applications.
GT11N2 (50Hz)
Fuel Frequency Gross Electrical output Gross Electrical efficiency Gross Heat rate Turbine speed Compressor pressure ratio Exhaust gas flow Exhaust gas temperature NOx emissions (corr. to 15% O2,dry) Natural Gas 50 Hz 113.6 MW 33.1% 10,305 Btu/kWh 3600 rpm 15.5:1 399 kg/s 531 C < 25 vppm
Fuel Frequency Gross Electrical output Gross Electrical efficiency Gross Heat rate Turbine speed Compressor pressure ratio Exhaust gas flow Exhaust gas temperature NOx emissions (corr. to 15% O2,dry)
GT11N2 (60Hz) Natural gas 60 Hz 115.4 MW 33.6% 10,150 Btu/kWh 3600 rpm 15.5 : 1 399 kg/s 531 C < 25 vppm
Fig. 12b. SGT-600 Industrial Gas Turbine - 25 MW (former designation, Alstoms GT10) (Source: Siemens Westinghouse) Technical Specifications Dual Fuel Frequency Electrical output Electrical efficiency Heat rate Turbine speed Compressor pressure ratio Exhaust gas flow Exhaust gas temperature NOx emissions (corr. to 15% O2, dry) natural gas and liquid 50/60 Hz 24.8 MW 34.2% 10,535 kJ/kWh 7,700 rpm 14.0:1 80.4 kg/s 543 deg C <25 vppm
Figures 13 and 14 depict a cutaway and an external view respectively, of two aeroderivative engine models.
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Fig. 13. The GE LM6000 (aeroderivative of the CF6-80C2). (Source: GE Power Systems)
Fig. 14. The GE LM2500 (aeroderivative of the CF6-80C2). (Source: GE Power Systems)
Figure 15 shows an industrial gas turbine during assembly at the OEMs facility.
Fig. 15. GE-9H gas turbine is prepared for testing (Source: GE Power Systems)
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Figure 18 shows a large GE Frame 7F industrial gas turbine on a test bed in the OEMs facility.
Fig.18. GE Frame 7F during manufacture/test showing rotor in half the casing (Source: GE Power Systems)
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their own in the Second World War In peacetime; NASA took over the research that led to better alloys, components, and design techniques. This technology was then handed down to military aviation, and eventually commercial aviation. However, since the same manufacturers also make gas turbines for land and marine use, aeroderivative gas turbines were a natural offshoot of their flying forerunners. However, the same manufacturers also make gas turbines for land and marine use. So aeroderivative gas turbines were a natural offshoot of their flying forerunners. Aeroderivative gas turbines are essentially aviation gas turbines that are installed on a light frame and installed on a flat surface (ground based, marine craft or offshore platform). Aeroderivatives are commonly used in power generation service, particularly where a relatively light package is required, such as in offshore service. The Rolls Royce Spey and Olympus engines for instance, are both aero engines but are also popular when packaged as aeroderivatives in land based and offshore platform service. Pratt and Whitneys (PW) JT- 8D was once the largest (in terms of fleet size) aircraft engine family in existence. The engine first made its appearance in the 1950s and delivered about 10,000 pounds of thrust, then. Several variations on the basic core produced a version that delivered roughly 20,000 pounds of thrust about twenty years later. This incremental power development around the same basic design is common and saves on development costs, spares stocking costs and maintenance. PWs FT- 8D is their aeroderivative equivalent used in both power generation and mechanical drive application. Similarly General Electrics (GEs) LM2500 and LM6000 family (aero derivative) are essentially CF6-80C2 (aero) engines that have been adapted for land based use. What was ABBs GT35 (land based), then Alstoms GT35 (change of corporate ownership), then Siemens Westinghouses SGT500 (yet another corporate purchase) is another example of an aeroderivative. Most aeroderivatives can also be used in marine (ferry, ship) applications. Some of them are also used on mobile land applications, such as in military tanks. Aero and aeroderivative gas turbine engines are likely to be built in modular construction. This means that one module of the gas turbine engine may be removed from service and the other modules left in place. A substitute module may be inserted in place of the removed module so the gas turbine can resume service. An industrial engine is more likely to be constructed in a non-modular format. If part of an industrial engine has serious problems, it is likely that the entire engine will be down for maintenance. The term industrial gas turbine implies a heavier frame and a gas turbine model that was not intended for service where the mass (weight) to power ratio (in other words weight minimization for the power plant) was of paramount concern. That said, the metallurgical selections for contemporary industrials reflect the best developments in metallurgical selections. The gas turbine field is a highly competitive one, and the highest turbine inlet temperatures (TITs) that can be tolerated by the metallurgical and fuel selections, are sought as this optimizes the gas turbines peak power rating. In other words, GEs industrial Frame 7s and 9s (be they - F, - G or - H technology) may incorporate similar metallurgy to that used on their aircraft engines. The letters F, G and H refer to temperature ceilings and therefore imply higher power (with later alphabet letters). Some turbine model designations can appear confusing due to several changes in corporate ownership. This is partly due to the fact that the OEM (original equipment manufacturer) gas turbine scene changes constantly with corporate mergers, partial mergers, buyouts of specific divisions and joint ventures. This section and the one on combined cycles therefore have several notes about specific engines model designation history and previous ownership. This has considerable relevance when it comes to noting the finer points of any gas turbines design. This is critical to operators as they can then make better decisions regarding the overhaul, performance optimization, component updates and retrofit systems on their turbine systems. Any application of a gas turbine could have a great deal to offer end-users in other industrial sectors. Power generation is often the least demanding application for a given gas turbine, unless it used in variable load/ peaking service. Mechanical drive units are more likely to experience load swings. One example would be turbines driving pumps that injects (into the soil) varying volumes of sea water that accompany mixed field (oil, gas and seawater deposits) oil and gas production. Aircraft engine turbines may see varying stresses depending on their service. If for instance, one considers an aerobatic squadron, one needs to be aware that the engines on the planes trying to stay a fixed distance from the wing tip of the formations leader may accumulate life cycle losses of twenty times that of the formation leaders engines. In other words, the variations in all parameters that pertain to a gas turbines overall life, component lives or time between overhauls (TBOs) offer insight to gas turbine operators regardless of whether that turbine operates in their industry or not. Lessons which are
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learned in one sector of industry on gas turbine metallurgy and operating systems, such as controls or condition monitoring, can be applied in some way, to other gas turbine applications.
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1942 In April, the GE I-A runs for the first time in a Lynn test cell. In October, it powers the Bell P-59 on its first flight at Muroc Dry Lake, CA. 1929 Haynes Stellite develops Hastelloy alloy for turbine buckets, allowing operation up to gas temperatures of over 1800 F. This superior alloy was later crucial to the successful operation of the I-A and it gave U.S. turbine manufacturers the ability to use uncooled designs rather than include the complexity of blade cooling. By the latter part of 1942, the following native aircraft gas turbine efforts were proceeding. These projects included: 1. Northrop Turbodyne turboprop 2 .P&W PT-1 turboprop 3. GE/Schenectady TG-100 turboprop 4. Allis-Chalmers turbine-driven ducted fan 5. NACA piston-driven ducted fan 6. Westinghouse 19A turbojets 7. Turbo Engineering Corporations booster-sized turbojet The following timeline contains many of the relevant land based gas turbine design developments. * Note that this also contains some timeline references to aircraft engine development. * Reference: ASME 2001 - GT- 0395 Advanced gas turbine technology ABB/ BBC historical firsts by Eckardt, D., and Rufli, P., ALSTOM Power Ltd. Note: BBC = Brown Boveri Company, ABB = Asea Brown Boveri
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R. Friedrich, Junkers Magdeburg, design the 14 st. axial compressor for the RTO engine (Riickstoss-Turbine ohne Leistungsabgabe with a Propeller), for the Helium aircraft S30 engine, based on Gottingen airfoil design 1942 Me 262 fighter aircraft entered service with two Jumo 004 engines, first test flight on August 18.
Fig. 19. BBC - First Utility GT Power Plant, 4 MW, Neuchatel, Switzerland, 1939 (courtesy Alstom Power)
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Fig. 20. Modules in a gas turbine Source: Courtesy of Butterworth nd Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce UK
Primary Modules
The primary modules in a gas turbine are the: Compressor module Combustion module Turbine module A gas turbine also has an inlet section/ module and an exhaust section/ module. See Figure 20. Most advanced and large gas turbines have compressors that are the axial design type. Some of the earlier, smaller or deliberately compact gas turbines have centrifugal compressors. See Figures 21, 22, 23. Each compressor stage provides an opportunity for stepping up the overall compressor pressure ratio (PR), so although an axial stage may not offer as much of a PR as a centrifugal stage of the same diameter, a multistage axial compressor offers far higher PR (and therefore mass flow rates and resultant power) than a centrifugal design.
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Fig. 21. Centrifugal-compressor flow, pressure, and velocity changes (a) Airflow through a typical centrifugal compressor, (b) Pressure and velocity changes through a centrifugal compressor. Courtesy Rolls Royce UK
Fig. 22. A modern high-performance compressor assembly. (General Electric) (Source: Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Technology McGraw Hill)
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Fig. 23. Stator case for the General Electric 179 engine. (Source: Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Technology McGraw Hill)
Therefore most gas turbine designs incorporate axial compressors. In newer designs, the compressor and turbine modules may be split into further submodules, to lessen the stress on individual components and achieve better efficiencies. So a compressor may have a low pressure (LP) module or LPC, and a high pressure module (HPC). In this case there will be equivalent high and low pressure turbine modules (LPT and HPT). The LPC and LPT will operate on one long shaft at the same speed. The HPC and HPT will operate on a shorter shaft that fits around and concentric to, the low pressure shaft, and at a higher speed than the low pressure module. See Figure 21. Some contemporary gas turbines have three modules, designated low, intermediate and high pressure, each with their own shaft. This modular concept allows for module replacement or exchange, if maintenance to a module is required, without taking the entire gas turbine out of service.
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Then air enters the diffuser section. The highest total air velocity and maximum compressor pressure is at the inlet of the diffuser. Air moves through the diffuser, which presents the air with an increasing cross sectional area, so the airs velocity decreases and the static pressure increases. The highest static pressure is at the diffuser outlet. The compressor rotor can be described as an air swallower. The volume of air swallowed by the compressor rotor is proportional to the lowest pressure (in a multiple shaft gas turbine) rotor rpm. However, the altitude at which the gas turbine is located will alter the horsepower (for a mechanical drive) or the power (in watts, kilowatts or Megawatts) that the gas turbine develops. This is because air density decreases with altitude and with increasing air temperature and humidity. That means when the compressor swallows a certain volume of air, that air will be a smaller weight of air, if the gas turbine is at a high altitude, still less if it is a hot day, and still less if it is also a humid day. This smaller weight of air requires a smaller weight of fuel to combine with, and the mixture then produces less power when burned. Note however, that humidity, in comparison with temperature, and pressure altitude, has a much smaller effect on density. In aircraft engine applications, with increased forward speed, ram air pressure increases and air temperature and pressure increase. Ram air pressure is defined as the free stream air pressure created by the forward motion of the aircraft engine. The effect of rise in air intake temperature on power developed by a gas turbine can be noted in figure 24.
Fig. 24. Variation of shaft power with inlet air temperature for different configurations of the Rolls Royce Avon nd Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares C., 1998
There are many different compressor designs that result from the manufacturers balance of several design factors, including target gas turbine power developed, cost of manufacture, anticipated serviceability factors and so forth. As previously discussed, when the gas turbine is started up, the turbine section will keep the compressor section rotating. The compressors efficiency is a key factor in
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determining the power necessary to create the pressure rise of a given airflow. This pressure rise will in turn affect the temperature difference between the compressor inlet and outlet. As mentioned previously, the main types of compressor design are centrifugal and axial flow. The axial-centrifugal-flow compressor is a combination of both and operates with a combination of their characteristics. It is a less common design.
Centrifugal-flow compressor As the rotor turns, air is drawn into the blades near the center of the front rotor stage. Centrifugal force accelerates this air as it moves outward from the axis of rotation towards the edge of the rotor. It is then forced through the diffuser section at high velocity (high kinetic energy). A pressure rise results when the air slows in the diffuser (some velocity energy becomes pressure energy). One centrifugal compressor stage is capable of a relatively high compression ratio per stage. It is not practical to use on larger engines because of its size and weight, relative to axial stages. Because of the high tip speeds it develops, the centrifugal compressor is most used on smaller engines where simplicity, flexibility of operation, and ruggedness outweigh its characteristics of less overall pressure ratio than that developed by an axial compressor. Axial-flow compressor The air is compressed, in a direction parallel to the longitudinal axis of the engine. Axial flow compressors consist of several stages that collectively create high compression ratios with high efficiencies. The streamlined shape of this type of compressor make is suitable for use on high speed (ram jet) aircraft. Its design is less rugged than that of the centrifugal compressor though, making it more susceptible to foreign object damage (FOD). The required efficiency and power rating then mean that the design parameters that govern its design, such as rotor dynamics characteristics, clearances and fits, also make it more expensive to manufacture. With the rising cost of fuel, most gas turbine designers use axial compressors, as features such as power delivered per unit weight of the gas turbine outweigh initial manufacture costs. Axial-centrifugal-flow compressor The axial-centrifugal-flow compressor, also called the dual compressor, is a combination of the two types. Its operating advantages and characteristics are also a combination of both rotor types. It is useful is specialized application designs, such as those for US Army helicopters. Typically the compressor is five- to seven-stage axial-flow compressor and one centrifugal-flow compressor. The compressors are mounted on the same shaft and therefore turn in the same direction and at the same speed. The centrifugal compressor is situated aft of the axial compressor stages. Most high performance gas turbines today also have inlet guide vanes (IGVs) and/ or variable inlet guide vanes (VIGVs) at the compressor inlet. This is to ensure that the air flow hitting the rotor blades does so at an acceptable angle of attack that does not cause the blade to stall. If we consider a cross section through the wing of an aircraft, we note that the section is similar in shape (if not size) to that of an airfoil in a gas turbine. All airfoils provide lift by producing a lower pressure on the convex (suction) side of the airfoil than on the concave (pressure) side. With any airfoil, lift increases with an increasing angle of attack, but only up to a critical angle. Beyond this critical angle of attack, lift falls off rapidly. This is due mostly to the separation of the airflow from the suction surface of the airfoil. In simpler terms, we know that when the cushion of air under the aircraft wing is reduced to a certain level, the wing has inadequate lift. It (and the aircraft) tend to drop from their existing level. The airfoils in a gas turbine can stall in exactly the same way, one blade at a time. If a whole row of blades stalls, we have a condition called rotating stall, at which point surge occurs. Surge causes a rotor to go back on itself, in an attempt to regain the lift under the airfoil. In flight, the pilot then pushes the nose down to recover from stall, as this then restores the air cushion under the wing.
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Claire Soares
Combustor module
There are three main combustion chamber types in use today (See figures 25-29): annular combustor chambers can (multican) combustor chambers can-annular combustor chambers
Fig. 25. A combustion chamber. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2nd Edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998
Fig. 26. Flame stabilizing and general airflow pattern. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from nd Process Plant Machinery 2 Edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998,
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Fig. 27. Flame tube cooling methods Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2nd Edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998
Fig. 28. Multiple Combustion Chambers Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2nd Edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998
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Fig. 29. Annual Combustion Chambers Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2nd Edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998
Some variations on these basic designs occur in specialized applications. Again, one example is US Army helicopters that use the annular reverse-row type. The combustor module contains the combustion chambers, igniter plugs, and fuel nozzles. The combustor burns a fuel-air mixture and delivers the products of combustion to the turbine at temperatures within design range. Fuel is injected at the upstream end of the burner in a highly atomized spray. Fuel nozzles may be simplex type (delivering gaseous fuel or liquid fuel) or they may be designed to be dual fuel (delivering gas or liquid at different times in the operation). Some gas turbines are bi-fuel. They may burn a mixture of gas and liquid fuel. 1.1 Simple and Combined Cycles Combustion air, with the help of swirler vanes, flows in around the fuel nozzle and mixes with the fuel. This air is called primary air and represents approximately 25 percent of total air ingested by the engine. The fuel-air mixture by weight is roughly 15 parts of air to 1 part of fuel. The remaining 75 percent of the air is used to form an air blanket around the burning gases and to lower the temperature. Flame temperatures in excess of 3600 F (roughly 200 degrees C) are not uncommon in high performance aircraft engines. Cooling air drops this temperature to a value that the turbine inlet guide vanes can withstand. The air used for burning fuel is primary air. Cooling air is secondary air and is controlled and directed by holes and louvers in the combustion chamber liner. Certain aircraft engines are termed high bypass ratio fan engines. With this design, the gas turbine has an inlet fan upstream of the low pressure compressor (LPC). That fans diameter is far larger than that of the LPC. Much of the air ingested by the fan is directed through an annular sleeve type casing that fits around the compressor. This bypass air provides still more cooling but also helps with other gas turbine performance characteristics like power developed, total mass flow and FOD ingestion capabilities.
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As we read previously, igniter plugs function during start up and are cut out of the circuit as soon as combustion is self supporting (the turbine has developed design speed and is driving the compressor on its own). On engine shutdown, or, if start failure occurs, the combustion chamber drain pressure-actuated valve, automatically drains any raw fuel from the combustion chamber. The material suitable for fabricating the combustion chamber liner is typically welded high-nickel steel. The hottest zone is about the first upstream third of its length (flame zone). The most severe operating periods in combustion chambers are during engine idle (reduced air) and maximum rpm (power) operation. Sustained operation is generally unnecessary. Base load with a ground based gas turbine is generally a power setting lower than this value. With aircraft engine operation, maximum rpm generally corresponds to maximum (take off) thrust. The annular combustion chamber can enhance a geometrically compact design. Instead of individual combustion chamber cans, compressed air is introduced into an annular space formed by a chamber liner that may be situated in some designs, around the turbine assembly. Annular space left between the outer liner wall and the combustion chamber housing conducts the flow of compressor secondary cooling air. Primary air is mixed with the fuel for combustion. Secondary (cooling) air reduces the temperature of the hot gases seen by the turbine first stage inlet nozzle guide vanes (IGVs). An annular combustion chamber provides a larger combustion volume per unit of exposed metal area and therefore of metal weight. The can combustion chamber design has individual combustion chambers. Air from the compressor enters each individual chamber through a transition section. Each individual can has two cylindrical tubes, concentric in most locations, the combustion chamber liner and the outer combustion chamber. Combustion occurs within the inner liner. Louvers and holes control airflow into the combustion area. Continuous airflow helps prevent carbon from forming on the inside of the liner. Carbon deposits can cause hot spots or block cooling air passages, which then shortens burner life. Ignition occurs during the start cycle. The igniter plug(s) is (are) located in the combustion liner adjacent to the start fuel nozzle. Two is a typical number. The flame lights off in the can closest the igniter and cross tubes rapidly conduct the flame to the other combustion cans. Some engines use a single can combustor. In the case of the illustration below, because of the size of the single can, the design is referred to as a silo burner. This design can be vulnerable to one or more of the heat shield tiles that line the inside of the silo, breaking loose and potentially proceeding downstream into the turbines gas path.
Fig. 30. GE 9H partial combustion module during manufacture (Source: GE Power Systems)
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Can-annular combustion chamber This combustion chamber is a combination of both annular and can-type designs. The can-annular combustion chamber consists of an outer shell (annular), with a number of cans (can type) mounted about the engine axis. The combustion chambers are cooled by air that enters the liners through various holes and louvers. This air is mixed with fuel from the fuel nozzles. The fuel-air mixture is ignited by igniter plugs, and the flame is then carried through the crossover tubes to the remaining liners. The inner combustion chamber casing serves as structural support and a heat shield. Bearing oil supply lines run through it. Low NOx combustors As previously noted, raising the temperature at which the combustion gases enter the turbine (turbine inlet temperature or TIT), will also raise the efficiency of the gas turbine cycle. Care has to be taken however, that an increase in TIT does not cause other operational problems, such as overheating of turbine components and turbine lubrication oil. If the TIT increase is not accompanied with sufficient additional cooling, this could happen. Also, one needs to consider that the amount of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) produced by a combustor increases with the value of the flame temperature in the combustor and the corresponding value of TIT. NOx emissions contribute to acid rain and legislation against NOx production has become increasingly stringent. Hence lower TITs, to the extent permitted by optimized efficiency, are desirable.
Fig. 31. DLN (dry low NOx) combustor
This fact needs to be kept in focus when selecting and/or specifying gas (Source: GE Power Systems) turbines for particular applications and specific demographics (i.e. country or state concerned and their particular legislation). Two examples of low NOx combustors are shown in Figures 33 and 34.
The SGT-600 fleet has clocked up one and a half million operating hours with its dry, low-emission (DLE) combustion system, which significantly reduces environmental impact. The DLE combustion system was developed for the SGT-600 in 1990 (original design developed by ABB, later Alstom Power, then acquired by Siemens Westinghouse). The SGT-600 burner lowers NOx by reducing the flame temperature in its combustion chamber. The SGT-600 annular combustor has a total of 18 burners. Each burner consists of a cone split in two halves, which are slightly offset to form two slots for the combustion air to enter (original Alstom designation was the EV burner). The main gas supply also enters through these slots, via tubes fitted along them. Primary fuel is injected at the tip of the cone. This results in a richer fuel mixture, enabling a control feature to stabilize the flame over a range of load conditions. Further combustion control can be provided by means of an optional bypass system that allows the amount of dilution air to be varied. The current design achieves NOx emission levels of less than 25 ppmv (at 15% O2), operating on natural gas in 50-100% load range. Singledigit NOx levels have been measured in some plants. The DLE system for the SGT-600 has been operating successfully in a variety of applications, including mechanical drives for pipeline and gas storage compressors; cogeneration for industrial duty as well as municipal district-heating systems; and power generation, in both combined-cycle and simple-cycle operation. Installations cover a range of environments, including offshore, from arctic to tropical, at altitudes of up to 1500 meters. Although DLE technology is suitable for dual-fuel combustion, water injection is required to reduce NOx emissions when burning liquid fuel. Emission levels for operation on liquid fuel are below 42 ppmv, at full load, with a modest water-to-fuel ratio of 0.8.
Fig. 32. The SGT-600 dry, low-emission (DLE) combustion system Source: Siemens Westinghouse
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Low NOx combustors are designed, optimized and promoted extensively for both performance and profit-based reasons. The extent of the profit they represent varies with the demographics of the location in question. Specifically: 1. In the U.S., as flameless combustor designers are quick to point out, their ultra low single digit NOx designs succeed in getting their operators legally permitted (to commence power production) in some cases a few months ahead of their rivals, who may have quite respectable NOx levels ranging from 9 to 15 ppm. This represents a considerable amount of revenue. 2. Both the US and Canada deal with emissions trading. Regardless of any opinion on the technical wisdom of such measures with respect to the overall atmospheric load, low NOx abilities represents revenue to an operator who can then sell his spare credits. 3. In Scandinavian countries, operators pay taxes per unit weight of NOx and SOx emissions. This source of revenue method may spread through the western world. 4. Low NOx means that other emissions such as CO and CO2 are also lowered. CO2 taxes may soon be reality in global, particularly western world terms. In this aspect, once again Scandinavian countries point the way for other operators. 5. End users may also note that reduced NOx generally means lower TITs, hence reduced wear on hot section components and therefore reduced costs per fired hour.
Turbine module
The kinetic energy of the gases entering the turbine is transformed into shaft horsepower (see Figures 34 through 38) which is then used to drive the compressor and other support systems (via accessory system gears. Note that this turbine, combustor and compressor modules form an assembly that is termed the gas generator. In power generation applications, the entire gas turbine is a gas generator that is then mechanically coupled either directly or via a gear box, to the generator that in turn is coupled to the grid or power supply system. However, in land based mechanical drive applications, we read earlier that a free power turbine rotates downstream of the gas generator at the turbine end and that it is on a different shaft system (with or without a gear box) together with the machinery (typically compressors or pumps) it turns. Aviation turboprop or helicopter applications have a transmission system (gearbox) that may be located at the compressor end of the gas turbine, to conduct torque to the propellers or helicopter rotors. The main turbine airfoil design type used in gas turbines today is axial flow design. Some manufacturers however, use a radial inflow design. The radial inflow turbine is rugged, less complex, less expensive and easier to manufacture than the axial-flow turbine. This radial flow turbine design is a backwards version of the centrifugal flow compressor. Similarly, radial turbine rotors used in small engines have a high efficiency relative to their weight and the space they occupy.
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The axial flow turbine consists of stages, each made up primarily of a set of stationary vanes followed by a row of rotating blades, also on a disc. Turbine blades are either impulse or reaction type. Typically modern aircraft gas turbine blades have both impulse and reaction sections.
Fig. 34. Comparison Between a pure impulse turbine and an impulse/reaction turbine. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2nd edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce
Fig. 35. A typical turbine blade showing twisted contour. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2nd edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce
Fig. 36. Gas flow pattern through nozzle and blade. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from nd Process Plant Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce
Fig. 37. Typical nozzle guide vanes showing their shape and location. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant nd Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce
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Fig. 38. Various methods of attaching blades to turbine disks. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, nd from Process Plant Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce
The stationary part of the turbine assembly consists of a row of contoured vanes set at a predetermined angle to form a series of small nozzles which direct the gases onto the blades of the turbine rotor. For this reason, the stationary vane assembly is usually called the turbine nozzle, and the vanes are called nozzle guide vanes.
Exhaust module
The gas turbines hot gases exit via the exhaust section or module. Structurally, this section supports the power turbine and rear end of the rotor shaft. The exhaust case typically has an inner and outer housing. Hollow struts locate its position. The inner housing typically has a cone shape or cover that encloses a chamber for cooling the thrust bearing at the end of the shaft. When we consider aircraft engine applications, we note that turboshaft engines (such as those used in helicopters) do not develop thrust with the use of the exhaust duct, as they must be capable of stationary hover. So helicopters use divergent ducts that dissipate energy in exhaust gases. On fixed wing aircraft, the exhaust duct could be convergent in design. That would accelerate exhaust gases and produce thrust which adds additional power to the engine. Combined thrust and shaft horsepower give equivalent shaft horsepower (ESHP).
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Fig. 39. Air system flow in the turbine. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process nd Plant Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce
Fig. 40. Main internal air system flows. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2nd edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce
Oil flow to the bearings is regulated. The bearings in the hot section require far more oil flow than those in the cooler compressor section. Thermocouples or RTDs measure oil flow temperature. Sudden temperature rises in the oil trigger an alarm or shutdown. The section on design development refers to varying design philosophies between OEMs. The lubrication system is one area where it shows as much as anywhere else. Certain OEMs have a preference for greater lubrication flows than others, at a given temperature range.
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Fuel system
As we will see in the section on design development, the gas turbine can run on a very wide variety of fuels that are gaseous, liquid, atomized solid (coal) suspended in gas, or semi-solid (biomass waste liquor). Each of these different fuel types requires its own customized fuel delivery systems with varying combustor residence times. However, most OEMs have standard fuel systems for natural gas, liquid fuel (such as LNG or diesel), dual fuel (gas or liquid) and in the case of manufacturers such as Rolls Royce bi-fuel (both gas and liquid at the same time). See figures 41 through 45. The basic principle of most gas turbines power development revolves around temperature topping. A fuel control unit, which in earlier gas turbines is a mechanical device with several cams and contours, controls the fuel flow. In newer engines the control is more like an electronic brain where electronic functions take the place of the mechanical cams. In its simplest form, temperature topping works as follows. Exhaust gas temperature readings tell the turbines control system whether the gas turbine needs to be hotter or cooler, for a given operational requirement. That reading then is compared to the fuel flow set point and that set point raised or lowered, as required. Other systems essential to the gas turbines operation but not covered in this summary, include: Compressor wash system (on-line and / or offline) Engine Condition Monitoring System which incorporates subsystems such as Vibration Analysis, Pulsation Monitoring, and Life Cycle Assessment. Fuel treatment (see case study in Design Development section)
Fig. 41. Liquid fuelled phase 1 gas generator schematic. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2nd edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce
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Fig. 42. Dual fuelled gas generator schematic. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2nd edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce
Fig. 43. Gas fuel burner. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth nd Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce
Fig. 44. Liquid fuel burner. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth nd Heinemann, from Process Plant Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce
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Fig. 45. Dual fuel burner. Source: Courtesy of Butterworth Heinemann, from Process Plant nd Machinery 2 edition, Bloch, H. and Soares, C., 1998, original source Rolls Royce
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Gas Turbines: An applications handbook for land, air and sea, Soares, C. publisher Butterworth Heinemann. Notes from the annual panel session Engine Condition Monitoring used to extend the life of gas turbine engine components, 1995 through 2003, Chair: Soares, C.
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Fig. 46. Siemens gas turbine power plants range from 65 MW to 814 MW (simple cycle and combined cycle. Power output according to applied turbine and plant type. (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)
Several gas turbines have dual frequency capability. A dual frequency power generation package is illustrated in Figure 47.
Siemens SGT-200 Industrial Gas Turbine for Power Generation (ISO) 6.75MW (e) Power Generation Package is of light modular construction, 50Hz or 60Hz, and suitable for small power generation, especially in locations where power to weight ratio is important (offshore applications) and small footprint is required. The SGT-200 is available as a factory assembled packaged power plant for utility and industrial power generation applications. It incorporates the gas turbine, gearbox, generator and all systems mounted on a base. The package is available for either multi-point or three-point mounting for onshore or offshore use as required. An option for acoustic treatment reduces noise levels to 80dB (A) and is available in carbon steel and stainless steel. Doors and panels are incorporated to provide access for servicing. Fig. 47. SGT-200 Modular Package - Generator Set. (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)
The cases below include an illustration of a similar rotor [Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, MHI]5, shape using different metallurgy, aerodynamic (including bleed air modifications) or cooling techniques to increase the power developed by that rotor. To increase compressor discharge pressure (and therefore mass of compressor air delivered and in turn power developed by the turbine), additional compressor stages can be added to give higher compression ratios. This can be done while leaving the core diameter the same. Note 5: See footnote on page 38
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geometry. This is done by optimizing metallurgical selections and improving cooling. The design development process is best illustrated by case studies (see below) drawn from OEM authored papers. OEM strategy with respect to repair development varies, sometimes even within their own divisions. Factors such as end-user group pressure (to develop specific repairs), international economics (end users do not always pay the same rate in dollars per fired hour for power by the hour contracts) and other reasons unrelated to the gas turbine system itself. So when OEMs merge or acquire divisions of another OEM, this may prove very beneficial to the end user, if certain technology areas improve. It may also prove a logistical problem with spare parts stocking and changing codes, if the new OEM also changes model numbers.
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As we will see in one of the case studies below, MHI (Mitsubishi) use a combination of air cooling, steam cooling open cycle and steam cooling closed cycle for their hottest airfoils. This then provides their customer base with a wide range of power developed values, all with essentially the same core geometry.
Fuel Options
Fuel selection also plays a major part in determining cost per fired hour, depending on its physical state and purity level. Natural gas is the most desirable fuel, as it takes least toll of the gas turbines component surfaces. Diesel oil (distillate) is a liquid fuel and also takes minimal (if not quite as good as natural gas) toll of the gas turbine components. However, residual, also called bunker or crude oil is a viable fuel. Because of its high salt levels (sodium and potassium based), water washing is required. Also because of its Vanadium content, fuel treatment additives are required. The Vanadium salts that result take the Vanadium out of solution and the salts deposit on the surfaces of the turbine blades. The turbine can be washed, typically every 100 to 120 hours, and the salts are then removed. Were it not for the fuel treatment additives, the vanadium compounds that would form would form a hard coating on the turbine blades that could not be removed. For this entire system to work, TITs are kept down below 900 degrees Celsius. That TIT may be valid as base load and therefore part of a design or it may be run derated at the appropriate temperature until a cleaner fuel can be used.
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circumferential blade velocities. The turbine aeroengine technology is partially courtesy of Ansaldo, Italy (who contract manufacture turbine sections for Siemens Westinghouse) and therefore from Pratt and Whitney, on whose design technology some elements of Ansaldos turbine manufacture are modeled. With a land based turbine, the designer does not have to aim for maximum pressure rise across a stage together with weight minimization (or maximum power per pound of turbine). The priority in this case is maximum efficiency.
Repowering
Repowering is a growing trend in Europe and the US. The incentives include adherence to Kyoto objectives. Although emissions taxes are not yet reality worldwide, they are in some European countries. The higher efficiencies available with gas turbine options are another incentive, as they make IPPs far more competitive. A case in point is the Peterhead station in Scotland. The 2 boiler, 2 GE 115 MW Frame 9E station had been designed to operate on heavy fuel oil, LNG, sour gas, and natural gas. In 1998, the decision was made to increase plant capacity with three Siemens V94.3 combined cycle units. The V94.3 is a scaled up version of the V84.3 which can run at both 60 and 50 cycles. The economics of the situation are heavily influenced by the UKs gas supplies. Thus that stations efficiency went from 38% to between 50 and 55%. NOx emissions will be reduced by 85 %. Another major reason for repowering is that what was thought to be 60 years worth of natural gas left in global supply terms was updated to 70 years plus recently. Evidence from ongoing exploration indicates that this figure will climb. Despite Chinas anxiety to use its coal, and the Middle Easts desire to use its residual oil, the trend towards gas turbines burning cleaner fuels will continue as lending agencies increasingly tie their loans up with environmental standards as conditions. However, as gas turbines get better at burning pulverized coal dust, residual fuel and other erosive or corrosive fuels, use of the gas turbine will increase.
Environmental Factors
Legislation pressure on environmental emissions has created extensions on OEMs design staff to lower gas turbine emissions, particularly oxides of nitrogen or NOx (See Table 4.). NOx production will tend to increase with higher flame temperatures. NOx control techniques include a variety of techniques, such as adding cooling air, or extending the combustion process with a two stage combustor (see Alstoms sequential burner design in the case studies), which results in lowered overall maximum combustor temperatures. Unburned hydrocarbons, particularly carbon monoxide or CO, are undesirable. Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, are also the subject of increasing attention, as they contribute to global warming. NOx emissions (like oxides of sulphur or SOx emissions) are now taxed in a growing number of global locations and carbon dioxide (CO2) tax will soon be widespread. So the design development cases that follow include work on low NOx combustor development and CO2 sequestering projects.
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Table 4. Emissions Factors for Utility and Industrial Combustion Systems 3 (based on fuel energy input rather than output, i.e. not taking account of combustion efficiency)
Emissions Source
Emissions Factors (g/GJ energy input) CO2 CO CH4 NO2 N2O 56,100 56,100 56,100 77,350 74,050 n/a 94,600 94,600 94,600 94,600 94,600 26,260 94,600 77,350 56,100 26,260 n/a n/a n/a 19 32 32 15 15 98 121 n/a 14 14 14 1,473 93 15 17 1,504 1,706 96 19 0.1 6.1 5.9 0/7 0.03 n/a 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 18 2.4 2.9 1.4 15 n/a n/a n/a 267 187 188 201 68 140 326 255 857 330 461 112 329 161 67 115 88 140 139 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 0.8 n/a 0.8 0.8 0.8 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Utility Application Natural gas boilers Gas turbine, combined cycle Gas turbine, simple cycle Residual oil boilers Distillate oil boilers Municipal solid waste (mass feed) Coal, spreader stoker Coal, fluidized bed Coal, pulverized Coal, tangentially fired Coal, pulverized, wall fired Wood-fired boilers Industrial Applications Coal-fired boilers Residual-fired boilers Natural gas-fired boilers Wood-fired boilers Bagasse/agricultural waste boilers Municipal solid waste, mass burn Municipal solid waste, small modular
Figure 48 is another example of a gas turbine and its primary operational data in simple cycle mode. Note NOx ppm value.
Fig 48. Alstoms GT13E2 (operating data below is for simple cycle) Gas Turbine (Source: Alstom)
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Figures quoted in Greenhouse Gas Abatement Investment Project Monitoring and Evaluation Guidelines World Bank, Global Environment Coordination Division, Early Release Version, June 1994.
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GT13E2 Fuel Frequency Gross Electrical output Gross Electrical efficiency Gross Heat rate Turbine speed Compressor pressure ratio Exhaust gas flow Exhaust gas temperature NOx emissions (corr.to 15% O2, dry)
Natural gas 50 Hz 172.2 MW 36.4% 9376 Btu/kWh 3000 rpm 15.4 :1 537 kg/s 522 C < 25 vppm
The following cases are typical of, but cannot fully represent, the end results of contemporary OEM design development projects. The authors handbook covers several dozen, and they cannot all be condensed or repeated here. These cases feature some OEM methods of maximizing operational convenience and efficiency, while staying within legislative environmental guidelines. They also demonstrate how end-user requirements may shape the course of design development and can moderate an OEMs focus. Case 1. Gas turbine system features that allow the use of residual oil as a fuel. 4 Case 2. MHI steam cooling design for their highest temperature zones. The steam circuit can be either a closed or an open system type. In the latter case, the steam is released into the gas path of the products of combustion after it has completed its cooling task. 5 Case 3. The use of low BTU waste liquid fuel. This case involved what was originally designated Alstoms GT-10 gas turbine model at the Petrochemical Corporation of Singapore (PCS) plant, Singapore. Highly pertinent to the operation was the use of a stepper valve in the fuel system supply. 6 Case 4. Cycle modifications, involving water injection for power augmentation, to boost gas turbine performance.
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Case 1: Gas turbine system features that allow the use of residual oil as a fuel.4
Mixed fields (that produce both gas and oil) often want to use their oil as fuel. These mixed fields are common in many areas of the world including the offshore fields in Malaysia and the North Sea in Europe. The answer for some owners, who have a grade of oil that is better than residual oil, is to use that as fuel for reciprocating engines that burn crude oil for pipeline mechanical drives. The penalty for using this fuel in gas turbine power generation however, must be carefully weighed for the individual model in question. With or without special design features, gas turbines designed for a (high grade) liquid fuel burn capability, can burn any liquid fuel with a consequential penalty in parts life. It can be done for emergencies as NATO studies for contingency measures in wartime conditions proved. However, gas turbines with oil fuel as an option (to gas), are increasingly popular in many areas of the world. If they can burn residual fuel, they are still more popular. The world, China included, can cheaply import the Middle Easts glut of residual oil. Light oil: There are some gas turbines that can run on light oil with very little penalty in performance versus natural gas. Consider the following data on what was the Alstom GT10, which burns both gas and oil.
The authors Power Generation course notes, extracts from the authors articles for Asian Electricity and Modern Power Systems and extracts from her book Environmental Technology and Economics, (publisher Butterworth Heinemann), on the installation of Alstom (formerly ABB) 13-Ds at the Shunde power plant in Guangdong province, China. Note that the 13-D application range is now fulfilled by their 11N-2 model, primarily a 60Hz model, which also serves the 50Hz market with inclusion of a gear box 5 Cooling steam application in industrial gas turbines and field experience, Kallianpur V., et al, Mitsubishi Power Systems 6 Authors notes, Power Generation Systems course and authors articles in European Power News, Middle East Electricity and Independent Power Generation magazines 7 The power of water in gas turbines: Alstoms experience with inlet air cooling, Lecheler S., et al (Alstom power)
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In British units:
Light oil Power (hp) Thermal efficiency Heat rate (BTU/hp-hr) Exhaust gas temperature (degrees Fahrenheit) 31,641 33.1 7,685 998
In Metric units: Light oil Power (MW) Thermal efficiency Heat rate (kJ/KW-hr) Exhaust gas temperature (degrees Centigrade) 23,100 As above 10,880 537 10,518 534 Natural gas 24,630
This option of running on oil versus natural gas is also available for newer, more sophisticated gas turbine models, such as Alstoms 13E2 which powers several SE Asian plant locations. The choice of using oil as a gas turbine fuel is normally decided on the answers to three questions: i) What will the efficiency penalty be? ii) What will the TBO (time between overhauls) and parts longevity penalties be? iii) Which fuel is inexpensively and abundantly available? The answer to ii) is probably the more critical one to operators in terms of their cost per fired hour figures. Some OEMs (original engine manufacturers) therefore have a separate design to minimize the impact on ii) if the answer to iii) is residual oil (no. 4 or no. 6 oil). China has an in-country steam turbine manufacturer, with coal reserves that outweigh its oil or gas resources, so gas turbine (or combined cycle, CC) territory within China is hard won. A CC operation powered by residual fuel is a design and operations achievement, due to hot section and fuel additive technology required. The ideal turbine for this application is a relatively low temperature, sturdy, preferably cast, simple design that then results in minimal maintenance. What was the 50Hz Alstom GT13D (and their 60Hz 11N2, which, with a gearbox, can replace the 13D) has a proven track record in these applications where far greater turbine sophistication with respect to alloys and turbine inlet temperatures would be self-defeating. These machines track record thus far indicates that operations have been satisfactory to the owners and could indicate further such inroads into a difficult market. China needs to run on as cheap a fuel as possible with maximum efficiency and time between overhauls. Production economics dictated that the -11N2 replace the -13D. They were very similar: the -11N2 package was adapted, so it could be substituted for the earlier model. The -11N2 can run on 50Hz or 60 Hz, produces about 109 MW at base load, and can handle the same dismal fuel quality as the -13D. The observations made in this case involve the Shunde power plant in Guangdong province China which uses Alstom residual fuel technology in its 13D2s. The GT13D gas turbine operates under the critical firing temperature of 1015 degrees C (Celsius) without much derating. Each turbine develops about 90MW. 18 compressor stages and 5 turbine stages are lightly loaded, at a 43.6% gross combined cycle (LHV) efficiency, for longer time between overhauls. (The -11N2 was previously equipped only for 60 Hz generation. With an optional gearbox, it can also run at 50 Hz, and the -13D was phased out of production)
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Residual oil as a fuel is not possible without specialized gas turbine design features. Corrosion, plugging and fouling will occur. Higher firing temperatures in most contemporary high performance gas turbines require complex blade cooling, expensive super alloys and substantial derating. The -13D has integrally cast blade and vane cooling passages, with relatively simple geometry (versus a high performance aerofoil which normally has laser produced cooling passages) and a large flow cross section. This provides better resistance against plugging. Cooling air is extracted after the last compression stage, at the blade root. The air is routed to the first stage turbine blades below the rotor surface. The single piece welded rotor supported by two bearings is a simple, less vibration prone design. No through bolts are used: another useful maintenance feature. This design has only one silo combustor, a solid cast design. It has one large bore fuel nozzle, which helps avoid clogging and erosion. No air atomization is required, which means no compression air stream is required. The nature of the burner design means that water injection is required. At Shunde, water injection is 1.3 times the fuel flow rate (maximum 10.5litres/s). Water injection adds 9 to 10MW of power. No flow divider is required in this design, so no consequential temperature unbalance is observed. This also helps cut down on maintenance costs. The generator is driven from the cold end, which means turbine exhaust end inspections are easier. All bearings are accessible without disassembly and no elbow conduits are required. As the generator is air cooled, no hydrogen system or hazards have to be allowed for. The cooling loop is closed and maintenance free. The boiler, a vertical assisted circulation, single pressure design type, has a preheating loop. It delivers 44kg/s of 37.5 bar steam at 475 degrees C. Sodium phosphate (Na2SO4) is used for anticorrosion measures in steam treatment. Although the primary focus for this case is gas turbine system design modifications, these gas turbines are part of a combined cycle operation. (The steam turbine is a single cylinder design with a single flow low pressure section. Its gross output is 92MW. The steam turbine at Shunde runs with 472 degree C steam (480 degrees maximum) at 36 bars. The exhaust is condensed. Total gross power output then is 280 MW nominal. At Shunde 273 MW is guaranteed. The gross efficiency (LHV) at Shunde is 43% (43.8% nominal), based on a guaranteed heat rate of 8376 kJ/kWh (8221 nominal). Slow roll to running speed with the gas turbine takes 5 minutes. Getting the steam turbine running takes approximately two hours). Combustion and fuel economics are as follows. Sodium (Na), Sulfur (S), and Vanadium (V) content in the fuel are the major problems. Na is removed by mixing preheated fuel with water and demulsifier and then centrifuging. Potassium (K) impurities are removed in the same manner and at the same time as the sodium down to 0.5 ppm total (for both the Na and K). The sulphur left in the fuel becomes SOx upon combustion. The 120 meter stack at Shunde provides dispersal for the SOx. In areas where legislated SOx limits are tighter, flue gas desulphurisation or other methods can be used. Magnesium additives combine with the vanadium to form salts that deposit onto the blade surfaces. When the turbine is shut down, the salt levels fall off with the drop in temperature. Remaining salts are washed off with plain water. In Shunde, the wash is done every 100 operating hours for heavy oil. If gas or diesel fuel (back up fuel) is used, no wash is required. For inspection of the hot gas path, the inspector visually inspects the tiles on the inside of the combustor, the transition piece, and the first stage vanes. He uses a mirror to check the first stage blades. The other turbine and compressor stages can be observed by borescope. For major inspections every 16 to 24,000 hours, the burner is lifted off in one piece. The limit for magnesium addition is 1105 degrees C, as at 1120 degrees C, MgO (magnesium oxide) solidifies to the extent it can only be chiseled off, and V2O5 (vanadium oxide) with its low melting point corrodes. (Both MgO and V2O5 are formed from the safe additive compound after 1120 degrees C). The turbine inlet temperature of the Shunde units is maintained at 990 degrees C. When starting the gas turbines, diesel fuel is used until synchronous speed and then heavy fuel is used. This helps prevent clogging. The turbines are run for 5 minutes on diesel when shutting down. Again this prevents clogged nozzles and ignition problems. The 11N2 can also handle the same rough fuel as the -13D. Peak metal temperatures, internal metallurgy and fuel treatment requirements are all quite similar. The single burner design for this model can get NOx down to 42 ppm with water injection. An EV silo combustor (several fuel nozzles) option is available if the end user has gas or diesel fuel. NOx can then be reduced to 15 ppm when at base load on natural gas. A gas turbine inlet filtration system is also necessary in this location. This particular inlet filtration system has three stages. In the first stage the air flow direction is changed. The second stage consists of mats. The third stage is for fine filtration. The gas turbine compressors are still washed off-line every 300 to 400 operating hours. Cheap fuel more than offsets the capital expenditure required for fuel treatment and additives, washing the fuel and other costs. This cost savings increases with the power capacity of a plant. Using a difference in residual oil and diesel prices of $50 per ton, a 300 MW
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facility similar in design to Shundes could save $22 million at 0.5 capacity factor and $36 million at 0.75 capacity factor. Savings of $264 million and $432 million respectively are indicted over the life of the plant, (US dollar figure expressed at 1995 values). Case 2: MHI steam cooling design for their highest temperature zones.5 The art of steam cooling has proved a valuable asset in the drive to maximize power per unit weight in gas turbine technology. The current limiting factor to maximum horsepower for a given rotor size is turbine inlet temperature (TIT). Internal cooling to the gas turbine vanes and blades, as well as the combustion liner, keeps those airfoils cooler for a given fuel flow rate. The steam cooling circuit can be either a closed or an open design. In the latter, the steam coolant is allowed to enter the gas path, which provides a further horsepower boost to the gas turbine. The major manufacturers compete with design modifications like steam cooling to produce effective turbines in the various horsepower size categories, effective in this context meaning that the turbine in question delivers its rated horsepower (and other deliverables) without leaks or other operational problems. Table 7a shows -D, -F, -G and H category gas turbine parameters for the Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) range of gas turbines. These parameters vary for different manufacturers, but the table nevertheless provides an illustration of the effectiveness of steam cooling in raising TITs. For illustrative purposes, this article references parameters with MHI gas turbines. Readers may use this as a template for queries on or comparisons with other manufacturers designs. Note also that Table 5 mentions subcategories of the major horsepower size categories. These occur due to individual customer requirements or conditions that create a subcategory that can then be offered to other clients. For instance, the G1 is an upgraded G, with cooling steam applied to the blade ring in addition to the combustion liners.
Table 5. Categories of gas turbines for the Mitsubishi Gas Turbine product line 5
Cooling Type Turbine Combustor Air Air Air Air Air Steam Air Air Air Steam Steam Steam
Performance (ISO: LHV) Gas turbine 114MW 153MW 185MW 254MW 267MW 34.9% 35.3% 37.0% 38.7% 39.1% Combined Cycle 167MW 229MW 285MW 371MW 399MW 403MW 51.4% 52.8% 57.1% 58.0% 58.4% 60.0%
NOx ppm 9 25 9 25 15 15
Steam cooling, like any other cooling technology helps alleviate the potential life cycle cost incurred with partial load cycling operation and frequent starts and stops. As of March 2004, MHI had 150,000 operating hours of steam cooling experience with their G units, logged. This figure includes both 50Hz and 60Hz applications. Both their G and H models have steam cooled combustion liners. The H model also has blades and vanes in the first two rows of its turbine rotor and the blade rings, steam cooled. Material selection With steam cooling, as with any design feature, wear limits and future repairability are major concerns. The steam cooling feature merits concern about corrosion rate and electrochemical reaction strength levels, which would depend on the mating materials in question and the steam purity. Although many steam cooling designers would like to claim that the steam supply conditions are no more stringent than the steam required for their steam turbines, higher steam quality standards make good economic sense at the design conditions in G and H gas turbines. Stress corrosion cracking is accelerated by long term steam exposure, particularly at high stress concentration locations like disc dovetails, bolt holes and spigots. MHI were able to use the same low alloy steel as for their F design with their G and H models which gave them a wealth of data. Further, they used scaled up but similar geometry for the hotter models. With respect to scale size after steam exposure, the actual engine tests confirmed earlier laboratory prognoses closely. See Figure 49. In MHIs design, expensive aircraft engine type alloys such as Inconel (for the rotors) and single crystal castings (for blades and vanes) are avoided. This enhances reliability, initial capital costs and life cycle costs.
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Operation at load With the H model, steam is delivered at about 5 Mpa (megapascals). Maximum steam temperature can reach around 600 degrees C. Load testing in 1999 revealed a leakage point at 60 percent load. A redesigned connector got the model up to full load conditions with no leaks. Active Clearance Controls (ACC) The term ACC was originally coined around aircraft engine design where the cooling medium was air. In this land based application, MHI supply the steam cooling stream to the blade rings for better blade tip clearance at different load conditions. Originally developed for the H model, this feature has also been added to the G model as an upgrade.
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Closed loop reliability Steam flow is monitored continuously. Three main monitored parameters are linked to the control system via a redundant interlock. See Figure 51.
The interlock allows for both alarm and shut down functions depending on the parameter readings. The three main parameters are (with reference to Figure 51): 1. Cooling steam temperature at the combustion liner outlet, which gives an indication of steam overheating (interlock: alarm and runback). 2. The control system keeps the steam cooling pressure at higher than the combustor shell pressure, so low differential between these two parameters indicates steam leaks (interlock: alarm and trip). 3. Differential pressure across the liner can indicate inadequate steam flow (interlock: alarm and trip). Blade path temperature (BPT) spread monitoring provides a back-up indicator to this system and helps pinpoint where a combustion liner, for instance, may have an integrity problem, such as a crack. There are redundant steam supply strainers with continuous monitoring of the differential pressure across them, to check of obstruction of the steam cooling passages with solid carry over from the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) or auxiliary boiler. On shutdown, an air purge sequence eliminates the potential for condensate accumulation in the steam cooling circuit. Combustion liner design To allow for steam passage and for better heat transfer properties, the combustion liner design is a double walled structure. Flame temperatures for the F, G and H turbines is the same, however with the G and H designs, the combustor exit temperature is higher. See Figure 52. There is no cooling air mixing with the cooling steam design.
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To date, there has been no delamination experienced with the G model liners. All 18 (as of March 2004) G models operate with varying external temperature conditions, fuel type and other variables. Figure 53 shows the condition of a combustor liner at the combustor interval inspection. The TBC (thermal barrier coating) is intact. Protective monitoring systems have proved effective in ensuring the steam reliability and flow characteristics for the closed-loop cooling-steam.
Application case for a steam cooled G model MHIs 501G model was installed in combined cycle (CC) application at Korean Electric Power Corporations (KEPCOs) Ilijans power plant in the Philippines. There are 2, 600 MW blocks, each with two gas turbines and a steam turbine. Performance test results indicated 57.8 percent efficiency (natural gas), at a net rated capacity of 1285.7MW. At Ilijan, an auxiliary boiler is used to supply the combustor cooling of the first gas turbine unit. The gas turbine is started, run up to synchronization speed and loaded to 50MW. At this speed, the cooling steam supply is switched to the intermediate pressure (IP) superheater (normal combustor steam cooling supply). All water requirements for this plant are met with sea water using reverse osmosis desalination. Water quality needs to be with in required parameters for steam to be admitted to the steam turbine, which happens between 50 and 100MW load. When the first gas
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turbine is in combined cycle operation, the second gas turbine can be started, again using IP steam for combustor cooling. The second gas turbine is synchronized at 100MW. Loading on the train continues at 11MW/minute up to full rating.
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High speed response of less than 60 ms required by aeroderivative gas turbines to prevent overspeed in block off-load conditions. Explosion proof actuation to appropriate specification standards, allows operation in hazardous methane service. Resistance to fuel contaminants including tar, shale, water, sand and so forth. 24 volts DC is the maximum drive voltage which ensures personnel safety Corrosion resistance in components exposed to wet fuel and corrosion resistance to all parts if the service is sour gas. Other operational objectives that dictate design features are operators requirements for: Low mean time to repair (LMTR). The target of 1 hour, achieved with modular design, together with the target MTBF provided an availability of 99.998% for HSDEs original stepper. Higher Mean time between failures (MTBF). In HSDEs case, a target of 50,000 hours was set and achieved. Low maintenance costs, since the modular design can be repaired by an individual with relatively low expertise. Service intervals are 12 months. Large control ratio which allows control over the ignition to full load as well as full speed ranges to be possible with one fuel valve. Fuel pressure variation compensation is provided. The additional speed ratio type control valve found in many other industrial gas fuelled installations is not required here. Low power consumption since an electric motor of less than 100 watts is used. This also eliminates the need for additional hydraulic or pneumatic systems. Also black starting is more reliable if the fuel system is powered by the same batteries as the controller. PCS applications experience with fast response valves: Power production in Phase II of the Petroleum Corporation of Singapore or PCS, was commissioned in June 1997. PCS is part of a massive petrochemical plastics conglomerate in Singapore. Power production was an afterthought, as when they were built, their design did not include provision for them becoming an SPP. PCS chose a nominally 25 MW (23 MW in their normal ambient conditions) ABB GT10, although their power needs are roughly 26MW. This was because while SP were pleased to sell them their residual requirement; they would not buy any power from SPPs at the time of original power plant design. The turbine is fuelled by three different types of fuel, depending on the state of the plant. The BTU for each type varies, so again the fast response time for the stepper valve is critical. As PCS operations found, their fast response valve proved as useful as the stepper valve has been for power generation on the North Sea oil and gas platforms. The fast response time of the Moog (and other stepper valve manufacturers) design helps the valve avoid the sudden burst of excess temperatures that accompany higher heating value fuel. (North Sea platform users frequently operate gas, liquid or gas & liquid fuel mixtures). Not all gas turbines are tolerant of a wide range of fuel types in a single application. Some of them require a whole different fuel system - nozzles, lines and all components - to be able to handle a totally different heating value fuel. In this application in Singapore, the ABB machine shows no sign of distress, which is interesting since the heating value of the fuel types varies as much as 50 percent. The exact fuel composition data is proprietary to PCS. PCSs GT10 heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) provides a reliable source of steam. The plant exports steam to the nearby Seraya Chemicals plant in addition to fulfilling their needs. Emissions and steam supply: The original ABB EV burner design - a low NOx burner which can be fitted and retrofitted on the GT10, fuel types permitting - was not fitted in this case. The EV burner will handle clean natural gas and clean diesel fuel. It was not suitable for the high hydrogen content and variations in fuel composition that this application involves. Such fuels need a more forgiving fuel system, as well as water or steam injection to keep the NOx down. The PCS Singapore application uses steam for NOx reduction purposes. The steam is piped in through nozzles that are adjacent to the fuel nozzles on the fuel manifold of the GT10s annular combustor. The source of the steam is the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) that is packaged as part of the GT-10 system. If and when required, the plant also can draw high pressure steam from their process cracker. In PCS case, one boiler has been found to suffice. This is noteworthy as in applications like this, a redundant packaged boiler (running hot and on minimum load) is often found essential. This is so that it is possible to pick up the steam load should the turbine trip or be unavailable due to maintenance. A common subject for debate is whether uninterrupted steam supply during the switch from HRSG mode to fresh air firing is possible without flame out on the boiler supplementary burners.
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The PCS plant is part Japanese owned, so the specifications the installation had to meet matched those of environmentally particular Singapore, as well as the Japanese, who are the most environmentally strict practitioners in Asia. Steam injection reduces NOx levels from 300 to 400 mg/MJ fuel to just below 100 mg/MJ fuel. In this and similar cases, the GT system footprint may be of prime concern, if space comes at a high premium. The figure below outlines what the layout for the application (and similar applications) above may look like.
Fig. 54. SGT-600 Industrial Gas Turbine - 25 MW, Power Generation Application Layout (Note: Siemens SGT-600 was Alstoms, formerly ABBs GT-10) Dimensions in millimeters, mm (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)
In summary: The GT10s ability to use three different waste petrochemical fluids as fuel, despite the 50 % variance in these three fluids heating value, is significant to process plants who could similarly become SPPs. Note that NOx emissions stayed below legislated limits for countries such as environmentally strict Singapore.
Case 4. Water and/ or steam injection for power augmentation and NOx reduction 7
Gas turbines swallow air and therefore are sensitive to ambient temperature and pressure. To increase the power output of gas turbines, especially in hot, humid (air density decreases with rising temperature and humidity) climates, water injection is used. (See Figure 55). The location of injection is commonly the filter plane and the compressor inlet.
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The power gain is achieved due to 3 factors: i) The water which evaporates in the air intake increases relative humidity of the air from ambient conditions to nearly saturation. The evaporation of water reduces the air temperature hence density and the GT swallows a higher air mass flow. Higher power generation per unit volume of air swallowed and better efficiency result. ii) The water which evaporates inside compressor reduces the compressor work and increases GT net power output and GT efficiency as well. iii) The turbine power output is increased proportionally to the increased mass flow of air and water. Maximum power gain is achieved, if water is added at 2 locations in the air intake: just after the fine filter and additionally near the compressor intake as shown in fig. 58. After the fine filter an evaporative cooler or a fogging nozzle rack saturates the air and near the compressor intake a high fogging nozzle rack injects additional water, which evaporates inside the compressor.
Air chiller: An air intake chiller system consists of a heat exchanger, which is located in the air intake downstream of the filter. The heat exchanger cools the compressor inlet flow by the transfer of heat energy to a closed cooling water circuit. The closed cooling water is re-cooled in plate heat exchangers by one or more chillers. The closed loop cooling water is forwarded by one or more chilled water pumps. Load control regulates the cooling energy of each chiller to the desired plate heat exchanger outlet temperature of the cooling water. Outlet temperatures for each chiller correspond to a set point to the local control. The chillers are usually installed in
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the gas turbine air intake downstream of the air filter together with a droplet separator. The latter is needed to take out water droplets from condensation of humid air. Evaporative coolers: Generally, they are installed in the gas turbine air intake downstream of the air filter together with a droplet separator (see Figure 56). The evaporative cooler increases humidity close to saturation. The amount of evaporated water depends on ambient temperature and humidity. The water evaporates mostly before entering the compressor and the air is cooled down before compressor inlet. Thus, the air mass flow through the gas turbine is increased, which increases the power output of the unit. The evaporative cooler is only switched on and off. The cooler media and the droplet separator produce a pressure drop between 1.5 to 3 mbar and need an axial extension of the filter-house (see Figure 57a). The major components of an evaporative cooler are: the evaporative cooler media (cellulose or fiber-glass, see Fig. 57b) a water distribution manifold a water sump tank with a recycle pump a droplet separator (see Fig. 57c) Water requirements The water must be at least potable or flocculated and filtrated water quality or can be de-mineralized water. The water consumption is higher if tap water is used. Maximum total capacity is 25,000 l/h for a GT26 or GT13 and 17,000 l/h for a GT24 or GT11, where only 1 1,000 l/h and 7,500 l/h are evaporated and the remaining blow-down water is re-circulated.
Inlet fogging Like evaporative coolers, this OEMs fogging systems ALFog (an Alstom trademark) are typically installed in the gas turbine air intake downstream of the air filter (Fig.58).
The fogging system injects small water droplets into the air by nozzles to increase humidity close to saturation (90-95%). The amount of injected water depends on ambient temperature and humidity and is controlled by logic. The water evaporates and the air is cooled down before entering the compressor. In contrast to evaporative coolers, fogging systems have negligible pressure losses and do not need an axial extension of the filter house and are therefore ideal for retrofitting.
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The major components of a fogging unit are: the nozzle rack with nozzles (fig. 59a) the pump skid including a control unit and a valve skid (fig. 59b) a water drain system for the air intake and the intake manifold. The nozzles are mounted on tubes which are installed in the air intake downstream of the filter. Swirl nozzles are used in Alstoms fogging system (trade name ALFog). They provide the required droplet size. Small droplets promote good evaporation in the air intake, high power augmentation and low risk of erosion. A high pressure piston pump feeds de-mineralized water at constant pressure (typically 140 bars) to the valve skid. The valves allow the sequencing of the water flow rate into sub-groups (typically 15 or 31, depending on design conditions). These subgroups are switched on and off by the control logic in order to adjust the water mass flow to ambient conditions. At lower ambient humidity and the higher ambient temperature, higher water quantities are needed to saturate the air, so more sub-groups are switched on. Typically 3 additional drain lines are installed in the air intake before and after the silencer and in the manifold. This is to ensure that water films and large secondary droplets, which might be generated on obstacles inside the air flow, are extracted from the air-stream flow. Water must be de-mineralized and 2 standard fogging systems are used, one for a design ambient humidity of 45% (design capacity 8,000 l/h or 2.2 kg/s for GT26 or GT13) and one for a design ambient humidity of 30% (design capacity 12,000 l/h or 3.3 kg/s for a GT26 or GT 13). High Fogging System: In order to increase power augmentation further, an additional nozzle rack is installed near the compressor intake. These systems are called high fogging, wet compression, over-spray or over-fogging systems. ALSTOMs high fogging system ALFog is installed horizontally in the gas turbine air intake (fig 60). The system sprays small water droplets (<50m) through nozzles into the air. These droplets evaporate mainly inside the compressor as the air is heated up during compression.
Fig. 60. High Fogging System in Combination with Fogging or Evap Cooler 7
The power of the gas turbine is increased mainly by 2 effects: Compressor inter-cooling, which reduces compression work and compressor discharge temperature. The mass flow through the turbine is increased.
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While fogging and evaporative cooler power increase depends on ambient conditions, the high fogging power increase is nearly independent of ambient humidity and temperature.
Fig. 61. a) High Fogging Nozzle Rack, b) High Fogging Pump Skid
The major components of a high fogging unit are the nozzle rack with nozzles (fig. 61a) the pump skid including a control unit (fig. 61b) and a water filtration system the valve skid with staging valves a water drain system for intake manifold Swirl nozzles are used in Alstoms high fogging system for the same reasons as with the regular fogging system. The high-pressure pump operation is also similar. The valves, located at the valve rack, allow the sequencing of the water flow rate into subgroups (typically 5 or 10), that are switched on according to the power demand. Drains in the air intake manifold ensure that water films and large secondary droplets are extracted from the air-steam flow. The total water mass flow capacity of the high fogging system for a GT24 and GT26 is currently 1.2% of the air intake mass flow of the specific engine at ISO conditions. Accordingly, the demand of de-mineralized water is about 18,000 l/h or 5 kg/s for a GT24 and about 25,000 l/h or 7 kg/s for a GT26. If the control system is not adjusted to take into account the effect of the water content due to high fogging the pulsation levels of the combustion system and CO emissions may increase. Steady state cycle simulations confirmed that high fogging leads to a slight shift in the hot gas temperature if dry TIT (turbine inlet temperature) formulas are applied without any adoption. As countermeasure a modified TIT formula analogue to those used for oil operation with NOx water injection or operation with steam injection for power augmentation was implemented. This takes into account the amount of water injected for High Fogging. When using the adjusted TIT formulas high fogging has a negligible influence on CO emissions under base load operating conditions where the CO emissions are small (typically < 5 ppm). NOx typically appears to decrease with increasing high fogging water mass flow.
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The figure below provides graphical representation of how external conditions can affect gas turbine performance. The following conditions apply to figures 62 (a) through (d): intake losses 10 mbar / 4" H2O exhaust losses 25 mbar / 10" H2O relative humidity 60% altitude sea level
a) Generator output and heat rate versus compressor inlet air temperature
c) Exhaust gas flow and exhaust temperature versus compressor inlet air temperature
Fig. 62. Performance Data: SGT-600 Industrial Gas Turbine - 25 MW (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)
The subject of performance optimization is a vast one which would include several subtopics. Inlet cooling and water/ steam injection for power augmentation can be methods which are used to supplement power lost by factors such as high ambient temperatures, and high altitude. See the section on Design Development. The table below on performance for the Siemens SGT6-5000F (formerly Siemens Westinghouse W501F Econopac) indicates the difference water injection and steam injection can make to nominal power ratings.
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The following figures also demonstrate the effect of atmospheric conditions on the power developed, this time for a much larger turbine model than the SGT-600 depicted previously in this section.
Fig. 63. SGT6-5000F (formerly the W501F) Estimated Performance (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)
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Fig. 64. Combined Cycle Diagram with Drum-Type Boiler Source: Siemens Westinghouse
Fig. 65. SGT6-5000F (formerly the W501F) 2x1 Combined Cycle Source: Siemens Westinghouse
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Depending on how one defined performance optimization, the term could include cycle modifications and support systems that are external to the gas turbine core. Some examples are: cycle modifications (which may also include, but are not limited to, inlet cooling systems, that are discussed under Design Development) engine condition monitoring systems life cycle counters/ assessment In the interests of space, these topics are not discussed here but they are exhaustively covered in the authors book on Gas Turbines. As discussed in the section on design development, performance optimization is frequently attained by maximizing the power available using modifications to the base core. This allows the OEM to use proven technology that has long emerged from prototype growing pains, to fulfill a broader mandate in terms of power requirements and other operational needs. A case in point, Siemens SGT-700 (29MW) is an uprated SGT-600 (24MW), which then fills a broader range of applications.
Fig. 66. SGT-700 Gas Turbine - 29MW (Improved power output and efficiency over the SGT-600) (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)
The SGT-700 has simple cycle shaft output of 29.1 MW and a thermal efficiency of 36% at base load on gas. This two-shaft machine can be used for both power generation and mechanical drive in both combined cycle and cogeneration applications. As a skid-mounted package with single-lift capacity and standard anti-corrosion materials and coatings, the SGT-700 is also suitable for offshore applications. The updated machine has full dry lowemission (DLE) capability. It can operate on both gas and liquid fuels with on-line switchover between fuels. To optimize performance, the SGT-700 power turbine is equipped with advanced profile blades that improve gas flow. Its overall design ensures easy service access to the combustor and burners. The revised 11-stage compressor produces a higher pressure ratio and an increase in mass flow through the engine. This results in greater power output and higher efficiency. Direct drive of pipeline or process compressor is provided for by the free high-speed power turbine, eliminating the need for a gearbox. The digital control unit is based on the proven design of the SGT-600.
An application case for the SGT-700 illustrates an example of extending the application of a basic gas turbine core (in this case the SGT-600) design. We noted in the section on design development, and the Mitsubishi case study (see Case Study 2) which listed several variations on the same GT core that additional power was added with essentially the same gas turbine core, with the addition of design features (for instance steam cooling instead of air cooling in certain hot section areas). Frequently, these developments result from a customers request: I really could use another x MW in that plant, if you can make that happen or Id rather have a slightly larger version of your y model rather than two of the z model, as I only have w amount of space and I can run the larger y at base load anyway, most of the time. This core growth design is really an extension of design development work, as any such design modification has to be full load tested. Some air or steam leaks may not show up at 60% load, but may appear at close to 100% load. So the OEM goes through the expense of rigorous testing to minimize the risk of warranty-period costs.
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The application example below, which illustrates application of an SGT-700, is also another repowering (see the section on Combined Cycles) case illustration.
The very first SGT-800 gas turbine was delivered to Helsingborg Energi AB (now called resunds Kraft). This municipal utility in the southern Swedish town of Helsingborg is using this gas turbine to extend its Vasthamn coal-fired power station. The SGT-800 gas turbine has been integrated with an existing steam turbine system to create a combined cycle, CHP plant. The project is supported by the State Energy Authority and DESS (the Delegation for Energy Supplies for Southern Sweden). The turbine was ordered in August 1998 and connected to the grid at 100% load in November 1999. It burns natural gas from the pipeline which passes through Helsingborg. Fitted with AEV burners, it provides emissions of NOx and CO below 15 ppmv (at 15% O2).The electrical generating capacity at Vasthamn went from 64 MW to 126 MW, and the heat production capacity from 132 MW to 186 MW. Fig. 67. Municipal utility in the southern Swedish town of Helsingborg (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)
Combined Cycles Combined Cycle Basic Components, Terminology and Heat Cycle(s)
The term combined cycle (CC) refers to a system that incorporates a gas turbine (GT), a steam turbine (ST), a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG), where the heat of the exhaust gases is used to produce steam and a generator. The shaft power from the gas turbine and that developed by the steam turbine both run the generator that produces electric power. The term cogeneration means generation of both work (shaft power) and heat (steam, in the case of a CC). So a combined cycle is a form of cogeneration.
Fig. 68. Single and Multi shaft arrangements for CC plants (Reference: The World Bank)
The following figure shows a single shaft CC cycle block diagram in more detail.
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Fig. 69. A schematic diagram for a single shaft combined cycle. Source: Courtesy McGraw Hill, from Power Generation Handbook, Kiameh, P.
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The following figure shows a schematic for a dual pressure combined cycle.
Fig. 70. A schematic diagram for a dual-pressure combined cycle. Source: Courtesy McGraw Hill, from Power Generation Handbook, Kiameh, P.
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Combined cycle plants are generally open cycle systems, however CC closed systems are possible if not that common. The plant system may also incorporate other accessories, such as a gear box (often used to convert 60 Hz models to 50Hz models), and/ or subsystems (that may themselves be closed or open systems) such as: condensing units, intercooling heat exchangers (for the GT compressor air), a regeneration (heat addition) heat exchanger to preheat the GT compressor discharge air, reheat heat exchangers (for adding heat to the GT turbine module products of combustion), inlet cooling and/or water or steam injection on the GT for power augmentation and/or NOx reduction, a closed or open steam (and/ or air) cooling system (for the hottest areas of the GT turbine module), and a supplementary firing system positioned downstream of the GT exhaust to maximize combustion of the exhaust gases (which will include unburned fuel hydrocarbons). See the block diagram figures below for a representation of GT closed systems, one with regeneration and intercooling, and one with reheat and regeneration. They are followed by a figure that represents a GT open system with water injection and regeneration.
Fig. 71. A Schematic of a GT closed system with regeneration and intercooling. Source: Courtesy McGraw Hill, from Power Generation Handbook, Kiameh, P.
Fig. 72. A Schematic of a GT closed system with regeneration and reheat. Source: Courtesy McGraw Hill, from Power Generation Handbook, Kiameh, P.
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Fig. 73. A Schematic of a GT open system with water injection and regeneration combined cycle plant efficiencies are now typically up to between 58% and 60%. Source: Courtesy McGraw Hill, from Power Generation Handbook, Kiameh, P.
Gas flapper valves allow the gas turbine exhaust to bypass the heat recovery boiler (HRSG) allowing the gas turbine to operate if the steam unit is down for maintenance. In earlier designs supplementary oil or gas firing was also included to permit steam unit operation with the gas turbine down. This is not generally included in contemporary combined-cycle designs, as it adds to capital cost, complicates the control system, and reduces efficiency. Sometimes as many as four (but most frequently two) gas turbines, each with individual boilers may be associated with a single steam turbine. As stated previously, the gas turbine, steam turbine, and generator may be arranged as a single-shaft design. A multi-shaft arrangement can also be used: Each gas turbine drives a generator and has its own HRSG, and steam turbine, which in turn, may also add power to the generator. In areas such as Scandinavia, additional criteria such as cogeneration in combined heat and power plants (CHP) or district heating, as well as demanding conditions (e.g. available space, emissions, noise level, architecture, environmental permits) associated with existing sites and available infrastructure must also be considered. A customers preferences regarding fuel election, personnel training level required and service requirements must also be accommodated.
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Another case88 illustrating application of the 2, GT and 1, ST module is Alstoms contract for Sohar Aluminum Company for the turn key construction of a 1000 MW gas-fired combined cycle power plant in Oman. The power plant, which will supply electricity to power a new aluminum smelter, will include four 13E2s, four heat recovery steam generators, two steam turbines, six generators. The size of the modules then provides the option for Sohar to add an additional 500 MW of capacity in the future (two GT13E2 gas turbines, two heat recovery steam generators, steam turbine and three generators). Gas turbine (GT) or combined-cycle (CC) construction cost per kilowatt cost does not increase much for smaller turbines. With steam turbines, it would to a far greater extent, because of the high additional construction work that comes with a steam turbine plant. A CC unit can typically be installed in two to three years, and a steam plant often takes four to five years, with no incremental power available until the complete plant is commissioned. An application case that illustrates the availability of power in increments is Alstoms recent project award99 from Australian energy company Alinta Ltd, to supply 2, 172 MW GT13E2 gas turbines for the first stage of a major cogeneration facility at Alcoas Wagerup alumina refinery in Australia. That power plant will also provide reserve capacity to the new wholesale electricity market in the state of Western Australia. The Alstom turbines will operate initially in open cycle (Wagerup Stage 1). At a later stage, (Wagerup Stage 2), the turbines will be part of a cogeneration plant, operating as a base load power station providing both steam and electricity. A project1010database (developed by Siemens KWU) was used to analyze all combined, open cycle and steam power plants globally with respect to capacity (MW), fuel requirements, power system frequency and regional location. The database lists projected orders through 2005. Specific areas of the analysis are summarized as follows: In terms of overall plant size, 300-600 MW combined cycle plants are the most favored plant size in both 50 and 60 Hz markets (Figure 75). A combination of more than one block improves economics, and 300-600 MW fits well with the demand curve of most power grids in well developed countries. Financiers are also familiar with these economies of scale.
Fig. 74. The 395 MW Combined-Cycle Power Plant Otahuhu, New Zealand uses the modular concept Source: Siemens Westinghouse
Countries with large grids and high power demand growth prefer combined cycle plants in the range 600 to 2,500 MW. For this combination 2 to 6 parallel units (single shaft or multi-shaft) will suffice. Power systems in countries with relatively small generating capacity, which require smaller capacity additions, need combined cycle power plants in the range 100 to 300 MW. A large gas Alstom Power Press Release 14 Dec 2005 Alstom Power Press Release 9 Dec 2005 10 Tailor-made Off the Shelf: Reducing the Cost and Construction Time of Thermal Power Plants. Paul I., (Siemens Power), Karg J. (KWU), OLeary, Sr. D, (World Bank)
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turbine and a steam turbine located on a single shaft can deliver this range. Countries with smaller or specialized grids buy multi-shaft combined cycle plants with several smaller gas turbines with one or more steam turbines. Dirty fuels, for instance residual promote requests for stolid, highly reliable trains that may run derated, over higher efficiency turbines. For peaking power or power systems with very low cost fuels, gas turbines in an open cycle system serve the power range between 50 and 300 MW. New order forecasts show the market evenly divided between 50 Hz or 60 Hz customers. Rising gas and oil prices everywhere, including the USA, will mean renewed strength in technologies that use alternative fuels, such as pulverized coal, paper liquor waste and steel mill flue gas. Steam-only (coal fired) Power Plant: The forecast projects 10% of the new orders will be steam power plants in 60 Hz market from 1999 to 2003 (Figure 76). In the 50 Hz market, the key ranges are 300 to 500 MW and 500 to 700 MW. Above 700 MW, supercritical technology represents a small but growing market share.
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Table 7. Naphtha- and heavy oil-fired power plants in operation and planning stage
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Design and operation of these plants requires more attention than natural gas fired plants particularly in relation to fuel variables such as calorific content, density, composition, concentration of contaminants and emissions, as well as different burning behaviors (e.g. ignitability, flame velocity and stability). To overcome these difficult fuel properties, technological adaptation, additional equipment and operational requirements are necessary. These include GT layout (compressor, turbine) for the changed mass flows, different burner technology (burner design, burner nozzles), additional startup/shutdown fuel system, and safety measures. Performance, availability and operation & maintenance (O&M) expenses can be affected. To illustrate this, Table 11 shows some key non-standard fuels and their effect on a standard fuel system.
Gas Turbine Power Plants: A Technology of Growing Importance for Developing Countries. Taud R., (Siemens Power), Karg J. (KWU), OLeary, Sr. D, (World Bank)
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Table. 8. Gas Turbines for None Standard Fuels Critical Fuel Properties11
An example of gas turbine combined cycle plant burning a non-conventional is the 220 MW Valladolid plant in Mexico. This plant, commissioned in 1994, burns heavily contaminated fuel oil, containing 4.2% sodium and up to 300 ppm vanadium. Fuel impurities (sodium, potassium and vanadium), tend to form ash particles in the combustion process, form deposits and corrode the gas turbine blades. In the case of the Valladolid plant, Epsom salts, consisting mainly of magnesium sulfate (MgSO4 7 H20), is dissolved in water injected into the gas turbine combustor through special orifices. This converts the vanadium into a stable water-soluble product (magnesium vanadate). This is deposited downstream of the combustor on the gas turbine blades, and causes only minor blade corrosion. To prevent major performance loss with salt build up (as with the Shunde, China plant that we read about previously); washing every 150 hrs was necessary to restore aerodynamic performance and plant efficiency. Good manhole access was a critical success factor for this project as servicing and maintenance during turbine washing shutdowns are simplified. (The plan is to eventually convert the Valladolid plant to natural gas operation).
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As one might expect, maintenance costs are higher for any type of plant in countries that have not had as much exposure to the OEMs technology. As a significant extension of their revenue, OEMs offer overall power by the hour maintenance contracts. These costs vary, even for the same basic modular configuration and mechanical design, depending on the locations demographics. So then will the actual and contractually set cost per fired hour figures. There would be a significant difference between what actual operational costs are for the same OEMs CC block in a well developed area of the USA and a remote area in Azerbaijan, for instance. Demographics also alter construction costs. (As an illustration, in 1990s figures, costs varied from $592/kW for a new 1,080 MW combined-cycle plant in Egypt to $875/kW for a steam addition to convert four gas turbines in Pakistan to a combined-cycle plant, according to World Bank data). OEMs are aware that end users compare cost data at various meetings and forums, and that price variations are a sore and much negotiated point. Therefore OEMs continually strive to optimize designs and assembly methods to minimize the steepness of new operators learning curve.
Fig. 79. Schematic Diagram of a Parallel Combined Cycle Block with Full Flue Gas Cleaning 11
Modularization (for instance the Siemens Westinghouse GUD block which is 2, V94.3 gas turbines, their HRSG boiler capacity and a steam turbine) reduces construction costs. Compared with the customized design and construction, modularization can reduce project costs of detailed engineering, material price contingencies and financial loan interest during construction. Downsizing power delivery (to the grid) requirements will change overall operational cost figures. Repowering will change operational statistics significantly. Repowering is a term used to define the reconfiguration of a power station. It may mean replacing a steam turbine with a gas turbine or combined cycle. One example of a repowering option offered by an OEM is Alstoms combining their 181 MW GT24 gas turbine with a dual pressure reheat cycle consisting of a 70 MW LP/IP steam turbine and a 20MW HP steam turbine, to generate a total of 270 MW. The most common configuration is called (Figure 79) parallel powering, where the gas turbine exhausts are used in the existing steam cycle. This is achieved by feeding the exhausts into a heat-recovery steam generator (HRSG) which provides additional steam to the existing steam turbine. Typically, parallel powering requires the addition of a gas turbine, associated electrical and instrumentation and control equipment, civil engineering, HRSG, additional piping and pumps as well upgrading the steam turbine. Generally, parallel powering can be undertaken fairly separately from the existing part of the plant, with a final integration phase and a plant down time of 1.5 to 2 months. The typical cost range is $US$ 300-500/kW. In some cases, national or international markets alter a power plants budget by changing available fuels. An example would be the United Kingdoms temporary moratorium on their indigenous natural gas (which promoted coal for that period). When the decision was made to allow North Sea petrochemical liquid deposits to vaporize and be delivered as gas instead, that move created operational ripples in all industries that used petrochemical fuel, including power generation. Since the late eighties10, market growth in plant additions/ optimization technology retrofits has shifted in part, from Europe, North America and Japan to newly industrializing countries in Asia and Latin America. Financial means keep many of the end users in these
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regions from using newer technologies that would extend their power generation capacity and reduce their costs per fired hour. Nevertheless, they are becoming increasingly aware of these design developments and do seek to incorporate them where and when possible. For the OEM, the main challenges are minimizing project cost, construction time and risk guarantees (Figure 80). Between the 1980s and 2000, project cost and construction time of coal and gas fired units have dropped by 50%. However, to compete, OEMs must offer better warranty packages. So the standardization of core design to minimize spares costs, make factory assembly methods and repair and overhaul methods foolproof increases in importance.
Figure 81 shows11 the cost breakdown for combined cycle plants (350 MW-700 MW capacity) based on Siemens experience into the following categories: integrated services (project management/subcontracting; plant and project engineering/project management software, plant erection/commissioning /training; transport/insurance) and lots (civil works; gas- and steam-turbine and generator sets; balance of plant; electrical systems; instrumentation and control systems; and the boiler island).
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Claire Soares
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Oil companies as IPPs: Shell in the United Kingdom is a good example of a growing trend. As IPPs, oil companies can be their own customer for their oil and gas. This then short circuits much of the Fuel Purchase Agreement contractual formalities that other IPPs have to negotiate.
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Fig. 82. Comparison of Supply Flows, Emissions and Byproducts of Different 600 MW - Class Power Plants 11
Fig. 83. Main Criteria for Selection of the IGCC Integration Concept
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The non-integrated concept with a completely independent ASU is simpler in terms of plant operation and possibly in achievable availability. However, the loss in overall IGCC net plant efficiency compared with the fully integrated concept is 1.5 to 2.5 percent. So this concept is of interest for applications where efficiency is not the key factor (e.g. for the gasification of refinery residues). The concept with partial air-side integration is a compromise, with an only moderate loss in efficiency but improved plant flexibility, when compared with the fully integrated concept.
Fig. 85. Siemens SGT6-5000F (198MW, 60Hz) Simple cycle, Combined cycle, and other cogeneration applications (Source: Siemens Westinghouse)
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The SGT5-2000E is used for simple or combined-cycle processes with or without combined heat and power, and for all load ranges, particularly peakload operation. For Integrated Coal Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) applications, Siemens Westinghouse provide the SGT5-200E (LCG) machine - the 2-type machine with modified compressor. The SGT5-2000E has more than 120 units in operation accounting for approximately 70,000 starts and more than 4,000,000 operating hours.
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A professional engineer registered in Texas, and a Fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Claire Soares has worked on rotating machinery for over twenty years. Soares extensive experience includes the specification of new turbomachinery systems, retrofit design, installation, commissioning, troubleshooting, operational optimization, and failure analysis of all types of turbomachinery used in power generation, oil & gas, petrochemical & process plants and aviation. The land-based turbines (gas, steam or combined cycle) in question were typically made by General Electric, Alstom power, Siemens Westinghouse, Rolls Allison, Solar and the companies they formerly were, before some of them merged. Her career experience also includes intensive training programs for engineers and technologists in industry. Her specialty areas include turbomachinery diagnostic systems as well as failure analysis and troubleshooting. In her years spent with large aircraft engine overhaul and aircraft engine fleet programs in the USA and Canada, Soares worked on turbine metallurgy and repair procedures, fleet asset management and aeroengine crash investigation. She also was engineering manager for the first overhaul program in the USA for the V2500 engine (commissioned 1991). Gas turbines (land, air and sea) are Ms. Soares primary area within the turbomachinery field. Her perspective with respect to gas turbines is that of an operations troubleshooter with extensive design experience in gas turbine component retrofits/ repair specification and retrofit system design development. Claire has authored/ co-authored six books for Butterworth Heinemann and McGraw Hill on rotating machinery (**See the links below for book details). She also writes as a freelancer, for various technical journals, such as Independent Power Generation and European Power News (U.K. based publications). Ms. Soares has an MBA in International Business (University of Dallas, TX), and a B. Sc. Eng. (University of London, external). She is a commercial pilot. Her scuba diving certification and training were in high altitude conditions. She has lived and worked on four continents. Her non-engineering time is partly spent on cinematography and still photography. **http://books.elsevier.com/bookscat/search/results.asp?country=United+States&ref=&community=listing &mscssid=0589M7CKL658H5QPFMW2650RBQ26XGD **http://books.mcgrawhill.com/search.php?keyword=claire+soares&template=&subjectarea=113&search= Go
Claire M. Soares
P.E.; Fellow ASME; MBA Email: claisoar@aol.com
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1.2.1
Different Types of Gasiers and Their Integration with Gas Turbines
1.2.1-1 Introduction
What is gasication?
Gasication is a process in which combustible materials are partially oxidized or partially combusted. The product of gasication is a combustible synthesis gas, or syngas. Because gasication involves the partial, rather than complete, oxidization of the feed, gasication processes operate in an oxygen-lean environment. As gure 1 indicates, the stoichiometric oxygen-to-coal ratio for combustion is almost four times the stoichiometric oxygen-to-coal ratio for gasication of Illinois #6 coal.
Fig. 1. Diagram showing the products of reaction as a function of oxygen-tocoal ratio ( Reprinted from M. Ramezan, Coal-based Gasication Technologies: An Overview NETL Gasication Technologies Training Course, Sept. 2004.)
Jeffrey Phillips
EPRI / Advanced Coal Generation P.O. Box 217097 Charlotte, NC 28221 phone: (704) 595-2250 email: jphillip@epri.com
Just as most combustion-based processes such as power plants operate with excess oxygen to ensure complete conversion of the fuel, gasication processes also typically operate above their stoichiometric oxygen-to-fuel ratio to ensure near complete conversion to syngas. The amount of oxygen used in gasication, however, is always far less than that used in combustion and typically is less than half. In addition to coal, gasication processes can use petroleum coke, biomass, heavy oil, or even natural gas as the feedstock; however, this document will focus on coal gasication processes.
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the hydrogen in the fuel is converted mostly to H2 rather than H2O. Both CO and H2 are excellent fuels for use in a combustion turbine; however, their combustion characteristics are significantly different from natural gas. The implications of this will be fully covered in Section 3.1. Comparison of the primary products created by the main fuel constituents in combustion and main fuel constituents in combustion and gasication gasification
Table 1 Comparison of the primary products created by the
CO2 Carbon CO H2O H2 Hydrogen NO, NO2 HCN, NH3 or N2 Nitrogen SO2 or SO3 H2S or COS Sulfur H2O H2 Water
The fate of the fuels nitrogen and sulfur in a gasication process has important and benecial consequences on the environThe fate of the fuels nitrogen and sulfur in a gasification process has important and beneficial mental performance of an IGCC. Fuel-bound nitrogen, which is predominantly converted to NOx in combustion, is converted to N2, consequences on the of an IGCC. Fuel-bound nitrogen, which is NH and HCN can be NH3 or HCN in gasication. As environmental discussed in the performance Syngas Clean-up Requirements section of this chapter, both 3 predominantly converted to NOx in combustion, is converted to N2, NH3 or HCN in gasification. As limits NO removed to very low levels with the resulting cleaned syngas having essentially no fuel-bound nitrogen. This signicantly x discussed in the Syngas Clean-up Requirements section of this chapter, both NH3 and HCN can be emissions of an IGCC. removed to fuel veryproduces low levels the resulting cleaned having noin fuel-bound The sulfur in SOxwith in combustion processes butsyngas is converted to essentially H2S and COS gasicationnitrogen. conditions. As will This significantly NOx emissions of an IGCC. be described further on, both limits H2S and COS can be removed from the syngas using technology developed for the natural gas industry to levels of less than 20 ppm, which means that more than 99% of the sulfur can be removed from the fuel and will not be emitted as The sulfur in fuel produces SOx in combustion processes but is converted to H2S and COS in gasification SOx. conditions. will be between described further on, both H2S and COS can be from the by syngas using reactions. Another majorAs difference combustion and gasication is the amount of removed heat that is released the chemical In combustion, all of the fuels chemical energy is released as heat is fully but in gasication of the fuels technology developed for the natural gas industry to(assuming levels of it less thanconverted), 20 ppm, which means that most more chemical energy is not released as heat. In fact, an important measure of the efciency of a gasication process is the fraction of the than 99% of the sulfur can be removed from the fuel and will not be emitted as SOx. feedstocks chemical energy, or heating value, which remains in the product syngas. This fraction is termed the cold gas efciency, and most commercial-scale gasication processes have a cold and gas efciency of at 65% andof some exceed 80%. Another major difference between combustion gasification isleast the amount heat that is released by the Because signicantly less heat is released by the gasication process, it is important to limit the amount of heat is transchemical reactions. In combustion, all of the fuels chemical energy is released as heat (assuming it isthat fully ferred outconverted), of the zone where the gasication reactions are occurring. If not, the temperatures within the gasication zone could be too but in gasification most of the fuels chemicalo energy is not released as heat. In fact, an o low to allow the reactions to go forward (a minimum of 1000 C or 1800 F is typically needed to gasify coal). Consequently, unlike a important measure of the efficiency of a gasification process is the fraction of the feedstocks chemical boiler where the entire rebox is lined with water-lled tubes that capture the heat released by the process and produce steam, many energy, or heating value, which remains in the product syngas. This fraction is termed the cold gas gasiers are refractory-lined with no water cooling to ensure as little heat loss as possible. Gasiers also typically operate at elevated efficiency, and most commercial-scale gasification processes have a cold gas efficiency of at least 65% pressure, sometimes as high as 6.2 MPa (900 psia), which allows them to have very compact construction with minimum surface area and some exceed 80%. and minimal heat loss.
Because significantly less heat is released by the gasification process, it is important to limit the amount of If not, the temperatures within the gasification zone could be too low to allow the reactions to go forward (a minimum Moving Bed of 1000C or 1800F is typically needed to gasify coal). Consequently, unlike a boiler where the entire A diagram a generic bed gasier shown in gure Moving bed gasiers are countercurrent ow reactors in which firebox isof lined withmoving water-filled tubes is that capture the 2. heat released by the process and produce steam, the coal enters at the top of the reactor and air or oxygen enters at the bottom. As the coal slowly moves down through the reactor, it many gasifiers are refractory-lined with no water cooling to ensure as little heat loss as possible. Gasifiers is gasied and the remaining ash drops out of the bottom of the reactor. Because of the countercurrent ow arrangement, the heat of also typically operate at elevated pressure, sometimes as high as 6.2 MPa (900 psia), which allows them to reaction from the gasication reactions serves to pre-heat the coal before it enters the gasication reaction zone. Consequently, the have very compact construction with minimum surface area and minimal heat loss.
1.2.1-2 Generic Types of heat that is transferred out of Gasiers the zone where the gasification reactions are occurring.
temperature of the syngas exiting the gasier is signicantly lower than the temperature needed for complete conversion of the coal.
A diagram of a generic moving bed gasifier is shown in Fig. 2. Moving bed gasifiers are countercurrent flow reactors in which the coal enters at the top of the reactor and air or oxygen enters at the bottom. As the coal slowly moves down through the reactor, it is gasified and the remaining ash drops out of the bottom of the reactor. Because of the countercurrent flow arrangement, the heat of reaction from the gasification reactions serves to pre-heat the coal before it enters the gasification reaction zone. Consequently, the temperature of the syngas exiting the gasifier is significantly lower than the temperature needed for complete conversion of the coal.
Fig. 2. Diagram of a generic moving bed gasier
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The residence time of the coal within a moving bed gasier may be on the order of hours. Moving bed gasiers have the following characteristics:1 Low oxidant requirements; Relatively high methane content in the produced gas; Production of hydrocarbon liquids, such as tars an oils; High cold gas thermal efciency when the heating value of the hydrocarbon liquids are included; Limited ability to handle nes; and Special requirements for handling caking coal.
Fluidized Bed
A diagram of a generic uidized bed gasier is shown in gure 3. A uidized bed gasier is a back-mixed or well-stirred reactor in which there is a consistent mixture of new coal particles mixed in with older, partially gasied and fully gasied particles. The mixing also fosters uniform temperatures throughout the bed. The ow of gas into the reactor (oxidant, steam, recycled syngas) must be sufcient to oat the coal particles within the bed but not so high as to entrained them out of the bed. However, as the particles are gasied, they will become smaller and lighter and will be entrained out of the reactor. It is also important that the temperatures within the bed are less than the initial ash fusion temperature of the coal to avoid particle agglomeration. Typically a cyclone downstream of the gasier will capture the larger particles that are entrained out and these particles are recycled back to the bed. Overall, the residence time of coal particles in a uidized bed gasier is shorter than that of a moving bed gasier.
Generic characteristics of uidized bed gasiers include:2 Extensive solids recycling; Uniform and moderate temperature; and Moderate oxygen and steam requirements.
Entrained Flow
A diagram of a generic entrained ow gasier is shown in gure 4. Finely-ground coal is injected in co-current ow with the oxidant. The coal rapidly heats up and reacts with the oxidant. The residence time of an entrained ow gasier is on the order of seconds or tens of seconds. Because of the short residence time, entrained ow gasiers must operate at high temperatures to achieve high carbon conversion. Consequently, most entrained ow gasiers use oxygen rather than air and operate above the slagging temperature of the coal. Generic characteristics of entrained ow gasiers include:3 High-temperature slagging operation; Entrainment of some molten slag in the raw syngas; Relatively large oxidant requirements; Large amount of sensible heat in the raw syngas; and Ability to gasify all coal regardless of rank, caking characteristics or amount of nes.
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1.2.1 Different Types of Gasiers and Their Integration with Gas Turbines
In addition to the three main classications of gasier types (moving bed, uidized bed, and entrained ow) there are also gasiers that are based on either hybrid combinations of those three classications or novel processes such as a molten metal bath. The transport reactor-based gasier developed by Kellogg Brown & Root (KBR) is an example of a hybrid gasier as it has characteristics of both a uidized bed and an entrained ow gasier. The KBR gasier will be described in more detail in the sub-section covering pre-commercial gasiers.
Atmospheric vs Pressurized
Gasiers can operate at either atmospheric pressure or at pressures as high as 62 bar (900 psia). Pressurized gasiers are better suited for IGCC operation since the pressure of product syngas will be sufcient to be fed directly into the GT fuel control system. Low pressure or atmospheric pressure gasiers will require a fuel gas compressor after the syngas clean-up processes. High pressure gasiers also have a positive impact on the cost and performance of the syngas clean-up section. Because the volumetric ow of the syngas is much smaller than it would be for an atmospheric process, the size of the clean-up equipment is smaller. For example, Hg capture can be accomplished by passing the syngas through a sulfur-impregnated, activated carbon bed. The size of the bed is dictated by the residence time of the syngas in the bed. Therefore, a smaller volumetric ow of syngas will result in a smaller carbon bed. If CO2 capture is required in future IGCCs, high pressure gasier operation will improve the performance of physical absorption processes that can remove CO2 from the syngas. Coal is typically fed into a pressurized gasier either pneumatically as a dry solid or pumped as coal-water slurry. Slurry-fed feed systems have a lower capital cost, but result in less efcient conversion of coal to syngas (referred to as the cold gas efciency of the gasier). This is because some of the syngas must be burned in order to generate the heat needed to vaporize the water in the slurry. Consequently, the syngas produced by a slurry-fed gasier typically has more CO2 in it than a dry-fed gasier. This is not detrimental to GT operations since the CO2 can act as an effective diluent for NOx control; however, it does impact the design of the acid gas removal section of the IGCC as that process must use a solvent which allows the CO2 to pass through with the syngas rather than being stripped out with the sulfur species.
Oxygen for the gasication reactions can be provided by either air or high purity oxygen produced by a cryogenic air separation unit (ASU). Air-blown gasiers avoid the large capital cost of an ASU but produce a much lower caloric value syngas than oxygenblown gasiers. The nitrogen in the air typically dilutes the syngas by a factor of 3 compared to oxygen-blown gasication. Therefore, while a syngas caloric value of 300 Btu/scf might be typical from an oxygen-blown gasier, an air-blown gasier will typically produce syngas with a caloric value of 100 Btu/scf. This has a signicant impact on the design of the combustion system of the GT. Because the nitrogen in air must be heated to the gasier exit temperature by burning some of the syngas, air-blown gasication is more favorable for gasiers which operate at lower temperatures (i.e. non-slagging).
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Air-blown gasiers also have a negative impact on CO2 capture. Because of the dilution effect of the nitrogen, the partial pressure of CO2 in air-blown gasier syngas will be one-third of that from an oxygen-blown gasier. This increases the cost and decreases the effectiveness of the CO2 removal equipment. A nal design option involves the method for cooling the syngas produced by the gasier. Regardless of the type of gasier, the exiting syngas must be cooled down to approximately 100oC in order to utilize conventional acid gas removal technology. This can be accomplished either by passing the syngas through a series of heat exchangers which recover the sensible heat for use in the steam cycle of the IGCC, or by directly contacting the syngas with relatively cool water. This latter process is called a quench and it results in some of the quench water being vaporized and mixed with the syngas. The quenched syngas is saturated with water and must pass through a series of condensing heat exchanges which remove the moisture from the syngas (so it can be recycled to the quench zone). Quench designs have a negative impact on the heat rate of an IGCC as the sensible heat of the high temperature syngas is converted to low level process heat rather than high pressure steam. However, quench designs have much lower capital costs and can be justied when low cost feedstock is available. Quench designs also have an advantage if CO2 capture is desired. The saturated syngas exiting a quench section has near the optimum H2O/CO ratio for feed into a water-gas shift catalyst which will convert the CO in the syngas to CO2. Non-quench designs that require CO2 capture will have to add steam to the syngas before it is sent to a water-gas shift reactor.
For oxygen-blown gasiers in an IGCC, the air for the ASU can be supplied by a stand-alone, electric motor-driven compressor or it can be extracted from the discharge of the GT compressor. It could also be supplied by a combination of those two options. Extracting the air from the GT has efciency advantages (the electrical losses in the GT generator and compressor motor are avoided), but experience at two European IGCCs which rely solely on GT compressor discharge air for their ASUs has shown that it can be operationally difcult, particularly during start-up. Consensus is growing that using a combination of a stand-alone, electric motor-driven compressor and GT air extraction is the best option for supplying the ASU. Typical designs call for at least 50% of the air to be supplied by the stand-alone compressor.
Air-Side Integration
Steam-Side Integration
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For IGCC which have a syngas cooler to recover heat from the hot syngas, there are two options for the steam that is produced by the syngas cooler. The rst option is to send the steam to the HRSG of the combined cycle for superheating and reheating. The steam is combined with the steam produced by the HRSG and drives a single steam turbine. The second option is to provide some level of superheat within the syngas cooler and send the steam to a separate steam turbine which only accepts the steam from the gasication block.
1.2.1 Different Types of Gasiers and Their Integration with Gas Turbines
To date, all IGCCs have utilized the rst option. However, with growing interest in retrotting existing natural gas red combined cycles, the second option may be of interest because an HRSG and steam turbine of an existing combined cycle will have to be modied to accommodate the additional steam produced by the syngas cooler. The separate steam turbine option may also be attractive for applications in which the gasication block must be located considerable distance away from the combined cycle.
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The GE Energy process has also been used in several coal and petroleum coke-to-chemicals applications. Besides the Kansas coke-to-ammonia plant, GE Energy gasiers featuring the water quench design have been installed at the Ube Industries coke-to-ammonia plant in Japan and the Eastman Chemical coal-to-chemicals facility in Tennessee. These plants have operated with the very high availability factors expected in the chemicals industry for more than 20 years. The GE Energy gasier can also be used to gasify petroleum renery liquid by-products such as asphalt residues. Several IGCC projects based on these feedstocks have been built at reneries around the world. Shell Coal Gasication Process (SCGP) The Royal Dutch Shell group of companies (Shell) has developed two different gasication processes. The rst, called the Shell Gasication Process or SGP, was developed to gasify liquid and gaseous feedstocks. It features a refractory-lined gasier with a single feed injection point at the top of the gasier. The gasication products pass through a syngas cooler before entering a wet scrubber. The second process, called the Shell Coal Gasication Process (SCGP), was developed specically to gasify solid feeds. The SCGP gasier features a water-cooled membrane wall similar to the membrane walls used in conventional coal boilers. There are four feed injectors oriented horizontally in the mid-section of gasier vessel. Slag ows out of a slag tap at the bottom of the vessel where it falls into a water bath and syngas ows out the top of the vessel. As the syngas exits the gasier it is quenched with cool, recycled syngas to a temperature well below the ash melting point of the coal. The quenched syngas is still quite warm (typically 900C) and passes through a syngas cooler and a dry solids lter before a portion of the gas is split off for recycle to the quench zone. The coal is fed to the SCGP gasier pneumatically using high pressure nitrogen as the transport medium. The coal must rst be dried and nely ground in a roller mill where warm, inert gas ows through the mill to remove the coals moisture. The dried coal is then pressurized via a system of lockhoppers. SCGP gasiers operate at pressures up to approximately 40 bar. Shell began development of the SGP process in the 1950s, and work on the SCGP process started as a joint project with Krupp Koppers in the mid-1970s. Both companies agreed to go their separate ways in the development of coal gasication in 1981, and Krupp Koppers developed a competing dry-feed, membrane wall gasier with the trade name PRENFLO. The only commercial application of the PRENFLO process has been the 280 MW Elcogas IGCC in Puertollano Spain. In 1999, Shell and Krupp Uhde agreed to join forces again in coal gasication. However, now only SCGP is being offered commercially by the two organizations. The rst commercial application of SCGP was the 250 MW Demkolec IGCC built in 1994 in Buggenum, The Netherlands. The plant was originally owned by a consortium of Dutch electric utilities, but was sold to Nuon in the late 1990s. It is now operating as an independent power producer in the deregulated Dutch electricity market. Shell has also sold licenses for 12 SCGP gasiers which will be used in coal-to-chemicals projects in China. The rst of those projects is expected to begin operations in 2006. Perhaps the greatest advantage of Shells coal gasication process is its feed exibility. The 240 tpd SCGP demonstration built at Shells renery in Deer Park, Texas in the 1980s was able to process a full range of feedstocks including lignite, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal and pet coke. The reason for SCGPs exibility is the coal milling and drying process which eliminates the impact of moisture on the gasier performance (however, the fuel for the drying process has a negative impact on thermal efciency). The biggest disadvantage of the SCGP has been its higher capital cost which is inherent in the more expensive nature of the gasier design (boiler tubes are more expensive than refractory brick) and its dry feed system. ConocoPhillips E-Gas ConocoPhillips owns the E-Gas gasication technology which was originally developed by Dow Chemical. The E-Gas process features a unique two-stage gasier design. The gasier is refractory-lined and uses coal-water slurry feed. The rst stage of the gasier has two opposed, horizontally-oriented feed injectors. The syngas exits the top of the rst stage and slag ows out of the bottom into a water bath. The syngas produced by the rst stage enters the second stage at temperatures comparable to the exit temperatures of the other two entrained ow gasiers, GE Energy and SCGP. Additional coal-water slurry is injected into this hot syngas in the second gasier stage, but no additional oxygen is injected. Endothermic gasication reactions occur between the hot syngas and the second stage coal feed. This lowers the temperature of the syngas and increases the cold gas efciency of the process. Upon exiting the top of the second stage of the gasifer, the syngas passes through a syngas cooler which features a retube design. The cooled syngas then enters a rigid barrier lter where any unconverted char from the second stage is collected and recycled back to the rst stage of the gasier where the hotter temperatures ensure near complete carbon conversion. Dow began development of the E-Gas process in 1976 with a bench scale reactor. The work progressed to a 36 tpd pilot plant and then a 550 tpd proto plant located at Dows chemical manufacturing complex in Plaquemine, Louisiana. The main feedstock tested in these early gasiers was lignite. In 1984 Dow entered an agreement with the federal US governments Synthetic Fuels Corporation in which Dow received a price guarantee for syngas to be produced from a commercial scale E-Gas gasication plant built in Plaquemine. The plant began operation in 1987 and was operated by the Dow subsidiary Louisiana Gasication Technology Inc. (LTGI). The LGTI facility was designed to process 1600 tpd (dry basis) of sub-bituminous coal from the Powder River Basin. The clean syngas was sent to two Westinghouse 501D gas turbines which were already operating on natural gas at the Plaquemine complex. The total power output from the two turbines was 184 MW.
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1.2.1 Different Types of Gasiers and Their Integration with Gas Turbines
LGTI operated from 1987 through 1995 and received a total of $620 million in price support payments from the Synthetic Fuels Corporation (SFC). It was shutdown after SFC support ended. In total, more than 3.7 million tons of sub-bituminous coal was gasied at the LGTI facility. The E-gas process has also been used at the Wabash River IGCC repowering project in West Terre Haute, Indiana. In 1991 the project was selected to receive partial funding from the US DOE as part of the Clean Coal Technology program. The plant featured a new air separation unit, gasier, clean-up system, gas turbine and heat recovery steam generator, but it utilized an existing, 30-year old, 100 MW steam turbine in Public Service of Indianas coal-red Wabash River Generation Steam. The coal boiler that was originally built to supply steam to the steam turbine was retired when the IGCC equipment started up. The Wabash River IGCC began operation in 1995 on bituminous coal from the Illinois basin. However, today it operates exclusively on petroleum coke. Unlike the Polk County IGCC owned by TECO, ownership of the Wabash IGCC is split in two. The electric utility (Cinergy PSI) owns and operates the combined cycle plant while SG Solutions LLC owns and operates the gasication plant including the air separation unit. A commercial dispute between the previous owners of the gasication plant and Cinergy PSI led to a prolonged shutdown of the gasier in 2004. However, with the recent change in ownership to SG Solutions, gasication operations began again in May 2005. ConocoPhillips is actively developing several new IGCC projects; among those are the Mesaba IGCC and the Steelhead Energy project.. The Mesaba project is being developed by Excelsior Energy in northern Minnesota. The project was awarded $36 million by the US DOE in 2004 as part of Round Two of the Clean Coal Power Initiative (CCPI). The money will support the cost of the Front End Engineering Design (FEED) and Permitting activities for the project. The Steelhead project, located in southern Illinois, will produce 600 MW of electricity as well as synthetic natural gas. The project recently received $2.5 million in funding from the State of Illinois to support its FEED effort.
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Jeffrey Phillips
The riser section provides sufcient residence time at hot temperatures to crack any tars which may be produced during devolatilization of the coal. This gives the design a distinct advantage over xed bed gasiers which also operate below the ash melting point. Solids which are entrained out of the mixing zone of the gasier are captured in a hot cyclone and returned to the uidized bed. To maintain constant reactor inventory, gasier ash is removed periodically from the lower region of the standpipe. If required, sand can be fed to increase reactor solids inventory. Because of its lower operating temperature and its dry feed arrangement, the KBR reactor is most attractive for lower rank, high moisture coals. The lower temperatures also eliminate the need for refractory lining of the gasier vessel. The PSDF Transport Gasier can process 38 tpd of coal in air-blown mode. Coals which have been gasied at the PSDF include Powder River Basin Sub-bituminous, Illinois #6 and North Dakota Lignite. The KBR Transport Gasier will be used in the 285 MW Stanton IGCC project which was selected by the US Department of Energy as part of Round Two of the CCPI in 2004. Southern Company Services, KBR, and the Orlando Utilities Commission (OUC) are sponsors of the project, which will be located at an existing combined cycle power plant owned by the OUC. Nonetheless, the IGCC will be a Greeneld project rather than a retrot of the existing combined cycle. Powder River Basin coal will be the feedstock for the gasier. Future Energy The Future Energy entrained ow gasication process, formerly known as the Noell process, employs a single stage, downward ring gasier that operates on a variety of liquid and solid feedstocks. The reactants are fed in at the top of the gasier, which is cylindrical in shape and operates at temperature above ash fusion temperatures. At the bottom of the reaction chamber is a quench section, in which water is injected to cool the slag and the syngas. The solidied and granulated slag accumulates and is discharged via a lockhopper; the cooled syngas then exits the gasier for further processing. There are two variations of the gasier, depending on the ash content of the feeds. For high ash content feeds, the gasication chamber is enclosed by a tube screen that carries cooling water to ensure a long life of the gasier. The screen wall is coated with a thin layer of protective coating; as the slag ows down the wall towards the quench section, a layer of solid slag is formed next to the wall due to the cooling effect. In applications with low ash content feeds, the cooling screen is replaced with a refractory lining cooled with a water jacket screen. Unlike other gasication processes, the Future Energy process allows the option of using either dry feed or slurry feed. The process is currently used in a 440 MW Vresova IGCC plant in the Czech Republic. The plant has 24 Lurgi gasiers processing brown coal and 360 tpd of tars produced by those gasiers are pumped to a single Future Energy gasier for conversion into syngas. BGL Slagging Gasier The British Gas/Lurgi (BGL) coal gasier is a dry-feed, pressurized, xed-bed, slagging gasier. The reactor vessel is water cooled and refractory lined. Each gasier is provided with a motor-driven coal distributor/mixer to stir and evenly distribute the incoming coal mixture. Oxygen and steam are introduced into the gasier vessel through sidewall-mounted tuyeres (lances) at the elevation where combustion and slag formation occur. The coal mixture (coarse coal, nes, briquettes, and ux) which is introduced at the top of the gasier via a lock hopper system gradually descends through several process zones. Coal at the top of the bed is dried and devolatilized. The descending coal is transformed into char, and then passes into the gasication (reaction) zone. Below this zone, any remaining carbon is oxidized, and the ash content of the coal is liquied, forming slag. Slag is withdrawn from the slag pool by means of an opening in the hearth plate at the bottom of the gasier vessel. The slag ows downward into a quench chamber and lock hopper in series. The pressure differential between the quench chamber and gasier regulates the ow of slag between the two vessels. Product gas exits the gasier at approximately 1050F (566C) through an opening near the top of the gasier vessel and passes into a water quench vessel and a boiler feed water (BFW) preheater designed to lower the temperature to approximately 300F (150C). Entrained solids and soluble compounds mixed with the exiting liquid are sent to a gas-liquor separation unit. Soluble hydrocarbons, such as tars, oils, and naphtha are recovered from the aqueous liquor and recycled to the top of the gasier and/or reinjected at the tuyeres. A 720 tpd BGL gasier has been built recently in Germany by SVZ as part of a waste-to-methanol plant. The BGL technology was originally developed by British Gas, which built two demonstration gasiers in the 200 to 500 tpd range in Westeld, Scotland. Those gasiers are now owned by Global Energy of Cincinnati, OH, which for a time owned the rights to the BGL technology. The rights were recently acquired by the Allied Syngas Corporation (ASC) based in Wayne, PA. ASC is currently pursuing projects based on a 1000 tpd BGL gasier.
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1.2.1 Different Types of Gasiers and Their Integration with Gas Turbines
Fig. 7. Diagram of the MHI air-blown gasier (with permission from Clean Coal Power R&D Co., Ltd.)
1.2.1-7 Conclusions
Four gasication technologies have been developed and demonstrated at sizes compatible with large scale IGCCs. Three of these technologies are based on entrained ow reactors which rapidly convert coal to a hot syngas. The fourth is based on a moving bed reactor which uses long residence times to convert the coal and produces a more moderate temperature syngas along with liquid hydrocarbons. Several other gasication technologies are nearing demonstrations of large scale gasier which could be used in IGCCs. The most appropriate gasier to use in an IGCC is probably more a function of the type of coal to be gasied than anything else. Lower rank, high moisture coals are more capable with dry-fed gasiers, while high temperature slagging gasiers are best for high rank coals which are less reactive.
1.2.1-8 Notes
_____________________________ 1. D.R. Simbeck, et al., Coal Gasication Guidebook: Status, Applications, and Technologies, EPRI Final Report TR 102034 (Electric Power Research Institute). 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid.
76
BIOGRAPHY
1.2.1 Different Types of Gasiers and Their Integration with Gas Turbines
Jeffrey Phillips
EPRI / Advanced Coal Generation P.O. Box 217097 Charlotte, NC 28221 phone: (704) 595-2250 email: jphillip@epri.com
Dr. Phillips began his involvement with IGCCs when he did his PhD research at Stanford on the off-design performance of IGCCs. He then spent 10 years working in the Royal Dutch/Shell group assisting in the development of the Shell Coal Gasication Process and then became an independent consultant, specializing in combustion turbine and combined cycle performance analysis. Among his consulting projects was an analysis of the suitability of current combustion turbine technology for oxy-fuel cycles. He recently accepted a position as project manager at EPRI where he directs projects related to IGCCs.
1.2.2
Implications of CO2 Sequestration for Gas Turbines 1.2.2-1 Introduction
A variety of industrial processes such as power plants, oil reneries, cement works, and iron and steel production emit large amounts of CO2. Approximately a third of all the CO2 emissions due to human activity, however, come from fossil fuel-based power plants, with each power plant capable of emitting several million tonnes of CO2 annually. These emissions could be reduced substantially by capturing and storing the CO2 while other sources of emissions, such as transport and domestic buildings, cannot be tackled in the same way because of the large number of small sources of CO2. The capture of CO2 in an IGCC power plant consists of gasifying the feedstock in an O2 blown gasier system and shifting the CO to H2 by catalytic reaction with steam1: CO + H2O = CO2 + H2. (1)
The CO2 is then removed for sequestration from the syngas to produce a decarbonized fuel gas for combustion in a gas turbine. There are primarily two schemes for these processing steps consisting of shifting, CO2 removal and desulfurization of the syngas for current or near term technology plants, i.e., plants incorporating cold gas cleanup: Employ sour shifting of the syngas followed by desulfurization and CO2 recovery within the same acid gas removal unit; or, Desulfurize the syngas rst followed by shifting and then removal /recovery of the CO2. The choice of either scheme depends primarily on the gasication heat recovery system employed (i.e., the extent to which cooling of the raw gasier efuent is accomplished in a syngas cooler before the syngas is quenched / scrubbed with water to remove particulate matter).
77
Table 1 Typical Clean Syngas Compositions (Dry and Sulfur Free Basis)
The amount of low temperature waste heat available in a gasication plant in turn depends primarily on the gasication heat recovery system employed (i.e., the extent to which cooling of the raw gasier efuent is accomplished in a syngas cooler before the syngas is quenched / scrubbed with water). On the other hand, the amount of N2 available as a diluent for the gas turbine depends on the specic O2 consumption of the gasier - the amount of N2 produced by the air separation unit is lower when the specic O2 consumption of the gasier is lower; and, the type of gasier feed system - dry feed systems utilize signicant portions of the N2 as lock hopper pressurization gas as well as in the drying and transport of the coal into the gasier and only the remaining amount of N2 is available for gas turbine injection.
A combination of the two diluents, i.e. water vapor and N2, may also be utilized, the relative amounts depending on the overall plant integration scheme and the trade-offs between efciency and capital cost. In such cases, an option available consists of introducing the moisture into the N2 stream instead of the syngas. When N2 or moisturized N2 is utilized as a diluent, it may be either premixed with the decarbonized syngas before supplying it to the combustor of the gas turbine or it may be introduced into the combustor through a separate injector. Premixing the diluents with the syngas versus keeping them separately upstream of the combustor will have implications on the effectiveness of the diluent in lowering the local combustion temperature; a diluent entering the combustor premixed with the syngas would be more effective in lowering the NOx than if it entered the combustor through a separate nozzle. On the other hand, some savings in the N2 compressor horsepower may be realized in the case where the diluent is introduced into the combustor separately if the pressure drop associated with the fuel control valve is much higher than that for the diluent. It should be noted that the specic heat of the triatomic H2O molecule is signicantly higher than that of the diatomic N2 molecule on a mole basis and thus the relative amounts of diluents required, i.e. water vapor versus N2 on a volumetric or mole basis by a given amount of syngas are quite different. Thus, in summary, the composition of the syngas / diluent are dependent on the type of gasier, heat recovery and energy integration options and the type of air separation unit, i.e., whether it is an elevated pressure air separation unit which can supply high pressure N2 for use as a thermal diluent for NOx control. Gas Turbine Pressure Ratio The pressure ratio of the gas turbine increases when ring syngas, which is a much lower heat content gas than natural gas. The increase in pressure ratio is dependent upon the amount and nature of the diluent added and the degree to which the compressor inlet guide vanes are closed. The surge margin available in the compressor could thus constrain the amount of diluent that may be added and the resulting NOx emissions, in addition to the constraints set by the combustor design with respect to achieving stable combustion while limiting the CO emissions. Air extraction from the compressor may be required in order to limit the increase in the engine pressure ratio, in which case the extracted air (after cooldown / heat recovery) may be used efciently in an elevated pressure air separation unit. Gas Turbine Firing Temperature The H2O vapor content of the working uid owing through the turbine, especially in the case when decarbonized syngas is the fuel and while utilizing water vapor as the diluent, is signicantly higher than that in the case when natural gas is the fuel (i.e., compared to the case when natural gas is red in dry low NOx combustors). The following implications exist for the gas turbine in such applications: Derating of the turbine ring temperature due the different aero-heat transfer characteristics3 and Life of the thermal barrier coatings, and any ceramics that may be utilized in advanced gas turbines in the future.
Additionally, a gas turbine designed for a certain ring temperature on natural gas would see derating of the ring temperature not only due to the increased concentration of H2O vapor in the working uid but also due to the increase in the pressure ratio since the temperature of the cooling air increases as the pressure ratio is increased. In the case of a steam-cooled gas turbine, however, derating of the ring temperature due to the increase in pressure ratio may be less signicant (since the cooling steam temperature may be maintained independently of the gas turbine pressure ratio), unless the low pressure air-cooled stages of the gas turbine become the bottleneck.
78
In the case of an IGCC plant designed for producing a decarbonized syngas using sour shift and an acid gas removal unit to capture the CO2 and also perform desulfurization of the syngas, most of the COS is hydrolyzed to H2S in the shift reactors, while due to the very large solvent circulation rate maintained in the acid gas removal unit to capture the CO2, the sulfur content of the treated syngas is very low. In such cases, the incremental heat rate and cost penalties associated with producing a low sulfur syngas suitable for ring in a gas turbine equipped with an SCR are not signicant. Engine Output The gas turbine when red with syngas with diluent addition can be fully loaded to maximize its power output, the limits being the surge margin of the compressor (pressure ratio being increased) and the shaft torque. A nearly at rating of the engine output with respect to the ambient temperature may be realized by opening up the guide vanes as the ambient temperature increases, the compressor inlet guide vanes being typically closed at the lower ambient temperatures to compensate for the larger mass ow rate of the syngas and the diluent.
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1.2.2-4 Notes
___________________________ 1. A.D. Rao and R. Stobbs,, An Evaluation of Coal Gasication with CO2 Capture (presented at the Combustion Canada Conference, Vancouver, September 2003); EPRI Report No. IE-7365, Engineering and Economic Evaluation of CO2 Removal from Fossil-Fuel-Fired Power Plants (prepared by Fluor Daniel, Inc, June 1991). 2. See note 1 above (EPRI Report). 3. A.D. Rao and D. Du Plessis, Prospects for 200 MW Western Canadian Coal IGCC with CO2 Capture (presented at the Combustion Canada Conference, Vancouver, September 2003). 4. K.Y. Hsu, L.P. Gross, and D.D. Trump, Performance of a Trapped Vortex Combustor (J. of Propulsion and Power, Paper No. 95-0810, AIAA 33rd Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, Nevada, Jan 9-12, 1995). 5. T. Ono, NPRC Negishi IGCC Startup and Operation (presented at the Gasication Technologies Conference, San Francisco, California, October, 2003); D. Heaven and B. DeSouza, Technical Issues with SCR in IGCC Applications (presented at the 6th European Gasication Conference, Brighton, UK, May 2004). 6. See note 5 above (Heaven & DeSouza).
80
BIOGRAPHY
1.2.2 Implications of CO2 Sequestration for Gas Turbines 1.3.2 Advanced Brayton Cycles
Dr. Rao serves as the Chief Scientist, Power Systems at UC Irvine Advanced Power and Energy Program. He worked in industry for more than 30 years in the energy conversion area, and previously worked at Fluor as Director in Process Engineering and Senior Fellow in design / development of gasication for power generation and synthetic fuels coproduction. He received several patent awards in the energy conversion area and authored several papers on advanced power cycles and improved IGCC designs. Dr. Rao has also worked for Allis-Chalmers and McDowell Wellman Engineering in coal conversion; responsibilities included taking ideas from drawing board to demonstration scale plants. He holds a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering and a M.S. in Chemical Engineering.
1.2
1.2-1 Introduction
Integrated Coal Gasication Combined Cycle (IGCC) refers to the technology of converting coal to a fuel gas by contacting it with a mixture of oxygen (or air) and steam, burning the fuel gas in a combustion turbine/ generator, using the waste heat from the turbine to raise steam, and sending the steam to a steam turbine for additional power generation. IGCC has a number of technical advantages, but until recently, higher capital costs plus the availability of cheap natural gas have limited its application. However, as pollution limits become more stringent and natural gas prices increase, the superior performance of IGCC will make it increasingly attractive, particularly as technical advances reduce costs. Gasication is a well-proven technology that had its beginnings in the late 1700s. In the 19th century, gasication was used extensively for the production of town gas for urban areas. Although this application has all but vanished in the 20th century with the widespread availability of natural gas, gasication has found new applications in the production of fuels and chemical feed stocks and in large-scale power generation. Today, gasication technology is being widely used throughout the world. A study conducted in 2004 indicated that there were 156 gasication projects worldwide. Total capacity of the projects in operation was 45,000 MW (thermal) with another 25,000 MW (thermal) in various stages of development.
Gary J. Stiegel
NETL 626 Cochrans Mill Road, P.O. Box 10940 Pittsburgh, PA 15236 email: gary.stiegel@netl.doe.gov
Massood Ramezan
phone: (412) 386-6451 email: massood.ramezan@sa.netl. doe.gov
Howard G. McIlvried
phone: (412) 386-4825 email: howard.mcilvried@sa.netl.doe. gov
SAIC P.O. Box 10940 Pittsburgh, PA 15236
59
Reactions (1) and (2) are exothermic oxidation reactions and provide most of the energy required by the endothermic gasication Reactions (3) and (4). The oxidation reactions occur very rapidly, completely consuming all of the oxygen present in the gasier, so that most of the gasier operates under reducing conditions. Reaction (5) is the water-gas shift reaction, which in essence converts CO into H2. The water-gas shift reaction alters the H2/ CO ratio in the nal mixture but does not greatly impact the heating value of the synthesis gas, because the heats of combustion of H2 and CO on a molar basis are almost identical. Methane formation, Reaction (6), is favored by high pressures and low temperatures and is, thus, mainly important in lowertemperature gasication systems. Methane formation is an exothermic reaction that does not consume oxygen and, therefore, increases the efciency
of gasication and the nal heating value of the synthesis gas. Overall, about 70% of the fuels heating value is associated with the CO and H2 in the gas, but this can be higher depending upon the gasier type. Depending on the gasier technology employed and the operating conditions, signicant quantities of H2O, CO2, and CH4 can be present in the synthesis gas, as well as a number of minor and trace components. Under the reducing conditions in the gasier, most of the fuels sulfur converts to hydrogen sulde (H2S), but 3-10% converts to carbonyl sulde (COS). Fuel-bound nitrogen generally converts to gaseous nitrogen (N2), but some ammonia (NH3) and a small amount of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) are also formed. Most of the chlorine in the fuel is converted to HCl with some chlorine present in the particulate phase. Trace elements, such as mercury and arsenic, are released during gasication and partition among the different phases, such as y ash, bottom ash, slag, and product gas. Table 1 shows typical gas compositions for some of the more commonly used gasiers.
Table 1. Composition of Raw Syngas from Coal Fed Gasiers
Gasier Technology Type of Bed Coal Feed Form Coal Type Oxidant Pressure, MPa (psia) Ash Form Composition, vol% H2 CO CO2 CH4 Other HC H2S COS N2 + Ar H2O NH3 + HCN HCl H2S/COS Ratio
Sources:
1 2
Sasol/Lurgi1 moving dry Illinois No. 6 oxygen 0.101 (14.7) slag 52.2 29.5 5.6 4.4 0.3 0.9 0.04 1.5 5.1 0.5 20/1
Texaco/GE Energy2a entrained slurry Illinois No. 6 oxygen 4.22 (612) slag 30.3 39.6 10.8 0.1 1.0 0.02 1.6 16.5 0.1 0.02 42/1
BGL2b moving dry Illinois No. 6 oxygen 2.82 (409) slag 26.4 45.8 2.9 3.8 0.2 1.0 0.1 3.3 16.3 0.2 0.03 11/1
E-Gas/Conoco Phillips entrained slurry Illinois No. 6 oxygen 2.86 (415) slag 33.5 44.9 16.0 1.8 1.0 0.1 2.5 0.2 0.03 10/1
Shell/Uhde2c entrained dry Illinois No. 5 oxygen 2.46 (357) slag 26.7 63.1 1.5 0.03 1.3 0.1 5.2 2.0 0.02 0.03 9/1
Rath, Status of Gasication Demonstration Plants, Proc. 2nd Annu. Fuel Cells Contract Review Mtg., DOE/METC-9090/6112, p. 91. Coal Gasication Guidebook: Status, Applications, and Technologies, Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI TR-102034, 1993. 2a: p. 5-28; 2b p. 5-58; 2c: p.
5-48.
Many other reactions, besides those listed, occur. In the initial stages of gasication, the rising temperature of the feedstock initiates devolatilization of the feedstock and the breaking of weaker chemical bonds to yield tars, oils, phenols, and hydrocarbon gases. These products generally react further to form H2, CO, and CO2. The xed carbon that remains after devolatilization reacts with oxygen, steam, CO2, and H2. Gasier Types: All gasier technologies generally fall into one of three generic types of reactor: moving-bed (also call xed-bed), uidizedbed, and entrained ow. In a moving-bed gasier, large particles of coal move slowly down through the bed while reacting with gases moving countercurrenly. Reaction zones are often used to describe the reactions occurring along the length of the gasier. In the drying zone at the top of the gasier, the entering coal is heated and dried by the countercurrent ow of syngas, while simultaneously cooling the syngas before it leaves the gasier. The moisture content of the coal mainly controls the temperature of the discharge gas from the gasier. Because of the countercurrent operation of this gasier, hydrocarbon liquids can be found in the product gas which has been problematic for downstream operations; however, techniques have been devised to capture the hydrocarbons and recycle them to the lower part of the gasier. As the coal continues down the bed, it enters the carbonization zone where the coal is further heated and devolatilized by higher temperature gas. In the gasication zone, the devolatilized coal in converted to syngas by reactions with steam and CO2. In the combustion zone near the bottom of the reactor, oxygen reacts with the remaining char to consume the remaining carbon and to generate the necessary heat for the gasication zone. Depending upon the operation of the combustion zone, the moving bed gasier can be made to operate in one of two distinct modes, i.e., dry ash or slagging. In the dry-ash version, the temperature is maintained below the ash slagging temperature by the endothermic reaction of the char with steam in the presence of excess steam. In addition, the ash below the combustion zone is cooled by the entering steam and oxidant. In the slagging version, much less steam is used so that the temperature of the ash in the combustion zone exceeds the ash fusion temperature of the coal and molten slag is formed. Moving-bed gasiers have the following characteristics:
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Fluidized-bed gasiers operate in a highly back-mixed mode, thoroughly mixing the coal feed particles with those particles already undergoing gasication. Coal enters at the side of the reactor, while steam and oxidant enter near the bottom, thereby suspending or uidizing the reacting bed. Char particles entrained in the raw gas leaving the top of the gasier are recovered by a cyclone and recycled back to the gasier. Ash particles removed below the bed give up heat to the incoming steam and oxidant. Because of the highly back-mixed operation, the gasier operates under isothermal conditions at a temperature below the ash fusion temperature of the coal, thus avoiding clinker formation and possible collapse of the bed. The low temperature operation of this gasier means that uidized-bed gasiers are best suited to relatively reactive feeds, such as low-rank coals and biomass, or to lower quality feedstocks, such as high ash coals. Fluidized-bed gasiers have the following characteristics: Accept a wide range of solid feedstocks, including solid waste, wood, and high ash coals; Uniform, moderate temperature; Moderate oxygen and steam requirements; and, Extensive char recycling.
In entrained-ow gasiers, ne coal particles react with steam and oxidant, generally pure oxygen, at temperatures well above the fusion temperature of the ash. The residence time of the coal in these gasiers is very short, and high temperatures are required to achieve high carbon conversion. Because of the high reaction temperatures required compared to the other gasier types, oxygen consumption is higher because of the need to combust more of the feedstock to generate the required heat. To minimize oxygen consumption, and hence cost, these gasiers are usually supplied with higher quality feed stocks. Entrained-ow gasiers can operate either in a down-ow or up-ow mode. Entrained-ow gasiers have the following characteristics: Syngas Cleanup Before syngas can be burned as a fuel or converted to chemicals, liquid fuels, or hydrogen, impurities in the gas, as shown in Table 1, must be reduced to levels that depend upon the requirements of the downstream process. To clean the syngas, chemical solvents, such as monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA), and methyl diethanolamine (MDEA), and physical solvents, such as methanol (Rectisol) and mixtures of dimethyl ethers of polyethylene glycol (Selexol), operating at ambient or lower temperatures are employed. The selection of the technology for gas cleanup is dependent on the purity requirements of downstream operations and whether of not capture of carbon dioxide is required. With all of these technologies, the syngas is contacted with the scrubbing liquid in a packed column. In the amine-based systems (MEA, DEA, MDEA), weak chemical compounds are formed between H2S and the amine. Compounds such as COS are unaffected by the amine and must rst be hydrolyzed to H2S if deeper sulfur removal is required. The rich amine is then pumped to a second packed column, operating at a higher temperature, where the H2S is stripped from the solvent and sent to sulfur recovery, typically a Claus unit. The lean amine is cooled and returned to the absorber. The Rectisol process uses chilled methanol, at a temperature of about -40oF to -80oF, as the solvent. In this case, the H2S and other sulfur-containing compounds, such as COS, dissolve in the methanol but do not react with it. The methanol is regenerated by ashing, and the lean solvent is then returned to the absorber. Like the Rectisol process, H2S and other sulfur-containing compound are quite soluble in the Selexol solvent, which operates at about 0oF to 100oF. The rich solution is sent to a regeneration column, where a combination of reduced pressure and stripping at an increased temperature is used to remove the absorbed acid gases. The regenerated solvent is returned to the absorber. In current IGCC systems, absorption processes are used to remove H2S, with a minimum of CO2 removal, since CO2 in the fuel gas improves turbine performance. However, should it become necessary to also recover CO2, these processes can be congured to remove both H2S and CO2. Ability to gasify all coals, regardless of rank, caking characteristics, or amount of nes, although feedstocks with lower ash content are favored; Uniform temperature; Very short feed residence time in the gasier; Solid fuel must be very nely divided and homogeneous; Relatively large oxidant requirement; Large amount of sensible heat in the raw gas; High-temperature slagging operation; and, Entrainment of some ash/slag in the raw gas.
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Stack Gas
Scrubber Water
Turbine Exhaust
Water
Raw Syngas
Particulate Scrubber
Raw Syngas
Gas Cooling
Sour Syngas
Sweet Syngas
Electricity
Recycle Ash
Scrubber Blowdown
Sour Condensate
Acid Gas
Slag or Ash
Air
Recycle Water
Sour Gas
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RESOURCES
GASIFIERS
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
Particul ate Removal and Recycle Filt ration, Water Scrubbing Chlori de and Alkali Removal Water Scrubbing Aci d Gas Removal Amine Processes Rectisol, Selexo l COS Hydrolysis Sulfur Recovery Claus Process Scott Process Sulfuric Acid Plant Water Treatment Process Water, BFW Tail Gas Treating Turbine NOx Control Nitrogen/Steam Dilution Syngas Mercury Capture Syngas CO2 Capture
ENERGY CONVERSION
PRODUCTS
Air/Oxygen Coal Biomass Petroleum Coke Heavy Oil Refinery Wastes MSW Orimulsion Other Wastes
Gas Turbine Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRS G) Steam Turbine Boiler Syngas Conversion to Fuels & Chemicals Catalytic Conversion Shift Conversion Fischer-Tropsch Fuel Cell H2 Turbine
Steam Electric Power Li qui d Fuels Chemicals Methanol Hydrogen Ammoni a/ Fertilizers Slag Sulfur/Sulfuric Aci d
Moving Bed British Gas Lurg i (BGL) Lurgi (Dry Ash) Transport Reactor Kellogg -----------------------------------AIR-B LOWN Flui dized Bed HT Winkler, IGT Ugas KRW Spouting Bed British Coal, Foster Wheeler Entrained Fl ow Mitsubishi Transport Reactor Kellogg
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64
1.2-6 Conclusions
Markets and drivers are changing rapidly. Environmental performance is becoming a greater factor as emission standards tighten and market growth occurs in areas where total allowable emissions are capped. Also, reduction of CO2 emissions is one of the challenges in response to global climate change. There is a need for more environmentally sound processes, more efcient and reliable systems, and higher protability. Industries need technologies that can match these requirementsa way to remain exible, reduce risk, decrease emissions, increase stockholder return on investment, and consume fewer resources. Gasication is a technology that can meet these requirements. So far, the majority of existing applications have been geared toward the production of a single product or a constant ratio of two or more products per facility. The potential of gasication in expanding markets is in its ability to use low-cost and blended feedstocks and its multi-product exibility. With deregulation, rapidly changing market demands, uctuation in natural-gas prices, and increased environmental concerns, gasication has the potential to become a cornerstone technology in many industries. In particular, IGCC could become a dominant technology in the power industry because of the following advantages: Ability to handle almost any carbonaceous feedstock; Ability to efciently clean up product gas to achieve near-zero emissions of criteria pollutants, particulates, and mercury at substantially lower costs and higher efciencies; Flexibility to divert some syngas to uses other than turbine fuel for load following applications; High efciency because of the use of both gas turbine and steam turbine cycles; Ability to cost effectively recover CO2 for sequestration, if required; Ability to produce pure H2, if desired; Greater than 50% reduction in the production of solid by-products; and, Substantial reduction in water usage and consumption.
65
66
BIOGRAPHY
Gary J. Stiegel
Technology Manager - Gasication NETL 626 Cochrans Mill Road, P.O. Box 10940 Pittsburgh, PA 15236 phone: (412) 386-4499 email: gary.stiegel@netl.doe.gov
Mr. Gary J. Stiegel has been with the Department of Energys National Energy Technology Laboratory over twenty-nine years and is currently Technology Manager for Gasication. In this capacity, he is responsible for strategic planning, budget formulation, program development and oversight, and outreach activities for DOEs Ofce of Fossil Energys gasication program. Prior to his present assignment, Mr. Stiegel served as the Program Coordinator for the Departments Indirect Liquefaction and Gas-to-Liquids programs and spent ten years in R&D focusing on coal hydrogenation and the rening of coal-derived liquids. Mr. Stiegel has a Bachelors and Masters degree in chemical engineering and a Masters in Business Administration from the University of Pittsburgh. Prior to joining the Department of Energy, Mr. Stiegel was a process engineer for Union Carbide Corporation. During his career, Mr. Stiegel has published over fty technical articles on various aspects of coal conversion and reactor engineering and is a registered Professional Engineer in Pennsylvania.
Massood Ramezan
SAIC P.O. Box 10940 Pittsburgh, PA 15236 phone: (412) 386-6451 email: massood.ramezan@sa.netl.doe.gov
Dr. Ramezan has over twenty ve years of diverse experience in engineering, research & development, program management, marketing, energy technology assessment, process evaluation, personnel management, and technical services support in the areas of advanced energy systems and environmental control technologies. Specic project examples include: an environmental assessment of IGCC power systems, analysis of gasication-based multi-product systems with CO2 recovery, and life cycle assessment of advanced power systems. Dr. Ramezan received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from West Virginia University. He is a registered professional engineer and a member of ASME. He has authored more than 80 technical papers and has received numerous awards. Dr. Ramezan previously taught courses and conducted research in the areas of thermal-uid sciences.
Howard G. McIlvried
SAIC P.O. Box 10940 Pittsburgh, PA 15236 phone: (412) 386-4825 email: howard.mcilvried@sa.netl.doe.gov
Over 40 years experience in the areas of petroleum rening, petrochemicals, synthetic fuels, and energy conversion. Actively engaged in the preparation of many topical reports and post project assessments for the DOEs Clean Coal Technology program. Specic project examples include the Tampa Electric Company and the Wabash IGCC projects. Received his BS, MS, and Ph.D. degrees in Chemical Engineering from Carnegie-Mellon University. He is a member of ACS, and has coauthored numerous technical papers and reports related to energy technology.
1.3.1.1
1.3.1.1-1 Introduction
In the last hundred years the concentration of some greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has markedly increased. There is a wide consensus in the scientic community that this seems to inuence the Earth surface temperature and thus the world climate. Therefore, in 1997 the Kyoto conference dened the goal of global greenhouse gas emission reduction of about 5% in the next years compared to the 1990 emission level. CO2 is the main greenhouse gas due to the very high overall amount emitted by human activities, and about one third of the overall human CO2 emissions are produced by the power generation sector. In the European Union (EU) there is a strong pressure on public utilities and industry to reduce the CO2 emissions by power generation1. In 2003 the European Parliament passed a directive on emission trading. In 2005 emission allowances were assigned to about 10,000 companies in 25 countries within the EU which cover about 46% of the overall EU CO2 emissions. Companies which do not need their full amount can sell it to companies which need more than assigned. As emission allowances become scarce, they will have an increasing value. First estimates varied between 10 and 20 /ton CO2 (12 and 24 $/ton CO2) by 2010, but in June 2005 European Union Allowances (EUA) were already being traded at 23 /ton CO2 ( $28/ton CO2). So there is a strong driving force to develop commercial solutions for the capture of CO2 from power plants. The main technologies are as follows2: - post combustion CO2 capture, e.g. by washing of exhaust gases using amines; - pre-combustion decarbonization of fossil fuels to produce pure hydrogen or hydrogen-enriched fuels for use in conventional power plants; - chemical looping combustion; and, - oxy-fuel cycles with internal combustion of fossil fuels with pure oxygen. The authors believe that oxy-fuel cycles are a promising technology. The combustion with pure oxygen leads to a working uid consisting mainly of steam and CO2, which allows an easy and cost-effective CO2 separation by steam condensation. Further advantages are the great variety of fuels which can be used (natural gas, syngas from coal or biomass gasication, etc.) and the low NOx generation, since nitrogen is only introduced by fuel bound nitrogen or as a residue in the oxygen to the combustion chamber. The generated NOx as well as other gases are removed together with CO2, so that no pollutants are emitted to atmosphere. On the other hand oxy-fuel cycles need the development of new turbomachinery components and have to bear the high efforts for oxygen supply. Oxygen needed in a large amount for this kind of cycles can be generated by air separation units (ASU) which are in use worldwide with great outputs in steel making industry and even in enhanced oil recovery. The largest air separation plant already in operation for some years in the Gulf of Mexico produces nitrogen for the injection in the gas dome of a large oil eld off-shore3. Fortunately, the new working uid of steam and CO2 allows new power plant cycles of highest efciency, so that the additional efforts for oxygen supply can be largely compensated. Among them the Matiant Cycle, the Water Cycle, and the Graz Cycle are the best known4.
Franz Heitmeir
Wolfgang Sanz
Herbert Jericha
Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria http://www.ttm.tugraz.at franz.heitmeir@tugraz.at wolfgang.sanz@tugraz.at
The authors believe that the so-called Graz Cycle has the potential of highest efciency. The basic principle was developed and published by Jericha in 19855. He presented a power cycle without any emissions which was based on the internal combustion of hydrogen with oxygen in stoichiometric ratio as obtainable from solar power plants. Thermodynamically this steam cycle was an integration of a top Brayton cycle and a bottom Rankine cycle. In the nineties the hydrogen technology lost its impetus, so that the Graz Cycle was adopted for the ring of fossil fuels6. At this time cooperation with Japanese companies and research organizations led to the name
History
81
Graz Cycle. The working uid was a mixture of about three quarters steam and one quarter CO2, the electrical efciency was about 64%. Improvements and further developments since then were presented at many conferences7. In 2000, a variant of the Graz Cycle was proposed with a change of fuel from methane to oxygen blown coal gas (syngas), striving for minimum compression work8. All water of the cycle medium was condensed before compression, thus a minimum compression work could be obtained. In this cycle CO2 was the main component of the working uid. In the following years the general layout of all components for a 75 MW prototype plant of this type was presented9. But in 2004 there was a return to the original high steam content Graz Cycle (S-Graz Cycle), because it had become clear that the reduction in compression work of almost pure CO2 has led to a considerable lowering of the inlet temperature to the combustion chamber10. So by increasing the steam content in recompression the compression work is increased, leading to a much higher combustion chamber inlet temperature. The heat input to the combustion chamber was lowered considerably thus raising the efciency to the highest value that could be reached in the course of this cycle optimization. At the same time it turned out that much more steam for cooling could be made effective for the combustion chamber burners and the high temperature turbine (HTT) rst blade rows. The resulting highest thermal efciency of nearly 70% could be obtained if syngas was used as a fuel. The net efciency, including the efforts of oxygen supply and compression of captured CO2 for liquefaction, is 56%. The general layout of the components for a 75 MW prototype plant showed the feasibility of all components. In recent discussions with gas turbine industry a scale-up to a 400 MW plant was discussed for the S-Graz Cycle scheme. In 2005 further modications of the Graz Cycle were discussed and their potential was analyzed11. An economic analysis of the Graz Cycle power plant showed the strong dependence of the economics on the still uncertain investment costs. In this work the name Graz Cycle means the original S-Graz Cycle, which was the more efcient variant and the one which will be pursued in the future.
82
Basically, the Graz Cycle consists of a high temperature Brayton cycle (compressors C1 and C2, combustion chamber and High Temperature Turbine HTT) and a low temperature Rankine cycle (Low Pressure Turbine LPT, condenser, Heat Recovery Steam Generator HRSG and High Pressure Turbine HPT). The fuel together with the nearly stoichiometric mass ow of oxygen is fed to the combustion chamber, which is operated at a pressure of 40 bar. Steam as well as a CO2/ H2O mixture is supplied to cool the burners and the liner. A mixture of about 74% steam, 25.3% CO2, 0.5% O2 and 0.2% N2 (mass fractions) leaves the combustion chamber at a mean temperature of 1400C. The uid is expanded to a pressure of 1.053 bar and 579C in the HTT. Cooling is performed with steam coming from the HPT (13.7% of the HTT inlet mass ow), increasing the steam content to 77% at the HTT exit. It is quite clear that a further expansion down to condenser pressure would not end at a reasonable condensation point for the water component, so that the hot exhaust gas is cooled in the following HRSG to vaporize and superheat steam for the HPT, the pinch point of the HRSG is 25C at the superheater exit. But after the HRSG, only 46% of the cycle mass ow is further expanded in the LPT. The LPT exit and thus condenser pressure is 0.043 bar. For a mixture of a condensable (steam) and a non-condensable gas (CO2) the condensation temperature depends on the partial pressure of steam, which continuously decreases during the condensation. For a given condensate exit temperature the condenser pressure determines the amount of steam condensed. In order to maximize the LPT power, the condenser pressure should be reduced as far as possible, but this is counteracted by an increased effort for compressing the gaseous steam/CO2 mixture to atmospheric pressure. So for a given condensate exit temperature of 18C (for a cooling water temperature of 10C) the optimum condenser pressure is 0.043 bar, where about half of the combustion water is condensed (see gure 2).
83
(1) 84
Modications of cycle conguration In order to improve the efciency of the Graz Cycle, several modications were investigated. The following cycle variants will be discussed in this work: condensation of the cycle working uid at 1 bar and re-vaporization of the separated water; and, heat supply to the deaerator by the cooling heat of the CO2 compression intercoolers.
85
If the saving of CO2 compression power and the advantage of a lower condenser pressure exceeded the power loss of the LPT due to the reduced mass ow, a net gain in efciency could be achieved. A thermodynamic study found an optimum for a dual pressure vaporization at the pressure levels 0.55 bar and 0.3 bar. The losses assumed for vaporization were 0.18 bar for the higher pressure level and only 0.07 bar for the lower pressure level. If these relatively low losses could be met, the efciency for this new conguration would remain the same at 52.5%. So this conguration could lead to reduced plant costs and an even greater efciency, if the original low condenser pressure cannot be kept for the working uid condensation. As a second alternative currently investigated, the condensation heat could be utilized in a bottoming steam cycle. It has the advantage of more exibility, of an easier start-up of the plant and has an easier water make-up. 2.4.2. Deaerator heating by CO2 compression intercoolers In order to remove dissolved gases (N2, O2 and CO2) in the HRSG feed water, a deaerator was arranged in front of the feed pump. Since there was no pure steam at an appropriate pressure available for heating, the feed water was heated close to saturation temperature in a surface heat exchanger that utilized the working uid extracted in front of the LPT. This uid passing by the LPT caused a reduction in its power output. To avoid this conguration and the resulting power reduction, it was investigated to supply the necessary heat for the deaerator from the CO2 compression coolers instead of the working uid by passing the LPT (gure 5).
86
Fig. 5. Scheme of deaerator supplied with heat from CO2 compression intercoolers
The thermodynamic simulation showed that the heat from the CO2 intercoolers can completely replace the extraction in front of the LPT. So the mass ow and thus the power output of the LPT increased by 8.5%, resulting in an increase of net cycle efciency by 0.8 %-points up to 53.3%. This improvement showed that there was still room for efciency improvement of the Graz Cycle, but often in trade-off with higher complexity.
87
Prototype plant of 75 MW output Compression and expansion in large power cycles can only be affected with modern turbomachinery. The gases we have to deal with in our case, CO2 and H2O steam, are very compressible at the given high enthalpy heads or pressure ratios. The resulting high changes in volumetric ow in the individual compressors and turbines require a multi-shaft arrangement connected by gears. The design decision to have the high temperature ow channel with minimum surface area and minimum heat loss and also with minimum cooling ow supply leads to the arrangement of turbomachinery as given in gure 6, which also includes the compressors C3 and C4 used to compress the separated CO2 to atmospheric pressure. There it is delivered to a nal compression up to 100 bar for liquefaction. The HTT turbine needs 4 stages due to the high heat capacity of the steam-rich cycle medium. The HTT is split into two shafts, where the rst stage runs at 23 000 rpm, the other three stages at 12 000 rpm. The two overhang disks of different speed provide the shortest possible high temperature annular ow channel. A bearing is arranged between the second and third stages. In order to reduce the number of generators, the power of all four compressors is balanced with the HTT rst stage and the HPT. Both turbines drive the cycle medium compressors C1 and C2 and in normal operation they also drive the CO2 delivering compressors C3 and C4. These compressors are connected via a self-synchronizing clutch and are disconnected from the main high-speed shaft during start-up. Then they are driven by a separate electric motor in a mode similar to the vacuum pump in a steam plant. This arrangement needs two gear boxes, because the compressors C1 and C4 run at 12 000 rpm and the compressor C3 at 3 000 rpm. The stages 2, 3, and 4 of the HTT run at 12 000 rpm and deliver their power via the main gear to the generator, which is driven on the other side by the LPT in a way that is similar to very large steam turbines. The main turbomachinery data and their dimensions for a prototype plant are given in19. Due to the small volumetric ow of the HPT it is designed in the form of a 4-stage partial admission impulse steam turbine. Its arrangement immediately ahead of the HTT allows for cooling of the HTT rst stage disk in an effective way. Exhaust steam is fed via labyrinth seals to the front side of the disk thus holding the shaft and the disk at a temperature of around 300C. The disk is bell shaped with broad width in the center leading to a strong r-tree root blade attachment which contains the cooling steam inlet ports to the hollow blades. On the other side, the space between the HTT rst and second stage disks is again lled with cooling steam from outside, cooling both disks and providing in a form of a stationary steam bearing additional damping to both shafts. Again from here cooling steam is fed into the second disk and its blades. The compressors C1 and C2 have to act on a medium consisting of CO2 and steam. The high volume change requires a change of speed (C1 at 12 000 rpm, C2 at 23 000 rpm) with relatively high Mach numbers at the tip of their respective rst blades. But relatively long lasting blades result in low clearance loss and low deterioration of the meridional ow prole. In order to keep the high-speed shaft short and in order to reduce the number of stages in C2 a radial nal stage is proposed which can replace 3 or 4 axial stages due to its higher diameter and at the same time can deliver the medium radially outwards, making the inow to the combustion chamber easier.
Fig. 6. Schematic arrangement of turbomachinery for a 100 MW S-Graz Cycle power plant
Graz Cycle plant of 400 MW output For a Graz Cycle power plant of 400 MW net power output, a different but also very feasible design is suggested which works without gear boxes in the main power shafts. The turbomachinery arrangement consists of three independent shafts. The rst shaft is a free running high speed shaft of 7600 or even 8500 rpm. It consists of the working uid compressors C1 and C2 and the rst two stages of the HTT turbine working as a compressor turbine. The turbine power is balanced with the power demand of the two compressors. The second shaft consists of the HTT power turbine and the low pressure turbine LPT. Both turbines run at 3000 rpm and drive the electrical generator. The third shaft consists of the CO2 compressors C3 and C4 and the HPT turbine. It runs at 3000 and preferably 7,600 rpm connected via a gear box. An additional motor/generator delivers power for start-up and is driven in full load by the HPT power which exceeds the demand of the compressors. Development work needed for a Graz Cycle plant Most components of the Graz Cycle are well known but they have to work with an unusual working uid of steam and CO2. More critical components are as follows: The combustor for a nearly stoichiometric combustion with oxygen and use of steam and CO2 as cooling medium; The HTT with a working uid of about three quarts of steam and one quart of CO2 and steam cooling; The condenser, condensing steam in the presence of a high content of inert gas. All other components (LPT, HPT, all compressors, HRSG and heat exchangers) can be considered as standard components and do not pose any difcult design problems. Combustion chambers for ring oxygen with methane in a steam environment have already been tested in the USA, in Japan, and Europe20. Recent tests at the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) were performed for a 1 MW combustor, working at 10 bar and an exit temperature of 1200C21. The combustor was no more difcult to operate than a regular combustor and performed well in terms of CO generation, if a small oxygen surplus of 3% was provided. In summary, all investigations showed that the concept of oxy-fuel combustion using steam dilution is viable. The design of the HTT was studied carefully at Graz University of Technology and discussed at several conferences22. Recent studies by a main gas turbine manufacturer also conrmed the technical feasibility of the HTT, but experience has to be gathered for the behavior of the high-temperature alloys in the steam/ CO2 environment of HTT hot sections. The condenser has to deal with a large volume ow due to its very low pressure and the difculty of reduced heat transfer in the presence of inert gas. But little experience has yet been gathered for steam condensation at a 20% CO2 content, so that very little data on heat transfer in this environment is available. Further research work is necessary and condensation at 1 bar as discussed above is a reasonable option if very large heat transfer surfaces are required.
88
The assumption of similar investment costs for a conventional and a Graz Cycle power plant is based on a comparison with typical turbomachinery sizes for a 400 MW combined cycle plant as given in table 3. It shows that the turbine power and the HRSG are of similar sizes, whereas the compressor power is remarkably smaller. On the other hand the Graz Cycle needs a larger generator due to the additional power consumption for ASU and CO2 compression. Developmental efforts are needed especially since the HTT and combustor were not considered in the investment costs.
Table 3 Comparison of equipment size for a 400 MW plant in terms of power
89
Three indicators characterizing the economic performance of a power plant for CO2 capture are estimated: The costs of electricity (COE) for both plants; The differential COE representing the additional costs of electricity due to CO2 capture; The mitigation or capture costs representing the additional costs incurred by CO2 capture per ton CO2 . Table 4 shows the result of the economic evaluation for methane and syngas ring, respectively. For syngas ring, the reference plant is also syngas-red without considering an efciency decrease. The syngas plant has slightly smaller additional investment costs because of the smaller ASU needed. Compared to the reference plant, the capital costs are about 60% 70% higher by considering only the additional components for O2 generation and CO2 compression. So they contribute mostly to the difference in COE. The fuel costs have the major inuence on the COE, especially for syngas ring, but they do not differ largely between reference and Graz Cycle plant. The O&M costs are assumed 15% higher for a Graz Cycle plant due to the operation of additional equipment.
Due to the more expensive fuel, the COE for syngas ring is by far larger than for methane ring (COE due to fuel). But regarding the differential COE, the difference is 0.74 /kWhel for the methane-red Graz Cycle and 0.68 /kWhel for the syngas-red version compared to the respective reference plant. But due to the higher carbon content in syngas, the mitigation costs are only $11.7/ton CO2 for the syngas plant compared to $21.6 /ton CO2 for the methane-red plant. These values are clearly below the threshold value of $30/ ton showing the economic potential of the Graz Cycle. The results of the economic study depended mainly on the assumptions about investment costs, fuel costs and capital charge rate as well as on the choice of the reference plant. A cost sensitivity analysis was performed and showed that a variation of the capital costs had the main inuence on the economics, since they contributed most to the mitigation costs24. Unfortunately, there was a large uncertainty of these costs. A survey of the ASU costs vary in the range of $230 to $400/kWel (the same price as for a complete power plant). Considering this variation solely, the mitigation costs varied between $21.6 and $29.0/ton CO2 for the methane-red plant (see gure 7).
Fig. 7. Inuence of capital costs on the mitigation costs (methane-red Graz Cycle)
This high sensitivity to the capital costs showed the dilemma in performing an exact economic evaluation, since their estimation for a Graz Cycle power plant was very difcult because of the new turbomachinery components. But the authors claimed that their design of high-speed transonic stages with innovative steam cooling allowed a cost-effective manufacture. In these considerations about the height of additional investment costs, a further advantage of the Graz Cycle, the almost NOx-free combustion was not evaluated. According to exhaust ow NOx and CO catalytic reduction to achieve single-digit emissions (in strict attainment areas) can increase gas turbine genset plant costs by 40 to 50 percent25.
90
Appendix: Detailed thermodynamic cycle data of a Graz Cycle power plant red with methane.
41.7 150 299.5 2.867
41.7 15
41.7 150 116.6 11.58
-17.8 0.002
Efficiencies
Cycle (e_m=1) 0.6632 0.6483 T urbine Power [MW] Compressor Power [MW] Net T hermal Power[MW] 141.8186 46.4543 95.3643
16 47.14
20.37 11.58
41.7 15 0
116.3 11.58
CO2 in % H2O in %
0.2418 0.7528
Electr. Efficiency
0.5462 0.5254
O2 Verdichtung
40 1400 4670 71.05
41.7 329.9
3028 12.87
9.7895 13.7788
mk/m [%]
2.379 15
-9.17 11.58
41.7 329.9
41.7 599 3005 43.73
HTT
3029 19.32
41.7 329.9 3028 3.339
3 749.6 3332 80.84
41.7 329.9
3028 22.66
HPT
15 210.2
28 16 3.3 39
LPT
CO2 in % H2O in % 0.2127 0.7824
1.013 191.1 2270 34.11
180 549
195.3 373.0 2612 22.66
3405 22.66
dt_out [K] 24.4998
1.053 578.5 2987 80.84
185 554
23414 2. 66
0.043 28.21
1881 34.11
C1
C2
195.3 363.8
195.3 363.8
2439 22.66
2439 22.66
461.2 1.053 80.84 2760
195.7 373
26 66 06 22.
191.1 1.013
37.11 2270
13.7 443
2714 43.73
13.3 396
2624 43.73
203.6 367.2
1848 22.66
1.013 191.1
2270 3
0.043 18 261.8 34.11
1.013 106.1
2120 43.73
1.053 372.2
2595 80.84
dt_out [K]
5.0000
203.6 367.2
1848 22.66
1.013 191.1
2269 43.73
0.043 18
206.8 159.7 686.2 22.66
1.013 191.1 2269 80.84
695.6 10.25
0.043 18
75.61 23.86
0.25 176.3
884.1 10.25
1 18.0
7 .541 5. 78 3
C3
0.24 25 25
148.8 7.881
137.1 1 256.7 7.881
1 87.6
91.1 213 398.2 22. 66
366.9 22.66
1 94.0
393.8 20.32
1 18.0
75.78 20.32
0.043 18.0 75.55 23.86
0.2425 25
138.6 10.25
C4
1 129.4 24 1 8 .5 48
1 31.7
115.7 3
1 18.0
75.69 23.86
1 31.7
132.8 2.338
1 31.7
132.7 2.338
31.7 1
0.6671 55.45
p[bar] t[C]
h[kJ/kgK] mass[kg/s]
0.2425 25.0
104.9 2.373
91
1.3.1.1-7 Notes
92
BIOGRAPHY
Franz Heitmeir
Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria email: franz.heitmeir@tugraz.at http://www.ttm.tugraz.at
Professor Heitmeir studied Automotive and Airplane Engineering at the Munich College of Applied Engineering and Sciences (with excellence) and Mechanical Engineering and Aerospace Science at the Technical University Munich, Germany, (with excellence). In 1987 he got his PhD in Mechanical Engineering at the University of the Armed Forces in Neubiberg, Germany, (with excellence). The Doctoral thesis was about the burning rates of graphite in high enthalpy ows. From 1987 until 2001 he worked with MTU Munich, a leading gas turbine manufacturer in Germany. At MTU he had a long career in different positions in the divisions research, development and testing as well as in the marketing and sales division. In his position he was head of the two engine programs RB 199 (Tornado ghter airplane) and MTR 390 (Tiger helicopter) and at the same time head of development departments for these two engine programs. Since 2001 he has been head of the Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics at the Graz University for Technology.
Wolfgang Sanz
Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria http://www.ttm.tugraz.at
Professor Sanz studied Mechanical Engineering and Economics in Graz. In 1989 he got his Diploma in Mechanical Engineering (with excellence), and in 1993 his PhD in Mechanical Engineering (with excellence), both at Graz University of Technology. Since 1990 he started working as an assistant at the Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics. From 1994-1995, he was a visiting scientist at Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, where he worked with Max Platzer on unsteady aerodynamics. In 1998 he made his habilitation for Thermal Turbomachinery and became associate professor at Graz University of Technology. He is in charge of national funded projects on CFD and has published over 50 scientic papers, mainly on CFD and CO2 retention. He is a member of the ASME and the Cycle Innovations Committee of the International Gas Turbine Institute IGTI.
Herbert Jericha
Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria http://www.ttm.tugraz.at
Professor Jericha can look back over a working period of 51 years. His start as university assistant in 1954 allowed advanced studies in gas turbine technology at Farnborough, UK, leading to cooperation with the World Power Conference 1956 in Vienna. After his PhD in 1957 he worked in the US with Ingersoll Rand, where he, at that time, already worked on computer programs. Later at Elin Weiz, Austria, he became the leading designer of steam and gas turbines manufactured there. In 1970 Graz University of Technology called him to lead the new founded Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics. By invention, theoretical work, and the establishment of a unique laboratory, he made it known world wide. Repeated authorship in ASME conferences and ASME IGTI contributions as European coordinator and liaison chairman were the path to this success. The most important design proposal is the so called Graz Cycle - a gas turbine system without any emissions.
1.3 TURBINE - BASED ZERO EMISSIONS PLANTS 1.3.1 Oxy-Fuel 1.3.1.2 Clean Energy Systems 1.3.1.2.1 Introduction
Clean Energy Systems, Inc. (CES) of Sacramento, CA and DOEs National Energy Technology Laboratories (NETL) have developed and demonstrated unique technologies that will enable construction and operation of efficient zero-emission power plants (ZEPP). The enabling technologies are an oxy-fueled combustor developed under a DOE/NETL Vision 21 program, an oxy-fueled reheater (RH) designed by NETL and tested at a NASA test facility, and oxy-syngas combustor being developed under a DOE/NETL program. The CES process involves burning high purity oxygen with a hydrocarbon fuel, e.g., natural gas (NG), coal syngas, gasified biomass, etc., in the presence of water to generate a high pressure, high temperature gas comprising approximately 90 % steam, 10 % carbon dioxide (CO2), and a small amount of oxygen (O2). This gas is used to drive steam turbo-generators. CES power plants use cryogenic air separation units (ASU) to provide oxygen. These ASU plants can be made more efficient by the use of axial-flow-type compressors, typical of those found in gas turbines. This section discusses the integration of oxy-fueled combustors and reheaters with steam and gas turbines, gas turbine air compressors, a steam/CO2 condenser, and CO2 compressors/intercoolers. The resulting integrated ZEPPs produces power; generate high quality water, and conditioned CO2, ready for beneficial uses or sequestration. Key issues include ASU/gas turbine compressor flow matching, gas turbine blade cooling using steam rather than air, turbine material compatibility, and gas turbine temperature differences between steam/CO2 and air combustion. Various CEStype ZEPP concepts are illustrated and their performance characteristics defined for a range of operating conditions that are achievable with present day steam and gas turbines.
The following discussion explores the integration of oxy-fueled combustion technologies with gas turbine and steam turbine technologies. CES power plants use the basic Rankine power cycle and consist of four basic systems as described by Martinez-Frias, et al.[ 10 ]. However, there are other alternative cycles that use CES technology and these are discussed in Section 1.3.1.2.8.
Gas Generator
RH
IP
LP
Elect Gen.
HX
CO2
CO2 Recovery
Cond.
C.W.
Excess Water
1. Fuel Processing and Gas Compression: Gaseous fuel, derived from virtually any organic source, e.g., natural gas, gasified coal, biomass or refinery residue, is processed by cleansing any undesirable substances (e.g. sulfur, nitrogen, etc.) and compressed to the combustor injection pressures. 2. Air Separation and Oxygen Compression: Nearly pure oxygen is derived from large cryogenic air separation unit (ASU) and compressed to the combustor injection pressure.
A NG-fired CES plant typically comprises four subsystems: 1. Fuel processing and gas compression 2. Air separation and oxygen compression 3. Power generation (power-train) 4. Carbon dioxide separation and conditioning 3. Power Generation (Power-Train): The power generation system includes three turbines in series driven by high temperature gases consisting of approximately 90 %v steam, 10 %v CO2 and a small amount of oxygen. The excess oxygen suppresses CO2 dissociation and drives the combustion reactions to completion. High temperature gases are generated by an oxy-combustor at approximately 540 C. 760 C (1000 F 1400 F) and with one or two reheaters operating at 1240 C 1760 C (2240 F - 3200 F). These gases drive multi-stage turbines. The turbines, in turn, drive an electric generator through a common or multiple shaft system, depending upon the selected plant configuration. 4. Carbon Dioxide Separation and Conditioning: This subsystem cools the turbine exhaust in a condenser at atmospheric or sub-atmospheric pressures to condense the steam and separate the CO2. Most of the condensed water is preheated in a feed water heater, located at the turbine exhaust, to recover any residual heat before recirculation back to the combustor. The separated humid CO2 exiting the condenser is extracted and compressed to approximately 145 bar (2100 psia) with multi-stage compressors. Intercoolers between stages remove the remaining water vapor and condition the CO2 for ultimate sequestration. A coal-fired ZEPP is similar to a NG-fired plant except it includes an oxygen-blown coal gasification and syngas cleanup and compression system in place of the NG processing and compression system. Such a power plant is described and shown diagrammatically by MartinezFrias, et. al.[ 11 ].
Plant Type NG-fired CES ZEPP Coal Syngas-fired CES ZEPP IGCC with O2-blown coal gasifier
Cryogenic air separation is currently the most efficient and cost effective technology for producing large quantities of oxygen[ 12 ]. NG and coal syngas fired CES power plants larger than about 200 MWe require ASUs with air compressor capacities exceeding that of existing conventional industrial centrifugal and axial-centrifugal compressor equipment. Only large gas turbine compressors can provide the necessary air from a single unit. The capacity of present-day conventional ASUs is limited to about 3600 metric tons O2/day[ 13 ] and closely matches the
compressed air supply capabilities of a 6F class gas turbine. The very large 9F class gas turbines can meet the compressed air requirements of an ASU that produces about 12,000 metric O2/day[13] and could support a 700 MWe CES power plant. Also, the cost of the air compression system increases from 25% of the total ASU plant cost at 1800 metric tons O2/day to 35% at 3200 metric tons O2/day [12]. Therefore, the air compression system is a key cost element of an ASU. Because large ASUs require large air compressors available in gas turbines, the economics of large power plants favor the integration of relatively lower cost gas turbine/air compressor unit into CES/ASU systems. Integration eliminates the need for large gearboxes, electric motors, or steam drive motors, and other associated equipment, including the electric motor starting apparatus which can approach the cost and size of the motor itself[ 14 ]. Also, integration simplifies the controls and the control system for improved plant reliability. Gas turbines are available in a wide range of capacities[ 15 ]. Typical gas turbines ranging in compressed airflow rates of 40 - 600 kg/sec (88 -1320 lb/sec) are listed in Table II along with the approximate sizes of equivalent ASU and CES ZEPP power plants such turbines could support.
Table II. Typical Gas Turbine Compressor Capacities versus Equivalent ASU and ZEPP Sizes
Gas Turbine M fg Alstom/Cyclone GE/LM 1600 GE/LM 2500 P&W /FT-8 GE/LM 6000 RR/Trent SW /V64.3A GE/7EA GE/7FA GE&SW /H, Al.GT26
Equiv. ASU & ZEPP Sizes Plant Size, M W e ASU M etricTons/Day at 42% Eff 800 50 1000 60 1,800 100 1,800 100 2,600 150 3,500 200 4,000 230 6,000 350 9,100 530 12,000 700
From Table II it can be seen that current commercial gas turbine compressors can potentially accommodate integration of ASUs and CES power plants with capacities ranging from approximately 790-12,000 metric tons O2/day and about 50 to 700 MWe, respectively
Assumptions: Inlet pressure unchanged Pressure ratio unchanged Design based on 50% reaction Blade cooling flow rate equal to or less than design Inlet temperature equal to or less than design value Turbine efficiency unchanged and approximately equal to 90% Blade cooling effectiveness equal to 100% (transpiration cooling) Blade coolant temperature equal to compressor discharge temperature for air cooling ~510 C (~ 950 F) aero-derivative and ~230 C (~ 450 F) industrial) and 230-270 C (450-500 F) slightly superheated for steam cooling. Criteria for validation: Aerodynamic similarity is nearly maintained (blade angles and Mach No.) Operating speed is within the recommended range Heat transfer and blade temperatures are equal to or less than estimated design limits Blade root stresses remain approximately the same [proportional to (speed)2 and torque] Because both aero-derivative (high-pressure-ratio) and industrial (low-pressure-ratio) turbines are widely used, the following two designs were considered representative of units for medium size 150 MWe and large 700 MWe ZEPP plants. Baseline Aero-derivative Turbine (150 MWe ZEPP):
Two-stage design Inlet pressure = 29.93 bar (434 psia) Design Speed = 9586 rpm Design flow rate = 126.0 kg/sec (277 lb/sec) Compressor pressure ratio = 29.4 Cooling air flow rate 9.31 % of main gas flow
Inlet temperature = 1245 C(2273 F) Exit pressure = 7.03 bar (102 psia) Speed range = 9500 to 10,800 rpm Turbine mean diameter 77.47 cm (30.5 inches) Cooling air temperature 504 C(940 F)
Four stage design Inlet Pressure = 19.31 bar (280 psia) Compressor pressure ratio = 19.1 Design speed = 3600 rpm Cooling air 232 C (450 F) flow rate 4.8 % of turbine design flow rate.
Inlet Temperature = 1427 C (2600 F) Exit Pressure = 1.10 bar (16 psia) Design flow rate = 583 kg/sec (1282 lb/sec) Turbine mean dia. = 211 cm (83 inches)
The resulting analyses, comparing nominal operating parameters using air-breathing combustion gases or CES gases at baseline and at a lower temperature, are shown in Table III for both an
aero-derivative and an industrial gas turbine. Various typical operating parameters for the first stage of the turbines and the exit temperature from the last stage are illustrated in the table. The operating parameters for the typical aero-derivative turbine given in Table III shows that parameter matching with the different drive gases is favored by increasing turbine speed by about 12-14 % when using CES drive gases. This speed increase permits close fluid flow angle matching and, when the gas inlet temperature is also decreased slightly, fluid flow angles coincide with the baseline case and last stage exit gas temperature closely approximates the baseline case. It can also be seen that replacing air-breathing combustion gases with CES gases provide 11-16 % higher 1st-stage power output and lowers turbine coolant flow rate by 70-75%. This reduction in flow rate is due to changing the blade coolant from air to steam.
Table III. Operating Parameters of a Typical Aero-derivative Turbine and a Typical Industrial Gas Turbine with Air-Breathing and CES Drive Gases
Parameter Turbine Stage Inlet Gas Temp., C (F) Inlet Pressure, bar (psia) Exit Pressure, bar ( psia) Exit Gas Temp., C (F) Weight Flow, kg/sec (lb/sec) Speed, rpm Power/Stage, MW Coolant Temp., C (F) Coolant Cp, kJ/kg-C (Btu/lb-F) Coolant Flow, % gas flow Blade Temp., C (F) Nozzle Exit Vel.,m/sec (ft/sec) Rotor Exit Vel., m/sec (ft/sec) Mean Blade Speed, m/se (ft/sec) Main Gas Cp, kJ/kg-C (Btu/lb-F) Specific Heat Ratio Nozzle Incid. Angle, Deg. Rotor Incid. Angle, Deg. Last Stage Exit Temp., C (F)
Aero-derivative Turbine Industrial Gas Turbine Air-Breath CES Gases Air-Breath CES Gases st st st st 1 1 1 1 1st 1245 (2273) 1245 (2273) 1121 (2050) 1427 (2600) 1427 (2600) 1427 (2100) 29.93 (434) 29.93 (434) 29.93 (434) 19.31 (280) 19.31 (280) 19.31 (280) 14.55 (211) 14.55 (211) 14.55 (211) 9.24 (134) 9.24 (134) 9.24 (134) 1026 (1878) 1084 (1983) 973(1784) 1176(2149) 1248(2279) 999(1831) 126.0 (277.1) 104.7 (230.3) 109.2 (240.3) 582.7 (1282) 485.0 (1067) 531.4 (1169) 9,586 10,717 10,858 3600 3600 3600 27.64 32.09 30.75 145.8 167.6 153.7 504 (940) 260 (500) 232 (450) 232 (450) 232 (450) 232 (450) 1.033 (0.247) 2.395 (0.551) 2.305 (0.551) 1.033 (0.247) 2.305 (0.551) 2.305 (0.551) 9.31 2.78 2.23 4.80 3.90 1.90 816 (1500) 816 (1500) 816 (1500) 816 (1500) 816 (1500) 816 (1500) 699 (2293) 824 (2703) 792 2597) 744 (2442) 907 (2975) 802 (2632) 435 (1423) 455 (1494) 491 (1611) 460 (1510) 597 (1939) 498 (1633) 389 (1276) 435 (1426) 440 (1445) 396 (1300) 396 (1300) 396 (1300) 1.230 (0.294) 2.385 (0.570) 2.343 (0.560) 1.230 (0.294) 2.385 (0.570) 2.343 (0.560) 1.32 1.21 1.21 1.32 1.20 1.20 0 -4.7 0 0 -9.0 -3.8 0 -2.3 0 0 -6.9 -2.8 833 (1532) 937 (1719) 834 (1534) 637 (1178) 829 (1524) 649 (1200)
The operating parameters for the typical industrial turbine given in Table III shows that when turbine speed is set by the generator speed, the change in fluid angles is somewhat larger when switching to CES drive gases, but is considered to be within the range of capabilities of a highefficiency, reaction-type turbine. Alternatively, reducing the turbine inlet temperature at constant speed provides closer matching of fluid flow angles at the nozzle and rotor exits and last-stage gas exit temperature. At similar turbine inlet temperatures and speeds, replacing air-breathing combustion gases with CES gases provide 15 % higher 1st-stage power output and lowers blade coolant flow about 20% while maintaining constant turbine blade operating temperature. When the turbine inlet temperature is reduced 260 C (500 F) and speed is maintained constant, 1ststage power output is still increased about 5 % over the baseline and turbine blade coolant flow is reduced by 60%. A subsequent study by Fern Engineering[16] on a similar, but slightly smaller aeroderivative gas turbine, resulted in the following conclusions: At the design firing temperature of 1280 (2336 F), the CES cycle yields: Slightly higher power output (~6%) A lower overall turbine pressure ratio (17.6 vs. 20.3) Much lower mass flow of working fluid Significantly cooler HP turbine nozzle metal temperature Slightly lower power turbine inlet pressure Slightly hotter power turbine inlet temperature, but a cooler power turbine nozzle metal temperature due to the use of steam cooling Smaller turbine jet velocity ratios => slightly lower turbine efficiencies Much hotter power turbine exhaust temp
Table IV. Comparison of Turbine Blade Temperature at Constant Coolant Flow Rates
Coolant Temp., Coolant Flow Rate, Type of Turbine Gas Temp., Blade Temp., Tb, C (F) Coolant Tc,C (F) and Drive Gas Tg, C (F) m3/min (ft3/min) Aeroder.-Air 1245 (2273) 816,(1500) Air 504 (940) 0.872 (30.8) Aeroder.-CES 1245 (2273) 552 (1025) Steam 260 (500) 0.872 (30.8) Aeroder.-CES 1427 (2600) 599 (1110) Steam 260 (500) 0.872 (30.8) 1300
Baseline Air Breathing CES Drive Gas
1200
Temperature, C
1100
1000
CES Drive Gas at Reduced Inlet Temp. CES Drive Gas + 232 C Steam Inj.
900
coolant, could result in increased blade stress safety margins and increased life or permit higher gas inlet temperatures, the use of simpler coolant passage designs, or possibly lower-cost blades. The Japanese[ 20 ] investigated various cooling methods for an intermediate pressure steam turbine operating with1700 C (3100 F) steam while using open loop and closed loop cooling circuits with water and 300 C (572 F) steam. These studies indicated the following cooling losses for a 500MW steam plant: (1) closed-circuit water cooling of the combustor, nozzle and stators vanes, and steam cooling of the rotor blades (CCWCN-SCR) has the lowest cycle loss of 10MW; (2) closed-circuit steam cooling of the nozzles and rotor blades (CCSCN-R) has a 21 MW loss; and (3) open-circuit steam cooling for nozzle and rotor blades (OCSCN-R) has a 52 MW loss.
1.3.1.2.6 Gas Turbine Operation with CES Gases versus Air-Breathing Gases
The temperature drops across turbine stages change when the nature of the drive gas changes from air-breathing combustion gases to the gases produced by CES gas generators or reheaters because the specific heat ratios of these gases varies from 1.32 to 1.20, Table III. This effect is shown in Figure 2. Where temperature drops are compared for a typical two-stage aeroderivative turbine. Comparing the baseline air-cooled air-breathing case with the CES drive gas case, each with an assumed turbine inlet temperature of 1245 C (2273 F), the turbine exit gas temperature for the CES drive gas is higher than for the baseline case by 88 C (158 F). However, this difference is negated or markedly reduced when open-loop steam cooling is considered. Assuming steam cooling with 232 C (418 F) steam, the temperature drop can be made to coincide with the baseline air-cooled air-breathing case by additional steam injection. Alternatively, the turbine inlet temperature of the CES drive gas can be reduced and made to coincide with the baseline air-cooled air-breathing case. From the preceding examples it can be seen that stage-wise temperature drops or exit temperatures of air-cooled air-breathing turbines can be replicated when the turbines are switched to CES gases with open-loop steam cooling operating practice requires the use of more expensive materials and/or fabrication techniques, the technology base is well established. The major hindrance to increasing steam turbine operating temperatures has been with boiler limitations rather than with turbine limitations. The CES gas generator in CES ZEPPs removes the boiler and its temperature constraints. Intermediate pressure turbines power plants would not operate at temperatures beyond current commercial gas turbine practice and may operate at even lower blade temperatures because very effective open-loop steam cooling becomes practical.
Table V. Typical Materials of Construction for Steam and Gas Turbine Components
Eddystone Steam Turbine 593 - 649C (1100-1200 F)[ 22 ] St. 316 (inner), 2 % Cr-steel (outer) N.A. St. 316 Discalloy
Typical Alloys Solar 816C, 103 bar (1500 F, 1500 psia) Steam Turbine[ 23 ] Inconel 939 (inner), 2 % Cr-steel (outer) N.A Inconel 617 Inconel 718 Inconel 718 (blades), Inconel 939 (nozzles)
Vanes and Blades K42B, St. 422 (blades) St. 316 (nozzles)
Gas Turbines[ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ] Inconel 718, Rene41, Hastelloy X, Haynes 188 Hastelloy X, Haynes 188 Inconel 617, Inconel 939 Inconel 718, Inconel 738, Waspaloy, Udimet 700 Inconel 713C, 718, & 738, Rene80, Udimet 500 & 700, CMSX-4, FSX-414, M-252, Multimet (N-155)
ZEPPs removes the boiler and its temperature constraints. Intermediate pressure turbines in CES power plants would not operate at temperatures beyond current commercial gas turbine practice and may operate at even lower blade temperatures because very effective open-loop steam cooling becomes practical. The materials used in both current and advanced steam turbines have demonstrated good compatibility with pure steam but the effects of CES gases, which also contain a minor amount of CO2 and a small amount of oxygen, are not well established. Preliminary compatibility studies with simulated CES gases and typical turbine materials are underway. No significant problems have been encountered in the absence of an aqueous liquid phase but more comprehensive work is required, including the effects of carbonic acid formation in regions subject to condensation. The compatibility of a number of nickel and/or cobalt based alloys with steam at 816 C, 103 bar (1500 F and 1500 psia) has been studied by Solar Turbines, Inc. and compared with the behavior of the same alloys in air at 816 C, 1.01 bar (1500 F, 14.7 psia). The results of 1000hour tests are summarized in Table VI. The data in Table VI show that the high temperature, high-pressure steam attacks the alloys to a relatively minor extent and with few exceptions similar to the attack of air at a lower pressure. The tests in the steam environment were extended to 4000-hour exposures to provide a firmer basis for selecting materials for a steam turbine (see Table V) that operated successfully at 816 C, 103 bar (1500 F, 1500 psia). The results of these latter tests are summarized in Table VII. The data in Tables VI and VII, along with the experience gained with gas turbines operating in an oxidizing environment at moderate pressures and very high temperatures, suggest that CES
Table VI. Metallographic Measurements on Alloys Exposed for 1000 Hours to Steam at 816 C , 103 bar (1500 F, 1500 psia) Compared to Air at 816 C, 1.01 bar (1500 F, 14.7 psia) [23]
Alloy Inconel 718 Inconel 625 Inconel 800 Hastelloy X Hastelloy S Waspaloy
Outer Scale Thickness, microns Steam Air 3.8-7.6 7.6-17.8 2.5-10.2 2.5-6.4 4.1-6.1 5.1-10.2 0.0-2.5 6.4-22.9 2.5-7.6 2.5-5.1 2.5-5.1 5.1-12.7
Depth of Internal Oxidation, microns Steam Air 10.2-20.3 5.1-15.2 0.0-20.3 0.010.2 10.2-20.3 3.8-25.4 0.0-16,5 0.0- 5.1 0.0-6.4 3.8-12.7 7.6-20.3 12.7-33.0
Depth of Alloy Depletion, microns Steam Air 10.2-22.9 0.5-20.3 30.5-40.6 10.2 15.2 0.0 20.3-50.8 0.0 6.1-20.3 0.0 5.1-10.2 15.2-30.5 12.7-25.4
Table VII. Metallographic Measurements on Alloys Exposed for 4000 Hours to Steam At 816 C, 103 bar (1500 F, 1500 psia)[ 28 ]
Alloy Inconel 718 Inconel 713 Inconel 625 Inconel 617 Incoloy 800 Hastelloy X Waspaloy
Outer Scale Thickness, microns Nil Nil Nil 0.0-2.5 1.3-3.8 1.0-2.0 9.4-15.7
Depth of Internal Oxidation, microns 5.1-55.9 12.7-24.4 6.4-12.7 12.7-30.5 0.0-6.4 12.7-16.5 31.8-44.5
Depth of Alloy Depletion, microns 15.7-50.8 25.4-38.1 19.1-20.3 30.5-40.6 2.5-3.8 6.1-10.2 63.5-81.3
gases will not pose major compatibility problems when used to drive gas turbines. This outlook remains, however, to be demonstrated.
Fuel Nitrogen
Combustor
HPT
Oxygen Reheat Combustor
ASU
Air
IPT
Feedwater
FWH
Condensate
Cond
CO2
ZEPP #2, shown in Figure 4, consists of an intermediate pressure 30-40 bar (430-600 psia) oxycombustor feeding an intermediate pressure steam/CO2 turbine (IPT) at 1240-1760 C (22403200 F) that exhausts to approximately 1 atm. (14.7 psia). The IPT exhaust stream enters a HRSG (heat recovery steam generator) that raises high-pressure steam for a back-pressure HP steam turbine (HPT). Most of the HPT steam exhaust is delivered to the combustor as diluent, and some is used as cooling steam for the IPT. If desired, the HRSG may be fired with an oxyfuel burner to generate additional HP steam. Finally, some of the latent heat in the IPT exhaust is recovered by raising sub-atmospheric steam for a low-pressure steam turbine (LPT).
1.3.1.2.9 Performance
Earlier cycle analyses were made by CES and other organizations, using a variety of modeling tools. These include: (1) CESs in-house code; (2) the commercially available AspenPlus soft
Feedwater
Nitrogen
Fuel
Combustor IPT
Oxy-Fuel Burner (optional)
ASU
Oxygen
Air
HP Feedwater
HRSG
LP Feedwater LP Steam
LPT
Condensate
Cond
CO2 To condenser
ware; (3) the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratorys (LLNL) program developed by Martinez-Frias[10,11] using Engineering Equation Solver (EES) software; and (4) Gates used by Fern Engineering[16]. All four codes were checked against each other for verification when applied to a CES power plant test case and all showed close agreement, provided the same process assumptions were made. Recent analyses have been made by CES personnel for both natural gas and coal-based plants, using the AspenPlus software combined with updated process information for the ASU, steam/CO2 turbines, steam turbines, CO2 compression system, and gasifier (for coal-based systems). These analyses revealed that the efficiencies of the ZEPP #1 and ZEPP #2 cycles are very similar, provided the ZEPP #2 cycles include supplemental HRSG firing to boost the HP steam flowrate to the corresponding HP steam/CO2 flowrates in the ZEPP #1 cycles. Table VIII lists the key assumptions made in these analyses.
Table VIII. Key Assumptions for Natural Gas and Coal Cycle Analyses
ASU auxiliary load IP turbine isentropic efficiency Temperature of IPT cooling steam Steam turbine isentropic efficiency Compressor isentropic efficiency Compressor per-stage pressure ratio Compressor inter-cooler temperature Condenser temperature HRSG pinch-point Turbine shaft losses Turbine generator losses Compressor motor losses
Natural Gas Systems
With this set of assumptions, CES personnel calculated the expected efficiencies of various nearand long-term natural gas-fired CES plants. The key variables were (1) the HP and IP turbine inlet temperatures, and (2) the quantity of steam required for IP turbine cooling. Table IX lists the expected LHV cycle efficiencies for HPT/IPT inlet temperatures of 620/1240C, 620/1450C, and 760/1760C; and open-loop cooling steam flows of 10, 20 and 30%.
Table IX. LHV Cycle Efficiencies for CES Natural Gas-Fired Plants
IPT Cooling Steam Flow (% of turbine inlet flow) 0% 10% 20% 30% 43.0% 41.7% 40.8% 40.0% 46.0% 44.8% 43.6% 51.0% 49.3% 48.0%
The various HPT/IPT inlet temperatures, which were provided by Siemens, represent sequential advancements that may be made through 2015. Since these cycle studies did not include a detailed analysis of the IPT cooling requirements for each case, a wide range of IPT cooling steam flowrates were considered. Also, all IPT cooling was assumed to be by open-loop steam cooling, where the steam is injected into the drive gas. As shown in the table, the flowrate of cooling steam has a significant impact on the cycle efficiency since it lowers the effective inlet temperature of the drive gas, particularly at the higher turbine inlet temperatures. This highlights the importance of optimizing the turbine cooling methodology to minimize its impact on the cycle performance.
Coal-Based Systems
Under award DE-FC26-05NT42645 (Coal-Based Oxy-Fuel System Evaluation and Combustor Development), CES personnel performed detailed cycle analyses on coal-based plants where an Illinois #6 coal is gasified and the clean syngas used as fuel in the CES oxy-combustors. These are referred to as IGCES (integrated gasification CES) plants. The studies incorporated input and interface information from Siemens (turbines), Air Products (ASU), Future-Energy (gasifier), and MAN-Turbo (compressors). Near-term (2010) and long-term (2015) cases were considered, each of which had its own set of assumptions. These assumptions, also provided by Siemens, appear in Table X.
Table X. Key Turbine Assumptions for Near- and Long-Term Coal-Based IGCES Plants
Parameter HPT inlet temperature IPT inlet temperature IPT cooling steam flowrate IPT exhaust pressure
This analysis was performed in more detail than the previous natural gas analyses as the study included an extensive information exchange with key equipment suppliers, particularly Siemens. For this reason, the analysis focused on a fewer number of cases than the natural gas study. The cycle analyses revealed that the performance of an IGCES plant is sensitive to the gasifier configuration, particularly the mode of heat recovery from the hot syngas stream. Most commercial gasifiers provide the option of cooling the hot syngas in a syngas cooler which raises saturated HP steam at pressures in the range of 100 bar (1,500 psia). In the ZEPP #1 cycle, the steam from the syngas cooler can be injected into the HP oxy-combustor, heated and expanded through the HPT, reheated in the reheat combustor, and expanded through the IPT. This represents efficient use of the steam. An alternate approach is to quench the hot syngas via water injection to produce a cooler, saturated syngas stream. Some of the latent heat in this stream may be recovered by raising steam at a lower pressure than the partial pressure of moisture in the syngas, and expanding this steam through an LP turbine. Although this is a simpler technique with lower capital costs, the energy losses associated with syngas quenching have a negative impact on the overall cycle performance. Table XI lists the expected HHV cycle efficiencies for the near-term and long-term cases, for plants with either syngas cooler or syngas quench systems.
Syngas Heat Recovery Method Quench System Syngas Cooler 27.2% 30.0% 34.2% 37.0%
As shown in the table, technical advancements that may be made by 2015 will have a significant impact on the cycle performance. Also, a syngas cooler is preferable to a syngas quench system to maximize cycle efficiency.
1.3.1.2.10 Conclusions
The use of modified IP (gas) turbines along with steam turbines in CES power plants enables high-efficiency, near-zero power generation. In some applications, the gas turbine compressor could be used as the air supply source for an ASU. This integration of systems eliminates the need for large electric drive motors, gearboxes, etc. to drive the compressors and, therefore, could significantly reduces plant capital cost and plant operational and maintenance costs. The high capacities of gas turbine compressors also permits construction of larger single train ASUs that could support integrated CES-type ZEPPs. Gas turbines operating with CES drive gases have lower temperature drops per stage and this results in higher temperatures for the later stages. To alleviate these higher temperatures, additional steam at 204-260 C (400500 F) could be injected at each stage to reduce the temperature to that compatible with the stage. Alternatively as a temporary solution, turbine inlet temperature could be reduced 93 C (167 F) for aero-derivative and 260 C (470 F) for industrial turbines with consequent small reductions in plant efficiencies. Matching aero-derivative gas turbines with CES drive gas is more easily accomplished when the turbine speed can be increased by about 12% and the inlet temperature is reduced by 93 C (167 F). These changes permit almost exact fluid angle matching. Matching industrial gas turbines with CES drive gas where the turbine speed is set by the generator speed, i.e., 3600 rpm, causes modest changes in fluid angles. Reducing the inlet temperature by 260 C (470 F) minimizes this mismatch and allows the fluid angles to remain in the range of high efficiency turbine operation. Ultimately, gas turbines with CES drive gases should be able to operate at 1450 C (2640 F), and higher temperatures, using water and warm steam for stationary components such as GG/RH, transition sections, nozzles, stators, etc., (this could be a separate closed circuit that operates before start-up and after shut-down) and the more effective CES open-loop transpiration steam cooling for rotating components such as rotor disks and blades. Blade temperatures of both high-pressure-ratio aero-derivative type turbines and low-pressureratio industrial gas turbines can be reduced appreciably using open-loop steam cooling rather than air. The lower blade operating temperatures increase blade stress margins of safety and life and could permit the use of lower cost blades or increase the turbine inlet temperature to achieve higher efficiencies. Increasing steam turbine operating temperatures above current operating practice requires the use of more expensive materials and/or fabrication techniques but the technology base is well
established. Initially, intermediate pressure turbines in CES power plants would not operate at temperatures beyond current commercial gas turbine practice. Materials compatibility data and experience gained with gas turbines operating in an oxidizing environment at moderate pressures and very high temperatures, suggest that CES gases should not pose major compatibility problems when used to drive turbines or CES ZEPPs, however, this requires further confirmation, including full-scale testing. The use of existing low-pressure steam turbines with CES drive gases may require design modifications to eliminate condensation and the compatibility issues presented by carbonic acid that would otherwise form.
1.3.1.2.11 References
[1] Anderson, R. E., Baxter, E. and Doyle, S.E. (Clean Energy Systems, Inc.), Final Report: Fabricate and Test Advanced Non-Polluting Turbine Drive Gas Generator, prepared for the United States Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory; Cooperative Agreement No. DE-FC26-00NT 40804, September 1, 2000 to June 1, 2003. Anderson, R., Brandt, H., Doyle, S., and Viteri, F., A Demonstrated 20 MWt Gas Generator for a Clean Steam Power Plant, presented at 28th International Technical Conference on Coal Utilization & Fuel Systems, Clearwater, FL, March 10-13, 2003 Anderson, R., Brandt, H., Doyle, S., Pronske, K., and Viteri, F., Power Generation with 100% Carbon Capture and Sequestration, presented at the 2nd Annual Conference on Carbon Sequestration, Alexandria, VA, May 5-8, 2003 Anderson, R.E., Doyle, S.E., and Pronske, K.L., Demonstration and Commercialization of Zero-Emission Power Plants, 29th International Technical Conference on Coal Utilization and Fuel Systems, Clearwater, Florida. April 18-22, 2004 Anderson, R.E. and Pronske, K.L., Kimberlina - A Zero-Emission Multi-Fuel Power Plant and Demonstration Facility, 30th International Technical Conference on Coal Utilization and Fuel Systems, Clearwater, Florida. April 17-21, 2005 Anderson, R.E. and Bischoff, R.W., Durability and Reliability Demonstration of a Near-Zero-Emission, GasFired Power Plant, California Energy Commission, Publication #CEC 500-2006-074, July 2006
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7 ] Chorpening, B., Richards, G.A., and Casleton, K.H., U.S. Dept. of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL); Woike, M., Willis, B., NASA Glen Research Center, Plum Brook Station, Hoffman, L. Clean Energy Systems, Inc.; Demonstration of a Reheat Combustor for Power Production With CO2 Sequestration; ASME Turbo Expo Land, Sea, Air, June 16-19,2003, Atlanta, GA. USA [8] Chorpening, B., Casleton, K.H., and Richards, G.A., U.S. Dept. of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), Woike, M., Willis, B., NASA Glen Research Center, Plum Brook Station, Stoichiometric Oxy-Fuel Combustion for Power Cycles with CO2 Sequestration, Proceedings of the Third Joint Meeting of the U.S. Sections of The Combustion Institute, March 16-19, 2003, Chicago, IL
[9]
Richards, G.A., Casleton, K.H., and Chorpening, B., U.S. Dept. of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL); Morgantown, WV 26505, USA, Dilute Oxy-Fuel Combustion Technology for Zero Emission Power, 1st International Conference on Industrial Gas Turbine Technologies, Brussels, July 10-11, 2003 [10] Martinez-Frias, J., Aceves, S., Smith, J.R. (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory), and Brandt, H. (Clean Energy Systems, Inc.), Thermodynamic Analysis of Zero-Atmospheric Emissions Power Plant, presented at ASME International Conference, New Orleans, LA, November, 2002 [11] Martinez-Frias, J., Aceves, S., Smith, J.R. (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory), and Brandt, H. (Clean Energy Systems, Inc.), A Coal-Fired Power Plant with Zero-Atmospheric Emissions, IMECE2003-43923, presented at 2003 ASME Mechanical Engineering Congress & Exposition, Washington, D.C., November 1521, 2003 [12] Smith, A.R., Klosek, J., Sorensen, J.C., and Woodward, D.W.; Air Separation Unit Integration for Alternative Fuel Projects, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. Allentown, Pa 18195, ASME Paper No. 98-GT63 [13] Smith, A.R. and Dillon, J.L. IV; Gas Turbine Applications for Large Air Separation Units, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., Allentown, PA 18195, ASME Paper No. 99-GT-321, presented at the Int. Gas Turbine & Aerospace Congress & Exposition, Indianapolis, IN, June 7-10, 1999 [14] Scharle, W., J., Wilson, Air Products and Chemicals, Oxygen Facilities for Synthetic Fuel Projects, ASME Journal of Engineering for Industry, November,1981, Vol. 103 pp 409-417 [15] 2003 GTW Handbook, Gas Turbine World, Vol. 23, (2003), Pequot Publishing, Inc., Southport, CT [16] Phillips, J. N. Integration of Commercial Gas Turbine Technology into a Clean Energy Systems Zero Emission Power Plant, Report No. 5909-08-3 To Clean Energy Systems, Inc., June 7. 2004, by Fern Engineering, Inc., Pocasset, MA.
BIOGRAPHY
Mr. Viteri worked 36 years at Aerojets Liquid Rocket Co., Sacramento, CA. and became manager of Rotating Machinery where he directed the analysis, design, and testing of high speed turbomachinery for pump fed rocket engines, waterjets for Navy patrol boats and submarine torpedo ejector pumps. All of these pumps were driven with specially built turbines or by gas turbines that were commercially purchased. Mr. Viteri is one of the original founders of Clean Energy Systems, Inc., a company involved in the research and development of oxy-fuel Zero Emissions Power Plants (ZEPP). He served as President of the company from 1996 to 1999. Currently, Vic is involved with convertng a recently aquired 5 MW biomass plant in Bakerseld, CA. to an oxy-fuel ZEPP and supporting studies of similar plants for Norway and the Netherlands.
1.3.1.3
Hydrogen-Fueled Power Systems
1.3.1.3-1 Introduction
The concept of a hydrogen economy was introduced in the 1960s as a vision for future energy requirements to replace the inevitable exhaustion of fossil fuels. In the hydrogen economy, the storable and transportable hydrogen is envisioned to be a dominant energy carrier. The hydrogen can also be exploited as a clean, renewable, and nonpolluting fuel. The use of hydrogen as a fuel is attractive for a number of reasons: Hydrogen burns with 15-22% higher thermal efciency than that of gasoline; From an environmental standpoint, hydrogen combustion with pure oxygen results in no emissions of the greenhouse gases, CO, CO2, SOx, and NOx; and It generates only steam and water. Serious hydrogen-fueled turbine development program primarily comes from the initiatives of the Japanese government in 1992, through its New Energy and Industrial Technology Development (NEDO). It created the World Energy Network (WE-NET) Program, a 28-year effort from 1993 to 2020, directed at research and development of the technologies needed to develop a hydrogen-based energy conversion system1. Part of this effort is directed toward research and development of a hydrogen-fueled combustion turbine system2 which can efciently convert the chemical energy stored in hydrogen to electricity via a heat engine in which the hydrogen is combusted with pure oxygen. Turbine manufacturers developing hydrogen-fueled power generation cycles under the WE-NET program include Westinghouse, Toshiba and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries3. The hydrogen-fuel power systems resulting from the WE-NET program and others reported in the literature are summarized below.
Wen-Ching Yang
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15261 (724) 327-3011 wcyang@pitt.edu
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Fig. 1. Process Diagram for the HTSC Power System Table 1 Main Component Parameters for HTSC Plant
IP Turbine (Topping Cycle Gas Turbine) Compressor Inlet Pressure (MPa) Inlet Temperature (oC) Outlet Pressure (MPa) Rotational Speed (rpm) Combustor Fuel Outlet Temperature (oC) Turbine Stage Rotational Speed (rpm) Inlet Gas Flow (kg/s) Outlet Pressure (MPa) Bottoming Cycle HP Turbine Inlet Pressure (MPa) Outlet Pressure (MPa) LP Turbine Inlet Pressure (MPa) Outlet Pressure (MPa) 0.14 114 4.90 6,500 H2 + O2 1,700 2(IHP) + 6(ILP) 6,500(IHP), 3,000(ILP) 222.3 0.16 19.00 5.00 0.15 0.05
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Fig. 2. Process Diagram for the New Rankine Cycle Power System
Location
Pressure Flow MPa kg/s 1 38.0 104.2 2 34.3 104.2 3 7.35 104.2 4 6.99 115.8 5 0.98 133.1 6 0.93 148.0 7 0.14 156.1 8 0.13 156.1 9 0.005 145.1 10 25.7 3.2 11 12 20.4 13 2.6 Generating Power 500MW 60.57 % (HHV) Thermal Efciency 109
Enthalpy kJ/kg 447.9 3851.1 3315.9 6506.3 4798.1 6510.5 4965.5 2771.7 2315.3 -
71.89 % (LHV)
Fig. 3. Process Diagram for the Near-Term Rankine Cycle with Reheat and Recuperation
Fig. 4. Process Diagram for the Long-Term Rankine Cycle with Reheat and Recuperation
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Table 3 Estimated Component Performance Factors and Reference Plant Conditions
PLANT Capacity (MWe) Site Type Ambient Air Temperature (oC) Ambient Pressure (bar) Relative Humidity (%) Cooling Sea Water Temperature (oC) Hydrogen and Oxygen Supply Temperature (oC) Hydrogen and Oxygen Supply Pressure Hydrogen Purity (%) Oxygen Purity (%) Hydrogen HHV (kJ/kg) CONDENSER Type Shell Pressure (bar) PUMPS Adiabatic Efciency (%) Motor Efciency (%) Mechanical Efciency (%) HRSG Tube-Side Pressure Drop (%) Shell-Side Pressure Drop (%) Heat Loss (% of heat transferred) COMBUSTORS Pressure Drop (%) Combustion Efciency (%) Heat Loss (% of heat input) TURBINES Rotation Speed (rpm) Bearing Losses (% of shaft power) Adiabatic Efciency (%; HP, IHP, IP, LP) Exhaust Losses Steam Leaks (% of inlet ow) Shaft Leakages Windage and Pumping for Steam Leaks Steam Cooling (% of inlet ow for IHP, IP) Coolant Pressure Drop (%) LP Turbine Maximum Moisture Content (%) LP Turbine Minimum Inlet Temperature (oC) OTHERS Steam Piping Pressure Drop (%) Generator Efciency (%) House Load (% of plant shaft power)
500 Greeneld, Sea-Side 15 1.01325 60 21 15 As Required 100 100 141742 Vacuum 0.0508 85 98 98 3 3 0.2 3 99.9 0.1 3,600 0.6 93, 93, 93, 93 Neglect for HP Turbine 2 Neglect Neglect 15, 15 10 15 110 3 99.2 1.5 (near-term); 1.0 (long-term)
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In the near-term plant, gure 3, hydrogen and excess oxygen are combined in the HP combustor and are mixed with recycle steam to produce a 650C combustion product at a nominal pressure of 350 bar. This is then expanded through the uncooled HP turbine, producing an exhaust stream having nominal conditions of 290C and 40 bar. This exhaust stream, containing excess oxygen, is combined with stoichiometric hydrogen to generate the IP combustion products at a temperature of 1700C. The IP turbine expands this combustion stream to exhaust conditions of about 740C and 1.15 bar. The IP turbine exhaust stream is cooled in the HRSG down to about 110C before being expanded through the LP turbine to about 33C and the condenser pressure. A bleed stream of water is taken from the water condensate. Feedwater pumps provide high-pressure water for the HRSG to produce high-pressure steam for recycle, and intermediate-pressure water for the HRSG to produce intermediate pressure steam for open-loop cooling of the IP turbine. The conceptual design characteristics for HP turbine and IP turbine for the near-term plant are tabulated in tables 4 and 5. Table 6 shows the conceptual design characteristics of the HRSG.
Cooling Needs Inlet Temperature (oC) Exhaust Temperature (oC) Inlet Pressure (bar) Expansion Ratio Gas Flow (kg/s) Number of Stages Number of Cooled Stages Blade Heights (rst stage/last stage) (cm) Turbine Casing Diameter (m) Length of Flow Passage (cm) Total Turbine Length (m) Cooling Needs Inlet Temperature (oC) Exhaust Temperature (oC) Inlet Pressure (bar) Expansion Ratio Gas Flow (kg/s) Number of Stages Number of Cooled Rows Blade Heights (rst stage/last stage) (cm) Turbine Casing Diameter (inlet/exhaust) (m) Length of Flow Passage (cm) Total Turbine Length (m) FLUE SIDE Inlet Gas Inlet Gas Flow (kg/s) Inlet Gas Temperature (oC) Inlet Gas Pressure (bar) Outlet Temperature (oC) Pressure Drop (bar) TUBE SIDE Inlet Fluid Inlet Temperature (oC) IP Inlet Pressure (bar) Inlet Flow (kg/s) HP Inlet Pressure (bar) HP Outlet Flow (kg/s) IP Outlet Temperature (oC) HP Outlet Temperature (oC) HRSG DIMENSIONS HRSG Length (m) HRSG Width (m) HRSG Height (m)
None 650 288 350 8.75 150 15 0 2.3/6.4 1.7 270 4.9 Open-Loop Steam 1700 740 38.8 33.7 154 6 11 7.4/36.4 2.3/3.7 200 5.6
Steam with trace oxygen and noncondensibles 177 740 1.15 110 0.09 0.15 S cation conductivity water 33 40 121 385 98 269 397 24 12 14
Figure 4 depicts the long-term reference plant process diagram. The differences between the long-term plant and the near-term plant diagrams are primarily related to the insertion of an additional turbine stage, the IHP turbine, and the use of extractive feedwater heating. The long-term plant HP turbine expands recycle steam at 650C and 350 bar. The HP turbine exhaust stream has nominal conditions of 387C and 75 bar. A portion of the HP exhaust stream is used for closed-loop cooling of the IHP turbine and the IP turbine. The remainder of the HP exhaust stream is combined with hydrogen fuel, excess oxygen, and the exiting IHP and IP turbine closed-loop cooling streams. The IHP combustion produces a 1700C, 70 bar stream to be expanded in the IHP turbine. The IHP turbine exhaust stream is at about 1100C and 10 bar pressure. The IHP exhaust stream is combined with a stoichiometric amount of hydrogen to generate IP combustion products at 1700C and 9.6 bar for expansion in the IP turbine. The IP turbine exhaust is about 1100C and 1.2 bar pressure. Both the IHP turbine and the IP turbine produce very high temperature exhaust stream requiring high temperature piping designs. The IP expansion stream is cooled in the HRSG to about 240C before expansion in the LP turbine. Steam is extracted from the IP turbine for feedwater heating. In contrast to the near-term plant, the long-term plant HRSG produces recycle steam at a single pressure level to be expanded in the HP turbine.
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Wen-Ching Yang
The HP turbine in both the near-term and long-term plants is close to, or within the range of current steam turbine technology10. In contrast, the long-term plant IHP turbine is a large technology step above both current steam turbine practices and advanced combustion turbine developments. The IP turbine has conditions close to the conditions of advanced combustion turbines being developed for natural gas fuels 11. The conceptual design of the reference plant was developed by using several design tools and sources of engineering experience. TM A commercial process simulator (ASPEN PLUS ) was applied to develop the reference plant process ow diagrams and thermal performance estimates. Westinghouse proprietary design codes were used to design and size turbines, combustors, and the HRSG. Advanced combustion turbine engineering experience resulting from development programs in the United States12 and advance steam turbine engineering experience resulting from past studies and testing at Westinghouse13 were used to extrapolate current technology to the demands of the reference plant. Plant heat and materials balances and cycle calculations were generated for the reference plant at its rated load of 500 MWe using the component performance assumptions described. No hydrogen or oxygen preheat is used in the plants, and extractive feedwater heating is used in the long-term plant only, providing a simple, compact plant congurations. Table 7 lists the reference plant performance and power generation breakdown for the long-term and the near-term plants. The plant net efciency for the near-term plant is estimated to be 65.2 % (LHV) and that for the long-term plant, 71.4% (LHV).
Table 7 Reference Plant Thermal Performance
HP Turbine (MWe) IHP Turbine (MWe) IP Turbine (MWe) LP Turbine (MWe) Gross Power (MWe) Gross Efciency (%) Generator Losses (MWe) Pumping Power (MWe) BOP Losses (MWe) Net Power (MWe) Net Efciency (%)
Long-Term Plant
42.3 189.9 215.4 67.9 515.5 73.5 4.1 6.2 5.2 500.0 71.4
Near-Term Plant
81.6 362.5 74.1 518.2 67.6 4.1 6.5 7.8 500.0 65.2
The reference plant environmental performance is expected to be superior to that of other power generation concepts using other fuels, by having very low nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxide, particulate, toxic species, and green-house gas emissions. The generation of solid waste and liquid/sludge wastes would also be negligible. The only signicant emissions could result from fuel or oxygen contaminants, or from noise.
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1.3.1.3-7 Notes
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1. MITI, Comprehensive Approach to the New Sunshine Program which Supports the 21st Century, Sunshine Journal (Agency of Industrial Science and Technology in Ministry of International Trade and Industry [MITI]) 4 (1993): 1-6. 2. NEDO, International Clean Energy Network Using Hydrogen Conversion (WE-NET), 1993 Annual Summary Report on Results (New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization [NEDO]) (1994). 3. NEDO, Subtask 8 Development of Hydrogen-Combustion Turbine, Study for an Optimum System for HydrogenCombustion Turbine, 1995 Annual Technical Results Report (New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization [NEDO]) (1996). 4. N. Kizuka et.al., Conceptual Design of the Cooling System for 1700C-Class, Hydrogen-Fueled Combustion Gas Turbines, Trans. ASME 121 (1999): 108-115; H. Jericha, O. Starzer, and M. Theissing, Towards a Solar-Hydrogen System, ASME CogenTurbo, IGTI, 6 (1991): 435-442. 5. E. D. Alderson, G. W. Scheper, and A. Cohn, Closed Circuit Steam Cooling in Gas Turbines, ASME Paper 87-JPGC-GT-1 (1987); T. Ikeguchi and K. Kawaike, Effect of Closed-Circuit Gas Turbine Cooling Systems on Combined Cycle Performance, ASME Paper 94-JPGC-GT-8 (1994). 6. Kizuka (see note 4 above). 7. T. Funatsu, M. Fukuda, and Y. Dohzono, Start Up Analysis of a H2-O2 Fired Gas Turbine Cycle, ASME Paper 97-GT-491 (1997). 8. R. L. Bannister, R. A. Newby, and W. C. Yang, Development of a Hydrogen-Fueled Combustion Turbine Cycle for Power Generation, ASME Paper 97-GT-14 (1997). 9. D. A. Little, R. L. Bannister, and B. C. Wiant, Development of Advanced Turbine Systems, Proceedings, ASME Cogen Turbo Power 93 (New York: ASME, 1993). 10. R. L. Bannister, and G. J. Silvestri, The Evolution of Central Station Steam Turbines, Mechanical Engineering 111, no. 2 (1989): 70-78; R. L. Bannister et al., High-Temperature Supercritical Steam Turbines, Mechanical Engineering 109 no. 2 (1987): 60-65. 11. R. L. Bannister et al., Turbines for the Turn of the Century, Mechanical Engineering 116 no. 6 (1994): 68-75. 12. D. J. Amos et al., Update on Westinghouses Advanced Turbine System Program,, ASME Paper 97-GT-369 (1997); I. S. Diakunchak et al., Technology Development Programs for the Advanced Turbine Systems Engine, ASME Paper 96-GT-5 (1996). 13. G. J. Silvestri, R. L. Bannister, and A. Hizume, Optimization of Advanced Steam Condition Power Plants, Journal of Engineering Gas Turbines and Power 114 (1992): 612-620. 14. R. L. Bannister, R. A. Newby, and W. C. Yang, Final Report on the Development of a Hydrogen-Fuelde Combustion Turbine Cycle for Power Generation, J. Eng. Gas Turbines and Power 121(1999): 38-45.
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BIOGRAPHY
Wen-Ching Yang
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15261 phone: (724) 327-3011 email: wcyang@pitt.edu
Dr. Yang worked for Westinghouse Electric Corporation and Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation for more than 36 years primarily in the area of advanced fossil fuel power generation systems for IGCC applications. In the past 6 years, he concentrated on the detailed design of commercial gas turbines through cold ow simulation testing, experimentation at commercial sites, theoretical modeling, and development of advance sensors to monitor performance of gas turbines. He was elected a Fellow of American Institute of Chemical Engineers in 1992 and awarded a honorary Guest Professorship at the Thermal Engineering Department of Tsinghua University in Beijing, China, in 1996. He holds several patents relating to turbine applications in the area of partial oxidation, thermal chemical recuperation, and hydrogen-fueled power plants. He retired at the end of July 2004 and is now an adjunct Professor at the Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Univeristy of Pittsburgh.
1.3.2
Advanced Brayton Cycles
1.3.2-1 Introduction
Gas turbines could play a key role in the future power generation market addressing issues of producing clean, efcient, affordable, and fuel-exible electric power. Numerous projections estimate that gas turbines will comprise a signicant portion of the required generation capacity in the 21st century. Novel advanced gas turbine cycle modications intended to improve the basic Brayton cycle performance and reduce pollutant emissions are currently under development or being investigated by gas turbine manufacturers and Research and Development (R&D) organizations. Preliminary conceptual analyses of advanced cycles indicate that it may be possible to achieve an improved combination of efciency, emissions, and specic power output which in turn should reduce the power generation equipment cost on a $/kW basis. Developing turbine technology to operate on coal-derived synthesis gas and hydrogen is critical to the development of advanced power generation technologies and the deployment of FutureGen plants. The FutureGen plant concept may also be deployed in natural gas-based plants with respect to generating power with near-zero emissions while utilizing these advanced Brayton cycle machines and securing fuel diversity.
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When natural gas is burned with air under stoichiometric conditions, however, the resulting temperature is greater than 1940C (3500F) depending on the temperature of the combustion air. It is therefore necessary to utilize a large excess of air in the combustion step, which acts as a thermal diluent and reduces the temperature of the combustion products, this temperature being dependent on the gas turbine ring temperature which in turn is set by the materials used in the turbine parts exposed to the hot gas and the cooling medium (its temperature and physical properties) as well as the heat transfer method employed for cooling the hot parts. A fraction of the air from the
60%
compressor is bled off as cooling air when air is utilized for cooling, the air being extracted from the compressor at appropriate pressures depending upon where it is utilized in the turbine. From a cycle efciency and engine specic power output (kW per kg/s of suction air ow) standpoint, it is important to minimize the amount of cooling air as well as the excess combustion air. 50% The necessity to use a large excess of pressurized air in the combustor as well as for turbine cooling when air cooling is employed creates a large parasitic load on the cycle, since compression of the air requires mechanical energy and this reduces the net power produced from the system, as well as reducing the overall efciency of the system. Some of the technological advances being made or being investigated to improve the Brayton cycle include the following, in addition to the changes in the basic cycle conguration such as the inclusion of reheat combustion, intercooling (which is justied for very high pressure ratio cycles), recuperation and humidication: Rotor inlet temperature of 1700C (3100F) or higher which would require the development and use of advanced materials including advanced thermal barrier coatings and turbine cooling techniques including closed loop steam cooling Advanced combustor liner (combustion air and combustion products being hotter) required due to increases in rotor inlet temperatures High blade metal temperature in the neighborhood of ~1040C (1900F) while limiting coolant amount would again require the development and use of the advanced materials including advanced thermal barrier coatings Pressure gain combustor Cavity or trapped vortex combustor High pressure ratio compressor (greater than 30 to take full advantage of higher ring temperature) Integration capability with high temperature ion transport membrane air separation in IGCC applications. 45%
Addition of novel bottoming cycles is yet another approach to improving the overall plant (combined cycle) performance. Overall cycle efciencies utilizing advanced technology gas turbines approaching 65% on natural gas on an LHV basis may be expected (see gure 2). Some of these developments are described in the following.
Temperature C
Film cooling
TBC
Year
Gas Turbine Firing Temperature Current-state-of-the-art gas turbines have ring temperatures (rotor inlet temperatures) that are limited to about 2600F. This increase in ring temperature has been made possible by being able to operate the turbine components (that come into contact with the hot gasses) at higher temperatures while at the same time utilizing closed circuit steam cooling. In a state-of-the-art air-cooled gas turbine with ring temperature close to 1320C (2400F), as much as 25% of the compressor air may be used for turbine cooling, which results in a large parasitic load of air compression. In air-cooled gas turbines, as the ring temperature is increased, the demand for cooling air is further increased. Closed circuit steam cooling of the gas turbine provides an efcient way of increasing the ring temperature without having to use a large amount of cooling air. Furthermore, steam with its very large heat capacity is an excellent coolant. Closed circuit cooling also minimizes momentum and dilution losses in the turbine while the turbine operates as a partial reheater for the steam cycle. Another major advantage with closed circuit cooling is that the combustor exit temperature and thus the NOx emissions are reduced for a given ring temperature; the temperature drop between the combustor exit gas and the turbine rotor inlet gas is reduced since the coolant used in the rst stage nozzles of the turbine does not mix with the gasses owing over the stationary vanes. Note that control of NOx
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In the HAT cycle a signicant portion of the excess air that is required as thermal diluent in a gas turbine, is replaced with water vapor (see gure 3)3. The water vapor is introduced into the system in an efcient manner, by pumping of a liquid followed by low temperature evaporation. Pumping a liquid requires less mechanical energy compared to gas (air) compression. Evaporation of the water into the compressed air stream is accomplished using low temperature heat, in a counter-current multistage humidication column, rather than generating steam in a boiler. This method of humidication permits the use of low temperature heat for accomplishing the evaporation of water. For example, water which boils at 100oC or 212oF at atmospheric pressure may be made to evaporate at room temperatures when exposed to a stream of relatively dry air. The process also reduces the parasitic load of compressing the combustion air by intercooling the compressor, while recovering most of the heat removed in the intercooler for the humidication operation. Thus, a more thermally efcient power cycle is achieved. Humidication of the compressed air also leads to a reduction of NOx emissions. The humid air is preheated by heat exchange with the turbine exhaust in a recuperator to recycle the exhaust energy to the combustor, thereby eliminating the expensive steam bottoming cycle required in a combined cycle.
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1.3.2-4 Notes
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1. R.S. Gemmen, G. A. Richards and M. C. Janus, Development of a Pressure Gain Combustor for Improved Cycle Efciency, Proceedings of the ASME Cogen Turbo Power Congress and Exposition (1994). 2. D. L. Burrus, A. W. Johnson and W. M. Roquemore, and D. T. Shouse, Performance Assessment of a Prototype Trapped Vortex Combustor for Gas Turbine Application, Proceedings of the ASME IGTI Turbo-Expo Conference (New Orleans, June 2001). 3. A. D. Rao, Process for Producing Power, U.S. Patent No. 4,289,763 dated May 16, 1989. 4. R. Bhargava and C. B. Meher-Homji, Parametric Analysis of Existing Gas Turbines with Inlet Evaporative and Overspray Fogging, Proceedings of the ASME IGTI Turbo-Expo Conference, (Amsterdam, June 2002). 5. K. Litzinger, et. al., Comparative Evaluation of SOFC Gas Turbine Hybrid System Options, Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo Conference (Reno-Nevada, June 2005); G. Agnew, et. al., The Design and Integration of the Rolls-Royce Fuel Cell Systems 1 MW SOFC, Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo Conference (Reno-Nevada, June 2005); R. Schonewald, TurboMachinery Requirements for Practical SOFC-Gas Turbine Hybrid Systems, Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo Conference (Reno-Nevada, June 2005); H. Ghezel-Ayagh, Hybrid Controls, Presented at the ICEPAG Conference (Irvine, California, September 2004).
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BIOGRAPHY
1.2.2 Implications of CO2 Sequestration for Gas Turbines 1.3.2 Advanced Brayton Cycles
Dr. Rao serves as the Chief Scientist, Power Systems at UC Irvine Advanced Power and Energy Program. He worked in industry for more than 30 years in the energy conversion area, and previously worked at Fluor as Director in Process Engineering and Senior Fellow in design / development of gasication for power generation and synthetic fuels coproduction. He received several patent awards in the energy conversion area and authored several papers on advanced power cycles and improved IGCC designs. Dr. Rao has also worked for Allis-Chalmers and McDowell Wellman Engineering in coal conversion; responsibilities included taking ideas from drawing board to demonstration scale plants. He holds a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering and a M.S. in Chemical Engineering.
1.3.3
1.3.3-1 Introduction
There are two main features that distinguish a Partial Oxidatation Gas Turbine from a conventional gas turbine. These are associated with the design arrangement and the thermodynamic processes used in operation. A primary design differentiating feature of the POGT when compared to a conventional gas turbine is that POGT utilizes a non-catalytic partial oxidation reactor (POR) in place of a normal combustor. An important secondary distinction is that a much smaller compressor is required, one that typically supplies less than half of the air ow required in a conventional gas turbine. From an operational and thermodynamic point of view the key distinguishing feature is that the working uid provided by the POR (a secondary fuel gas) has a much higher specic heat than lean complete combustion products and more energy per unit mass of uid can be extracted by the POGT expander than is the conventional case. (This is why the POGT uses a smaller compressor than a conventional gas turbine.) A POR operates at fuel rich conditions typically at equivalence ratios on the order of 2.5, and virtually any hydrocarbon fuel can be combusted. Because of these fuel rich conditions, incomplete combustion products are used as the hot section working uid. A POGT thus produces two products: power and a secondary fuel that usually is a hydrogen rich gas. This specic feature creates a great opportunity to provide high efciencies and ultra-low emissions (single digit NOx and CO levels) when the secondary fuel is burned in a bottoming cycle. When compared to the equivalent standard gas turbine bottoming cycle combination, the POGT provides an increase of about 10 percent points in system efciency. The overall efciency of a POGT two-staged power system is typically high and can approach 70% depending on the POGT operating conditions and the chosen bottoming cycle. In gure 1 a generic arrangement of a two-stage or air-staged reheat power system with a POGT as a topping cycle is shown. The bottoming cycle can be either a low pressure (or vacuum) combustion turbine, or an internal combustion engine, or a solid oxide fuel cell, or any combination of them. In addition, the POGT can be used as the driver for cogeneration systems. In such cogeneration systems the bottoming cycle can be a fuel-red boiler, an absorption chiller, or an industrial furnace. The POGT is ideally suited for the coproduction of power and either hydrogen, or synthesis gas (syngas), or chemicals. Some of the important applications are described below.
Gar Technology Institute, Energy Utilization center 1700 S. Mount Prospect Road Des Plaines, IL 60018 Phone: 847-768-0548 847-768-0541 joseph.rabovitser@gastechnology.org, serguei.nester@gastechnology.org
1.3.3-2 Background
Research and development (R&D) into the application of POGT concepts for power generation was rst performed by the Institute of High Temperature (IVTAN) in the former Soviet Union in the late 1950s1. The result of this R&D was the demonstration of a working POGT. In one published application by IVTAN2, residual fuel oil is partially combusted to produce high-pressure steam and fuel gas, which is then cooled and cleaned to remove ash and sulfur compounds. The steam and puried fuel gas are then used for power generation. A 1970 patent for a POGT by Jacques Ribesse of the JARIX company in Brussels, Belgium,
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was followed by a technical paper in 19713, and a second paper describing further improvements in 19914, which described the gas turbine, air compressor, catalytic partial oxidation reactor (POR), and expansion turbine. Partial or total combustion of the combustible gas (leaving the POR) and passing through the expansion turbine was accomplished by injecting air into the turbine vanes. This simultaneously accomplished both the needed cooling and, through local combustion, an isothermal expansion5. In 1992, IVTAN published a paper describing an innovative combined cycle utilizing a POGT for the repowering of existing natural-gas-red steam turbine power plants. The retrot modications were estimated to improve fuel efciencies to between 70-80% and reduce NOx emissions by a factor of 10 or more6. Efciencies are increased mainly because of (1) complete use of the thermal energy of the hot pressurized gasier product gas supplied by the POGT; (2) reduced air ow requirements typically about 65% of that used for a conventional expansion turbine, (3) larger volumetric gas ow in the turbine (15-20%), taking into account the lower specic mass of the partial oxidation products, (4) higher specic heat of the turbine working uid, and (5) close to isothermal expansion, allowing a better utilization potential of the heat7. Hodrien and Fairbairn in 1993 evaluated the POGT in a report prepared for British Gas as a highly promising cycle with a potential efciency above 60%8. Further study at the University of Leige (Belgium) in collaboration with other European partners, which included preliminary analysis and testing, concluded POGT has good potential for power generation applications and Combined Heat and Power (CHP) applications as well9. The Gas Technology Institute (GTI) has been actively working on the POGT concept since 1995. With support from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and Gas Research Institute (GRI), GTI (formerly IGT) teamed up with SWPC (formerly Westinghouse) to perform a system study of POGT applications10. The cycles studied included (1) a conventional natural-gas-red gas turbine with a POGT utilized as a topping cycle, (2) a combined cycle plant joining a POGT with a steam turbine, and (3) a repowering system for coalred power plants using a POGT as a topping cycle. In a continuation of this work Westinghouse performed technical feasibility studies and cost analyses of the PO power cycle11 and concluded that there was potential for signicant plant heat rate and cost-of-electricity improvements. In a recent development effort to demonstrate a POGT for on-site CHP generation, GTI with support from the California Energy Commission (CEC) and GRI, has teamed with Solar Turbines Incorporated (Solar), Tritek Consulting, Alturdyne Incorporated , and the Belcan Corporation to develop, build, and install at GTI a 10-MWth (34 MMBtu/hr) pressurized research non-catalytic POR, intended to replace the combustor of the Solar Spartan T-350 conventional gas turbine modied to operate in a POGT mode.
1.3.3-3 Overview
The POGT has great potential as a driver for a wide range of bottoming cycles for power generation. A POGT can effectively co-produce both power and syngas from which hydrogen can be extracted. It can also be used in a cogeneration mode where the bottoming cycle systems are industrial furnaces, boilers, or absorption chillers. Depending on the fuel type and if normal ambient air is used (rather than oxygen enriched air) the exit fuel gases from the POGT are essentially low to medium heating value secondary fuels with variable but high hydrogen contents. In general the lower the hydrogen content of the fuel molecule the lower the exhaust gas hydrogen concentrations will be. An increase in hydrogen content can be obtained by adding steam to the POR which through reforming reactions will increase the hydrogen content of the POR exhaust. Typically the POR will operate at temperatures on the order of 2000 to 2400F thus keeping the maximum turbine inlet temperature to this level and allowing usage of existing and proven eet of turbine expanders for POGT application. The simultaneous endothermic reforming and exothermic oxidation reactions that occur within the POR tend to thermally balance each other at a particular temperature (depending on the equivalence ratio) thus eliminating any destructive run-away reactions. The POR exhaust gases, which Fig. 2. POGT Cycle Comparisons have very high specic heats, provide a signicant improvement over air as the working uid. Expansion of the POR gases over a turbine provides a much greater power extraction per unit mass of working uid than is possible for the products of lean conventional combustion systems. This working uid improvement results in the specic power of the POGT proper, being almost twice that of conventional gas turbines. Generally improved specic power provides in turn improved protability for the manufacturer and lower unit costs for the customer. Higher efciencies typically improve the customers protability. The POGT exhibits both improved specic power and increased efciencies when compared to conventional gas turbines. This is clearly shown in gure 2 in which a comparison of the POGT with a number of gas turbine cycles is provided.
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1.3.3-5 Conclusions
POGT is a highly exible device that when integrated with a bottoming cycle can provide signicant improvements over conventional gas turbines in both efciency and gaseous emissions particularly in small megawatt-size power generation systems. The core POGT because of its very high specic power (kW/ (lb/s)) should have a lower specic cost ($/kW) than a conventional gas turbine. Thus the POGT represents a promising type of gas turbine which could be widely used for power generation, cogeneration, and co-production of power and hydrogen, syngas or chemicals. POGT systems efciency is in the lower fties for simple cycle systems and the upper sixties for combined cycles. Typically the NOx emission levels are below 3-ppmv without post combustion catalytic treatment. A conventional gas turbine could be converted to a POGT by replacement of the conventional combustor with a POR, and by downsizing the compressor. Modications to the turbine and the hot section cooling systems could also be needed.
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BIOGRAPHY
Dr. Joseph Rabovitser is a director of power generation, at the Gas Technology Institute. Since 1994, he has been involved in the development of the partial oxidation gas turbine (POGT) technology, and currently he is the project manager / principal investigator of the ongoing project Development of a POGT for Combined Electricity and Hydrogen Enriched Fuel Gas Generation, and he directs several other research programs including development and deployment of high efciency and ultra-low NOx boilers, burners for gaseous and solid fuels, and novel partial oxidation gas turbine for CHP and multi-stream cogeneration system. Dr. Rabovitser has over 30 years of extensive experience in R&D, engineering, and computer modeling of various power plants equipment. He has over 145 publications, including three books (with co-authors), 44 articles in technical journals and proceeding, and 32 patents.
Dr. Serguei Nester is a senior engineer at Gas Technology Institute, Des Plaines, Illinois. He conducts combustion research and development for industrial applications. His responsibilities include CFD modeling, design, development, and testing of novel combustion equipment. Currently Dr. Nester is involved in the development of the Partial Oxidation Gas Turbine (POGT) technology, including Partial Oxidation Reactors, and small and midsize partial oxidation gas turbines, POGT cycle analysis, combinations of POGT with boilers, furnaces and fuel cells, gas turbine/fuel cell hybrids, fundamental studies of partial oxidation of natural gas. Also, he is involved in the development of downstream supplemental ring combustion equipment.
Mr. David J. White is the president of TRITEK Consulting whose specialty is future gas turbine technologies. Mr. David J. White is a chemical engineer and combustion specialist with degrees from Manchester University (BSc.) and Royal College of Aeronautics (MSc.). He has worked in a research capacity for a number of companies including Rolls-Royce, Garrett AiResearch, and Solar Turbines Incorporated. He retired early from Solar Turbines Incorporated and started TRITEK Consulting. Mr. David J. White has provided valuable contributions to a number of programs including: Variable power afterburners for the Rolls-Royce Spey-Engined Phantom. Hypersonic Ramjet Engine (HRE) for the X-15 (Garrett AiResearch) Advanced Turbine Systems (Solar Turbines Incorporated) Low NOx Combustion Systems (Several Companies) Partial Oxidation Gas Turbine Design (GRI)
1.4
1.4-1 Introduction
With increasing energy demands, dwindling fossil energy resources, and environmental concerns associated with criteria pollutants and greenhouse gases, signicant attention in the gas turbine community has been focused on increasing efciency and reducing emissions. A highly efcient and low emitting concept that has been considered for the future is the hybrid gas turbine high temperature fuel cell concept. Hybrid fuel cell technologies may enable the U.S. to meet its future energy demands while enhancing energy efciency, reliability and security, and reducing environmental impact. Hybrid systems are comprised of integrated gas turbines and fuel cells with other technologies. A myriad of potential congurations exists with hundreds of cycles proposed and investigated. In each case these hybrid cycles exhibit a synergistic energy and environmental performance enhancement through novel individual technology components, unique systems integration, advanced energy conversion devices, innovative pollutant mitigation approaches, and/or increased fuel exibility and applicability. These types of hybrid systems have been developed and proposed for operation on natural gas, coal, biomass and other fossil fuels. Both experimental and theoretical analyses of such hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems have indicated that such hybrid systems can achieve very high fuel-to-end-use efciency and very low emissions. The environmental and energy efcient performance of these hybrid systems could allow them to make major contributions to new and secure fossil-fueled energy infrastructure and could assist in the provision of fuels, value added products, and introduction of the hydrogen economy. Integrated hybrid cycles exhibit synergies not present in typical combined cycles with fuel-to-electricity efciencies higher than either the fuel cell or gas turbine alone and costs for a given efciency that may become lower than either alone. Signicant improvement of high temperature fuel cell technology robustness and cost is required for the development of hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems. The advancement of high temperature fuel cell technology in the last decade has been signicant and expectations are that it will become commercially viable in coming decades. Once high temperature fuel cells become commercially viable, stand-alone fuel cell systems may compete with gas turbine technology in the electricity production sector. However, this will not occur without a natural evolution toward signicant use of hybrid systems that use both gas turbine and fuel cell technology. This natural evolution will be driven by the superior efciency and emissions performance of hybrid systems. Economies, industry, citizens and the environment could all benet from the advancement and deployment of gas turbine fuel cell hybrid systems due to high energy efciency, and reduced environmental impact. No fossil-fuel based technology can compete with the high efciency and environmental performance of gas turbine fuel cell hybrid systems. In addition, the market applications for hybrid gas turbine fuel cell technologies are myriad. They include the future potential application to large central station power plants operated on a variety of fuel resources, distributed generation support of traditionally energy intensive industries, local commercial applications and various distributed generation scenarios. In addition, hybrid fuel cell technologies can be used to support the auxiliary power and propulsion power needs of aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, ships, and trains. Although the potential for gas turbine fuel cell hybrid systems is signicant, the front-end risk associated with developing this technology is considerable. Broad investment in industry, at national laboratories, and in university research and development is required to advance hybrid gas turbine fuel cell technology.
1.4-2 Background
Hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems are comprised of two major components, a high temperature fuel cell and a gas turbine engine. Since this handbook provides sufcient background information on gas turbine technology, background information on fuel cell technology for use in integrated hybrid cycles is the focus of this section. Brief background information regarding gas turbine technology for hybrid applications is included.
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A typical fuel cell requires gaseous fuel and oxidant ows. Hydrogen is the preferred fuel because of its high reactivity, which minimizes the need for expensive catalysts, and because electro-oxidation of hydrogen leads only to water emission. Hydrocarbon fuels can be supplied but typically require conversion to hydrogen or a hydrogen-rich mixture before electrochemical reaction can occur. This fuel processing step can be accomplished prior to entering the fuel cell (for lower temperature fuel cells) or within the fuel cell (for higher temperature fuel cells). Oxygen in air is the preferred oxidant because of its availability in the atmosphere. As indicated in Figure 1, the electrolyte serves as an ion conductor. The direction of ion transport depends upon the fuel cell type, which determines the type of ion that is produced and transported across the electrolyte between the electrodes. The various fuel cell types are described in a subsequent section. A single fuel cell is only capable of producing about 1 volt, so typical fuel cell designs link together many individual cells to form a stack that produces a more useful voltage. A fuel cell stack can be congured with many groups of cells in series and parallel connections to further tailor the voltage, current and power produced. The number of individual cells contained within one stack is typically greater than 50 and varies signicantly with stack design. Figure 2 presents the basic components that comprise the fuel cell stack. These components include the electrodes and electrolyte of Figure 1 with additional components required for electrical connections and to provide for the ow of fuel and oxidant to each cell in the stack. These key components include current collectors, separators, and gas ow channels, which are often integrated into one design as in the interconnect design pictured in Figure 2. This interconnect serves as current collector and Fig. 2. Basic components of a fuel cell stack gas separator and provides the ow channels for both fuel and oxidant. The interconnect provides the electrical connections between cells and physically separates the oxidant ow of one cell from the fuel ow of the adjacent cell. The channels serve as the distribution pathways for the fuel and oxidant. The preferred fuel for most fuel cell types is hydrogen. Hydrogen is not readily available, but, and the infrastructure for provision of hydrocarbon fuels is well established in our society. Thus, fuel cell systems that have been developed for practical power generation applications to-date have been designed to operate on hydrocarbon fuels. This typically requires the use of a fuel processing system or reformer as shown in Figure 3. The fuel processor typically accomplishes the conversion of hydrocarbon fuels to a mixture of hydrogen rich gases and, depending upon the requirements of the fuel cell, subsequent removal of contaminants or other species to provide pure hydrogen to the fuel cell. In addition to the fuel cell system requirement of a fuel processor for operation on hydrocarbon fuels, Figure 3 presents the need for a power conditioning or inverter system component as well. This is required for the use of current end-use technologies that are designed for consuming alternating current (AC) electricity, and for grid connectivity in distributed power applications. Since the fuel cell produces direct current (DC) electricity, the power conditioning section is a requirement for fuel cell systems that are designed for distributed generation today. In the future, systems and technologies may be amenable to the use of DC electricity, which would allow signicant cost savings. EXHAUST
EXHAUST HEAT WATER
USEFUL HEAT
FUEL
FUEL PROCESSOR
DC POWER
POWER CONDITIONER
AC POWER
AIR
129
Feature Electrolyte Typical Operating Temperature Charge Carrier External Reformer for natural gas Prime Cell Components Catalyst Product Water Management Product Heat Management
MCFC Immobilized Molten Carbonate 600-650oC CO3= No Stainless Steel, nickel, carbonate salts Nickel Gaseous Product Internal Reforming + Process Gas
PAFC Immobilized Phosphoric Acid 200oC H+ Yes Graphite, Teon, phosphoric acid Platinum Evaporative Process Gas + Independent Cooling Medium
PEMFC Ion Exchange Membrane 80oC H+ Yes Carbon, plastics, special polymers Platinum Evaporative Process Gas + Independent Cooling Medium
SOFC Ceramic 600-1000oC O= No Ceramics, high temperature metals Nickel, Perovskites Gaseous Product Internal Reforming + Process Gas 130
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While any one of the above fuel cell types can be integrated into a hybrid gas turbine fuel cell cycle, the advantages of integration are most prominent with the high temperature fuel cells (i.e., MCFC and SOFC). This is due to the fact that a gas turbine engine can more effectively utilize the heat produced at the higher operating temperatures of MCFC and SOFC technology than it can that produced by other fuel cell types. In a complementary fashion, the MCFC and SOFC technologies can directly benet from the pressure and temperature conditions (higher pressure and preheating of reactants) that a gas turbine engine can produce in an integrated hybrid cycle. As a result of this complementary operation, the focus of this chapter and all remaining discussion will be on hybrid systems that use high temperature fuel cells (MCFC and SOFC) only.
MCFC
The MCFC, also called a carbonate fuel cell, is one of the fuel cell technologies that has proven efciency and environmental performance. In addition, signicant reductions in carbonate fuel cell capital cost are expected in the near future. In particular, the use of carbonate fuel cells in the distributed power market is already signicant and could offer an ideal solution to increased energy demands with concurrent expectations for reliability and environmental sensitivity. The carbonate fuel cell concept involves conduction of carbonate ions (CO3=) within an immobilized mixture of molten carbonate salts. Other cell components are based on nickel and stainless steels, which contribute to initial capital cost, but, are signicantly less expensive than the precious metal catalysts used in lower temperature fuel cells. Relatively inexpensive nickel (Ni) and nickel oxide (NiO) are adequate to promote reaction on the anode and cathode respectively at the high operating temperatures of an MCFC.4 Since the charge carrier is an oxidant, several fuel species can be oxidized within the anode compartment leading to inherently greater fuel exibility. To-date, carbonate fuel cells have been operated on hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas, propane, landll gas, marine diesel, and simulated coal gasication products. The typical operating temperature of a carbonate fuel cell is around 650oC. This temperature is almost ideal from the system perspective, since it allows higher Nernst potential (ideal Nernst potential increases with decreasing temperature) while still providing high temperature thermal energy sufcient to sustain and support reformation chemistry. Thus carbonate fuel cell system designs typically contain an internal reformer. The carbonate fuel cell demonstrations to-date, have therefore been able to show the highest fuelto-electricity conversion efciencies of any stand-alone fuel cell type. The primary developer of carbonate fuel cell technology is FuelCell Energy Corporation, the developer and manufacturer of the Direct Fuel CellTM concept. FuelCell Energy has demonstrated carbonate fuel cells from 10kW to 2MW of electrical output on a variety of fuels. Hitachi and IHI are also developing carbonate fuel cell technology for stationary power applications and have recently, successfully demonstrated carbonate fuel cell technology in Kawagoe. Japan. Ansaldo Ricerche has also demonstrated a 100kW carbonate fuel cell in Milan, Italy. Carbonate fuel cell systems have the highest fuel-to-electricity conversion efciency (>50%) of any fuel cell type. In addition, carbonate fuel cell technology is expected to experience dramatic initial capital cost reductions in upcoming years. Carbonate fuel cell technology is more fuel exible than lower temperature fuel cell technologies and is well suited to marine, military, and traction applications. The high temperature thermal efuent of a carbonate fuel cell allows signicant co-generation and/or integration with a heat engine cycle in hybrid applications. Several carbonate fuel cell hybrid systems with fuel-to-electricity efciencies greater than 70% have been conceptualized with some under development today. Hybrid MCFC systems have been developed and tested by FuelCell Energy and Capstone Turbine in Danbury, Connecticut and in Japan.
SOFC
A SOFC is a solid state fuel cell constructed of ceramic materials (metal oxides) and metals. SOFCs share the solid state electrolyte feature with the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). Solid state construction offers the potential for increased reliability and durability with less corrosion and no need to manage electrolyte evaporation or circulation. Typically the anode of an SOFC is nickel zirconia (Ni-ZrO2) and the cathode is strontium-doped lanthanum manganite (Sr-doped LaMnO3).5 SOFCs offer the stability and reliability of all-solid-state ceramic construction. High-temperature operation, up to 1,000oC, allows more exibility in the choice of fuels and can produce very good performance in combined-cycle and hybrid applications. SOFCs approach 50 percent electrical efciency in the simple cycle systems operated on natural gas, and 85 percent total thermal efciency in co-generation applications.6 The SOFC concept involves conduction of oxygen ions (O=) within the electrolyte at high temperatures (650-1000oC) making it inherently more fuel exible than other fuel cell types. Whereas most other fuel cells are susceptible to carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning, SOFCs can use CO as a fuel to produce electricity. To-date, SOFCs have been operated on hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas, propane, landll gas, diesel and JP-8. The high temperature operation of a SOFC has advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include the use of high temperature heat to reform hydrocarbon fuels to hydrogen(H2)/carbon monoxide(CO) mixtures for direct use in the fuel cell. This reformation process
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132
Fig. 4. Basic design concept of a hybrid gas turbine fuel cell system
System studies have been carried out for the U.S. DOE and others for hybrid systems up to 300 MWe capacity (using 40 MWe power blocks). In 2000 the rst tests and demonstrations of hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems began with efforts in the U.S. and Japan. Both MCFC and SOFC hybrid systems have been built and tested each proving the potential for such systems to achieve high efciency and low emissions production of electricity from natural gas. To-date ve hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems have been tested, each using a different design concept.
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Fig. 5. Schematic of a direct hybrid gas turbine fuel cell topping cycle Source: See note 7.
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Fig. 6. Schematic of an indirect gas turbine fuel cell bottoming cycle Source: See note 7.
Figure 6 presents a schematic of an indirect fuel cell bottoming cycle in which the turbine operates on air that does not come into contact with the fuel cell exhaust, but rather receives heat through a heat exchanger. Note that the fuel cell operates at atmospheric pressure and uses the pure air exhaust from the turbine. From this brief introduction of the hybrid concept it should be apparent that myriad cycle congurations are possible. Any one of the cycles presented above could use additional heat exchangers, boilers, fuel or oxidant separations technologies, fuel production and purication equipment, a steam turbine bottoming cycle, and/or other devices. Depending on the size of the system and the desired products, the number of components could be large and the cycle could become quite complex. Most of these systems can be expected to have complex control issues that need to be resolved.
Initial Analyses
Signicantly, it was not until the late 1990s, once high temperature fuel cell technology had progressed sufciently to consider manufacturing large SOFC and MCFC stacks, that detailed analyses and experimental investigation of hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems began in earnest. In 1998 the U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Fossil Energy initiated ve studies to conceptualize and assess variations on the fuel cell turbine hybrid concept. These studies, funded by the turbines program, included molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC), solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), off-the-shelf turbines, and conceptual turbines. Four of these studies examined cycle congurations in the 20-MW class power system. The fth study, by McDermott, assessed a sub-MW cycle. Table 2 summarizes the results of these studies.
Table 2. Overall results from the U.S. Department of Energy hybrid gas turbine fuel cell system studies initiated in 1998.
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Experiment Description
Siemens Power Corporation developed the very rst pressurized SOFC/GT hybrid system using their tubular SOFC stack design. This system, presented in Figure 7, was tested at the NFCRC with support from Southern California Edison, the U.S. Department of Energy and others. The system was designed, constructed and tested to demonstrate and prove the hybrid concept. The system operated for over 2900 hours and produced up to 220 kW at fuel-to-electricity conversion efciencies of up to 53%. In parallel, NFCRC developed dynamic simulation capabilities for each of the system components together with a simulation framework for modeling and developing control strategies for integrated SOFC/GT systems.
137
Air
Compressor
Turbine 1
Turbine 2
Exit
Heat Exch.
Generator/ Motor
Comb
Natural Gas
Comb
Natural Gas
Cathode
Natural Gas
SOFC
Anode
AIR PLENUM
AIR IN (500 C)
EXHAUST
REFORMERS
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Jack Brouwer
Dynamic Model Description
The equations that govern the dynamic performance of or each of the system components are solved in a modular fashion for each of the components of the 220 kW hybrid system in a Matlab/SimulinkTM format. The models were designed and constructed to be reliable and robust. All of the models are based on the fundamental mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations plus detailed solutions of electrochemical, chemical, and heat transfer processes.
SOFC Model
The SOFC model developed for the current application is a simplied bulk model that simulates the overall performance of a pressurized tubular SOFC. The current model does not capture the spatial variations of operating parameters throughout the SOFC stack. This simplied model is deemed sufcient for simulating a complete hybrid system. However, spatially resolved models may be required to more accurately simulate the performance of specic SOFC stack designs and to garner more insights into stack behavior. Such models have been developed previously at the NFCRC and will be considered for future integration in a full hybrid system model.18 The governing equations of the SOFC model are introduced, starting with the Nernst potential EQ(1), which provides the reversible cell potential for a given fuel and oxidant composition.
X H 2 X O22 1 RT 2 E = E0 + u l n PCATHODE 2 F X H 2O
1
(1)
While EQ(1) solves for ideal cell potential, the actual cell potential for any fuel cell under real operating conditions will be reduced due to irreversibilities referred to as polarizations or overpotential losses. The modeling of realized cell voltage can be achieved by calculating each of the three primary overpotentials (activation, ohmic, and concentration) in bulk fashion and subtracting them from the ideal Nernst potential as in EQ(2)
VCell = E A C R
(2)
where Vcell is the actual cell voltage for a given current, A is the activation polarization loss, C is the concentration polarization loss, and R is the ohmic polarization loss. Calculation of these polarizations is based on a rst principles understanding of the overall performance of a fuel cell. For a given temperature and pressure, all three polarizations are typically only a function of current demand. The loss associated with sluggish kinetics due to low temperatures and/or lack of availability of active catalytic cell sites is modeled using a relationship for activation polarization. This polarization is more dominant at low current densities. The activation polarization is calculated as
A =
i Ru T . l n i F n 0
(3)
The key parameter that determines activation polarization for a specic fuel cell is io, which is the exchange current density. Exchange current density is associated with the catalytic activity of a particular cell and corresponds to the rate at which the electrodes exchange ions with the electrolyte under equilibrium conditions (no net current ow). represents the distribution of intermediate species at the triple phase boundary, indicating whether these species more closely resemble reactants or products. has a value between zero and one (usually taken to be 0.5). The irreversibility associated with concentration gradients near the active cell surface is modeled by EQ(4)
C =
Ru T i l n 1 n F iL
(4)
139
The new term here is iL, which is the limiting current density. Limiting current density corresponds to the maximum current that the fuel cell can produce to equal the maximum supply speed of reactants. To avoid this polarization, the fuel cell is usually operated at lower current densities or at higher pressures (if power density is a concern). Since activation polarization is reduced at high temperature, and since high temperature fuel cells are typically operated at relatively low current density, ohmic polarization is usually the most signicant electrochemical loss. At normal operating conditions, this ohmic loss is primarily due to low ionic conductivity of the electrolyte and/or low electrical conductivity of associated interconnect materials. Resistance can also be high, if the cell is operating at a temperature below the optimum due to the strong temperature dependence of electrolyte ionic resistivity. The potential loss associated with cell resistance is
where i is the current density and Reff is the effective overall cell resistance. Several fuel cell parameters affect the cell resistance including inherent electrolyte ionic conductivity, electrolyte thickness, electrode and interconnect electronic conductivities and geometry of the electrolyte affects the internal resistance. Thinner electrolyte layers can be designed to reduce ionic ohmic polarization, but the thickness is bound by the requirements of the cell to endure structural stresses produced by different thermal expansion of the materials that are sandwiched together. The effective resistance used in the current model includes consideration of the cell materials and geometry as well as a temperature dependence that is based on empirical data gathered from test cell and laboratory experiments on the tubular SOFC design of Siemens Westinghouse. The SOFC model incorporates the dynamic equations that solve for conservation of mass or species, momentum, and energy. For species conservation the equation assuming a well-stirred reactor approach is used.
Vc v C dX (X X ) X R + R =N i n i n d t
(6)
There are seven species considered: methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, water, nitrogen, and oxygen. Using Faradays law of electrolysis EQ(7) the electrochemistry vectors for the reaction rates in the SOFC anode and cathode become equations EQ (8) and EQ (9) for the anode and cathode respectively.
rj =
a *i n F
+ i 2F 0 0
(7)
i R anode ,e = ACell * 0 0 0 2F
(8) (9)
i R cathode ,e = ACell * 0 0 0 0 0 0 4F
Reformation and water-gas-shift chemical reactions occur simultaneously with the electrochemical reactions in the anode compartment of the SOFC. The reaction vector for the internal reformation chemical reactions is added to the electrochemistry reaction vector and inserted into EQ(6) to solve for dynamic species conservation. The internal reformation model considers the chemical kinetics of three concurrent chemical reactions, steam reformation of methane and water-gas shift as follows:
The forward rates of these steam reformation and water-gas shift are determined by Arrhenius rate expressions. The reformation model uses rates that are consistent with the use of typical nickel-based catalysts.19 This should be reasonable considering the nickel-YSZ composition of the cathode and nickel felt electrical connection materials in the anode compartment. The rate equation of reaction EQ(10) is
0.5 PC PC H 4 PH 2 O O PH 2 R1 = k 1 2.5 PH K p1 2
/ DEN 2 .
(13)
PC PC O 2 O PH 2O R2 = k 2 PH K p2 2
/ DEN 2 .
(14)
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The rate of reaction EQ(12) is
2 0.5 PC PC H 4 PH 2 O O 2 PH 2 R3 = k 3 P 3.5 K p3 H2
/ DEN 2 .
(15)
The denominator used in each of the reaction rate expressions above is:
DEN = 1 + K C H 4 PC H 4 + O PC O + K H 2 PH 2 + K C
K H 2O PH 2O PH 2
(16)
According to the Arrhenius equation and vant Hoff equation, the reaction constants ki (i =1-3) and Kj (j =CO, CH4, H2O, or H2) in the above equations can be calculated from the pre-exponential factors Ai and Aj, and the absorption parameters E i and H j from the following equations
E k i = Ai exp i , T R
(17)
H j K j = A j exp R T
(18)
The constants used in the current model are presented in Table 3 and Table 4. CO is assumed to be consumed/created only by water-gas shift and steam reformation. Direct electrochemical oxidation of CO and hydrocarbons is possible under current anodic conditions, but it occurs at a sufciently slow rate that this assumption has been shown to be reasonable in previous studies.20
Table 3. Reformation constants
Rate Constant k1
Activation Heat of energy Pre-exponential factor Rate Constant adsorption (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) 240.1 1.336 x 10 (kmolMPa
(0.5) 15
K CO
-70.65
/kgcath)
7
k2
67.13
K CH4
-38.28
6.65 x 10 (MPa )
-1
-3
k3
243.9
K H2O
88.68
/kgcath) K H2 -82.9
-8
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dCmassT V d t
c v
E +Q =E i n out GEN
(19)
H f , H 2O ( g ) QGEN = VCELL *i n F
As for the anode and cathode gases, EQ(21) solves the energy balance for each of these control volumes.
(20)
dCCv ,molar T V d t
c v
E =E i n out
(21)
The gas stream ows are assumed to be fully developed laminar ow. This assumption permits the use of an altered form of the Darcy equation EQ(22) for the solution of momentum conservation (calculating the fuel cell pressure drop) as follows
P = f
where P is the pressure drop, the hydraulic diameter.
L v 2 Dh 2
(22)
f is the friction factor, L is the characteristic length, is density, v is average velocity, and Dh is
Diffuser Volume
Diffuser Volume
Generator Load
Air In
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Typical non-dimensionalization of the mass ow is as follows:
R R T m D 2 P0 1
0 1
(23)
is the uid mass ow, R is the gas constant, is the ratio of specic heats, T01 is the stagnation temperature at the inlet, D is where m a characteristic length, and P01 is the stagnation pressure at the inlet. Dimensionless rotor speed can be given by
N D R T
,
0 1
(24)
where N is the rotational speed. Using the mapped compressor and turbine performance, the mass ow through such can be determined for any given speed, discharge pressure, and inlet condition. The solution strategy for both the turbine and compressor dynamics involves iterative determination of mass ow. For a given rotational speed and pressure ratio, a mass ow is guessed and iteratively converged upon until a pressure ratio matches the ratio of discharge pressure to inlet pressure. An iterative approach is necessary because the discharge pressure is determined by the swallowing capacity of components downstream of the compressor (or turbine). Once the mass ow is determined, a compressor (or turbine) efciency can be determined from the efciency map. Knowing the isentropic efciency, the compressor (or turbine) exit temperature can be determined from the isentropic relations described in the following paragraphs. The inlet temperature of the compressor is known and once the compressor isentropic efciency is extracted from the performance maps the compressor stagnation exit temperature, T02, can be calculated by the using EQ(25).
1 T0 2 = T0 1 1 + comp
P0 2 P 1 0
1 )
(25)
The specic heat, CP, is calculated next as a function of temperature based on third-order curve ts for a gas mixture containing up to seven molecular species (CH4, CO, CO2, H2, H2O, N2, O2). Using Cp and the temperature of each state the enthalpies can be calculated by EQ (26) and used to calculate the compressor work using EQ (27).
h0 T 1 h0 2 = C P (T ) d
T0 2
T0 1
(26)
Comp (h0 PC = m 1 h0 2
(27)
After the compressor exit state is determined a dynamic expression that accounts for gas compressibility and mass storage in a separate compressor diffuser volume is solved as follows
R d P T in m out ) = (m d t V
(28)
Thus, for a given moment in time, all the parameters necessary to assess the dynamic compressor performance are calculated. As for the gasier turbine work or the turbine supplying work to compressor the turbine inlet temperature (T03) is known. Using performance maps the isentropic turbine efciency can be extracted from the turbine efciency map and used in EQ(29) to calculate the turbine exit temperature.
P0 4 T0 = T 1 + 4 0 3 T P 0 3
(29)
Once the temperatures are known then turbine mass storage can be assessed by solution of EQ (28) for the turbine. Then the enthalpies at each state (EQ(30)) are calculated in order to calculate the turbine power using EQ (31).
h0 T 3 h0 4 = C P (T ) d
T0 4
T0 3
(30)
143
Comp (h0 PT = m 3 h0 4
(31)
d 1 = T C . d t J 1
(32)
For the second turbine (power turbine) the same equations are used for to calculate the state (5 and 6) temperatures and enthalpies. As for the sum of the torques, the second shaft has the generator load instead of the compressor load as in EQ (33).
d 1 = T LOAD d t J 2
(33)
The generator operates at 3600 RPM for 60 Hz AC electricity production; therefore the load from the generator is dynamically adjusted to maintain the RPM of the power turbine at 3600 RPM. Do to alterations made to the nozzle of the gas turbine to accommodate the over sizing of the gas turbine with the rest of the system the power turbine was operated at a lower RPM of 3000. This produced 50 Hz AC power from the generator.
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Fig. 11. Fuel ow and bypass valve positions used in the experiment and simulations
5.6
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In Figure 12, the SOFC power is ramped up from 147 kW to 158 kW over a period of 100,000 seconds. The model simulation follows the SOFC power closely. The model input for the SOFC is the current demand and fuel ow rate. The cathode inlet temperature, operating fuel cell voltage, overall SOFC temperature, internal reformer temperature, combustor temperature, pressure and other operating parameters are calculated and dependent on the solution of the integrated hybrid system dynamic performance as calculated using the simulation modules described herein. Sudden drops in SOFC power were observed in the experiment as the SOFC bypass valve was opened to allow more air to bypass the SOFC. At low load (time = 10,000 seconds) the model does not capture this dynamic. However, a similar dynamic that occurs when the fuel cell is producing 157 kW (around t = 90,000 seconds) is slightly captured by the model. It is believed these sudden drops in power are due to the changes in the airows through and around the SOFC stack. The discrepancies of the experiment and model data during changes in the SOFC bypass valve position are due to uncertainties in the exact ow dynamics and ow amounts altered by the SOFC bypass valve Measurement data for the bypass valve position is not very accurate since the valve type used was a pneumatically actuated buttery valve. Pressure, mass ow, and temperature deviations would lead to different mass ows being bypassed for the same valve position. Also the rst degrees of movement of the valve dramatically change the amount of mass ow being bypassed. One could estimate the bypass mass ow using an enthalpy balance if accurate data for mass ow and temperatures around each bypass valves were known. Since this information was not available bypass mass ow rates were estimated by valve position only with rates averaged over a 5 minute time period. The gas turbine performance, power output, system airow rate and SOFC pressure are each totally dependent on the SOFC performance (in model and experiment). The power output of the gas turbine (Turbine 2 of Figure 8) is left to oat depending on the SOFC stack exhaust conditions and the percentage of air that bypasses the SOFC. As more air bypasses the SOFC stack, the cooling of the SOFC stack decreases and the turbine inlet temperature (TIT) is reduced resulting in
165
Model Experiment
160 155 150 145 140 0 25000 50000 75000 100000 125000 150000 Time (sec)
Fig. 12. SOFC power experimental and simulation comparison
Gas Turbine Power Experimental and Model Comparison for the 220 kW SOFC/GT Hybrid
29 27 Model Experimental
GT Power (kW)
25 23 21 19 17 15 0 20000 40000 60000 80000 Time (sec) 100000 120000 140000 160000
Fig. 13. Gas turbine power simulation and experimental data comparison
760 750
Model Experiment
TIT (K)
740 730 720 710 0 25000 50000 75000 100000 125000 150000 Time (sec)
145
Fig. 14. Model and experiment turbine inlet temperature (TIT) comparison
Air
GENERATOR
RECUPERATOR
T1 760 C T2 727 C
752 C 735 C
788 C
803 C
T1 575 C T2 552 C
Stack Gas
T1 216 C T2 202 C T1 578 C T2 509 C
575 C 566 C
246 C
236 C
BY-PASS
T1 769 C T2 822 C
576 C
516 C
Cathode
OXIDIZER
OBSERVED SIMULATION RESULTS RESULTS
Fuel
Anode
SOFC
Fig. 15. Comparison of temperature states in hybrid system for initial and nal conditions
Hybrid cycles comprised of high temperature fuel cells, such as the molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) or solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) are very promising for generating electric power in the future, initially at the small to medium scale (250
kW to 20 MW), and later in large scale central plants (>100 MW). However, hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems are in need of
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signicant advancement before they are introduced as commercial products. Some progress is needed to address the specic challenges that are introduced by coupling a fuel cell with a gas turbine given their disparate dynamic response characteristics. Thus a signicant need for developing and testing control methods and strategies for hybrid gas turbine fuel cell power plants is required. As an example, hybrid systems are sensitive to ambient conditions due the sensitivity of compressors to air density. At higher temperatures the air becomes less dense requiring a compressor to do more work to pressurize and move the air through the system. As for a hybrid system, it is challenging to maintain sufcient compressor mass ow for extreme conditions since the fuel cell is operated at a xed temperature. If the gas turbine operates at a xed speed there are no options for controlling the mass ow. The total power output of the system may have to be sacriced in order to maintain appropriate fuel cell operating temperature by lowering the load demand on the fuel cell. For the purposes of better understanding the dynamics of hybrid gas turbine fuel cell hybrid systems and for development of controls, NFCRC has developed dynamic modeling tools for FC/GT hybrid systems. In previous work21, transient performance and controls analyses of atmospheric hybrid systems with MCFCs were presented. Load perturbations were implemented to analyze the MCFC/GT hybrid response. In these investigations it was discovered that additional control loops are necessary to control the MCFC operating temperature. For example, varying fuel utilization across the MCFC provided some means for control but was limited. Variable speed operation of the gas turbine was tested and showed more promise, but still was limited in the particular system at lower power demands. For a larger turn-down in system power a bypass or auxiliary combustor is needed in parallel.22 For part-load operation of a FC/GT hybrid it has been shown that a variable speed gas turbine is a required feature for both pressurized23 and atmospheric systems.24 The variable speed gas turbine provides better control of the compressor mass ow. In the previous section a dynamic system model was described and results were compared to experimental data from the Siemens SOFC/GT system. A dual shaft turbine was used in that particular SOFC/GT system. The dual shaft turbine prevented the direct control of the compressor mass ow, which limited the operation exibility. The system had to be operated at the maximum power safely allowed. In the current section, a 1.15 MW pressurized SOFC/GT hybrid model is developed. A diagram of the system is presented in Figure 16 and a schematic of the SOFC module is presented in Figure 17. The system was designed around the Capstone C200 microturbine generator. Design parameters for the C20025 and the hybrid plant are presented in Table 5.
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Value
1150 1 1 0.4 0.73 60000 950 1 1.3 1500.0% 43569.8% 75.0% RPM *8.33E-10 98% and 14 kW load 0.02 0.02 960 320 4,000 0.75 100.0% 80.0% 85.0% 900
Unit
kW
kW
kW m A/m
2 2
Controller Design
A decentralized controller design is used to control the hybrid system. The objective of the system controllers is to maintain constant power production while maintaining the SOFC operating temperature close to its design operation temperature of 900C. Figure 18 presents the controller design. The controller design consists of a gas turbine shaft speed controller, system power controller,
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and a SOFC temperature and fuel flow controller. The shaft speed controller is a cascade controller with the outer loop consisting of a feed forward and a feedback flow controller for the RPM set point. The inner loop manipulates the gas turbine power to achieve the a set point provided by the outer loop. The feed forward aspect of the outer loop uses a look-up table to determine the RPM setting for a given system power. The feedback loop corrects the RPM setting for any SOFC temperature deviations. The feedback portion is very important when the compressor is operating at an off design setting. For example, extreme ambient conditions would require RPM correction. The system power controller manipulates the SOFC current in order to meet the power demand. The gas turbine power is treated as a disturbance for this particular controller. Therefore, the SOFC power is altered continuously by manipulating the current to meet the power demand that has not been met by the gas turbine. There is additional control of the SOFC temperature via the bypass valve located between the turbine exhaust and the recuperator. The bypass, when used, lowers the inlet temperature to the SOFC module. The fuel ow is manipulated to achieve fuel utilization of 85%. The fuel ow controller is a feed forward controller based on the current of the SOFC. The fuel utilization after one pass through the anode section is approximately 53%. The design electrical power production of the SOFC/GT hybrid system is 1.15 MW. For the base-load case the system maintains 1.15 MW (1150 kW) of net electrical power production. The SOCF/GT hybrid system is operated in an extreme environment with a vast uctuating ambient temperature. The temperature changes account for colder or frigid regions and hot regions where the system may be operated. The system is tested in load-following mode with a varying load demand. The same daily ambient conditions are applied to the system while demanding a sinusoidal power prole that varies from 1150 kW at the peak of the day to 950 kW at the minimum power production time of the day.
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Fig. 19. Total power, SOFC power and gas turbine power produced
Fig. 20. SOFC average temperature, ambient temperature and bypassed mass ow
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Fig. 21. Compressor mass ow, pressure and normalized shaft speed
Fig. 22. SOFC, cathode, turbine inlet, and catalytic oxidizer temperatures
The system efciency, SOFC fuel and oxygen utilization and fuel ow are presented in Figure 23. The system efciency uctuates between 65% and 72%. At the peak ambient temperature, the gas turbine net power is reduced to sustain sufcient mass ow from the compressor. The SOFC power is increased to offset the power drop from the gas turbine. The increased power from the SOFC increases the fuel ow which decreases the system efciency when more fuel is required for the same net power produced by the system. The SOFC fuel utilization presented in Figure 23 is the fuel utilization after one pass through the anode section of the SOFC stack. After recirculation, the overall SOFC module electrochemical fuel utilization is 85%.
Fig. 23. System efciency, SOFC oxygen and fuel utilization and fuel ow
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Fig. 24. Total power, SOFC power and gas turbine power produced
The SOFC temperature in Figure 25 is kept within 25C of the design temperature as in the case presented earlier. The impact of the ambient temperature on the system can be seen in Figure 25. The same spikes and dips occur in the SOFC temperature as did in the previous case, but the logic behind them is more obvious in these results. The dip in SOFC temperature at 8 hours is a result of the sudden increase in mass ow from the compressor presented in Figure 26. The bulge at 7 hours is more apparent in this case. The mass ow from the compressor increases with the sudden increase of the shaft speed also presented in Figure 26. The same two sources as described in the previous section triggered this sudden change in shaft speed (1) more efcient compressor and (2) increase in TIT. The gas turbine power increases in Figure 24 at the same time to overcome this surge of net power being produced by the gas turbine. The TIT eventually lowers as the bypass valve opens and the ambient temperature continues to rise. This reduces the power produced by the turbine and the increases the compressor work as before. The gas turbine power is decreased by the controllers in Figure 24 to allow the shaft speed to continually increase so that the SOFC can have sufcient cooling. In this case the gas turbine power does not have to change as much since it is already at the right power range for 1150 kW system power production with 35C ambient temperature.
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Fig. 26. Compressor mass ow, pressure and normalized shaft speed
Figure 27 presents the cathode and SOFC inlet temperature. The drop in both of these temperatures from the opening of the bypass valve can be seen between 7-17 hours. There is a more dramatic change in the SOFC inlet than the cathode inlet temperature because the heat exchanger becomes more effective due the increase in temperature differences between the SOFC inlet and catalytic oxidizer temperature. The catalytic oxidizer increase from the increase in SOFC power (more anode of gas), SOFC temperature and the reduction of mass ow (higher oxygen utilization, Figure 28). The TIT increases because of the catalytic oxidizer temperature increase, but less since the heat exchanger is more effective in transferring the heat from one ow to the other.
Fig. 27. SOFC, cathode, turbine inlet, and the catalytic oxidizer temperatures
The system efciency in Figure 28 has the same prole as in the earlier case, but is higher when the power production is lower due to the higher operating voltage or more efcient operation of the SOFC. The oxygen utilization and the fuel utilization are similar to the case presented in the previous section. The oxygen utilization does reach higher levels of 47%, which indicates that the mass ow would be desired to be increased for better performance.
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Fig. 28. System efciency, SOFC oxygen and fuel utilization and fuel ow
1.4-8 Research & Development Needs for Hybrid Gas Turbine Fuel Cell Systems
Over a period of more than 10 years the U.S. Department of Energy has sponsored workshops and conferences on the topic of gas turbine fuel cell hybrid systems. In many of these venues stakeholders from industry, agencies, national laboratories and universities have gathered to discuss the latest ndings and results from hybrid projects and work together to identify the remaining research and development topics that should be addressed to advance hybrid systems. This section presents a summary of research and development needs for hybrid gas turbine fuel cell systems that is developed in part on the basis of input from these workshops and conferences.
Research is required to enable fuel cells to meet the demands that hybrid cycles might place on them. Some of the particular needs that new fuel cell technology may need to provide to reach the expected hybrid system performance targets include the following: 1) Advanced materials a) Increased current densities (to reduce the size and cost of fuel cells, improved materials for electrodes and electrolytes are required) b) Improved mechanical properties (to withstand thermal stresses induced by successive starts and stops, and mechanical vibrations induced by turbomachinery and/or by motion in mobile applications) 2) Decrease air to fuel ratio (to decrease size of fuel cell itself, the equipment upstream of the fuel cell supplying the air and downstream of the fuel cell handling the exhaust gas, as well as increase the efciency of the hybrid by being able to operate the gas turbine at a higher ring temperature) 3) Improved heat transfer to remove heat generated by cell a) For example, use more internal reforming to absorb heat generated by cell
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4) High speed solid state inverter technologies a) New materials (semiconductor compounds and/or layered structures of different materials) b) New switching techniques 5) Fuel exibility a) Tolerance to fuel contaminants (sulfur and chlorine compounds)
Combustors
Combustors will be required for all fuel cell systems for startup and possibly shut-down (e.g., to keep the gas turbine operating and supplying cooling air to the stack), as well as to accommodate dynamic load variations through increased heat engine output. Combustor advancement that would be valuable to a hybrid program includes those with the following possible features and/or research requirements: modulatable combustor (0-100% load), relight capability, can withstand constant ux of high temperature fuel cell products through inactive combustor (during steady state operation) without cooling air, high reliability, availability, maintainability, durability, low cost
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Research is required to enable gas turbine engines to meet the demands and features of various hybrid cycle designs. Some of the particular needs that new gas turbine technology may need to provide to reach the expected hybrid system performance targets include the following: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Recuperative cycle congurations Advanced cycle congurations (intercooling, humid air turbine) Combustor (capable of accepting hot vitiated air and hot depleted fuel) Reduced emissions combustor (reduced NOx, CO and hydrocarbons) Catalytic combustor (capable of accepting reduced excess air, possibly approaching stoichiometric conditions) Reduced turbine cooling penalty (advanced turbine materials including ceramics and cooling technologies) Increased pressure ratio Increased compressor and turbine aerodynamic efciencies Fuel exibility a) Tolerance to fuel contaminants (chlorine compounds and alkaline earth compounds)
RAMD
System failure modes & criticality affects (FMCA) RAMD Tests on systems and/or subsystems Component Tests--accelerated or otherwise Power electronics RAMD study
Packaging
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Optimize/Customize Turbine Subsystem
The gas turbine subsystem of a gas turbine fuel cell hybrid system could be optimized or customized in many different ways to make the subsystem amenable in some cases, and more suitable in most cases to the high reliability and high efciency characteristics that are desireable in a hybrid system. This section identies specic advances in gas turbine technology that would be helpful to the advancement of hybrid systems. Features of hybrid-optimized gas turbine systems that need advancement in a hybrid program include: At least 8700 hours of continuous, maintenance-free operation Match the fuel cell operating and maintenance cycles (e.g., major and minor overhauls) Develop never-sieze bearings Increase surge margin in design for fuel cell Hot section (e.g., combustor, heat exchanger) endurance (increased life) Develop control strategies consistent with new thermal input Develop interface requirements, and standard interface strategies Maximize commonality amongst hybrid components with stand alone line of gas turbines that can meet these needs Material selection (near term) Materials development (long term) Optimize control strategies for efciency taking into account protection of both GT and fuel cell On-board intelligent diagnostics--specic sensor development Variable geometry compressor or turbine blades to achieve a suitable design for surge margin Package alternator with power electronics Advanced bearings--maintenance free or on the y (magnetic, air, lube free)--never seize Control for graceful depressurization High temperature heat exchangers and recuperators Design GT for proper size range Design turbine for lower turbine inlet temperature (TIT) Design GT for lower pressure ratio
Research is required to enable integrated hybrid systems to meet performance expectations. Some of the particular needs that the integration technology may need to provide to reach the expected hybrid system performance targets include the following: 1) 2) 3) 4) Systems Analysis (to identify more efcient and cost effective hybrids) Off-design Performance Analysis (part-load and sensitivity to ambient conditions) Dynamic and Transient Analysis (load following capability, rapid start-up and shut-down) Fuel Processing a) Compact Reformers b) Membrane Reformers for Natural Gas (reactors that separate one of the products of reaction such as hydrogen or carbon dioxide as it is formed from the reaction mixture) c) Resilient Reformer Catalysts for Natural Gas (less susceptible to poisons such as sulfur and chlorine compounds, and carbon deposition which will allow use of lower steam to carbon ratios) d) Cost Effective Partial Oxidation Plants for Dirty Fuels such as coal, biomass, renery residues (compact reactor system designs and operating at lower temperatures to increase cold gas efciency, and reduce oxygen consumption) e) Cost Effective Air Blown Catalytic Partial Oxidation and/or Reforming of Distillate for Mobile Applications such as Ships and Locomotives (compact reactor system designs and catalysts less susceptible to poisons such as sulfur and chlorine compounds, and carbon deposition which will allow use of lower steam to carbon ratios, operating at lower temperatures to increase cold gas efciency, and reduce air usage in case of PoX) f) Cost Effective Air Blown Catalytic Partial Oxidation and/or Reforming of Diesel and Gasoline for Automotive Applications (compact reactor system designs and catalysts less susceptible to poisons such as sulfur and chlorine compounds, and carbon deposition which will allow use of lower steam to carbon ratios, operating at lower temperatures to increase cold gas efciency, and reduce air usage in case of PoX) g) Cost Effective Air Blown Partial Oxidation and/or Reforming of Diesel/Gasoline Substitutes such as Alcohols and Dimethyl Either (compact reactor system designs and catalysts less susceptible to carbon deposition which will allow use of lower steam to carbon ratios, operating at lower temperatures to increase cold gas efciency, and reduce air usage in case of PoX) Cost Effective and Efcient Oxygen Production (e.g., ion transport membranes) Cost Effective and Efcient Hydrogen Separation from Syn Gas (e.g., ion/proton transport membranes) Fuel Cleanup and Desulfurization a) Regenerable Desulfurization of Natural Gas b) Hot Gas Cleanup of Syn-Gas for Particulate, Sulfur and Chlorine Compounds Removal High Temperature Heat Exchangers (transferring heat from atmospheric or low pressure fuel cell combustors to working uid of high pressure ratio gas turbines) next 15 years Compact Mobile Unit Sub-system Designs (e.g., to be able to operate with unstable liquid levels caused by motion) Hydrogen Storage
5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10)
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Market and Design Analyses
Developing an understanding of the market for fuel cell hybrid systems will be integrated into the development efforts. These efforts will endeavor to develop: Market understanding Impacts of the market(s) on HPS designs Sensitivity of parameters between markets and systems Equipment parameters and costs for each market segment Denition and identication of competing technologies Understanding of the impacts of regulatory policy Denitions of potential markets and market segmentation Interaction of systems with one another and utility grids Accurate models of equipment and integration (e.g., with the grid) Strategies for sharing of market information amongst competitive entities Develop steady state equipment and integrated systems analysis tools Develop dynamic equipment and integrated systems analysis tools Sources for neutral, objective and reliable information gathering and dissemination Collaboration amongst equipment user groups Collaboration amongst manufacturers Centers for multi-disciplinary research (Business, Economics, Engineering)
It is anticipated that the integration elements of the hybrid program can be addressed in stages with the following overall staged goals: Adapt Existing Components (2005) Optimize congurations (2005-2010) Congure and test optimized hardware (2005-2010) Learn lessons from rst generation optimized systems (2010) Develop and demonstrate next generation hybrids (2015)
Some of the research and development challenges that are faced in this integration aspect of the program include the following: Interface of Major Components Reconguration of Major Components System Operational Features Control Flow Matching Thermal Management System Balance Safety
Key tools and strategies that must be developed and used in the integration elements of the hybrid program include: Performance Modeling Design Systems Controls Research and Development Performance Analysis
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1.4-9 Acknowledgments:
Special contributions to this work have been made by Dr. Rory A. Roberts, who accomplished most of the dynamic modeling efforts presented herein, and Mr. Yaofan Yi, who conducted most of the thermodynamic analyses.
1.4-10 Notes
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1. Gottesfeld, S., and Zawadinski, T., Advances in Electrochemical Science and Engineering, Volume 5, Alkire, R., Gerischer, H., Kolb, D., and Tobias, C., editors, 1998. 2. Appleby, A.J., and Yeager, E.B., Energy, vol. 137, p. 11, 1986. 3. Hirschenhofer, J.H. Stauffer, D.B., Engleman, R.R. and Klett, M.G., Fuel Cell Handbook, Fourth Edition, DOE Contract No. DE-AC21-94MC31166, Reading, PA, 1998. 4. Baker, B.S. Carbonate Fuel Cells A Decade of Progress, 191st Meeting, Electrochemical Society, May, 1997. 5. Singhal, S.C., Recent Progress in Tubular Solid Oxide Fuel Technology, Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC-V), The Electrochemical Society, Inc., Pennington, NJ, 1997; Minh, N.Q., Ceramic Fuel Cells, J. American Ceramic Society, vol. 76, issue 3, pp. 563-588, 1993. 6. Ibid. 7. Dennis, R., U.S. Department of Energy, Hybrid Fuel Cell Systems, International Colloquium on Environmentally Preferred Advanced Generation, 2003; Bloomeld et al., United States Patent 3,973,993; 8/10/76; Landau, United States Patent 3,976,506; 8/24/76; Bloomeld, United States Patent 3,976,507; 8/24/76; 8. Hendriks et al., United States Patent 5,319,925; 1/14/94; Pietrogrande et al., United States Patent 5,314,761; 5/24/94; Domeracki et al., United States Patent 5,413,879; 5/9/95; Micheli et al., United States Patent 5,449,568; 9/12/95; Shingai et al., United States Patent 5,482,791; 1/9/96; Hsu et al., United States Patent 5,693,201; 12/2/97; Wolfe et al., United States Patent 5,678,647; 10/21/97; Skowronski, United States Patent 5,811,201; 9/22/98; 9. White, D.J., Solar Turbines Incorporated; TTS85/492; Energy Conversion: A Vision of the Future; 1997. 10. IGTI (1999). The Hybrid Cycle: Integration of the Gas Turbine with a Fuel Cell Session, The International Gas Turbine Institute Turbo-Expo, Indianapolis, June. a) Developmental Status of Hybrids (1999). ASME 99-GT-400 (Abbie Layne, Mark Williams, Scott Samuelsen, Patricia Hoffman); b) Hybrid Gas Turbine and Fuel Cell Systems in Perspective Review (1999). ASME 99-GT-419 (David White); c) Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Power System Cycles (1999). ASME 99-GT-356 (Stephen E. Veyo, Wayne L. Lundberg); d) The Hybrid Cycle: Integration of a Fuel Cell with a Gas Turbine (1999). ASME 99-GT-430 (John D. Leeper); e) The Hybrid Cycle: Integration of Turbomachinery with a Fuel Cell (1999). ASME 99-GT-361 (Sy Ali, Robert R. Moritz); f) Technical Development Issues and Dynamic Modeling of Gas Turbine and Fuel Cell Hybrid Systems (1999). ASME 99-GT-360 (Eric Liese, Randall Gemmen, Faryar Jabbari, Jacob Brouwer); IGTI (2000). The Hybrid Cycle: Integration of the Gas Turbine with a Fuel Cell Session, The International Gas Turbine Institute Turbo-Expo, Munich, May; a) Hybrid Heat Engines: The Power Generation Systems of the Future (2002). ASME 2000-GT-0549 (Abbie Layne, Mark Williams, Scott Samuelsen, Patricia Hoffman);
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b) Tubular Solid Oxide Fuel Cell/Gas Turbine Hybrid Cycle Power Systems Status (2002). ASME 2000GT-0550 (Stephen Veyo, Larry Shockling, Jeffrey Dederer, James Gillett, Wayne Lundberg); c) A Prototype for the First Commercial Pressurized Fuel Cell System (2002). ASME 2000-GT-0551 (Sy Ali, Robert Moritz); d) Ultra High Efciency Hybrid Direct Fuel Cell/Turbine Power Plan (2002). ASME 2000-GT-0552 (Anthony J. Leo, Hossein Ghezel-Ayagh, Robert Sanderson); e) Analysis Strategies for Tubular SOFC Based Hybrid Systems (2002). ASME 2000-GT-0553 (Ashok Rao, Scott Samuelsen); f) Development of Dynamic Modeling Tools for Solid Oxide and Molten Carbonate Hybrid Fuel Cell Gas Turbine Systems (2002). ASME 2000-GT-0554 (Randall Gemmen, Eric Liese, Jose Rivera, Faryar Jabbari, Jacob Brouwer); IGTI (2001). The Hybrid Cycle: Integration of the Gas Turbine with a Fuel Cell Session, The International Gas Turbine Institute Turbo-Expo, June, New Orleans; a) Hybrid Fuel Cell Heat Engines: Recent Efforts (2001). ASME 2001-GT-0588 (Abbie Layne, Mark Williams, Norman Holcombe, Scott Samuelsen); b) A Turbogenerator for Fuel Cell/Gas Turbine Hybrid Power Plant (2001). ASME 2001-GT-0524 Sy Ali, Robert Moritz); c) A Thermodynamic Analysis of Tubular SOFC Based Hybrid Systems (2001). ASME 2001-GT-0522 (Ashok Rao, G.S. Samuelsen); d) A High-Efciency SOFC Hybrid Power System Using the Mercury 50 ATS Gas Turbine (2001). ASME 2001-GT-0521 (Wayne Lundberg, Stephen Veyo, Mark D. Moeckel); IGTI (2002). The Hybrid Cycle: Integration of the Gas Turbine with a Fuel Cell Session, The International Gas Turbine Institute Turbo-Expo, June, Amsterdam; a) The National Energy Technology Laboratorys Hybrid Power Systems Program (2002). ASME GT2002-30668 (Richard Dennis, Mark Williams, Abbie Layne, Scott Samuelsen, Norm Holcombe); b) Status of Pressurized SOFC/Gas Turbine Power System Development at Siemens Westinghouse (2002). ASME GT-2002-30670 (Stephen Veyo, Kevin Litzinger, Shailesh Vora, Wayne Lundberg); c) Power Plant System Congurations for the 21st Century (2002). ASME GT-2002-30671 (Ashok Rao, Scott Samuelsen, Fred Robson, Rodney Geisbrecht); d) Rao, Ashok; Samuelsen, Scott; Robson, Fred; Geisbrecht, Rodney (2002). Power Plant System Congurations for the 21st Century, ASME GT-2002-30671; e) Veyo, Stephen; Litzinger, Kevin; Vora, Shailesh, and Lundberg, Wayne (2002). Status of Pressurized SOFC/Gas Turbine Power System Development at Siemens Westinghouse, ASME GT-2002-30670. 11. Rao, A. D., Samuelsen, G. S., 2002, Analysis Strategies for Tubular Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Based Hybrid, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power. 124(July 2002), pp. 503-509. 12. Massardo, A. F., Lubelli, F., 2000, Internal Reforming Solid Oxide Fuel Cell-Gas Turbine Combined Cycles (IRSOFC-GT): Part A- Cell Model and Cycle Thermodynamic Analysis, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power. 122, pp. 27-35. 13. Costamagna, P., et al., 2004, Electrochemical model of the integrated planar solid oxide fuel cell (IP-SOFC), Chemical Engineering Journal. 102(1), pp. 61-69. 14. Bessette, N.F.,1994, Modeling and Simulation for SOFC Power Systems, in Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, p. 209; Yi, Y., Smith, Thomas P., Brouwer, Jacob, Rao, Ashok D., 2003, Simulation of a 220 kW Hybrid SOFC Gas Turbine System and Data Comparison. Journal of Power Sources; Chan, S.H., Ho, H. K., Tian, Y., Modeling of Simple Hybrid Solid Oxide Fuel Cell and Gas Turbine Power Plant. Journal of Power Sources, 2002. 109: p.111-120; See Notes 11, 12, and 13. 15. Gemmen, R. S., Liese, Eric, Rivera, Jose G., Jabbari, Faryar, and Brouwer, Jacob. 2000, Development of Dynamic Modeling Tools for Solid Oxide and Molten Carbonate Hybrid Fuel Cell Gas Turbine Systems. 2000-GT-0552, in ASME Turbo Expo. Munich, Germany: ASME; Liese, E. A., Gemmen, Randall S., Jabbari, Faryar, Brouwer, Jacob, 1999, Technical Development Issues and Dynamic Modeling of Gas Turbine and Fuel Cell Hybrid Systems, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power; Lukas, M. D., Lee, Kwang Y., Ghezel-Ayagh, Hossein, 1999, Development of a Stack Simulation Model for Control Study on Direct Reforming Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell power Plant, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion. PE-468-EC-0-01-1999; Lukas, M. D., Lee, Kwang Y., Ghezel-Ayagh, Hossein, 2000, Operation and Control of Direct Reforming Fuel Cell Power Plant, IEEE Power Engineering Society. 16. Ghezel-Ayagh, H., Daly, Joseph M., Wang, Zhao-Hui, Advances in Direct Fuel Cell / Gas Turbine Power Plants. 2003 ASME Turbo Expo, Atlanta, Georgia, 2003. GT2003-38941. 17. Veyo, S.E., Lundberg, Wayne L., Vora, Shailesh D., Litzinger, Kevin P., Tubular SOFC Hybrid Power System Status. Preceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2003, 2003. GT2003-38943; See Note 14. 18. Roberts, R. A., Brouwer, J., Gemmen, R.S., and Liese, E.A., 2003, Inter-Laboratory Dynamic Modeling of a Carbonate Fuel Cell for Hybrid Application. GT2003-38774, in 2003 ASME Turbo Expo, Atlanta, Georgia;
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BIOGRAPHY
Dr. Jack Brouwer is Adjunct Assistant Professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at U.C. Irvine (UCI) and the Associate Director of the National Fuel Cell Research Center (NFCRC). Dr. Brouwer completed doctoral studies in Mechanical Engineering and Chemical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Prior to joining the NFCRC, Dr. Brouwer was a research faculty at the University of Utah, a Senior Engineer at Reaction Engineering International, and a Staff Scientist at Sandia National Laboratories. Dr. Brouwer has expertise in energy systems, fuel cell technology, turbulent reacting ows, computational uid dynamics, chemical kinetics, and electrochemical reactions with concurrent heat, mass and momentum transfer in electrochemical systems. Dr. Brouwer is leading research and development efforts including projects on hydrogen refueling, the worlds rst independent fuel cell vehicle testing, the worlds rst testing and evaluation of a hybrid fuel cell gas turbine system, the development and application of dynamic fuel cell and hybrid fuel cell systems simulations, and the advancement of reformation technologies for gaseous, liquid, and solid hydrocarbon fuels. Dr. Brouwer is a regular instructor at UCI in the areas of fuel cells, thermodynamics, heat transfer, and combustion. He developed and introduced the rst graduate level fuel cell course to UCI in 2002, and is a regular instructor in fuel cell short courses around the world.
2.0
Axial-Flow Compressors
2.0-1 Introduction
The compressors in most gas turbine applications, especially units over 5MW, use axial ow compressors. An axial ow compressor is one in which the ow enters the compressor in an axial direction (parallel with the axis of rotation), and exits from the gas turbine, also in an axial direction. The axial-ow compressor compresses its working uid by rst accelerating the uid and then diffusing it to obtain a pressure increase. The uid is accelerated by a row of rotating airfoils (blades) called the rotor, and then diffused in a row of stationary blades (the stator). The diffusion in the stator converts the velocity increase gained in the rotor to a pressure increase. A compressor consists of several stages: 1) A combination of a rotor followed by a stator make-up a stage in a compressor; 2) An additional row of stationary blades are frequently used at the compressor inlet and are known as Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV) to ensue that air enters the rst-stage rotors at the desired ow angle, these vanes are also pitch variable thus can be adjusted to the varying ow requirements of the engine; and 3) In addition to the stators, another diffuser at the exit of the compressor consisting of another set of vanes further diffuses the uid and controls its velocity entering the combustors and is often known as the Exit Guide Vanes (EGV). In an axial ow compressor, air passes from one stage to the next, each stage raising the pressure slightly. By producing lowpressure increases on the order of 1.1:1 to 1.4:1, very high efciencies can be obtained as seen in table 1. The use of multiple stages permits overall pressure increases of up to 40:1 in some aerospace applications and a pressure ratio of 30:1 in some Industrial applications. The last twenty years has seen a large growth in gas turbine technology. The growth is spear headed by the increase in compressor pressure ratio, advanced combustion techniques, the growth of materials technology, new coatings and new cooling schemes. The increase in gas turbine efciency is dependent on two basic parameters: 1. 2. Increase in Pressure Ratio Increase in Firing Temperature
It also should be remembered that the Gas Turbine Axial Flow Compressor consumes between 55%-65% of the power produced by the Turbine section of the gas turbine.
Table 1 Axial Flow Compressor Characteristics
Meherwan P. Boyce
2121 Kirby Drive, Number 28N Houston, TX 77019 713-807--0888 713-807-0088 Fax boycepower.com mpboyce@boycepower.com
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The aerospace engines have been the leaders in most of the technology in the gas turbine. The design criteria for these engines was high reliability, high performance, with many starts and exible operation throughout the ight envelope. The engine life of about 3500 hours between major overhauls was considered good. The aerospace engine performance has always been rated primarily on its Thrust/Weight ratio. Increase in engine Thrust / Weight Ratio is achieved by the development of high aspect ratio blades in the compressor as well as optimizing the pressure ratio and ring temperature of the turbine for maximum work output per unit ow. The Industrial Gas Turbine has always emphasized long life and this conservative approach has resulted in the Industrial Gas Turbine in many
aspects giving up high performance for rugged operation. The Industrial Gas Turbine has been conservative in the pressure ratio and the ring temperatures. This has all changed in the last ten years; spurred on by the introduction of the Aero-Derivative Gas Turbine the Industrial Gas Turbine has dramatically improved its performance in all operational aspects. This has resulted in dramatically reducing the performance gap between these two types of gas turbines. Figure 1 indicates the growth of the Pressure Ratio in a gas turbine over the past 50 years. The growth of both the Pressure Ratio and Firing Temperature parallel each other, as both growths are necessary to achieving the increase in thermal efciency in Gas Turbines. The Axial ow compressor in most of the advanced gas turbine is a multistage compressor consisting of 17-22 stages with an exceedingly high pressure ratio. It is not uncommon to have pressure ratios in industrial gas turbines in the 17 to 20:1 range with some units having pressure ratios in the 30:1 range. Figure 2 shows a multistage high-pressure axial ow compressor rotor. The low-pressure increase per stage also simplies calculations in the preliminary design of the compressor by justifying the air as incompressible in its ow through the stage.
45 40 35
Pressure ratio
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Figure 3 shows the stators, the stationary blades which are in between each rotor blade and causes the ow to be diffused (increase in the static pressure, reduction of the absolute velocity). The early stages of the stators in gure 3 are adjustable, as can be noted by their circular base. The adjustable stators allow the stator to be positioned to the correct ow angle leaving the blades as the air mass ow varies with load and inlet temperature.
As with other types of rotating machinery, an axial compressor can be described in a cylindrical coordinate system. The z axis is along the axis of rotation which is along the running length of the compressor shaft, the radius r is measured outward from the shaft, and the angle of rotation is the angle turned by the blades in gure 4. This coordinate system will be used throughout this discussion of axial-ow compressors.
Figure 5 shows the pressure, velocity, and total temperature variation for ow through several stages of an axial compressor. As indicated earlier in gure 3, the length of the blades, and the annulus area, this is the area between the shaft and shroud, decreases throughout the length of the compressor. This reduction in ow area compensates for the increase in uid density as it is compressed, permitting a constant axial velocity. In most preliminary calculations used in the design of a compressor, the average blade height is used as the blade height for the stage.
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The pitch Sb of a cascade is the distance between blades, usually measured between the camberlines at the leading or trailing edges of the blades. The ratio of the chord length to the pitch is the solidity of the cascade. The solidity measures the relative interference effects of one blade with another. If the solidity is on the order of 0.5-0.7, the single or isolated airfoil test data, from which there are a profusion of shapes to choose, can be applied with considerable accuracy. The same methods can be applied up to a solidity of about 1.0 but with reduced accuracy. When the solidity is on the order of 1.0-1.5, cascade data are necessary. For solidity in excess of 1.5, the channel theory can be employed. The majority of present designs are in the cascade region. The blade inlet angle 1 is the angle formed by a line drawn tangent to the forward end of the camber line and the axis of the compressor. The blade outlet angle 2 is the angle of a line drawn tangent to the rear of the camberline. Subtracting 2 from 1 gives the blade camber angle. The angle that the chordline makes with the axis of the compressor is , the setting or stagger angle of the blade. High-aspect ratio blades are often pretwisted so that at full operational speed the centrifugal forces acting on the blades will untwist the blades to the designed aerodynamic angle. The pretwist angle at the tip for blades with AR ratios of about four is between two and four degrees. The air inlet angle 1, the angle at which incoming air approaches the blade, is different from 1. The difference between these two angles is the incidence angle i. The angle of attack is the angle between the inlet air direction and the blade chord. As the air is turned by the blade, it offers resistance to turning and leaves the blade at an angle greater than 2. The angle at which the air does leave the blade is the air outlet angle 2. The difference between 2 and 2 is the deviation angle . The air turning angle is the difference between 1 and 2 and is sometimes called the deection angle. The original work by NACA and NASA is the basis on which most modern axial-ow compressors are designed. Under NACA, a large number of blade proles were tested. The test data on these blade proles is published. The cascade data conducted by NACA is the most extensive work on its kind. In most commercial axial-ow compressors in Gas Turbines built before 1990, NACA 65 series blades are used. These blades are usually specied by notation similar to the following: 65-(18) 10. This notation means that the blade has a lift coefcient of 1.8, a prole shape 65, and a thickness/chord ratio of ten percent (10%). The lift coefcient can be directly related to the blade camber angle by the following relationship for 65 series blades: 25 CL. (1)
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The new advanced compressor rotors have fewer blades with higher loadings, and the blades are thinner, larger, and are designed using advanced radial equilibrium theory, which create Three Dimensional and Controlled Diffusion shaped airfoils (3D/CDA), with smaller clearances and higher loading per stage.
Fig. 7. Flow around an airfoil at various angles of attack: a, parallel to the velocity of a owing gas; b, set at the angle of attack to the airstream; c, pressure measurement at various points on airfoils surface.
Measurement of the pressure at various points on the surface of the airfoil will reveal a pressure distribution as shown in gure 7c. The vectorial sum of these pressures will produce some resultant force acting on the blade. This resultant force can be resolved into a lift component L at right angles to the undisturbed air stream, and a drag component D, moving the airfoil in the direction of ow motion. This resultant force is assumed to act through a denite point located in the airfoil so that the behavior will be the same as if all the individual components were acting simultaneously. By experimentation, it is possible to measure the lift and drag forces for all values of airow velocity, angles of incidence, various airfoil shapes. Thus, for any one airfoil the acting forces can be represented as shown in gure 8a. Using such observed values, it is possible to dene relations between the forces D L where: L A D CL V CD = CD A V2/2 = CL A V2/2 = lift force = surface area = drag force = uid density = lift coefcient = uid velocity = drag coefcient (2) (3)
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Examination of gure 8 reveals that there is an angle of attack which produces the highest lift force and lift coefcient. If this angle is exceeded, the airfoil stalls and the drag force increases rapidly. As this maximum angle is approached, a great percentage of the energy available is lost in overcoming friction, and a reduction in efciency occurs. Thus, there is a point, usually before the maximum lift coefcient is reached, at which the most economical operation occurs as measured by effective lift for a given energy supply.
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H =
[H 2 H1 ] NS
(4)
where: H1, H2 = Total Inlet and Exit Enthalpy Btu/lbm (kJ/kg) and Ns = number of stages. Assuming that the gas is thermally and caloricaly perfect (cp, and are constant) equation 4 can be rewritten as:
(5)
where: Tin = Total Inlet Temperature (F, C) and P1, P2 = Total Inlet and Exit Pressure (psia, bar).
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H=
1 [U1V 1 U 2V 2 ] gc
and assuming that the blade speeds at the inlet and exit of the compressor are the same and noting the relationships,
H=
(9)
(10) The previous relationship is in terms of the absolute inlet and outlet velocities. By rewriting the previous equation in terms of the blade angles or the relative air angles, the following relationship is obtained: U1 - U2 = VZ1 tan 1 = VZ1 tan 2 = VZ2 tan 3 + VZ2 tan 4. Therefore, (11) The previous relationship can be written to calculate the pressure rise in the stage: (12) which can be rewritten . (13)
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The velocity triangles can be joined together in several different ways to help visualize the changes in velocity. One of the methods is to simply join these triangles into a connected series. The two triangles can also be joined and superimposed using the sides formed by either the axial velocity, which is assumed to remain constant as shown in gure 12a, or the blade speed as a common side, assuming that the inlet and exit blade speed are the same as shown in gure 12b.
R=
(14)
The change in static head in the rotor is equal to the change in relative kinetic energy:
Hr =
and
2
(15)
2 2
(16) (17)
W2 = Vz 2 + ( Vz 2 tan 4 )
Therefore,
R=
(18)
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R=
Vz (tan 2 + tan 4 ) 2U
(19)
(20) (21)
The reaction for a symmetrical stage is fty percent (50%). The fty percent (50%) reaction stage is widely used, since an adverse pressure rise on either the rotor or stator blade surfaces is minimized for a given stage pressure rise. When designing a compressor with this type of blading, the rst stage must be preceded by inlet guide vanes to provide prewhirl, and the correct velocity entrance angle to the rst-stage rotor. With a high tangential velocity component maintained by each succeeding stationary row, the magnitude of W1 is decreased. Thus, higher blade speeds and axial-velocity components are possible without exceeding the limiting value of 0.70-0.75 for the inlet Mach number. Higher blade speeds result in compressors of smaller diameter and less weight. Another advantage of the symmetrical stage comes from the equality of static pressure rises in the stationary and moving blades, resulting in a maximum static pressure rise for the stage. Therefore, a given pressure ratio can be achieved with a minimum number of stages, a factor in the lightness of this type of compressor. The serious disadvantage of the symmetrical stage is the high exit loss resulting from the high axial velocity component. However, the advantages are of such importance in aircraft applications that the symmetrical compressor is normally used. In stationary applications, the symmetrical compressor is normally not used. In stationary applications, where weight and frontal area are of lesser importance, one of the other stage types is used. The term asymmetrical stage is applied to stages with reaction other than 50%. The axial-inow stage is a special case of an asymmetrical stage where the entering absolute velocity is in the axial direction. The moving blades impart whirl to the velocity of the leaving ow which is removed by the following stator. From this whirl and the velocity diagram as seen in gure 14, the major part of the stage pressure rise occurs in the moving row of blades with the degree of reaction varying from 60% to 90%. The stage is designed for constant energy transfer and axial velocity at all radii so that the vortex ow condition is maintained in the space between blade rows.
The advantage of a stage with greater than 50% reaction is the low exit loss resulting from lower axial velocity and blade speeds. Because of the small static pressure rise in the stationary blades, certain simplications can be introduced such as constantsection stationary blades and the elimination of interstage seals. Higher actual efciencies have been achieved in this stage type than with the symmetrical stage - primarily because of the reduced exit loss. The disadvantages result from a low static pressure rise in the stationary blades that necessitates a greater number of stages to achieve a given pressure ratio and thus creates a heavy compressor. The lower axial velocities and blade speed, necessary to keep within inlet Mach number limitations, result in large diameters. In stationary applications where the increased weight and frontal area are not of great importance, this type is frequently used to take advantage of the higher efciency.
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The axial-outow stage diagram in gure 15 shows another special case of the asymmetrical stage with reaction greater than 50%. With this type of design, the absolute exit velocity is in an axial direction, and all the static pressure rise occurs in the rotor. A static pressure decrease occurs in the stator so that the degree of reaction is in excess of 100%. The advantages of this stage type are low axial velocity and blade speeds, resulting in the lowest possible exit loss. This design produces a heavy machine of many stages and of large diameter. To keep within the allowable limit of the inlet Mach number, extremely low values must be accepted for the blade velocity and axial velocity. The axial-outow stage is capable of the highest actual efciency because of the extremely low exit loss and the benecial effects of designing for free vortex ow. This compressor type is particularly well-suited for closed-cycle plants where smaller quantities of air are introduced to the compressor at an elevated static pressure.
While a reaction of less than 50% is possible, such a design results in high inlet Mach numbers to the stator row, causing high losses. The maximum total divergence of the stators should be limited to approximately 20o to avoid excessive turbulence. Combining the high inlet for the limiting divergence angles produces a long stator, thereby producing a longer compressor. Radial Equilibrium The ow in an axial-ow compressor is dened by the continuity, momentum, and energy equations. A complete solution to these equations is not possible because of the complexity of the ow in an axial-ow compressor. Considerable work has been done on the effects of radial ow in an axial-ow compressor. The rst simplication used considers the ow axisymmetric. This simplication implies that the ow at each radial and axial station within the blade row can be represented by an average circumferential condition. Another simplication considers the radial component of the velocity as much smaller than the axial component velocity, so it can be neglected. For the low-pressure compressor with a low-aspect ratio, and where the effect of streamline curvature is not signicant, the simple radial equilibrium change of the radial velocity component along the axial direction is zero (Vrad/Z = 0) and the change of entropy in the radial direction is zero negligible (a s/r = 0). The Meridional velocity (Vm) is equal to the axial velocity (VZ), since the effect of steamline curvature is not signicant. The radial gradient of the static pressure can be given
V2 P = r r
(22)
Using the simple radial equilibrium equation, the computation of the axial velocity distribution can be calculated. The accuracy of the techniques depends on how linear V2/r is with the radius. The assumption is valid for low-performance compressors, but it does not hold well for the high-aspect ratio, highly loaded stages where the effects of streamline curvature become signicant. The radial acceleration of the Meridional velocity and the pressure gradient in the radial direction must be considered. The radial gradient of static pressure for the highly curved streamline can be written (23) where is the angle of the streamline curvature with respect to the axial direction and rc is the radius of curvature. To determine the radius of curvature and the streamline slope accurately, the conguration of the streamline through the blade row must be known. The streamline conguration is a function of the annular passage area, the camber and thickness distribution of the blade, and the ow angles at the inlet and outlet of the blade. Since there is no simple way to calculate the effects of all the parameters, the techniques used to evaluate these radial accelerations are empirical. By using iterative solutions, a relationship can be obtained. The effect of high radial acceleration with high-aspect ratios can be negated by tapering the tip of the compressor inward so that the hub curvature is reduced.
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W2 V 1 V 2 D= 1 W + 2W . 1 1
(24)
The diffusion factor should be less than 0.4 for the rotor tip and less than 0.6 for the rotor hub and the stator. The distribution of the diffusion factor throughout the compressor is not properly dened. However, the efciency is less in the later stages due to distortions of the radial velocity distributions in the blade rows. Experimental results indicate that even though efciency is less in the later stages, as long as the diffusion loading limits are not exceeded, the stage efciencies remain relatively high. The Incidence Rule For low-speed airfoil design, the region of low-loss operation is generally at, and it is difcult to establish the precise value of the incidence angle that corresponds to the minimum loss as seen in gure 16. Since the curves are generally symmetrical, the minimum loss location was established at the middle of the low-loss range. The range is dened as the change in incidence angle corresponding to a rise in the loss coefcient equal to the minimum value. The following method for calculation of the incidence angle is applicable to cambered airfoils. Work by NASA on the various cascades is the basis for the technique. The incidence angle is a function of the blade camber, which is an indirect function of the airturning angle. (25) where i0 is the incidence angle for zero camber, and m is the slope of the incidence angle variation with the air-turning angle (). The zero-camber incidence angle is dened as a function of inlet air angle and solidity as seen in gure 17 and the value of m is given as a function of the inlet air angle and the solidity as seen in gure 18. The incidence angle io is for a 10% blade thickness. For blades of other than 10% thickness, a correction factor K is used, which is obtained from gure 19.
Fig. 19. Correction factor for blade thickness and incidence angle calculation
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The incidence angle now must be corrected for the Mach number effect (m). The effect of the Mach number on incidence angle is shown in gure 20. The incidence angle is not affected until a Mach in number of 0.7 is reached. The incidence angle is now fully dened. Thus, when the inlet and outlet air angles and the inlet Mach number are known, the inlet blade angle can be computed in this manner.
The use of NACA cascade data for calculating the exit air angle is also widely used. Mellor has replotted some of the low-speed NACA 65 series cascade data in convenient graphs of inlet air angle against exit air angle for blade sections of given lift and solidity set at various staggers. Figure 22 shows the NACA 65 series of airfoils.
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The 65 series blades are specied by an airfoil notation similar to 65-(18)10. This specication means that an airfoil has the prole shape 65 with a camber line corresponding to a life coefcient (CL) = 1.8 and approximate thickness of 10% of the chord length. The relationship between the camber angle and the lift coefcient for the 65 series blades is shown in gure 23.
Fig. 23. Approximate relation between camber () and CL0 of NACA 65 series
The low-speed cascade data have been replotted by Mellor in the form of graphs of 2 against 1 for blade sections of given camber and space-chord ratio but set at varying stagger , and tested at varying incidence (i = i - 1) or angle of attack (1 - ) as seen in gure 24. The range on each block of results is indicated with heavy black lines, which show the attack angle at which the drag coefcient increases by 50% over the mean unstalled drag coefcient.
Fig. 24. The NACA 65 series cascade data (Reprinted, by permission of G. Mellor, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Gas Turbine Laboratory Publication.)
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NACA has given design points for each cascade tested. Each design point is chosen on the basis of the smoothest pressure distribution observed on the blade surfaces: if the pressure distribution is smooth at one particular incidence at low speed, it is probable that the section will operate efciently at a higher Mach number at the same incidence, and that this same incidence should be selected as a design point. Although such a denition appears somewhat arbitrary at rst, the plots of such design points against solidity and camber give consistent curves. These design points are replotted in gure 25, showing the angle of attack (1 - ) plotted against space-chord ratio and camber is independent of stagger. If the designer has complete freedom to choose space-chord ratio, camber, and stagger, then a "design point" choice may be made by trial and error from the plots of gure 24 and 25. For example, if an outlet angle (2) of 15 is required from an inlet angle of 35, a reference to the curves of the gures will show that a space-chord ratio of 1.0, camber 1.2, and stagger 23 will give a cascade operating at its design point. There is a limited variety of cascades of different space-chord ratios, but only one cascade that will operate at design point at the specied air angles. For example, if the space-chord ratio were required to be 1.0 in the previous example, then the only cascade that will produce design point operation is that of camber 1.2, stagger 23.
Such a design procedure may not always be followed, for the designer may choose to design the stage to operate closer to the positive stalling limit or closer to the negative stalling (choking) limit at design operating conditions to obtain more exibility at offdesign conditions.
Compressor Surge
Compressor surge is a phenomenon of considerable interest; yet, it is not fully understood. It is a form of unstable operation and should be avoided. It is a phenomenon that unfortunately occurs frequently, sometimes with damaging results. Surge has been traditionally dened as the lower limit of stable operation in a compressor, and it involves the reversal of ow. This reversal of ow occurs because of some kind of aerodynamic instability within the system. Usually, a part of the compressor is the cause of the aerodynamic instability, although it is possible for the system arrangement to be capable of augmenting this instability. Compressors are usually operated at a working line, separated by some safety margin from the surge line. Extensive investigations have been conducted on surge. Poor quantitative universality or aerodynamic loading capacities of different blades and stators, and an inexact knowledge of boundary-layer behavior make the exact prediction of ow in the compressor at the off-design stage difcult. A decrease in the mass ow rate, an increase in the rotational speed of the impeller, or both can cause the compressor to surge. Whether surge is caused by a decrease in ow velocity or an increase in rotational speeds, the blades or the stators can stall. One should note that operating at higher efciency implies operation closer to surge. It should be noted here that total pressure increases occur only in the rotational part of the compressor, the blades. To make the curve general, the concept of aerodynamic speeds and corrected mass ow rates has been used in the performance maps in this chapter.
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PR
Surge Line
On a given corrected speed line, as the corrected mass ow is reduced, the pressure ratio (usually) increases until it reaches a limiting value on the surge line. For an operating point at or near the surge line the orderly ow (i.e. nearly axisymmetric) in the compressor tends to break down (ow becomes asymmetric with rotating stall) and can become violently unsteady. Thus the surge line is a locus of unstable compressor operating points and is to be avoided. To cope with this, one species the surge margin SM denes as:
(27)
In Equation (27) PRsurge/working denotes the pressure ratio on the surge/working line at the same corrected mass ow rate; thus the corrected speed would be higher for operating points on the surge line. For operation on a constant corrected speed line an alternative denition for surge margin in terms of corrected mass ow on the working line and on surge line at the same corrected speed would be preferable. For stable operation of a multi-stage compressor a surge margin is specied. Compressors are designed to operate at a condition referred to as the design point. At the design point the various stages mounted on the same shaft are matched aerodynamically i.e. the inlet ow to each stage is such that the stage is at the design point and this occurs for only one combination of corrected speed and mass ow (for this reason the design point is also known as match point). While the design point is one at which the compressor will operate most of the time, there are situations of low-speed operation during the starting of gas turbines where the compressor must also provide adequate pressure rise and efciency. For compressor operations
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at corrected speed or at the same corrected speed but corrected mass ow different from those at design, difculties arise due to the requirements of matching the inlet ow to one stage to the outlet ow from those upstream. As an illustration, consider changes along the constant corrected speed line. The effect of reduction in mass ow relative to the working line results in a higher pressure rise and therefore a greater increase in density in the rst stage than was predicted at design. The greater increase in density means the second stage has an even lower value of ow coefcient than the rst stage, with an even greater increase in density. The effect is cumulative, so that the last stage approaches stall while the front stage is only slightly altered. Conversely increasing the mass ow relative to the working line would result in a lower pressure rise and therefore a smaller increase in density. The smaller increase in density means the second stage has an even higher value of ow coefcient than the rst stage, with an even smaller increase in density. The consequence is that the last stage approaches stalling at negative incidence with low efciency performance. Similarly one can also show that reducing the rotational speed along the working line through the design point can lead to stalling of front stages and windmilling of rear stages. Methods for coping with low-speed difculties include use of compressor air bleed at the intermediate stage, use of variable geometry compressor, and use of multi-spool compressors or combinations of the above.
Compressor Choke
The compressor choke point is when the ow in the compressor reaches Mach 1 at the blade throat, a point where no more ow can pass through the compressor. This phenomenon is often known in the industry as Stone Walling. The more stages, the higher the pressure ratio, and the smaller the operational margin between surge and choke regions of the compressor as shown in gure 27.
Compressor Stall
There are three distinct stall phenomena. Rotating stall and individual blade stall are aerodynamic phenomena; stall utter is an aero elastic phenomenon.
Rotating Stall
Rotating, or propagating stall, was rst observed by Whittle and his team on the inducer vanes of a centrifugal compressor. Rotating stall (propagating stall) consists of large stall zones covering several blade passages and propagates in the direction of the rotation and at some fraction of rotor speed. The number of stall zones and the propagating rates vary considerably. Rotating stall is the most prevalent type of stall phenomenon. The propagation mechanism can be described by considering the blade row to be a cascade of blades as shown in gure 28. A ow perturbation causes blade 2 to reach a stalled condition before the other blades. This stalled blade does not produce a sufcient pressure rise to maintain the ow around it, and an effective ow blockage or a zone of reduced ow develops. This retarded ow diverts the ow around it so that the angle of attack increases on blade 3 and decreases on blade 1. In this way a stall cell may move
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Fig. 28. Propagating Stall in a Blade Cascade Table 2 Summary of Rotating Stall Data Single-Stage Compressors Weight-ow Fluctuation Propagation during stall, Number of Rate, Stall Stall Zones Speed, abs/ Rotor Speed 3 4 5 1 8 1 7 8 5 3 4 3 2 6, 8 1 2 1 1 1 3 2 1 2 0.420 0.475 0.523 0.305 0.87 0.36 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.23 0.48 0.48 0.49 0.245 0.48 0.36 0.10 0.45 0.12 0.816 0.634 0.565 1.39 2.14 1.66 1.2 0.76 1.30 2.14 1.10 1.10 2.02 1.47 2.02 1.71 0.71=1.33 0.60 0.60 0.68 0.60 0.65
Type of Stall
0.50
Progressive
Total
0.72 0.60
Total Partial Partial Total Partial Total Partial Total Total Partial
Progressive Progressive Progressive Abrupt Progressive Abrupt Progressive Progressive Abrupt Progressive
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Progressive Stall indicates the gradual increase in blocked annulus area due to stall. Abrupt Stall is a single stall zone covering as much as half the annulus area and extending over the entire blade span with discontinuity in the pressure curve. Complete Compressor Stall is applied to multistage compressors to describe a discontinuous performance curve similar to that for abrupt stall, and these points dene the stall-limit line.
1 2
Stall Flutter
This phenomenon is caused by self-excitation of the blade and is an aero-elastic phenomenon. It must be distinguished from classic utter, since classic utter is a coupled torsional-exural vibration that occurs when the free-stream velocity over a wing or airfoil section reaches a certain critical velocity. Stall utter, on the other hand, is a phenomenon that occurs due to the stalling of the ow around a blade. Blade stall causes Karman vortices in the airfoil wake. Whenever the frequency of these vortices coincides with the natural frequency of the airfoil, utter will occur. Stall utter is a major cause of compressor blade failure. Several types of utter have been identied and these are indicated as various utter boundaries on the operating map of a c and N c , additional non-dimensional parameters have to be introduced to high-speed (transonic) compressor in gure 29. Besides m adequately characterize the utter boundaries. One such parameter is the reduced frequency which is given by the ratio of blade chord to the wavelength of the unsteady disturbance induced by the blade motion. Often the inverse of reduced frequency, the reduced velocity is used instead. More recently Khalak (2002) proposed and developed a framework for utter operability assessment in which a set of four non-dimensional parameters is used to characterize the utter boundary. These parameters are the corrected mass ow, the corrected
speed, the compressible reduced frequency (where c denotes blade chord length, 0 the modal frequency) and the combined mass-damping parameter (ratio of mechanical damping to blade mass). In analogy with the surge margin, a utter margin FM is specied in equation (28): (28) PRutter is the pressure ratio on the utter boundary at the same corrected mass ow corresponding to that for PRworking on the working line. For operation on a constant corrected speed line, it would be preferable to dene utter margin in terms of corrected mass ow on the working line and on the utter boundary at the same corrected speed.
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Fig. 29. Flutter regions on the operating map of a transonic compressor (after Mikolajczak, et al., 1975)
An example of a typical failure due to utter in an axial ow compressor fth stage is discussed in this section. There were three blade failures of the fth stage blade all within 3-10 hours of operation. The cause of the failure had to be determined. A dynamic pressure transducer with a voltage output was used to obtain the frequency spectra. In the rst four stages of the compressor no outstanding vibration amplitudes were recorded. A signal was noted at 48N (N being the running speed), but the amplitude was not high, and it did not uctuate. A measurement at the low-pressure bleed chamber taken from the fourth stage showed similar characteristics. The compressor high-pressure bleed chamber occurs after the eighth stage. A measurement at this chamber showed a high, uctuating 48N signal. As there are 48 blades on the fth-stage wheel, a problem in the fth-stage was suspected. However, above the fth-stage are blade rows of 86N (2 x 48N), so further analysis was needed. It was found that the measurement at the high-pressure bleed chamber showed only a very small 86N amplitude compared to the high amplitude of the 48N frequency. Since blade rows of 86 blades were closer to the high-pressure bleed chamber, the expected high signal should have been 86N compared to 48N under normal operating conditions. This high amplitude of 48N indicated that it was the fth-stage which caused the high, uctuating signal; thus, a stall condition in that section was probable. Figures 30, 31, 32, and 33 show the spectrum at speeds of 4,100; 5,400; 8,000; and 9,400 rpm. At 9,400 rpm, the second and third harmonics of 48N were also very predominant.
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Next, the fth-stage pressure was measured. Once again, high amplitude at 48N was found. However, a predominant reading was also observed at 1,200 Hz frequencies. Figures 34 and 35 shows the largest amplitudes at speeds of 5,800 and 6,800 rpm, respectively.
At the compressor exit, predominate frequencies of 48N existed up to speeds of 6,800 rpm. At 8,400 rpm, the 48N and 86N frequencies were of about equal magnitudes - the only signal where the 48N and 86N frequencies were the same. The pressure was measured from a static port in the chamber. All other pressures were measured from the shroud, thus indicating the phenomena occurred at the blade tip. Since the problem was isolated to the fth stage, the conclusion was that the stall occurred at the fth-stage rotor tip. The solution to the problem was the redesign of the fth stage blade with a modied angle so that it would not be as subject to stall utter.
(29)
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The gas properties of relevance to the compression process are characterized by the kinematic viscosity , specic heat ratio , and the gas constant R. The geometry dependence of the machine is set by the design and its characteristic size D such as the tip diameter of compressor. Use of dimensional analysis reduces the complexity of Equation (29) (noting that and design D, can be regarded as non-dimensional) to yield
(30)
For a given compressor and for inlet conditions for which does not vary, Equation (30) reduces to (31)
At high enough Reynolds number (> 3 x 105), changes in this number have little effect on compressor performance so that
Ptexit ,c Ptin
As no functional dependence is implied if the non-dimensional variables on the right hand side is scaled by a constant, one can thus choose to replace them by the corrected mass ow rate
m c = m
(Section. 32b)
(32b)
In equation (32b),
sea-level value for the standard atmosphere, 59.6F (15C) and 14.7 psia (101 KN/m2) respectively. The advantage of using these corrected variables is that their numerical magnitude is similar to the actual value so that its signicance is not obscured. We can also use the Euler Turbine Equation (8) for a compressor stage
Ptin Ttin and = where the reference temperature Tref and the reference pressure Pref are taken to be the Pref Tref
(Section. 33)
(33)
to elucidate the functional dependence and to deduce why the performance characteristics look the way they are on a compressor map. Assuming isentropic ow (i.e. no loss) then the stagnation pressure ratio across the (ideal) stage is given by
(34)
In equation (33) and (34) subscript 1 and 2 refer to variable evaluated at rotor inlet and rotor exit respectively, V denotes tangential velocity, V the axial velocity, the angular velocity of rotor, exit the absolute ow angle at stator exit, exit the relative ow angle at rotor exit, and r the radius. Upon introducing the corrected variables into equation (34) we have
P R
(Section. 35)
(35)
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where G(M1) has a weak dependence on the incoming Mach number M1, k0 r2 and k1 r. For a given compressor stage c , N c ) . The general dependence of PRs (tan exit + tan exit ) is xed and neglecting the variation in G(M1) we have P R s =P R s (m c and N c is shown in gure 39 as a series of dashed lines of constant corrected speed for the ideal stage; equation (35) can be on m c and N c . The solid lines (of constant corrected speed) used to obtain the trend in the variation of the ideal stage characteristic with m P R v s m in gure 36 are the s c curves with stagnation pressure losses taken into account. Flow angle varies as corrected mass ow rate changes along a given corrected speed line. The point of minimum difference between the dash (ideal) and the solid (actual) curve corresponds to a corrected mass ow that yields an angle of incidence for minimum loss; moving away from this point along a constant c or decreasing the corrected speed line amounts to changing the incidence angle (increasing the angle of incidence for decreasing m m angle of incidence for increasing c ) so as to lead to higher loss. This is reected in the increasing difference between the two curves (ideal versus actual) at corrected mass ow other than that corresponding to minimum loss. One thus deduces from the above arguments c and N c . The pressure ratio of a complete that the actual pressure rise (and the efciency) can also be characterized in terms of m compressor consisting of many stages can be obtained by taking the products of the stage performance.
qtot = qth + qd f
(36)
The adiabatic head that is actually available at the rotor discharge is equal to the theoretical head minus the heat losses from the shock in the rotor, the incidence loss, the blade loadings and prole losses, the clearance between the rotor and the shroud, and the secondary losses encountered in the ow passage
(37)
imp =
185
qia qtot
(38)
qo a = qi a q w qe x qosf .
Therefore, the adiabatic efciency in the stage
(39)
stage =
qo a . qtot
(40)
The losses as mentioned earlier can be further described: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Disc friction loss. This loss is from skin friction on the discs that house the blades of the compressors. This loss varies with different types of discs. Incidence loss. This loss is caused by the angle of the air and the blade angle not being coincident. The loss is at a minimum to about an angle of 4o, after which the loss increases rapidly. Blade loading and prole loss. This loss is due to the negative velocity gradients in the boundary layer, which gives rise to ow separation. Skin friction loss. This loss is from skin friction on the blade surfaces and on the annular walls. Clearance loss. This loss is due to the clearance between the blade tips and the casing. Wake loss. This loss is from the wake produced at the exit of the rotary. Stator prole and skin friction loss. This loss is from skin friction and the attack angle of the ow entering the stator. Exit loss. This loss is due to the kinetic energy head leaving the stator.
Figure 37 shows the various losses as a function of ow. Note that the compressor is more efcient as the ow nears surge conditions.
186
The advanced compressor blades also usually have squealer sections on the blade tips, which are designed to wear in a safe manner if the blades are in contact with the casing. Figure 39 is one such blade. These rubs, if severe can lead to tip fractures and overall destruction of the downstream blades and diffuser vanes due to domestic object damage (DOD).
Fig. 39. Axial Flow Compressor rotor blade with squealer tip
The very high temperature at the exit of the compressor, which in some cases exceeds a 1000F, causes a very hot compression section, which also requires the cooling of the bleed ows before they can be used for cooling the turbine section. This requires large heat exchangers and in some combined cycle plants steam is used to cool the compressed air. This also limits the down time between startups of the turbines. Design margins are set by Finite Element Modeling (FEM) at the element level which results in lower safety margins than previous designs. The costs of these larger, thinner, less-rub tolerant, and more twisted-shape airfoils are usually higher. When several of the major characteristics of advanced gas turbines are examined from a risk viewpoint (i.e., probability and consequences of failure), there are no characteristics which reduce the probability of failure and/or decrease the consequence of failure.
187
Previous Designs 2D double circular arc or NACA 65 proles Large number of airfoils Repeating stages/shorter chords Low/ modest Aspect ratios Large clearances Low/modest pressure ratios (Rc) Low/modest blade loading per stage Wider Operating margin Thicker leading edges Dry operation Bulk safety margins Lower costs
New Designs 3D or Controlled Diffusion Airfoil (CDA) proles Reduced airfoil count Stages unique/longer chords High Aspect ratios Smaller clearances Much higher pressure ratios (Rc) High blade loading per stage Narrow operating margin Thinner leading edges Wet operation Safety margins by FEM Higher costs
Risk
2.
Re =
(41)
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Ns =
where:
(42)
V D
= viscosity N = speed
Using this assumption, one can apply this ow visualization method to any working medium. One designed apparatus consists of two large tanks on two different levels. The lower tank is constructed entirely out of Plexiglas and receives a constant ow from the upper tank. The ow entering the lower tank comes through a large, rectangular opening which houses a number of screens so that no turbulence is created by water entering the lower tank. The center of the lower tank can be tted with various boxes for the various ow visualization problems to be studied. This modular design enables a rapid interchanging of models and work on more than one concept at a time. Blade Prole To study the effect of laminar ow, the blades were slotted as shown in gure 40. For the blade treatment cascade rig experiment, a Plexiglas cascade was designed and built. Figure 41 shows the cascade. This cascade was then placed in the bottom tank and maintained at a constant head. Figure 42 shows the entire setup, and gure 43 shows the cascade ow. Note the large extent of the laminar-ow regions on the treated center blades as compared to the untreated blades.
189
Fig. 44. Details of the various casing treatments. (Each treatment was on a separate disc)
There are only two basic casing treatment designs other than a blank design - which corresponds to no casing treatment at all. The rst type of casing treatment consists of radial grooves. A radial groove is a casing treatment design in which the groove is essentially parallel to the chordline of the blade. The second basic type is the circumferential groove. This type of casing treatment has its grooves perpendicular to the blade chordline. Figure 45 is a photograph of two discs showing the two types of casing treatment used. The third disc used is a blank, representing the present type of casing. The results indicate that the radial casing treatment is most effective in reducing leakage and also in increasing the surge-to-stall margin. Figure 46 shows the leakage at the tips for the various casing treatments. Figure 47 shows the velocity patterns observed by the use of various casing treatments. Note that for the treatment along the chord (radial), the ow is maximized at the tip. This ow maximum at the tip indicates that the chance of rotor tip stall is greatly reduced.
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Meherwan P. Boyce
Fig. 47. Velocity patterns observed in the side view of the blade passage for various casing treatments
4.
Enhancement of Numerical Solutions of the Navier-Stokes Equation (viscous compressible ow) The solution of the full Navier Stokes equation requires much enhanced numerical techniques. The old solutions used inviscous ow and quasi three dimensional ow solutions. There are many new enhanced numerical programs underway to solve the equation in its entirety.
191
5.
Supersonic Blade Proles for higher pressure ratio per stage (>2.1)
Fig. 48. Mid-Compressor Cooling showing a schematic as well as an actual application in a GE LM 6000 Engine (courtesy GE Power Systems)
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Meherwan P. Boyce
Table 4 Compressor Blade Material
Compressor Blade Type AISI 403 AISI 403+Cb Martensitic High Temperature Stainless Steel 15-5 PH, nominal
1250F
.08
.14
.4
15.6
.08
2.9
.9
Bal
<.07
<.03
<1.0
<0.04-
<1.0
1415.5
3.2
.9
.15.45
Bal
The high temperature blade alloy is normally produced by vacuum-arc remelting to reduce inclusions, and is advertised to have a balanced chemistry that minimizes the formation of delta-ferrite. Inclusions and the delta-ferrite would provide planes of weakness in that part. It is not uncommon for the mill to supply forging stock that has rst been given a 1900F heat treatment, just for better forgeability. The forged blanks are then usually reheat-treated at 1900F, followed by hardeningtreatments between 1100F and 1150F depending on the properties sought. There is a general correlation between hardness and strength (tensile/fatigue). A hardness of RC 32 suggests that the tensile strength is around 150000 psi and that the hardening temperature used during manufacture was somewhere around 1100F to 1150F. Coating of the compressor blades is now very common. Compressor blades suffer a great amount of corrosion pitting from impurities in the air stream. This corrosion pitting has led to blade failures. Compressor blades in many cases have over 100,000 hours but due to pitting can be reduced considerably to between 20,000 60,000 hours. It has been a very common practice for over 30 years to coat at least the rst 5-8 stages depending on the compressor design. The rst stages are considered to be the wet stages because many units now use on line water washes, as well as have evaporative cooling and fogging for power augmentation. Coating for these blades is usually consistent of a duplex type coating, which must be at least 3 mils in thickness. This coating as most typical coating has a sacricial undercoat coating which is placed on the base metal and is covered by a ceramic coating. Ni-Cd coating is also used in selected applications, and new coatings consisting of an aluminum slurry coating which has a protective ceramic top layer that provides improved erosion resistance are also being introduced. This type of coating, as compared to conventional aluminum slurry coatings, is better in corrosion protection and substantially better in erosion resistance. This type of coating also improves the performance of the gas turbine by reducing the amount of power consumed by the compressor. Tests conducted show a reduction of 2%-3% in the power consumed by the compressor which pays back additional cost of coating in 4-6 months of operation. The aspect ratio of axial ow compressors including the IGV vary from about AR = 4, to an aspect ratio of about AR = 0.5. All IGVs and the rst ve to eight stages of rotating and stationary airfoils in the compressor are made from Martensitic High Temperature Stainless Steel; or 15-5 PH nominal blade material, the next stages are usually coated AISI 403 or 403 Cb.
2.0-15 Acknowledgements
This chapter has been taken liberally from the authors book Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook. The author would like to express his sincere thanks to Dr. Choon Sooi Tan and Dr. Yifang Gong for their contributions to the sections on Stall Flutter, and Compressor Performance Parameters. Dr. Tan is a senior research engineer, and Dr. Gong is a research engineer at the MIT Gas Turbine Laboratory. Dr. Tan is a leading authority on unsteady and three dimensional ow in multistage Turbomachinery and is an author of 38 publications and a co-author of the book entitled, Internal Flow: Concepts and Applications, Cambridge University Press, 2004. Dr Gong is an authority on compressor aerodynamics and instability in compressor/compression systems; he is presently working on the design and development of a gas turbine power plant using supercritical CO2 as the working uid.
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BIOGRAPHY
Meherwan P. Boyce
2121 Kirby Drive, Number 28N Houston, TX 77019 phone: (713) 807--0888 fax: (713) 807-0088 email: mpboyce@boycepower.com boycepower.com Dr. Meherwan P. Boyce, P.E., Fellow ASME & IDGTE; has over 42 years of experience in the eld of TurboMachinery in both industry and academia. His industrial experience covers 20 years as Chairman and CEO of Boyce Engineering International, and ve years as a designer of compressors and turbines for gas turbines for various gas turbine manufacturers. His academic experience covers a 15 year period, which includes the position of Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M University and Founder of the TurboMachinery Laboratories and The TurboMachinery Symposium, which is now in its thirtieth year. He is the author of several books such as the Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook (Butterworth & Heinemann), Cogeneration & Combined Cycle Power Plants (ASME Press), and Centrifugal Compressors, A Basic Guide (PennWell Books). He is a contributor to several Handbooks; his latest contribution is to the Perrys Chemical Engineering Handbook Seventh Edition (McGraw Hill) in the areas of Transport and Storage of Fluids, and Gas Turbines. Dr. Boyce has taught over 100 short courses around the world attended by over 3000 students representing over 400 Companies. He is a Consultant to the Aerospace, Petrochemical and Utility Industries globally, and is a much-requested speaker at Universities and Conferences throughout the world. Dr. Boyce is Chairman of the Plant Engineering & Maintenance Division of ASME, and Chairman of the Electric Utilities Committee of the of ASMEs International Gas Turbine Institute. He is also a Chairman of the ASME Conferences Committee. In 2002 Dr Boyce was chairman of two major conferences the Advanced Gas Turbine and Condition Monitoring Conference sponsored by DOE and EPRI, and the Gas Turbine Users Associations Conference. Dr. Boyce has authored more than 100 technical papers and reports on Gas Turbines, Compressors Pumps, Fluid mechanics, and TurboMachinery. He is a Fellow of the ASME (USA) and the Institution of Diesel and Gas Turbine Engineers (UK), and member of SAE, NSPE, and several other professional and honorary societies such as Sigma Xi, Pi Tau Sigma, Phi Kappa Phi, and Tau Beta Phi. He is the recipient of the ASME award for Excellence in Aerodynamics and the Ralph Teetor Award of SAE for enhancement in Research and Teaching He is also a Registered Professional Engineer in the State of Texas. Dr. Boyce received a B.S. and M.S. in Mechanical Engineering from the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology and the State University of New York, respectively, and Ph.D. in Aerospace & Mechanical Engineering in 1969 from the University of Oklahoma.
3.1.1
3.1.1-1 Introduction
The objective of this article is to provide the reader with some background on blowoff and combustion instability, often referred to as a combustors static stability and dynamic stability. In particular, this chapter will focus upon this phenomenon in lean, premixed combustion systems operating with any of a variety of fuels, such as natural gas or syntheticgas. Blowoff refers to the ame physically leaving the combustor and blowing out of the combustor. This issue is often referred to as static stability. Blowoff occurs when the ame cannot be anchored in the combustor. Combustion instability, or dynamic instabilities refer to damaging oscillations driven by uctuations in the combustion heat release rate. These oscillations cause wear and damage to combustor components and, in extreme cases, can cause liberation of pieces into the hot gas path and resulting damaging to downstream turbine components.
Timothy C. Lieuwen
Associate Professor School of Aerospace Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, GA 30332-0150 email: tim.lieuwen@aerospacegatech.edu
197
2 chem = S L
(1)
where SL and denote the laminar ame speed and thermal diffusivity, respectively2. The residence time is generally scaled as d/Uref, where d and Uref denote a characteristic length scale (e.g., a recirculation zone length) and velocity scale, respectively. Putting this together, blowoff limits should scale with the Damkhler number:
Da =
(2)
at LBO
Determining the correct length and velocity scale is not straightforward. Note that Uref need not directly scale with approach ow velocity, Uu, due to the acceleration of the burned gas3. Since the burned gas velocity scale is given by Ub=(Tb/Tu)Uu, then Uref =f(Uu, Tb/Tu). Similar considerations apply for the recirculation zone scale, d. For this reason, prior workers have often had to measure the recirculation zone length in order to use Eq. (2) (e.g., see Ref 6.). Furthermore, the chemical time calculation is complicated by thermal-diffusive effects (i.e., H2 diffuses much more rapidly than air or other fuels), as the local fuel/air ratio of the mixture may differ from the global average. While clearly there are important issues such as appropriate choice of length and velocity scale, Damkhler number scalings do a reasonable job in scaling blowout data across a wide range of fuel compositions, as shown in several prior publications. As such, the manner in which the blowoff trends of a system are affected by variations in fuel composition can be inferred from the chemical kinetic times of the mixtures. To illustrate, gure 1, plots the dependence of the chemical time, upon fuel composition of H2/CO/CH4 mixtures at a xed ame temperature of 1900K. Note the order of magnitude variation in chemical time from the fast H2 mixtures to slow CO mixtures. One clear implication of this result is that higher hydrogen mixtures will blowoff at leaner equivalence ratios, as can be seen by gure 2, which plots the equivalence ratio of the mixture at blowoff. It should be emphasized that uid mechanics, and not just chemical kinetics, must be accounted for in understanding how blowoff limits will vary with composition. Because the ow eld and the ame are coupled, variations of the chemistry do impact the ow.
Fig. 1. Dependence of chemical time (ms) upon fuel composition at xed adiabatic ame temperature of 1900K [pressure is 4.4 atm with 460K reactants temperature] (reproduced with permission from authors). Source: Q. Zhang, D. Noble, and T. Lieuwen, Blowout Measurements in a Syngas-Fired Gas Turbine Combustor, Annual Pittsburgh Coal Conference (2005).
0.4
0.35
Flame
0.3
0.25
0.2
No Flame
0.2
0.6 0.4 % H2
0.8
1
Fig. 2. Dependence of LBO equivalence ratio upon H2 mole fraction at approach ow velocities of 6 m/s and 4.4 atm combustor pressures, 460 K inlet temperature (reproduced with permisson from authors). Source: See g. 1.
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Timothy C. Lieuwen
A generic feedback loop is shown in gure 3, illustrating the sequence of events responsible for self-excited oscillations in the combustion chamber: (1) Fluctuations in the velocity, pressure, fuel/air ratio, etc. excite a uctuation in the heat release rate, (2) The heat release uctuation excites acoustic oscillations, (3) The acoustic oscillations generate the disturbance in Step (1) above, closing the feedback loop. Depending upon the phase between the pressure and heat release (discussed below), the ame may add or remove energy from the acoustic eld during each cycle, represented by one complete loop in this diagram. If the energy supplied to the acoustic eld by the combustion process exceeds the energy losses of the mode, the acoustic amplitude will grow in time until it saturates, at some limit, cycle amplitude. Generally, combustion instabilities occur at frequencies associated with natural acoustic modes of the combustor. These include, e.g., bulk (i.e., Helmholtz type oscillations), axial, and transverse (i.e., tangential and/or radial) modes (see gure 4). On occasion, however, the oscillations are not associated with a purely acoustic mode and are excited by a coupled convective-acoustic mode, which occurs at frequencies lower than those of purely acoustic modes. Such oscillations occur when a hot gas packet (due to, e.g., partial ame extinction) or vortex convects through the nozzle, where it excites an acoustic wave that propagates back to the ame4, exciting another convected wave, thus repeating the process. These types of modes are often encountered in systems that are operating at conditions close to ame blowoff.
Heat Release Oscillations
Acoustic Oscillations
199
Fig. 6. Computed image of swirling ame distorted by vortical structures (reproduced with permission of Y. Huang and V. Yang). Source: Y Huang and V. Yang, Effect of Swirl on Combustion Dynamics in a Lean-Premixed SwirlStabilized Combustor, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 30 (2004): 1771-1778.
where convect refers to the time required for either the equivalence ratio oscillation or vortex to convect from its point of formation to the center of mass of the ame, chem refers to the chemical delay time, T refers to the acoustic period, and k is a series of constants whose value depend upon the combustion chamber acoustics9. Fuel composition variations impact this relationship, Eq. (3), by affecting both characteristic times on the left of the equation. Their impact on the chemical time is clear. Their impact on the convective time delay can be better understood from the following equation: convect = ( LFl / n + Lst ) / u (4)
where u refers to the mean ow velocity, Lst refers to the ame standoff distance from wherever the disturbance originates, LFl is the ame length, and n is a constant that determines the location of the ame center of mass. For example, an n value of refers to a ame that is effectively concentrated at its midpoint. Variations in fuel composition impact both the ame standoff location, ame length and the constant n (by altering the ame shape). For situations where the ame temperature remains constant, fuel composition impacts upon the ame standoff location can be approximately inferred from the turbulent ame speed. Increases in turbulent ame speed cause the ame to anchor farther upstream and vice-versa. If the ame temperature varies as well, the situation is much more complex, as the recirculating ow structure can be altered as well in a complex manner. Similar considerations apply for the ame length, which also scales with the turbulent ame speed. One point worth emphasizing is that no fuel is intrinsically more stable or unstable than another. In other words, stability is determined by whether the equality in Eq. (4) is satised depending upon ow velocity, ame location, and a variety of other factors, any particular fuel can be either stable or unstable. This point is emphasized because it is sometimes stated, incorrectly, that the addition of hydrogen has a stabilizing inuence upon dynamic stability. While hydrogen certainly does have a stabilizing inuence on static stability, due to its high ame speed, hydrogen fueled combustors can (and do!) become quite dynamically unstable. One instance where hydrogen addition can promote dynamic stability in general is under near blowout conditions where low frequency dynamic instabilities occur. By promoting a more statically stable ame, hydrogen addition could potentially make these types of dynamic instabilities less problematic.
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Timothy C. Lieuwen
driving and damping curves intersect at the origin, indicating that a zero amplitude oscillation is a potential equilibrium point. This equilibrium point is, however, unstable, as any small disturbance that moves the system away from the origin produces a condition in which H(A) is larger than D(A), resulting in further growth of the disturbance. Because these two curves diverge near the origin, their difference increases with amplitude, implying that the amplitude growth rate increases with amplitude. Nonlinear combustor processes control the dynamics of the oscillations as the driving and damping processes become amplitude dependent. Figure 8 describes a situation where H(A) saturates and D(A) increases linearly with the amplitude A, thus resulting in an intersection of the two curves at the limit cycle amplitude, ALC. A nonlinearly unstable system differs from a linearly stable one in that it is stable with respect to small amplitude disturbances but is unstable when subjected to disturbances whose magnitude exceeds a certain threshold value, AT. A simple example of a nonlinearly unstable system is a ball in a depression on the top of a hill. When pushed, this ball returns to its equilibrium point as long as it is subjected to disturbances with amplitude that does not get it over the side walls of the depression. However, for sufciently large disturbance amplitude, the ball rolls out of the depression and down the hill. Similar behavior may be observed in combustors. Although nominally stable, if disturbed hard enough, the combustor may become unstable. A typical manifestation of combustors with this type of behavior is hysteresis, where the parameter values where instability occurs differ depending upon whether the parameter is increasing or decreasing. Figure 9 provides an example of the amplitude dependences of H(A) and D(A) that produces the above discussed behavior. In this case, the system has three equilibrium points where the driving and damping curves intersect. Specically, the damping exceeds the driving when A<AT, indicating that A=0 is a stable xed point, as all disturbances in the range 0< A < AT decay to A=0. The next equilibrium amplitude where the driving and damping curves intersect is at the triggering amplitude, A =A T. This is an unstable equilibrium point because any disturbance that shifts the system from this point continues to increase in time. The third equilibrium point, A=ALC, is a stable limit cycle. Thus, in such a system all disturbances with amplitudes A<AT return to the stable solution A=0 and disturbances with amplitudes A>AT grow until their amplitude attains the value A=ALC. Consequently, two stable solutions exist at this operating condition. The one observed at any point in time will depend upon the history of the system. Two other phenomena are often observed in unstable combustors under limit cycle conditions. First, is the generation of harmonics. In other words, an instability at 251 Hz generates harmonic oscillations at 502 Hz, and possibly 753 Hz and higher harmonics as well. Second, the presence of oscillations also changes the mean ame position and ow eld. For example, the ame may become either shorter or longer. Unfortunately, the factors that inuence the limit cycle instability amplitude are very poorly understood. As such, it is not possible to comment on the inuence of fuel composition upon instability amplitudes.
Driving/Damping
H(A )
D(A )
A LC
Fig. 7. Hypothetical dependence of the acoustic driving, H(A) and damping, D(A), processes upon the instability amplitude, A.
Driving/Damping
H(A )
D(A )
A
AT
A LC
Fig. 8. Hypothetical dependence of the acoustic driving, H(A) and damping, D(A), processes upon amplitude, A, that produce triggering of instabilities.
201
202
BIOGRAPHY
Timothy C. Lieuwen
Associate Professor School of Aerospace Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, GA 30332-0150 email: tim.lieuwen@aerospacegatech.edu
Dr. Tim. Lieuwen is an Associate Professor at the Georgia Institute of Technology. He is an active researcher in the areas of unsteady combustion phenomenon and acoustics. Dr. Lieuwen is the author of 2 book chapters, and over 100 conference publications and journal articles. He is an Associate Editor of the Journal of Propulsion and Power. Dr. Lieuwen has held various leadership roles in the Air Breathing Propulsion technical committee of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) and the Combustion and Fuels committee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Dr. Lieuwen has served on the organizing committees of several major international conferences sponsored by both AIAA and ASME. Dr. Lieuwens awards include the NSF CAREER Award, the AIAA Lawrence Sperry Award, and the ASME/ IGTI Turbo Expo Best Paper Award.
3.1
3.1-1 Key Combustion Issues Associated with Syngas and High-Hydrogen Fuels
Combustion of syngas and high-hydrogen fuels requires attention to key combustion issues, especially if low emissions are to be achieved using these fuels. Current combustion systems operated on natural gas have evolved to the point where low single digit NOx emissions are possible with lean premixed strategies. However, the price of this evolution has been a signicant increase in sensitivity to various perturbations such as changes in ambient conditions and variation in pipeline natural gas composition. In light of these observed sensitivities, strategies over an above lean premixed are continuing to be evaluated as discussed in Combustion Strategies for Syngas and High Hydrogen Fuel. To reduce risk and development time, it is desirable to apply the experience of developing low emissions combustion systems for natural gas to syngas and high-hydrogen fuels. However, the range of compositions found in syngas and high-hydrogen fuels varies more substantially than similar properties of pipeline natural gas. By way of example, consider the ranges of composition shown in Table 1. Table 2 summarizes the range and average values of the fuel constituents shown. As a result of the wider range of composition found in syngas and high hydrogen fuels, strategies well suited for low emissions performance on natural gas may not necessarily work best for syngas and hydrogen containing fuels. That said, it is important to note that the variation indicated in Table 1 and Table 2 is somewhat misleading. Specically, if a given feedstock and gasications process is considered, the variation found will be much less. By way of example, if the processes are limited to PSI Wabash, Tampa, El Dorado, and Motiva, a representation of variation found in coal/pet coke fed, oxygen blown gasication systems can be established as illustrated in Table 3. The other point to be made by way of introduction is that hydrogen poses the most signicant challenge in terms of the combustion system. As a fuel, hydrogen behaves differently than a hydrocarbon in many ways including specic heat (hydrogen has a much higher specic heat than other gases), diffusivity (hydrogen has a much higher diffusivity than other gases), ammability limits (hydrogen has a wide range of volume concentrations over which it is ammable), and ame speed (hydrogen has a much higher laminar ame speed than do other gases). As a result, the presence of hydrogen creates issues for combustion that require a different perspective than would a hydrocarbon fuel. Further, mixtures of gases often exhibit non-linear behavior and little data are available on the types of mixtures found in syngas. With this in mind, the key issues that are associated with combustion of syngas and hydrogen containing fuels can be broadly classied into two major areas: reaction location and stability. These two areas are discussed in detail in Static and Dynamic Stability. Reaction location is an issue for all strategies and is related to the chemistry and time scales associated with the system. In strategies which involve premixing the fuel and oxidant (especially for lean strategies), the possibility of reaction evolving into the premixing region is a major concern. Given the high ame speeds of hydrogen, this concern must been examined carefully. Another issue related to the reaction location is ignition delay. With 1-5 msecs of premixing time available, at typical gas turbine inlet temperatures and pressures, ignition delay does not appear to be a major concern for the fuels of interesthowever, the predictions of ignition delay have been developed largely in the absence of data at these conditions. As a result, better understanding of whether autoignition might be a factor is really needed to conrm this expectation. Stability can broadly be divided between static and dynamic regimes. It is often reasoned that the wide ammability limits of hydrogen can allow stable operation at leaner (and therefore cooler) reaction temperatures. This extension of the lean blow off or static stability limit is an inherent benet that should be realized from the presence of hydrogen. However, the extent to which this limit can be achieved in practice and, furthermore, its sensitivity to variation in composition is a key issue. On the other hand, dynamic stability, which is less predictable than static stability, can arise for combustion systems due to various reasons. How fuel composition impacts the propensity of a system to exhibit dynamic stability issues is another concern that must be addressed.
Vincent G. McDonell
Advanced Power and Energy Program University of California Irvine, CA 92697-3550 949-824-7302 ext 121 vgm@apep.uci.edu
195
Constituent Hydrogen Carbon Monoxide Methane Carbon Dioxide Nitrogen + Argon Water Hydrogen/Carbon Monxide Ratio
Volume %
Table 3 Composition Variation for Pet Coke/Coal Fired, Oxygen Gasied Fuel Streams.
Constituent Hydrogen Carbon Monoxide Methane Carbon Dioxide Nitrogen + Argon Hydrogen/Carbon Monxide Ratio
3.1-2 Notes
_______________________ 1. D. M. Todd, Gas Turbine Improvements Enhance IGCC Viability, 2000 Gasication Technologies Conference, San Francisco, CA, October, 2000.
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3.1 Key Combustion Issues Associated with Syngas and High-Hydrogen Fuels
BIOGRAPHY
Vincent G. McDonell
Advanced Power and Energy Program University of California Irvine, CA 92697-3550 phone: (949) 824-7302 ext 121 email: vgm@apep.uci.edu
Dr. Vincent G. McDonell is the Associate Director of the UCI Combustion Laboratory and is an adjunct Associate Professor at the University of California, Irvine. Dr. McDonells research focuses on gas turbine combustion systems and components including the design and characterization of devices for both liquid and gas red applications. Research contributions range from micro-turbine generators, to central plant gas turbines, to propulsion gas turbines. Fuels experience ranges from natural gas to hydrogen to coal derived fuel gas and liquids. He has extensive experience in application of laser based and conventional diagnostics to a wide array of combustion devices and has particular expertise in the physics of two-phase transport and optical diagnostics for two-phase ows including phase Doppler interferometry. He also regularly applies CFD in the analysis and design of combustion systems and components. Dr. McDonell is a member of the Combustion Institute, ILASS-Americas, AIAA, and ASME. He currently serves on the executive committee of ILASS-Americas and the Western States Section of the Combustion Institute and also serves on the Academic Advisory Board the University Turbine Systems Research program. Research by Dr. McDonell has been documented in over 40 publications.
3.2.1.1
3.2.1.1-1 Introduction
Brayton Cycle
The role of the combustor in a gas turbine engine is two-fold. First, the combustor transforms the chemical energy resident in the fuel into thermal energy for expansion in the turbine. Second, the combustor tailors the temperature prole of the hot gases at the exit plane in order to not compromise the material constraints of the turbine. To fulll this two-fold role, the combustor is designed to mix fuel with air at elevated pressure and temperature, to both establish and sustain a stable continuous combustion reaction, and to mix the products of combustion to establish the desired exhaust temperature prole. The combustor processes are, as a result, a complex combination of uid mixing, chemical kinetics, and heat transfer. To contain and control these processes, the design of the conventional combustor has evolved over seven decades for the production of propulsive thrust and electrical power. The thermodynamic path over which the gas turbine engine operates is the Brayton Cycle (Figure 1). The compressor [C] ingests and compresses ambient air to elevated pressures that vary in the range of a few to many tens of atmospheres depending on the engine design and application. The Pressure Ratio (ratio of outlet to inlet pressure of the compressor, P2/P1) is a major factor in establishing the overall thermodynamic efciency of the engine. The higher the pressure ratio, the higher the overall thermodynamic efciency.
Scott Samuelsen
Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Environmental Engineering Director Advanced Power and Energy Program University of California Irvine 92697-3550 phone: 949-824-5468 email: gss@uci.edu
Fig. 1. Gas Turbine Brayton Cycle for Electric Power Generation
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Continuous Combustion
The processes that occur within a gas turbine combustor (e.g., injection of the air and fuel, mixing of the air and fuel, combustion reaction) are continuous rather than intermittent, and occur at constant pressure. This is in contrast to the automobile spark ignited Otto Cycle engine where the combustion is intermittent and accompanied by a signicant increase in pressure. The gases exit the gas turbine combustor as a steady ow and are then continuously expanded through turbine stages. After the nal expansion stage, the spent gases are then exhausted into the atmosphere.
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(1) where: Gm = Axial Flux of Angular Momentum Gt = Axial Thrust Dsw = Diameter of Swirler The swirl number must exceed 0.6 in order to induce a recirculation zone. Aerodynamic Spark Plug. The fuel is injected at an angle to mix with the swirler air that is exiting the swirler. Mixing of the fuel and air is facilitated by the turbulence that is created by the passage of the air through the swirler. The resultant fuel/air mixture is then recirculated and mixed with energetic hot products of combustion that are pulled and entrained into the recirculation zone from downstream. These energetic species provide the ignition source for the fresh mixture of fuel and air. In effect, the recirculation zone combines as a combined aerodynamic blender and spark plug. Primary Air Jets. Wall jets affect the mixing, stoichiometry, and structure of the ows in gas turbine combustors. Due to this dominating role, a substantial literature has evolved to guide the design and estimate the behavior of jets injected into a crossow.3 In a typical combustor design, two sets of air wall jets (primary and dilution) are prescribed (Figure 3). The primary air jets are located approximately one duct diameter downstream from the combustor inlet and serve two major functions. First, the jets bring closure to the recirculation zone by providing a strong force against which the primary zone cannot easily penetrate. Without the set of primary air jets, the dynamics of the recirculation zone would create aerodynamic uctuations and result in pressure oscillations, undesirable noise, and elevated pollutant emission. Secondly, the primary jets bifurcate with a substantial percentage of the ow directed upstream to mix with the recirculating fuel/air mixture, and the remainder mixing downstream into the secondary zone (Figure 4). The primary jet owing upstream augments the swirler air to establish the overall stochiometry of the primary zone.
The stochiometry describes the actual fuel-to-air ratio compared to the chemically correct or stoichiometric ratio. A number of indices (e.g., theoretical air, excess air) can be used. For gas turbine combustion, the equivalence ratio () is the index that is typically adopted:
=
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(Fuel/Air)actual (Fuel/Air)stoichiometric
(2)
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The CO produced retains one-third of the chemical energy. The release of the residual energy bound in the CO does not occur readily in the primary zone due to (1) the relatively slow kinetic rate for the oxidation of CO to carbon dioxide (CO2), (2) the relatively short residence time in the recirculation zone, and (3) the rich stochiometry of the primary zone. Herein is the role of the secondary zone.
Fig. 6. Heat Release Chemistry (Example for Methane, CH4, as the Fuel) Source: 4. Samuelsen, G. S., The Combustion Aspects of Air Pollution, Advances in Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 5, pp. 219-322, John Wiley & Sons ,1975.
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Fig. 8. Model Combustor Operating on JP-4 Source: Cameron, C.D., Brouwer, J., and Samuelsen, G.S., A Model Gas Turbine Combustor with Wall Jets and Optical Access for Turbulent Mixing, Fuel Effects, and Spray Studies, Twenty-Second Symposium (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, pp. 465-474, 1988.
The strategy is to increase the sluggish forward reaction rate by (1) establishing an overall lean mixture ratio (e.g., ~0.8) through the primary jet bifurcation, (2) retaining the temperature at an elevated level, and (3) providing the residence time needed to promote the oxidation. The emission from CO2 is purple (Figure 9). The effectiveness of the secondary zone is evident in Figure 8 where a purplish light emission, characteristic of the CO2 molecule, is observed between the primary and dilution jets.
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A combustor designer will work with the turbine design team to establish the exit plane temperature design prole (Figure 10). The temperature is reduced at the root (0% Blade Span) to protect the blade attachment to the shaft, and reduced at the 100 percent span point to manage the clearance at the wall. The peak temperature occurs closer to the 100 percent span point due to the larger circumferential area of the turbine that can manage the elevated heat ux. The actual temperature prole may deviate from the design prole. The Pattern Factor reects the extent to which the maximum temperature deviates from the average temperature rise across the combustor {T3- T2}:
Pattern Factor
=
{ Tmax T3 } { T3 T2 }
(4)
Fig. 10. Exit Plane Temperature Proles Source: Lefebvre, Arthur H., Gas Turbine Combustion, Second Edition, Taylor and Francis, p. 120, 1998.
The Prole Factor characterizes the extent to which the maximum circumferential mean temperature, Tmr, deviates from the average temperature rise across the combustor: Prole Factor (5)
The Turbine Prole Factor addresses the maximum temperature difference by comparing the average temperature at any given radius around the circumference (T3r) and the design temperature for that same radius (T3des): Turbine Prole Factor
(6)
The goal is for the actual prole to match the design prole. The dilution jet penetration is the major force that directly determines the extent to which this match is achieved. In general, the combination of the number of dilution jets and the orice size for each jet is selected such that the centerline of the dilution jets penetrates from the wall a distance that corresponds to 1/3 of the duct diameter.
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3.2.1.1-8 Notes
_______________________
1. Mongia, H. C., Reynolds, R. S., and Srinivasan, R., Multidimensional Gas Turbine Combustion Modeling: Applications and Limitations, AIAA Journal, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 890-904, 1986. 2. McDonell, V.G. and Samuelsen, G.S., Measurement of Fuel Mixing and Transport Processes in Gas Turbine Combustion, Measurement, Science, and Technology, Topical Issue on Measuring Techniques for Turbomachinery, Vol. 11, pp. 870-886, 2000. 3. Holdeman, J.D., Mixing of Multiple Jets with a Conned Subsonic Crossow, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 31-70, 1993.
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BIOGRAPHY
3.2.1.1 Conventional Type Combustion 3.2.1.3 Rich Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean Burn (RQL) Combustor
Scott Samuelsen
Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Environmental Engineering Director Advanced Power and Energy Program University of California Irvine 92697-3550 phone: 949-824-5468 email: gss@uci.edu
Professor Scott Samuelsen is Director of the Advanced Power and Energy Program (APEP) at the University of California Irvine and Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Environmental Engineering. He directs as well the National Fuel Cell Research Center (NFCRC) and the UCI Combustion Laboratory (UCICL). His research is directed to advanced power systems including gas turbines, fuel cells, and fuels. He directs anchor research on advanced coal and natural gas power plants for the coproduction of electricity and hydrogen for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), distributed generation and information technology research for the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) in support of energyefcient and environmentally-responsible power generation, advanced energy systems research for the California Energy Commission, and coal-gas and hydrogen-fueled gas turbine combustion studies. His energy expertise is based on forty years of combustion research working with strategic alliances involving industry with applications to gas turbine propulsion, gas turbine electronic power generation, and combustion distributed generation resources. He holds the Ph.D. degree from the University of California Berkeley.
3.2.1.2
3.2.1.2-1 Introduction
Gas turbine designers are continually challenged to improve cycle efciency while maintaining or reducing emissions. This challenge is made more difcult by the fact that these are often conicting goals. The path to improved efciency is higher working uid temperatures, but higher temperatures promote NOx formation and at 2,800 F the threshold for thermal NOx formation is reached. Furthermore, reducing available oxygen to reduce NOx can result in higher carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbon emissions due to incomplete combustion. Moreover, increasing ring temperatures above 2,350 F represents a signicant materials science challenge.1 To achieve lower pollutant emission rates, a variety of pre-formation and postformation control technologies have been utilized either individually or in combination, including: Wet controls (water or steam injection) Dry combustion controls (lean combustion, reduced residence time, lean premixed combustion, and two-stage rich/lean combustion) Selective catalytic reduction SCONOX catalytic absorption Catalytic combustion (e.g. Xonontm ) Rich Quench Lean Combustors CO oxidation catalysts This section of the Handbook focuses on Lean Premixed (LPM) combustion, a pre-formation control strategy that has become the standard technique employed by gas turbine original equipment manufacturers (OEM), particularly for natural gas applications. OEMs have developed processes that use air as a diluent to reduce combustion ame temperatures and reduce NOx by premixing fuel and air before they enter the combustor. This lean premixed combustion process is referred to by a variety of trade names including General Electrics and Siemens-Westinghouses Dry Low NOx (DLN) processes, Rolls-Royces Dry Low Emissions (DLE) process and Solar Turbines SoLo NOx process. When ring natural gas, most of the commercially available systems are guaranteed to reduce NOx emissions within the 15 to 25 parts per million by volume, dry (ppmvd) range, depending on the OEM, turbine model and application. A few OEMs have guaranteed single digit NOx emissions.
William R. Bender
Technology & Management Services, Inc. Gaithersburg, MD 20879 phone: (301) 670-6390 x144 email: wbender@tms-hq.com
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By referring to the equivalence ratio, combustion using different types of fuel is readily described as lean if < 1 or rich if > 1.
Flame Temperature
Another important combustion parameter is the ame temperature. Flame temperatures are determined by a balance of energy between reactants and products. In principal, the highest ame temperatures would be produced at = 1, because all of the fuel and oxygen would be consumed. In practice, the effects of species dissociation and heat capacity shift the peak temperature to slightly above stoichiometric ( ~ 1.05). Fuel type is important in determining the ame temperature. To provide a sense of magnitude, the list below compares calculated adiabatic ame temperatures of two hydrocarbons, CO and H2. This list applies to stoichiometric combustion in ambient air:
Table 1: Compared adiabatic ame temperature calculations.
It should be noted that the methane ame temperature is approximately 150 K lower than hydrogen and CO. This distinction makes it somewhat easier to produce low-emissions from natural gas, which is mostly methane, compared to syngases containing undiluted H2 and CO.
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In the early 1970s, when emission controls were introduced, the pollutant of primary concern to regulators shifted to NOx. For the relatively low levels of NOx reduction initially required, the injection of water or steam into the combustion zone produced the required reduction in NOx emissions with minimal performance impact. In addition, the emissions of other pollutants (CO, VOC) did not increase signicantly. To comply with the greater NOx reduction requirements imposed during the 1980s, further attempts were made to utilize increased quantities of water/steam injection to ensure compliance. These attempts proved detrimental to cycle performance and part lives, and the emission rates for other pollutants also began to rise signicantly. Other control methodologies needed to be developed, which led to the introduction of the LPM combustor.
Fig. 1. Dry Low NOx Combustor Source: note 6, Davis & Black, p. 3, Figure 5.
Fig. 2. Fuel-Staged Dry Low NOx Operating Modes Source: note 6, Davis & Black, p.4, Figure 6.
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The CO/NOx trade-off must be addressed during part-load operation when the combustor is required to run at an even leaner condition overall. The tradeoff also comes into play in development efforts to reduce LPM combustor NOx emissions by further reducing the primary zone design point temperature.
Fig. 3. NOx Production Rate Source: note 4, Pavri & Moore, p. 17, Figure 20.
Combustor Liner
LPM combustor liner cooling methods can have a signicant effect on emissions. The current generation of LPM combustors employs a variety of liner cooling methods including lm cooling (louver or effusion) and backside cooling. Many rst generation LPM turbines use lm cooling to maintain acceptably low combustor wall temperatures, but many manufacturers have or will make the transition to backside-cooled technology with their next generation of LPM turbines. Backside-cooled liners have been in use for some commercial products for several years. Compared to lm cooling, backside cooled liners forego cooling air injection completely. Instead, combustor wall temperatures are controlled solely through convective cooling by a high velocity airstream on the cold side of the liner. In most instances, the high heat ux from the ame requires augmenting the backside convective process to keep the liner wall temperatures from becoming excessive. Turbulators in the form of trip strips, ns, and pins act to increase the cooling ow turbulence at the liner wall and augment the heat removal process. Those OEMs already utilizing backside cooling will optimize its design in order to warranty lower NOx levels.
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Combustor/Injector staging
To enhance stability, some LPM turbines use fuel injection in multiple axial stages, with airow to the additional stages being variable. Other LPM designs use multiple injector heads red as a function of load.
Control Systems
The control system for LPM engines modulates the air and fuel management systems to keep the combustion primary zone temperature within a specied range while maintaining acceptable engine turn-down and low-load operating stability. Accurate control of the primary zone temperature is critical to controlling NOx and CO emissions, which is typically accomplished through power turbine inlet temperature as an indirect measurement of the combustor exit or turbine inlet temperature.
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Hydrogen
Pathways to zero emissions power plants include the utilization of hydrogen directly as a fuel. Because of its high combustion temperature, the development of hydrogen-fueled turbines with comparable performance to natural gas is problematic. Stable, efcient, low- NOx combustion requires rapid, homogeneous mixing of fuel and air, which is a challenge when ring natural gas and made far more difcult with highly reactive hydrogen.
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NOx Emission Limit (ppm) <9.0 9.0 <15.0 15.0 <25.0 25.0 >25.0
This table conrms the trend towards single digit NOx emissions. For certain gas turbines, NOx emission rates > 9 ppm can be met using LPM combustors. Permit limits less than 9 ppm require the application of post combustion controls. Lowest Achievable Emission Rate (LAER) Major sources/modications in non-attainment areas are subject to a determination of LAER. LAER is dened as the most stringent emission limitation achieved in practice for the class or source category. The primary difference between BACT and LAER is that LAER does not allow economic impacts to be considered when evaluating pollution control technologies leading to an emissions limitation. Other Regulatory Programs Other regulatory programs that could potentially impact gas turbine emissions include the Clean Air Interstate Rule, the President s Clear Skies Initiative, and Maximum Available Control Technology (MACT) standards.19
Thermal NOx
Thermal NOx is formed by a series of chemical reactions in which oxygen and nitrogen present in the combustion air dissociate and subsequently react to form NOx. Prompt NOx, a form of thermal NOx, is formed in the proximity of the ame front as intermediate combustion products such as HCN, N and NH that are oxidized to form NOx. Prompt NOx is formed in both fuel-rich ames zones and
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dry low NOx (DLN) combustion zones. The contribution of prompt NOx to overall NOx emissions is relatively small in conventional near-stoichiometric combustors, but this contribution is a signicant percentage of overall thermal NOx emissions in DLN combustors. For this reason, prompt NOx becomes an important consideration for DLN combustor designs, establishing a minimum NOx level attainable in lean mixtures. The chemical mechanisms that produce NOx are listed below. These reactions represent the major pathways for NOx formation; see Nicol et al. for a more detailed description of the chemical pathways.21 Various authors have used different names for these pathways, or include different reactions. This is a result of advances in understanding the relative importance of these mechanisms. For example, until recently, the nitrous oxide path was simply included as an extension of the prompt mechanism22, but has emerged as an important chemical path in lean burning gas turbines and is now referred to as a distinct mechanism: Extended Zeldovich mechanism: (1) O + N2 NO + N (2) N + O2 NO + O (3) N + OH NO + H Nitrous oxide: (4) (5) (6) Prompt: (7) N2 + O + M N2O + M N2O + O NO + NO N2O + H NO + NH N2 + CH HCN + N
The prompt mechanism is followed by a sequence of reactions converting HCN to NO; reaction (7) is just the initiation. The detailed sequence was reported by Fenimore, and the prompt mechanism is sometimes referred to as Fenimore-prompt or just Fenimore.23 The CH reaction is also important for fuels containing nitrogen which can directly form the HCN species. The extended Zeldovich mechanism is also known as the thermal mechanism when O and H species are at equilibrium levels. The thermal route is a primary mechanism for NOx when ame temperatures are above approximately 1800K (2780F). Below this temperature, the thermal reactions are relatively slow. Thus, a common approach to NOx control is to reduce the combustion temperature so that very little thermal NOx can form. In the absence of thermal NOx, the other mechanisms become signicant. Non-equilibrium concentration of O or H atoms in the ame region can produce NOx via reactions (1) to (3), and this is known as Zeldovich NOx. The nitrous oxide path depends on the intermediate species N2O which itself is generated by O-atom attack of nitrogen.
Fuel NOx
Fuel NOx is formed when fuels containing nitrogen are burned. Molecular nitrogen, present as N2 in some kinds of natural gas, does not contribute signicantly to fuel NOx formation. Some low-Btu synthetic fuels contain nitrogen in the form of ammonia (NH3). Other low-Btu fuels such as sewage and process waste-stream gases also contain nitrogen. When these fuels are burned, the nitrogen bonds break and some of the resulting free nitrogen oxidizes to form NOx. With excess air, the degree of fuel NOx formation is primarily a function of the nitrogen content in the fuel. The fraction of fuel-bound nitrogen (FBN) converted to fuel NOx decreases with increasing nitrogen content, although the absolute magnitude of fuel NOx increases. For example, a fuel with 0.01 percent nitrogen may have 100 percent of its FBN converted to fuel NOx, whereas a fuel with a 1.0 percent FBN may have only a 40 percent conversion rate. Natural gas typically contains little or no FBN. As a result, when compared to thermal NOx, fuel NOx is not a major contributor to overall NOx emissions from stationary gas turbines ring natural gas.
3.2.1.2-12 Conclusions
OEMs continue to improve LPM technology; simultaneously, regulators continue to lower emissions requirements.24 R&D efforts continue to advance technology and provide valuable contributions to design and manufacturing techniques to further enhance performance while reducing emissions and overall plant costs. Leveraging advances made in natural gas-fueled turbines through the ATS Program is critical to achieving performance goals established for future coal-based systems, especially Integrated Gasication Combined Cycle (IGCC) plants and FutureGen. Gas turbines utilized in IGCC plants operate on syngas derived from gasication. Syngas typically contributes 15 to 20 percent to the volumetric ow through an advanced gas turbine to achieve the same heat input as natural gas. The additional mass ow theoretically increases gas turbine power output by 30 to 40 percent. However, aerodynamic issues currently limit power gains to values lower than those theoretically possible. DOEs Fossil Energy Turbine Technology R&D Program being implemented by NETL was recently expanded with the selection of ten new projects valued at $130 million. The new program will advance turbines and turbine subsystems for integrated gasication combined cycle (IGCC) power plants and address the use of hydrogen and syngas.
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BIOGRAPHY
William R. Bender
Technology & Management Services, Inc. Gaithersburg, MD 20879 phone: (301) 670-6390 x144 email: wbender@tms-hq.com
William R. Bender is a Senior Associate with Technology & Management Services, Inc. (TMS). Mr. Bender has over 34 years of experience with gas turbine power systems as a Project Construction Manager, Project Manager, and Project Engineer. While with a large A/E, he was a Project Engineer on Florida Power & Lights Martin combined cycle Project and Tampa Electrics Polk Power Station. As a TMS employee, Mr. Bender is responsible for the planning and analyzing of fossil energy systems, policy initiatives and research, development and deployment programs in support of DOE Headquarters and NETL. His areas of expertise include coal, oil and gas power systems; technology and economic evaluation and assessments; energy and environmental policy analysis and multi-task project management.
3.2.1.3
3.2.1.3-1 Introduction
The Rich-Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean-Burn (RQL) combustor concept was introduced in 1980 as strategy to reduce oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emission from gas turbine engines.1 Later, in the 1990s, the concept was targeted by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for the reduction of nitrogen oxides in next generation aero-propulsion engines. Today, the RQL is the anchor combustor technology in aeroengines deployed commercially by Pratt & Whitney under the name TALON (Technology for Advanced Low NOx). Due to safety considerations and overall performance (e.g., stability) throughout the duty cycle, the RQL is preferred over lean premixed options in aeroengine applications. In stationary applications, lean premixed combustor technology is the standard. Safety considerations are not as severe, the duty cycle is more constrained, and the reduction in NOx emission is more substantial in contrast to RQL technology. However, RQL combustor technology is of growing interest for stationary applications due to the attributes of (1) more effectively processing fuels of complex composition, and (2) processing fuels of varying composition. The latter is becoming of importance with the increasing international competition for fuels in general, the burgeoning interest in biomass fuels, the expanding use of opportunity fuels (land-ll gases, digester gases, well-head gases), and the growing use of liqueed natural gas to either complement domestic sources or serve as the sole source of natural gas to a large region of a country or the country as a whole. The California Energy Commission is engaged in RQL technology research, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy, to explore the utility of RQL strategies as an alternative to combustors for niche applications in the stationary production of electrical power. The RQL concept is predicated on the premise that the primary zone of a gas turbine combustor operates most effectively with rich mixture ratios (Figure 1). First, a rich-burn condition in the primary zone (e.g., = 1.8) enhances the stability of the combustion reaction by producing and sustaining a high concentration of energetic hydrogen and hydrocarbon radical species. Secondly, rich burn conditions minimize the production of nitrogen oxides due to the relative low temperatures and low population of oxygen containing intermediate species (Figure 2).
Scott Samuelsen
Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Environmental Engineering Director Advanced Power and Energy Program University of California Irvine 92697-3550 phone: 949-824-5468 email: gss@uci.edu
Fig. 1. Rich-Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean-Burn Combustor (, Equivalence Ratio)
The efuent emanating from the rich primary zone will be high in the concentration of partially oxidized and partially pyrolized hydrocarbon species, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide. As a result, the efuent cannot be exhausted without further processing. In particular, the addition of oxygen is needed to oxidize the high concentrations of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, hydrocarbon intermediates. This is accomplished by injecting a substantial amount of air through wall jets to mix with the primary zone efuent and create a lean-burn condition prior to the exit plane of the combustor. Ideally, this will result in the emission of an efuent comprised of the major products of combustion (CO2, H2O, N2, O2) and a non-zero concentration of criteria pollutants (e.g., NOx, CO, HC).
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A major challenge for the RQL is the selection of combustor liner material. In the primary zone, for example, the use of air for cooling the liner wall is precluded in order to avoid the generation of near-stoichiometric mixture ratios and the associated production of nitrogen oxides in the vicinity of the wall. As a result, the temperature and composition of gases in the primary zone create a demanding, reducing environment for the liner material. The concentrations of hydrogen alone and the concomitant demands of hydrogen embrittlement in particular have combined to require a major investment in materials research in support of RQL technology. A more demanding challenge is the design of the Quick-Mix section. A key to the success of the RQL is the efcacy of mixing the air with the efuent exiting the primary zone. The mixing of the injected air takes the reaction through the conditions most vulnerable for the high production of oxides of nitrogen (near stoichiometric conditions where both the temperature and oxygen atom concentrations are elevated). The challenge then is to rapidly mix air into the rich-burn efuent in order to rapidly create the lean-burn conditions (Figure 3). As a result, the label Quick-Mix is adopted to emphasize the requirement to rapidly mix the air and primary zone efuent. As a result, RQL research has historically focused on Quick-Mix section designs to establish the most rapid mixing.
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(1) Where: Ymax = Maximum Radial Penetration of the Jet Centerline dj = Diameter of the Jet Entry Orice jets Vjets 2 J = Jet-to-Crossow Momentum Flux Ratio = main Vmain 2 = Density V = Velocity = Entry Angle of the Jet
(2)
In the gas turbine combustor, the jets are conned and the interaction between multiple jets is a major factor in dictating mixing behavior. As a result, studies has been conducted to address the mixing behavior associated with the mixing of primary and dilution jets in conventional gas turbine combustors; and optimizing the mixing section in the RQL combustor.5 For multiple jets in a tubular duct, the correlation for the maximum penetration of a single jet must account for the effects of blockage:6
(3)
MR is much higher for an RQL combustor (~ 2.5) in contrast to the conventional combustor (~ 0.25). Since the density and momentum-ux ratios J are about the same in the two congurations, the biggest difference between the jets in conventional and RQL combustors is orice size. Non-reacting studies have also been undertaken to evaluate geometrical features (e.g., orice shape, number of orices, axial staggering of orices) and operating features (e.g., momentum ux ratio, density ux ratio, mass ow rate ratio) with the goal to optimize the mixing. Traditionally, such studies have dened optimal mixing as the shortest axial distance from the upstream edge of the jet orice where a uniform radial prole is established of key mixing parameters (e.g., temperature, species concentration). The hypothesis is that the optimal mixing dened in this manner will minimize the production of nitrogen oxides. Due to the complex set of variables, many of the studies have beneted by a design of experiments statistical approach to explore the multiple factors that can affect jet mixing.7 In addition to non-reacting experiments and use of design of experiments methods, modeling has been effectively employed both independent of and in conjunction with the experiments.8 While a variety of jet orice congurations has been studied (e.g., triangular, slanted, tear-drop), no option has been identied that penetrates signicantly farther or faster than a single, round jet. For a cylindrical conguration, a NASA design method developed by Holdeman and co-workers dened a correlation that is used to design the jet mixing section of an RQL combustor utilizing round hole jets.9 The correlation, derived a study of jet-to-mainstream momentum-ux ratio, establishes the number of circular holes for optimum mixing:
n=
Where:
2J C
(4)
n = Number of Circular Jet Orices to Optimize Mixing J = Momentum Flux Ratio C = Empirical Constant = 2.5 Reacting ow studies have also been conducted to complement the non-reacting studies and assess the impact of heat release on the mixing processes. Typically, a mixture of propane and air is used to generate a representative rich-burn efuent. A specially designed section is used to create a uniform presentation (e.g., temperature, velocity, composition, concentration) of the rich efuent to the mixing section. The injection of the quick-mix jet air results in the ignition of a reaction between the rich-burn efuent and the jet air (Figure 5). Measurements of temperature, species composition, and species concentration can then be made downstream of the jet orices in order to establish the efcacy of mixing as a function of downstream distance.10 The results from the reacting experiments reveal that the non-reacting experiments provide a satisfactory description of the mixing of jets in a crossow. Overall, the jets need to penetrate to the half radius in order to maximize the mixing and avoid either under-penetration or over-penetration.11
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Jet mixing in a crossow has been studied in two primary mainstream geometries. The cylindrical geometry has been the most extensively researched and is directly relevant to combustor can congurations. In contrast, the modern annular combustor congurations have spawned investigations of jets in the crossow of rectangular geometries. For each, Holdeman has established the following procedures to design the most rapid mixing, Quick-Mix section:12 Cylindrical Geometry 1. 2. 3. Typical Mass Ratio: Typical Momentum Flux Ratio: Optimal Number of Orices: 2.5 60
n=
4.
(5) Orice Size: Determined by the desired mass-ow ratio and the optimum number of orices for the given momentumux ratio.
2J C
Rectangular Geometry 1. 2. 3. Typical Mass Ratio: Typical Momentum Flux Ratio: Optimal Orice Spacing: 2.5 60
Where:
S/ H = C/ J
S = Orice Spacing H = Channel Height
(6)
4. 5.
Orice Size. For a given momentum-ux ratio, determined by the desired mass-ow ratio and the optimum orice spacing. For a rectangular duct the number of orices is innite. For an annulus, the number of orices will depend on the diameter and height of the mixing section. Orice Conguration. Can be either in-line or staggered. The selection will depend on the application, and include such factors as momentum-ux ratio. In-line congurations are usually preferred as the orices are smaller. The optimum spacing for staggered jets is four times the optimum spacing for in-line congurations. As a result, the orice diameter for staggered jets must be doubled for the same total orice area.
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The research study reported in Figure 6 explored as well the effect of air preheat on NOx formation. The main air and jet air streams were independently heated in order to assess the relative inuence of independently preheating each ow. Three preheat conditions are presented in Figure 7. The rst set of conditions is for no air preheat. This serves as an anchor to which the results for the elevated inlet air temperature conditions can be compared. The second set of conditions is for jet air preheat only (no main air preheat). The third set of conditions is for both jet air and main air preheat, representing the case usually encountered in practical combustors. The results reveal the small impact of preheated jet air on NOx. The jet air comprises over 70 percent of the total air ow, but preheating only the jet air results in relatively small increases in NOx emissions compared to the case where both the main and jet air are preheated. The latter condition resulted in the largest NOx production for all the modules. The small effect of preheating the jet air is counter intuitive to the expectation that preheating jet air should promote NOx production via the thermal (Zeldovich) mechanism. The dominating inuence of the main air preheat may be attributed to the total xed nitrogen (TFN) production in the fuel-rich zone. In particular, the TFN generation in the fuel-rich zone, and its subsequent transformation to NOx in the mixing zone, may be inuential in governing the total NOx emissions than expected.
Fig. 7. Effect of Air Preheat on NOx Concentrations Source: See note 17.
The distributions of equivalence ratios reveal that preheat has a negligible effect on jet penetration. The equivalence ratio distributions are quite uniform which is also expected as the 12 hole conguration as an optimum mixer. In addition, the O2 distributions serve as an indice for jet penetration and are virtually the same for all preheat conditions.
3.2.1.3-4 Conclusions
The Rich-Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean-Burn (RQL) combustor has evolved over the past three decades as a major strategy for the reduction of oxides of nitrogen from gas turbine engines. The concept has the attribute of high combustor stability due to the rich primary zone. While the RQL is deployed commercially in aeroengine applications, lean premixed options have been selected for stationary applications in lieu of the RQL in order to achieve lower NOx emission. Niche applications in the stationary market, however, are driving a role for the RQL where fuels with complex compositions or fuels of varying composition are being encountered. This has prompted new research in the exploration of NOx formation in RQL congurations. The hypothesis that optimal mixing in the QuickMix section will lead to the minimization of NOx emission has been challenged by recent observations. In particular, the generation of nitrogen containing species in the Rich-Burn zone and subsequent processing in the Quick-Mix section may affect the emission of NOx. While the RQL concept is inherently a low-NOx generator, a further understanding of the primary zone chemistry and the coupling between the chemical kinetics and uid mechanics in the Quick-Mix section may be required in order to optimize the RQL design. Fuels of varying composition and varying concentrations of fuel-bound nitrogen in stationary applications create a particular demand for this insight whereas the consistency of fuel composition in aeroengine applications allows insight derived from empirical evidence to be sufcient for the design of commercial RQL systems.
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3.2.1.3 Rich Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean Burn (RQL) Combustor 3.2.1.3-5 Notes
_________________________________ 1. Mosier, S.A., and Pierce, R.M., 1980. Advanced Combustor Systems for Stationary Gas Turbine Engines, Phase I. Review and Preliminary Evaluation, Volume I, Contract 68-02-2136, FR-11405, Final Report, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2. Holdeman, J.D., 1993. Mixing of Multiple Jets with a Conned Subsonic Crossow, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, Vol. 19, pp. 31-70, August; Holdeman, J.D., Liscinsky, D.S., Oechsle, V.L., Samuelsen, G.S., and Smith, C.E., 1997. Mixing of Multiple Jets With a Conned Subsonic Crossow: Part ICylindrical Ducts, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 119, No. 4, October, pp. 852862; Holdeman, J.D., Liscinsky, D.S., and Bain, D.B., 1999. Mixing of Multiple Jets With a Conned Subsonic Crossow: Part IIOpposed Rows of Orices in a Rectangular Duct, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 121, No. 3, July, pp 551-562. 3. Margason, R.J., 1993. Fifty Years of Jet in Cross Flow Research, Presented at Computational and Experimental Assessment of Jets in Cross Flow, AGARD Conference Proceedings 534, April; Demuren. A.O: Modeling Jets in Cross Flow. NASA Contractor Report 194965. August 1994; 4. Lefebvre, A.H., 1999. Gas Turbine Combustion, Taylor and Francis. 5. See Note 2. 6. See Note 4. 7. Hatch, M.S., Sowa, W.A., Samuelsen, G.S., and Holdeman, J.D., 1995,Jet Mixing into a Heated Cross Flow in a Cylindrical Duct: Inuence of Geometry and Flow Variations, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 11, No. 3, May-June, pp. 393400; Kroll, J.T., Sowa, W.A., Samuelsen, G.S., and Holdeman, J.D., 2000. Optimization of Orice Geometry for Cross Flow Mixing in a Cylindrical Duct, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol . 16, No. 6, November-December, pp 929-936. 8. See Note 2. 9. See Note 2. 10. Leong, M.Y., Samuelsen, G.S., and Holdeman, J.D., 1999. Mixing of Jet Air With a Fuel-Rich, Reacting Crossow, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 15, No. 5, September-October, pp. 617-622; .Leong, M.Y., Samuelsen, G.S., and Holdeman, J.D., 2000. Optimization of Jet Mixing into a Rich, Reacting Crossow, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 16, No. 5, September-October, pp. 729-735; Demayo, T.N, Leong, M.Y, Samuelsen, G.S., and Holdeman, J.D., 2003. Assessing Jet-Induced Spatial Mixing in a Rich, Reacting Crossow, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 19, No. 1, January-February, pp. 14-21. 11. See Notes 7 and 10. 12. See Note 2. 13. See Note 7. 14. Samuelsen, G.S., Brouwer, J., Holdeman, J.D., Vardarkas, M.A, and Leong, M.Y., 2006, The Effect of Air Preheat and Number of Orices on Flow and Emissions in an RQL Mixing Section, submitted for publication (see also NASA TM1999-209431, 1999).
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BIOGRAPHY
3.2.1.1 Conventional Type Combustion 3.2.1.3 Rich Burn, Quick-Mix, Lean Burn (RQL) Combustor
Scott Samuelsen
Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Environmental Engineering Director Advanced Power and Energy Program University of California Irvine 92697-3550 phone: 949-824-5468 email: gss@uci.edu
Professor Scott Samuelsen is Director of the Advanced Power and Energy Program (APEP) at the University of California Irvine and Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Environmental Engineering. He directs as well the National Fuel Cell Research Center (NFCRC) and the UCI Combustion Laboratory (UCICL). His research is directed to advanced power systems including gas turbines, fuel cells, and fuels. He directs anchor research on advanced coal and natural gas power plants for the coproduction of electricity and hydrogen for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), distributed generation and information technology research for the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) in support of energyefcient and environmentally-responsible power generation, advanced energy systems research for the California Energy Commission, and coal-gas and hydrogen-fueled gas turbine combustion studies. His energy expertise is based on forty years of combustion research working with strategic alliances involving industry with applications to gas turbine propulsion, gas turbine electronic power generation, and combustion distributed generation resources. He holds the Ph.D. degree from the University of California Berkeley.
3.2.1.4.1
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Fig. 1. Non -TVC Swirl Stabilized Combustion (Courtesy of National Combustion Equipment, Inc.)
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Fig. 4. AFRL First Generation TVC Source: See note 5 (Ren, Egolfopoulos, and Tsotsis 2002).
The phenomena of locked or trapped vortices has been known to reduce aerodynamic drag for years3, and the geometric features required to produce a locked or trapped vortex are the same features used to minimize drag. Hsu et al. in 1995 was rst to report using this feature to stabilize reactions in gas turbine combustors for aero-propulsion applications4. Since then, several papers and patents have described the results from using this TVC concept to achieve stable and low combustor emissions5. The AFRL continues to investigate potential TVC applications for advanced military gas turbine engines6. The AFRL TVC development efforts have focused primarily on liquid fuel burning aero-propulsion applications and not on industrial natural gas or syngas burning applications. The developmental evolution of the TVC concept at the AFRL is extremely well summarized by Roquemore et al.7. The rst generation TVC is shown in gure 4. The cavity is formed between the two disks in tandem. Katta and Roquemore used a timedependent, axisymmetric model to predict the results of reducing the drag of bluff-bodies in non-reacting ow and the experimental results of the rst generation TVC8.
FLAMEHOLDERS
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
MAIN FUEL & AIR
The second generation TVC design, shown in gure 5, was an axisymmetric can-type conguration with the cavity on the outside of the main burner. The depth of the cavity was approximately the same as that for the optimum rst generation TVC. The third generation TVC shown in gures 6 and 7 was a two-dimensional sector designed for easy replacement and optical viewing of the cavities. The objective of the design effort was to develop a liquid fuel burning TVC concept for gas turbine engine applications.
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The development program at AFRL concluded that the TVC offers signicant improvements to aircraft gas turbine engines in lean blow out (LBO) and altitude relight when compared to conventional swirl stabilized combustors. Also, a wider operating range and the potential to achieve lower NOx emissions were demonstrated. The TVC concept can operate in a staged, main-pilot mode as well as in a rich burnquick quenchlean burn (RQL) mode. Even though encouraging rig results have been obtained to date, no full engine test as been completed with an integrated TVC concept. 2. General Electric Company The General Electric (GE) Company has been developing TVC concepts for gas turbine engines since the mid 1990s. At least ten GE TVC patents have been either led and/or cleared since 1995. The majority of the patent work has been in the area of military gas turbine engines. More recently, GE has led two TVC patents for low NOx emissions industrial gas turbine engine applications. The invention was made with support from the U.S. DOE. Aircraft Application GE Aircraft Engines and the AFRL have been jointly developing a novel TVC concept for military gas turbine engines since 19969. This effort represents an extension of earlier AFRL research with the third generation TVC concept. The work led to the fabrication of a rectangular sector test rig shown in gure 8 with a pressure capability of up 20.5 atmospheres and temperatures as high as 900 K. The performance evaluation covered all aspects of a gas turbine engine. The operating conditions with JP-8 fuel provided simulations of current commercial and military aircraft gas turbine engine cycles as well as some advanced cycles. Data was also obtained at selected conditions for the LM2500 marine Navy duty cycle using #1 Diesel. The TVC test rig demonstrated that ignition, blow out, and altitude relight were up to 50% improved over current swirl stabilized combustors. The NOx emissions were in the range from 40% to 60% of the U.N. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standard. The combustion efciency was maintained at or above 99% over a 40% wider operating range than a conventional aircraft gas turbine engine combustor.
Industrial Application GE Research is pursuing the application of TVC concepts to industrial gas turbine engines that can meet sub-9 ppmv NOx emissions. The objective of DOE Contract No. DE-FC26-01NT41020 is to explore advanced combustor concepts that show promise to meet future emissions requirements. The results of this DOE program are not published at this time. Any further information from GE regarding their low emissions TVC development effort was unavailable. 3. DOE National Energy Technology Laboratory The U.S. DOE is developing technologies for ultra-clean energy plants with efciency and emission goals that are well beyond the capability of current gas turbine power plants. The DOE reports that ninety-percent of new power plants currently under construction will be fueled by a natural gas-based fuel. A key feature of these future power plants will be fuel diversity and exibility. The gas turbine combustor designs will require the capability to operate on a wide range of fuels including hydrogen-rich synfuels. The DOE has also selected the TVC concept as a promising technology for future gas turbine combustor designs.
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3.2.1.4.1-7 Notes
__________________________________
1. G. A. Richards, and J. Ciferno, Carbon Dioxide Capture and Management in Energy Generation, 4th Joint Meeting U.S. Sections of the Combustion Institute, Philadelphia, PA, March 2005. 2. D.N. Anderson, Effect of Hydrogen Injection on Stability and Emissions of an Experimental Premixed Prevaporized Propane Burner, NASA Report # TM X-3301, October 1975; D.N. Anderson, Emissions of Oxides of Nitrogen from an Experimental Premixed-Hydrogen Burner, NASA Report # TM X-3393, May 1976; J.Y. Ren, W. Qin, F.N. Egolfopoulos, and T.T. Tsotsis, Strain-Rate Effects on Hydrogen-Enhanced Lean Premixed Combustion, 2001, Combustion and Flame 124 (2001): 717-720; J.Y. Ren, F.N. Egolfopoulos, and T.T. Tsotsis, NOx Emission Control of Lean Methane-Air Combustion with Addition of Methane Reforming Products, Combustion Science and Technology 174, No. 4 (2002): 181-205; G.S. Jackson, R. Sai, J.M. Plaia, C. Boggs, and K.T. Kiger, Inuence of H2 on the Response of Lean Premixed CH4 Flames to
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BIOGRAPHY
Dr. Steele has almost 20 years experience in gas turbine combustion fundamentals and applications. He was the Combustion team leader for the Mars SoLoNOx engine at Solar Turbines. He joined Ramgen in 2000 and has been involved in the development of lean premixed trapped or advanced vortex combustion designs for gas turbine applications. He holds a M.S. in Aeronautics and Astronautics and a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Washington. Having authored 30 technical publications, Dr. Steele is a prior member of the Combustion Institute, a member of the Combustion and Fuels committee of the ASME, and an Afliate Adjunct Professor at the University of Washington.
3.2.1.4.2
3.2.1.4.2-1 Introduction
Lean-premixed (LP) combustion technologies have been adopted by virtually every industrial gas turbine manufacturer as a Dry Low NOx (DLN) method to meet emissions regulations which are being implemented in the US and in many regions worldwide. But to meet more stringent ultra-low emissions standards being proposed, the DLN combustors have to operate at conditions near the lean limit of their stability envelopes where noise, instability, ame blowoff, and ashback can seriously affect engine performance. To mitigate these potential problems much effort has been devoted to explore passive control, e.g., fuel and/or air staging, and active control, e.g., feedback loop, strategies. Other alternatives invoke more costly exhaust gas clean up or catalytically assisted combustion. Undoubtedly, utilization of these new schemes would lead to more complex combustion devices consisting of tightly controlled sensors and actuators as well as many auxiliary components. For coal-based syngas engines the instability problems are further exacerbated due to the variability of the fuel contents. Therefore the injectors as well as the combustors have to be optimized or re-engineered to accommodate the changes in the combustion properties. Because most turbine combustors are designed for natural gas, they may not be readily adaptable or scalable to burn IGCC fuels. One promising solution to resolve fuel exibility issues of IGCC turbines is a novel premixed combustion technology that operates on a unique low-swirl combustion (LSC) concept. Originally developed at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory as a small laboratory research burner (about 15 kW) for fundamental studies, a good understanding of its operating principle has been obtained1. This patented combustion concept is based on exploiting the aerodynamic properties of the propagating premixed ames2. It is a simple, robust, and readily adaptable technology for industrial process burners and gas turbine combustors to meet stringent emissions targets without signicantly altering their system congurations, efciencies, turndown, and costs. LSC has been commercialized for industrial process heaters as low-swirl burners (LSB). Products of 150 kW to 7.5 MW (0.5 to 25 MMBtu/hr) with ultra-low emissions of 4 7 ppm NOx and CO (both @3% O2) have been available since late 2003. Central to the commercialization pathway was the scientic knowledge obtained from laboratory studies that has provided critical information for scaling as well as resolving system integration issues. LSC is also being adapted for natural gas turbines. Rig tests of prototype low-swirl injectors (LSI) for 10 MW size engines show it to be a very promising and cost-effective solution as plug-in injector replacements to enable current DLN turbines to meet the emission targets of < 5 ppm (@ 15% O2) for both NOx and CO. The LSC concept is readily adaptable for burning other hydrocarbons and hydrogen enriched fuels. Its operating principle is based on matching the oweld to the turbulent premixed ame speeds of ultra-lean premixed ames. Laboratory measurements of ame speeds and ame temperatures for the alternate fuels will be necessary to obtain basic information for optimizing the LSC design. This strategy has already been applied to develop fuel-exible industrial LSBs. Prototypes have been tested with propane, ethylene, natural gas diluted with ue gases (up to 40%), and renery gases with large hydrogen constituencies (up to 50% H2). The main technical issue for adapting LSI to IGCC syngas turbines concerns the signicantly different combustion properties of the two principal types of gasied coal fuels. Typical compositions of the syngas from oxygen blown coal gasication are 25% H2, 40% CO, 20% H2O, with a lower heating value of 200 BTU/ft3. With the addition of CO2 separation and sequestration, the syngas composition shifts to mostly hydrogen at 65-85% H2, and 15-35% H2O. These syngases have diverse combustion properties and the LSI needs to be optimized for the slower and faster burning ames (compared to natural gas) at operating conditions where the ame temperatures are sufciently low to prevent NOx formation. Other concerns stem from the high H2 diffusivity and short auto-ignition delay time. Therefore, issues on system integration will need to address the impact on ashback, blow-off, light-off, shut-down, off-load, and load following. Currently, the research activities have been limited to proof-of-concept laboratory experiments using hydrogen and hydrogen/hydrocarbon blended fuels. More extensive laboratory studies will be necessary to develop basic LSI designs optimized for syngases and the accompanying scaling rules and engineering guidelines.
Robert K. Cheng
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory MS70-108B, 1 Cyclorton Road Berkeley, CA 94720 phone: (510) 486-5438 email: rkcheng@lbl.gov
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Fig. 1.
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Robert K. Cheng
The ow feature crucial to ame stabilization is illustrated by the axial velocity proles. Plotted in gure 2 are measurements obtained by laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV) published in Yegian and Chengs article where the effects of enclosure were evaluated by placing the jet-LSB inside quartz cylinders of 7.62 cm diameter, 20 and 30 cm in length with or without an exit constriction of 5.4 cm diameter to simulate typical combustor enclosures6. The experimental conditions were CH4/air ames with = 0.8 and 18.5 kW corresponding to a bulk ow velocity of U0 = 3.0 m/s. From the mean axial velocity (u) proles (top), it can be seen that the velocity at the burner exit is slightly lower than U0 (about 70%). In the region just outside the exit (x < 20 mm), a linear decaying trend (with increasing x) shown on all the U/U0 proles is the characteristic feature of ow divergence. The leading edge of the ame brushes are marked by the abrupt upturn in the proles at 20 < x < 40 mm. These increases are due to combustion-generated ow acceleration. The minimum velocity on the U/U0 proles corresponds to the velocity normal to the leading edge of the turbulent ame brushes and offers a convenient means to determine the turbulent ame speed, ST. Studies of ST using the jet-LSB show that a linear correlation exists between ST and turbulence intensity over a very broad range of turbulence intensities 7. This is an important property that enables the LSC concept to be scaled to the capacities of very large industrial combustion systems.
Fig. 2. Velocity prole showing that enclosures have little effect on the ame stabilization mechanism of a jet-LSB with CH4/air ame of = 0.8 at 18.5 kW (reproduced with permission from Combustion Science and Technology). Source: D.T. Yegian and R.K. Cheng, Development of a Lean Premixed Low-Swirl Burner for Low NOx Practical Applications, Combustion Science and Technology 139 no. 1-6 (1998): 207-227.
Technology transfer of LSC began with adaptation to residential pool heaters of 15 to 90 kW (50 to 300 KBtu/hr). These small domestic heaters are consumer products. To be price competitive they can only accept very simple and low-cost technologies that utilize rudimentary electronic controls. A LSB that has separate control for swirl jets and combustion air was deemed too elaborate to be economically and practically feasible. Therefore the key task was to develop a simpler burner that is easy to manufacture and requires few controls. The outcome of this work was a patented vane-swirler that has since been adapted for gas turbines. The main challenge in the swirler development process was a lack of relevant background knowledge on low-swirl ows. All prior research efforts on swirl combustion emphasized the generation of strong and stable ow recirculation. Extensive laboratory experimentation by LDV led to the design of gure 3. This LSB was sized for domestic heaters of 18 KW with a radius Rb of 2.54 cm. The unique feature of the swirler is a center by-pass channel (Rc = 2 cm) to allow a portion of the reactants to pass without being swirled by the outer annulus swirl vane section tted with eight straight blades inclined at an angle of 37.5. The novelty of this design is the use of a perforated screen to control the ow-split between the unswirled core and the swirled annulus. The screen also produces turbulence in the center unswirled core. Because turbulence scales with ow velocity, it provides a crucial feedback control mechanism for the ame to accelerate and decelerate in response to changes in bulk ow, i.e. load change. The perforated screen tted to the LSB in gure 3 has 3 mm holes arranged in a rectangular grid to give 81% blockage. By recessing this swirler assembly inside the burner tube at a distance, L, this burner produces the key oweld features same as the jet-LSB.
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Fig. 3.
As show in gure 4, the ame generated by the LSB is lifted with a bowl shape slightly different than the one produced by a jet-LSB. To demonstrate an exceptional feature of the LSC concept, all the components of the LSB in gure 3 were made of plastic to show that it does not receive signicant heat from the ame. This has important practical signicance because the burner suffers little or no material degradation due to a substantial reduction in thermal stresses. Subsequent to the development for pool heaters, several projects have been pursued to adapt LSB to industrial and commercial heaters. The efforts began by conducting parametric studies of LSB by varying Rb (2.54, 3.8, 5.1 and 6.35 cm) Rc (0.5 < R = Rc/Rb < 0.8), (37o to 45), and L (1 < L/Rb < 4). Also investigated were other geometric variations such as the number of vanes, vane types (i.e. ,straight and aerodynamically shaped). types of center screens and their placement positions. The laboratory experiments and eld tests were all performed with natural gas. The scientic foundation obtained for LSC has been most valuable to support data analyses and to devise solutions that meet specic operational and performance requirements. These studies proved that the LSB design is robust. To investigate turndown, the smallest LSB with Rb= 2.54 cm was red in the open and generated stable ames from 10 to 600 kW that remained stationary despite the 60 to 1 change in input rate. At the lowest thermal input of 10 kW, the bulk ow velocity Uo corresponds to 1.7 m/s. This is the minimum allowable operating point for natural gas ring. Flashback becomes likely if Uo were reduced further because the velocity at the burner exit would be too close to the ST. The minimum Uo criterion to avoid ashback applies unequivocally to the larger burners because the LSB subscribes to constant velocity scaling. This simply means that the thermal input of LSB is directly proportional to Uo and Rb2. The effects of enclosure geometry on LSB performances was also investigated by testing several versions of the Rb = 6.35 cm LSB in boilers and furnaces at 150 kW to 2.3 MW. The results showed that vane shape and screen placement had little effect on ame noise, ame stability, and lean blow off. Most signicantly, emissions of NOx depend primarily on . As shown in gure 5 by the NOx emissions from LSB of various sizes, the trends with are similar despite differences in thermal inputs and combustor geometries to show its capability to accept different fuels. Additional tests of the 6.35 cm LSB were performed with alternate fuels including natural gas diluted with up to 40% ue gases and renery gases with hydrogen constituent up to 50%. Fig. 4. A vane-LSB ring at 18KW.
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Robert K. Cheng
Fig 5. NOx emissions of LSB in furnaces and boilers of 300 kW to 1.8 MW.
In 2003, Maxon Corporation commercialized a line of industrial LSBs called M-PAKT burners. These products are developed for direct process heat applications of 0.3 to 1.8 MW (1- 6 MMBtu/hr) with a guarantee of 4 7 ppm NOx and CO (both at 3% O2) throughout its 10:1 turndown range. With these ultra-low emissions, the M-PAKT burners meet the most stringent air-quality rules in the U.S. As shown by the schematic in gure 6, the M-PAKT burner has a very simple compact design consisting of the swirler with air supplied by a blower through a plenum and a multi-port natural gas injector delivering fuel just upstream of the swirler. The control system is standard with conventional mechanical linkages and ow dampers. The exceptional performance of these commercial LSBs demonstrates that the implementation of LSC not only provides very effective emissions control but also improves system performance and reliability by eliminating the need for elaborate controls and intricate auxiliary components. The economic and operational benet of this approach cannot be understated. In their continuing effort to commercialize LSC technology, Maxon engineers applied the scaling rules described in the next section to design a new LSB product of 7.5 MW (25 MMBtu/hr). The rst installation was complete in February 2005. This large burner has a radius Rb of 25.4 cm and has an improved 20:1 turndown. It also incorporates a liquid fuel injector for dual-fuel ring.
Fig. 6. Emissions and schematic of a commercial LSB manufactured by Maxon Corporation, Muncie, Indiana.
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where Gang is the angular momentum in the swirled section and Gx is the linear momentum ux through the unswirled center core and the swirled annulus. These terms can be calculated by integrating the mean axial, U, and the mean swirl, W, velocity components across the burner exit. However, this denition is not convenient because velocity data are not usually available. For engineering applications, a swirl number denition based on the geometry of the device is more amenable. With the assumption that the distribution of the axial ow remains at, and U and W at the burner exit are kinematically related to the blade angle as tan = U/W , the axial ux of angular momentum in the annular section is then written as follows: (2)
Here, Ua is a mean axial velocity supplied through the swirl annulus. By assuming at axial velocity distribution, the linear momentum ux from the two regions of the burner is then calculated as follows: (3)
where Uc is a mean axial velocity through the center core. With Equation (1) as dened, the geometric swirl number for the vane swirl burner is then: (4)
Here, R is the ratio of centerbody to burner radii R= Rc / Rb. It is simplied further when Uc/Ua is expressed in terms of m the a ). The mass ux ratio is the same as the ratio c / m a through the centerbody ( m c ) and annular ( m mass ux ratio (ow-split) m = m of the effective areas of the center core and the swirl annulus and can be determined simply by the use of standard ow pressure drop procedure. Obviously, it is a more convenient form for engineering designs. The scaling rules were deduced from studying the inuences of varying S, L and Rb on the burner operation. To start, the LSB prototype of gure 2 was used as a benchmark with its swirl number varied by the use of four different screens with 65 to 75% blockage. The swirl numbers were 0.4 < S < 0.44 corresponding to m of 0.8 to 1 meaning that 44 to 50% of the reactants bypassed the swirl annulus. These swirlers installed with L varied from 4 to 12 cm. The 16 LSBs with various combinations were tested with methane air ames at 5 < U0 < 25 m/s covering a thermal input range of 18 to 90 kW. All burners were found to be operable. Increasing S pulled the ame closer to the burner but the lean blowoff (LBO) remained relatively unaffected indicating that the performance of the LSB is not highly sensitive to a small variation in S. The differences were mainly with ame positions and the fuel/air equivalence ratio at lean blowoff, LBO . Large swirler recesses generated a highly lifted ame but the overall ame stability remained relatively unchanged. A short recess distance produces higher LBO indicating a compromise in the capability to support ultra-lean ames. Additional studies were performed to explore the impact of radius Rb as well as R (0.5 to 0.8) and (30 to 45). The swirl numbers of the burners with various combinations of Rb, R and were varied by tting them with screens of different blockages. The most signicant nding was that the LSBs with larger diameters Rb operate at the same range of S (around 0.4 to 0.5) as the smaller burner. Their performances in terms of ame stability and LBO were also identical. Moreover, decreasing R has no effects on emissions or performance but brings about a signicant benet in lowering the pressure drop of the LSB. This can be explained by the fact that reducing R enlarges the swirl annulus and lowers its drag. To maintain a swirl number of 0.4 to 0.5, a screen of lower blockage is required. For example, the screen used for the Rb = 6.35 cm with R = 0.5 has a 60% blockage compared to 65 to 81% needed for the R = 0.8 LSB. This combination effectively lowers the overall pressure drop of the burner. The drag coefcients determined for the different LSBs show them to depend only on R and independent of Rb. This knowledge is very important in the design of LSBs that will meet the various system requirements and efciency targets.
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The scaling rules for the LSB were established from these results. They are the same regardless of burner radius (up to Rb = 25.4 cm). For stable and reliable operation, S of a LSB should be between 0.4 and 0.55. The swirler can have straight or curved vanes with angle from 37 to 45o. The optimum center channel to burner radius ratios R can be from 0.5 to 0.8. Once and R are dened, the blockage of the center channel screen can be varied to set S within the range of 0.4 to 0.5. In addition, L can be from 2 to 3 times the burner radius Rb. To determine the appropriate burner size, Rb, guidelines have been developed to optimize for the desired thermal input range, turndown, fuel pressure, fan power (pressure drop), combustion chamber size, and other physical constraints. The criterion for minimum thermal input is a bulk ow velocity of Uo = 3 m/s. This is simply the ashback point for natural gas (U0 1.7 m/s) with a built-in safety factor. There is no restriction on the maximum thermal input owing to the high turndown (at least 20) available. To optimize for the fuel pressure and fan power, the drag coefcient for different R can be used. The optimum enclosure radius for the LSB is between 3 to 4 times Rb. Smaller enclosures restrict ow divergence and forces the ame to move inside the burner. Larger enclosures allow the ame to over-expand and generate internal ow patterns that negatively affect emissions. These rules and guidelines are easy to apply and are versatile enough to provide many design options to build simple and low cost LSBs for easy integration to existing or new systems.
Fig. 7. Velocity vectors and shear stresses (background contours) obtained in Rb = 2.54 cm LSB with methane air ame of = 0.8 and U0 = 5 m/s. White dash line marks the leading edge of the ame brush.
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a)
b)
Fig. 8. Normalized centerline proles of non-reacting ow produced by a laboratory LSB showing self similarity features.
Floweld similarity explains why the ame maintains at a relatively xed position regardless of U0. This can be illustrated by invoking an equality at the leading edge position of the ame brush, xf, (typically at 1.5 < x < 2.5 cm for this LSB). (5) Here, xo is the virtual origin of the linearly divergent portions of the axial proles and has a negative value. As discussed earlier, ST of the LSB is linearly dependent on the rms velocity of the turbulence u such that ST = SL (1+ K u) where SL is the laminar ame speed and K is an empirical constant that is in the order of 2.5 for methane. Substituting this into Eq. 5 and dividing both sides by Uo results in (6) The similar feature of the U/Uo proles means that the normalized axial divergence rate (i.e., (dU/dx)/Uo) has a constant value ( 8 m-1 from data of Fig 8a). On the right hand side, (1 + K u)/Uo tends to a constant value for large u. This is because the turbulence at the ame stabilization point is isotropic such that u scales linearly with U0 as expected of turbulence produced by a perforated plate. Therefore, if SL is held constant, (i.e., at a xed ) the ame position xf attains a constant value that is independent of Uo and u. As long as the ow similarity is preserved, the ame can be held at the same position. Changing will have an insignicant effect on xf because the range of SL for CH4 air ames (0.2 to 0.5 m/s) is small compared to the other values and constants in Eq (6). This analysis also shows that the turbulent ame speed ST is the important combustion parameter to consider when adapting the LSC for different fuels. However, measurements and predictions of ST are still active areas of fundamental research and data for the type of fuels IGCC turbines utilize are unavailable. But a lack of scientic ST data does not present a signicant technical hurdle because the LSI developed for natural gas can be the benchmark to be adjusted for the slower and faster burning syngases. From Eq. (6) it can be seen that faster burning gases (e.g., high H2 constituents) need a lower divergence rate. Conversely, the slower burning gases (e.g., highly diluted syngas) need higher divergence rates. Of course, there are other combustion characteristics such as heat release ratios and preferential diffusion of the fuel components (e.g. between H2 and CH4) that need to be considered. From our studies of methane, ethylene, propane, and hydrogen ames, contributions from these other factors tend to be of secondary nature.
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Robert K. Cheng 3.2.1.4.2-5 Development of low-swirl injectors for natural gas turbines
To adapt low-swirl combustion for gas turbines the most pressing question is whether or not this ame stabilization method is operable at elevated temperatures and pressures. To seek an answer, a jet-LSB of Rb = 3.8 cm was constructed for proof-of-concept test at Solar Turbines, San Diego. Successful ring of this LSB at typical gas turbine combustor inlet temperatures (220 and 341C), pressures (5 and 10 atm), and loads (0.6 to 1.2 kg/s air) showed the concept to be valid. Light-off of the LSB was easy even at elevated temperatures and pressures. The ame remained very stable and free of unacceptable pressure uctuations towards lean blow-off. The trends of the jet-LSB emissions were also typical of other DLN injectors but the overall concentrations of NOx and CO were higher. This was caused by the poor mixing from a rudimentary fuel spoke injector and signicant dilution from the nitrogen swirl jets. Following the proof-of-concept tests the next logical step was to design and evaluate a vane LSI prototype. The lack of relevant background knowledge on low-swirl ows and turbulent ame speeds at gas turbine conditions remained the main obstacle. To circumvent this difculty and reduce engineering design efforts and prototype fabrication costs, a decision was made to pursue a fasttrack developmental path which exploited, as much as possible, the current injector hardware parts. Because the annulus swirler is the main component of Solar Turbines SoLoNOx Taurus 70 high-swirl injectors (HSI), the preferred option was to investigate if the HSI swirler could be converted to operate in the low-swirl mode.
Fig. 9. Schematics and photographs of the LSI (top a-c) and the HSI (bottom d-f)
The LSI (Fig. 9 a-c) converted from the HSI (Fig. 9 (e-f) has the same basic conguration as the LSB. The SoLoNOx swirler (Fig. 9c) has a modular design such that the solid centerbody can be easily removed to form the center-channel for the LSI (Fig 9b). Thus, the two key parameters of the LSI, (40o) and R (0.63), are xed by SoLoNOx swirler having an outer radius of 3.27 cm and a centerbody radius of 2.06 cm with 16 aerodynamically shaped curved vanes. To congure the other LSI parameters, S and L, the guidelines for atmospheric LSB were followed. The swirler recess of L = 9.5 cm satises the 2 < L/Rb, < 3 criterion. The swirl number, S, was set between 0.4 and 0.55 by the use of center channel screens with blockage of 50 to 73%. These screens were tted to the LSI and tested at laboratory conditions with CH4/air mixtures at a range of stoichiometry and a xed bulk ow velocity, U0 = 5 m/s ( 35 kW). The optimum was a 58% blockage screen that stabilized the ame at 1.5 to 2.5 cm downstream of the injector exit. From effective area measurements, m for this LSI was 0.3, thus 23% of the reactants passed through the center channel unswirled. This gave a swirl number S of 0.5 for the LSI. In comparison, the swirl number determined for the HSI was 0.73. Even though the difference in S between LSI and HSI is slight, gure 9f shows that the HSI ame is attached to the centerbody while the LSI ame of gure 9c is detached.
249
Fig. 10. Streamlines and shear stresses of HSI and LSI burner CH4/air ames at = 0.8 and 87 kW. The turbulent ame brushes are outlined by the white dash lines.
Subsequent to the laboratory tests, the LSI was evaluated to determine its operability at gas turbine conditions as well as its effectiveness in lowering emissions. The rst set of tests was performed with preheated air at atmospheric pressure to observe ame positions, ame shift with Uo, and sensitivity to mixture homogeneity. Visual observation during these tests showed that the locations of the ames were not highly sensitive to U0, and initial temperature T0. Flashback did not occur throughout the test matrix. The ame size was similar to that of the HSI ame indicating that the LSI can use the same combustor liner. Tests performed with two premixers with +/- 3% and +/- 10% mixture uniformity showed no effects on NOx emissions, overall ame behavior and ame characteristics.
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Robert K. Cheng
Next the LSI was tted to a standard lm-cooled combustor liner and tested in a high pressure combustion rig. The combustor rig-test matrix covering To of 360 to 430C, P0 of 5 to 15 atm and air ow of 0.4 to 1.33 kg/s represented the partial and full load conditions of Solar Turbines SoLoNOx engines of 5 to 7 MW. Successful ring of the LSI at these conditions showed that its operating range is fully compatible with that of the HSI. Throughout these tests, there were no indications of shifting in ame positions or ashback. Excessive acoustic amplitudes were not observed and peak rms acoustics pressures were generally below the allowable 3.4 kPa established for production hardware. Figure 11 shows NOx and CO emissions from the LSI (corrected to 15% O2) compared with the emissions of HSI. Due to the variation in T0 and P0, the combustion temperature was not proportional to . Instead, the emission data was plotted Fig. 11. NOx and CO emissions of natural gas LSI and HSI from against the theoretical adiabatic ame temperature Tad rig-tests at 5 < P0 < 15 atm and 360C < T0 < 430C. (for the combustor-rig Tad was calculated for the primary zone). As can be seen, all the NOx emissions from LSI collapsed onto a consistent trend that crossed the 5 ppm threshold at Tad < 1920K. The strong correlation of NOx emissions with Tad showed that thermal NOx was the predominant reaction pathway. In comparison, NOx emissions of HSI were generally higher and only approached the 5 ppm NOx threshold before LBO. The over 2.5 times NOx emissions reduction offered by LSI represents a signicant improvement of DLN technology. Moreover, these results imply that the LSI can operate farther away from LBO (higher Tad) where it is less prone to combustion oscillation. Although the CO emissions in gure 8b do not show a consistent trend, all but one point from the high T0 and P0 runs is below 5 ppm. Therefore, the LSI does not entail compromising CO for the sake of lowering NOx. The emissions from LSI rig-tests are very encouraging and show that the LSI has the potential to bring about a substantial reduction in NOx emissions from DLN gas turbines without incurring signicant add-on cost or system complexity. The lowest NOx emission of < 2 ppm (at 15% O2) is comparable with those from the more costly and much less durable catalytic combustor. Despite the complexity of the NOx formation mechanisms, the oweld characteristics of LSI may provide an explanation for why it is highly effective in reducing NOx. Recent studies of high-swirl combustion have shown a correlation between NOx emissions and the residence time within the recirculation zone. Trapped by the recirculation vortex, a portion of the combustion products resides for a prolonged period at high temperature, which allows the NOx formation mechanism to continue and increase in concentrations. The PIV results show clearly that the LSI does not have a recirculation zone to trap a large recirculating mass, therefore, the residence time of the hot products in a LSI is much shorter than in a HSI and truncates NOx formation in the post ame region. Continuing the effort to develop the LSI for SoLoNOx turbines, additional tests were conducted to show that the emissions and ame stability of LSI are not highly sensitive to mixture inhomogeneity. Its design can easily incorporate components needed for normal engine operations, e.g., plenum, liner, ignitor, pilot, and premixer. Therefore, adaptation of LSI to current engines does not require signicant hardware modications or change in control strategy or protocol. Currently, an engine-ready LSI prototype has been designed and has undergone a series of single-injector rig tests to verify its readiness for start up, shutdown, load change and ofoad. It uses the production swirlers made for Solar Turbines Taurus 70 engines integrated with a pilot and a multi-spokes fuel injector similar to the kind used in current HSIs. The prototype LSIs have been designed to be backward-compatible as drop-in replacements for the current HSIs.
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BIOGRAPHY
Robert K. Cheng
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory MS70-108B, 1 Cyclorton Road Berkeley, CA 94720 phone: (510) 486-5438 email: rkcheng@lbl.gov
Dr. Robert K. Cheng is a Senior Scientist and the leader of the Combustion Technologies Group in the Environmental Energy Technolgies Division of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. He received a B. S., a M. S., and a Ph. D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of California at Berkeley. Since 1977, he has been leading experimental research on fundamental combustion uid mechanics with an emphasis on lean premixed turbulent ames and has published over sixty papers on fundamental turbulent ame properties. His recent discoveries of novel ame stabilization concepts for ultra-low NOx combustion systems have generated three patents. These technologies are in various stages of development and commercialization for industrial heating equipment and gas turbines.
3.2.2.1
3.2.2.1-1 Introduction
Currently, gas turbines operating on natural gas offer the lowest achievable NOx emissions without exhaust-gas aftertreatment, as compared to other fuels. Commercially, this has been achieved through the use of leanpremixed combustion systems, allowing NOx emissions below 9 ppm (at 15% O2) to be guaranteed for natural gas operation, and emissions near 5 ppm to be demonstrated1. Lower emissions are needed, however, and are possible through the use of catalytic combustion2. Because natural gas has historically offered the greatest potential for low emissions, catalytic combustor development has until recently focused largely on methane and natural gas operation. As a result, the unique properties of methane have led to a number of development issues and design strategies, generally related to the behavior of Pd-based catalysts used for methane oxidation. In particular, for methane oxidation under fuel-lean conditions, only Pd-based catalysts among the PGM group are currently practical, because only they offer acceptable activity, lightoff temperature, and resistance to volatilization3. Unfortunately Pd-PdO catalyst morphology and its reactions with methane are complex, and lead to complex behaviors such as deactivation at high temperature (above about 750C / 1380F), hysteresis in reaction rate over heating and cooling cycles4, and oscillations in activity and temperature5. In addition, lightoff and extinction temperatures are well above 300C (570F) for fuel-lean reaction on Pd-based catalysts, thus requiring the use of a preburner in many engine applications6. Fuel-rich operation of the catalyst circumvents many of these issues and provides signicant catalyst advantages, including a wider choice of catalyst type (non-Pd catalysts are active to methane under fuel-rich conditions), improved catalyst durability (non-oxidizing catalyst environment), and low catalyst lightoff and extinction temperatures. Catalyst extinction temperature is particularly low, and is generally less than 200C (400F) for the precious-metal catalysts used in the work reported here (that is, once the catalyst has been lit off, the catalyst remains lit at inlet air temperatures less than 200C / 400F), and a preburner is generally not required. A more complete discussion of fuel-rich versus fuel-lean catalyst behavior for methane oxidation is given by Lyubovsky et al.7. In addition to catalyst material challenges, commercial acceptance of catalytic combustion by gas turbine manufacturers and by power generators has been slowed by the need for durable substrate materials. Of particular concern is the need for catalyst substrates which are resistant to thermal gradients and thermal shock8. Metal substrates best ll this need, but their temperature must be limited to less than 950C (1750F) to assure sufcient material strength and long life. Downstream of the catalyst, combustion temperatures greater than about 1100C (2000F) are required for gas-phase reactions to complete the burnout of fuel and CO in a reasonable residence time (on the order of 10 ms). Thus, only a portion of the fuel can be reacted on the catalyst. A major challenge, then, is to limit the extent of reaction within the catalyst bed such that excessive heat does not damage the catalyst or substrate, yet release sufcient heat that downstream gas-phase combustion is stabilized under ultra-low emission conditions. For systems which lean-premix fuel and air upstream of the catalyst, the degree of reaction can be limited by chemical reaction rate upon the catalyst, or by channeling within the reactor such that only a limited fraction of the fuel contacts the catalyst. In all cases, however, it is imperative that uncontrolled gas-phase reactions do not occur within the catalystbed, since this implies a loss of reaction limitation and ultimate over-temperature and failure of the catalyst bed. Preventing such gas-phase reactions is especially challenging in applications to advanced, high-ring temperature turbines, where fuel/air ratios in the catalyst-bed can be well within the ammability limits.
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400
500
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2392 2372 2352 2332 2312 2292 2272 2252 2232 2212 2192 900 1000
o
Fig. 1. Gas temperature (ame temperature) within PSR reactor at imminent blowout, as a function of PSR inlet temperature (catalyst exit temperature).
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Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle 3.2.2.1-3 Rich-Catalytic Lean-burn (RCL) Combustion
Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI) has developed a Rich-Catalytic Lean-burn combustion system (trademarked by PCI as RCL) based on this concept of stabilizing combustion of catalyst efuent having a temperature below the instantaneous autoignition temperature. The system catalytically reacts a portion of the fuel upstream of the combustor, thus preheating (and vitiating) the fuel/air mixture entering the combustor, and thereby improving combustion stability especially at low ame temperatures. NOx emissions are improved by operating at lower allowable (stable) ame temperatures, and turndown to low engine power can be improved by operating at still lower ame temperatures without excessive emissions of CO or unburned hydrocarbons. A schematic of PCIs rich-catalytic combustion system is shown in gure 2. As shown, the combustion air stream is split into two parts upstream of the catalyst. One part is mixed with all of the fuel and contacts the catalyst, while the second part is used to backside cool the catalyst. At the exit of the catalytic reactor, the catalyzed fuel/air stream and the cooling air stream mix and then burn to completion to provide the nal burner outlet temperature. As shown, combustion (fuel oxidation) occurs in two stages: a fuel-rich catalyst stage and an overall fuel-lean gas-phase combustion stage. Note that the catalyst is cooled only by primary combustion air, so that no heat is extracted from the system. With this approach, the fuel-rich mixture contacting the catalyst has insufcient oxygen to completely oxidize all of the fuel, thus limiting the extent of catalyst-stage reaction and enabling limitation of the catalyst-stage operating temperature to a safe value.
Catalyst Cooling
Combustion
Air
Fuel
Burned Gas
Premixer Catalytic Post-Catalyst Reactor Mixing
Fig. 2. Schematic of Rich-Catalytic Lean-burn system, showing two-stage (rich-lean) combustion process.
From sub-scale full-pressure rig tests to date: Catalyst lightoff and extinction temperatures Alternate (non-methane) hydrocarbon fuel capability Non-hydrocarbon fuel capability, e.g. syngas (discussed in later section)
In addition to these performance criteria, engine operational issues are also of interest, including method for engine start and catalyst lightoff, fuel staging needs, complexity of required controls, and transient capability such as load shifting and load rejection. To address these operational concerns, PCI and Solar Turbines have operated a modied Saturn engine using RCL combustion; these results are also presented here.
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3.2.2.1 Fuel-Rich Catalytic Combustion 3.2.2.1-5 Full-Scale Full-Pressure Test at Solar Turbines
Under DOE support and in cooperation with Solar Turbines, Inc., a full-scale fuel-rich catalytic reactor was fabricated and combustion tested to provide well-characterized experimental conrmation of the capabilities of Rich-Catalytic Lean-burn combustion for ultra-low-NOx power generation. The tests were performed in Solar Turbines full-pressure single-injector combustion rig using natural gas fuel, and are described in detail by Smith et al.,and summarized here16. A schematic of the catalytic combustor assembly, including premixer, catalytic reactor, and downstream combustor liner as tested in the rig is shown in gure 3. The catalytic reactor design is described generally in Smith et al. and includes backside cooling of the catalyst17. An annular reverse-ow premixer was tted around the catalytic reactor, to provide a premixed fuel-rich mixture to the catalyst. Note that all fuel entered via this premixer, and all fuel contacted the catalyst. Catalyst cooling air bypassed the premixer, and entered from the left-hand side in gure 3. Downstream of the catalyst, but upstream of the combustor, the fuel-rich mixture and the catalyst cooling air were combined in a post-catalyst mixing duct (post-mix duct) to create a partially-reacted fuel-lean fuel/air mixture. The premixer, catalytic reactor, and post-mix duct together constitute what we call the RCL-injector. Conceptually, the RCL-injector replaces a conventional Dry Low-NOx (DLN) premixer/swirler arrangement, such as Solars SoLoNOx injector. For the tests reported here, a single Solar Turbines Taurus 70 SoLoNOx injector was replaced by an RCL-injector having a 3.0-inch diameter catalyst. An actual Taurus 70 engine would have 12 such injectors installed in its annular combustor. In Solars single-injector rig, the combustor liner was cylindrical, 8.0 inches in diameter, and backside-cooled. Four 0.5-inch diameter holes were located at the combustors downstream end, to allow dilution air to enter the combustor after cooling it. Some leakage air also entered the combustor at the injector insertion seal (grommet seal), where the RCL-injector was inserted into the combustors head end, or dome. A small amount of cooling air was also used to cool the combustor dome, and entered the combustor along the liner walls. A ameholding cone was installed at the exit of the post-mix duct, as shown in gure 3. Recirculation of hot combustion gases in the cones wake provided a ame anchor zone in the central part of the combustor. The expansion (dump) of the combustor liners dome also served to anchor combustion. In general, the RCL-injector catalyst is intended to improve combustion stability and turndown at the ame anchor point, but is not necessarily intended to provide gas-phase ignition. Solars torch igniter was used to ignite gas-phase combustion during rig testing.
Fig. 3. Assembly of 3-inch diameter fuel-rich catalytic reactor with 8-inch diameter combustor liner in Solar Turbines single-injector combustion test facility. Bulk ow is from left-to-right.
Combustor Emissions and Turndown Emissions performance and turndown were measured for the RCL combustion system depicted in gure 3, at nominal Taurus 70 operating conditions (16-17 atm pressure and 4 pps total airow to the single-injector combustor). Measured NOx and CO emissions are plotted in gure 4 as a function of adiabatic ame temperature at the emissions rake. For the tests reported here, the emissions rake was located just upstream of the combustor dilution air holes, corresponding to about 30 ms combustor residence time. NOx and CO emissions are reported after correction to 15% O2 on a dry basis. UHC emissions are reported on a wet basis, corrected to 15% O2. It is also worth noting that, as discussed earlier, some leakage and cooling air entered the combustor between the RCL-injector and the emissions rake. For this reason, fuel/air ratio as measured at the emissions rake gave an adiabatic ame temperature that was about 130C (230F) lower than that based on fuel/air ratio measured at the RCL-injector exit. Imperfect mixing of this leakage air with the injectors fuel/air mixture can increase NOx emissions to values slightly higher than expected for perfectly premixed combustion at the adiabatic ame temperatures measured at the emissions rake. In fact, the NOx emissions shown in gure 4 are about 1 ppm higher than expected at 1450C (2650F) based on perfectly premixed combustion. As shown in gure 4, the RCL combustion system achieved ultra-low emissions over a wide operating window of approximately 110C (200F) variation in ame temperature, with CO below 10 ppm and NOx below 3 ppm (and as low as 1 ppm). Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) remained less than 2 ppm at all conditions shown in gure 4.
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These high-pressure ultra-low-emissions results provide experimental conrmation of the ultra-low-NOx capability of the RCL combustion concept. In particular, they demonstrate that it is possible to mix fuel-rich catalyst efuent with nal combustion air, without inducing autoignition, yet imparting signicant combustion stability to the downstream combustion process to allow lowtemperature low-emissions combustion with wide turndown.
Calculated Primary Zone Temperature (F) 2550 2600 2650 2700 2750 2800 2850
5.0 4.5
NOx
CO NOx
20 18 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2700
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2650
Combustor Noise Levels Combustion-driven pressure oscillations (noise) were also monitored during full-scale combustion tests at Solar, and remained less than 2.4 kPa (0.35 psi) peak-to-peak (less than 0.15% peak-to-peak of mean combustor pressure) at all conditions tested, indicating quiet operation. Low levels of combustion noise are expected, since gas-phase energy release in the combustor (the driving force for combustion noise) is reduced when a portion of the fuel is catalytically reacted prior to gas-phase combustion. Combustion System Pressure Drop Pressure drop through the fuel-rich catalytic reactor is a primary determiner of RCL-injector size for any given application. For the 3-inch diameter reactor tested at Solar, pressure drop through the entire combustion system at simulated Taurus 70 full load conditions varied from about 3.5% to 5% of combustor inlet pressure, depending on hardware modications made to redirect airow during rig testing. This pressure drop includes both the losses through the fuel-rich catalytic reactor and losses in the downstream combustor (pressure drop across ameholder, dump loss at combustor inlet, fundamental combustion loss, etc.). We estimate that losses in the downstream combustor account for about 0.5% pressure drop, with the remaining best-case 3% attributable to the catalytic reactor in Solars rig. Additional pressure loss data has been obtained for other full-scale RCL-injectors not tested in Solars rig, but designed for reduced pressure drop. Data from other rigs indicate that at Solar rig conditions pressure drop would be about 2%. Catalyst Operating Temperatures Figure 5 shows steady-state catalyst surface temperatures plotted against adiabatic ame temperature at the full-scale RCLinjector exit, as tested at Solar. As shown in gure 5, catalyst surface temperature increases only slightly as fuel ow is reduced, and all catalyst surface temperature measurements remain below 780C (1430F) over the complete range of operating conditions tested (1440-1700C / 2620-3090F range in adiabatic ame temperature). RCL catalyst temperatures do not vary signicantly with fuel/air ratio because reaction rate (heat release) upon the catalyst surface is controlled by oxygen ow (air ow) under fuel-rich conditions, and because heat removal (heat transfer) from the catalyst is also determined primarily by air ow. Fuel ow has little effect on reaction rate and little effect on heat removal rate. This insensitivity of catalyst temperature to fuel/air ratio is advantageous in allowing combustor and turbine operation over a wide range of ame temperatures (including ame temperatures well above the low-NOx-emissions range), making the RCL system suitable even for advanced high-ring-temperature machines.
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15 atm pressure
1470 F
1110 F
750 F
Fig. 6. Catalyst lightoff in a sub-scale high-pressure (15 atm) fuel-rich reactor operating on natural gas fuel. Inlet gas temperature (T gas in), catalyst surface temperature (T catalyst), and gas temperature exiting the module (T gas out) are plotted as a function of time in minutes.
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Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle
15 atm pressure
1470 F 1110 F
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Fig. 7. Catalyst extinction does not occur until the fuel is shut off at an inlet air temperature less than 200 C. Data were obtained for the same sub-scale high-pressure (15 atm) fuel-rich reactor for which data were shown in Figure 6. Again, inlet gas temperature (T gas in), catalyst surface temperature (T catalyst), and gas temperature exiting the module (T gas out) are plotted as a function of time in minutes.
Following catalyst lightoff, the inlet air temperature can be reduced well below the initial lightoff temperature without extinguishing the catalyst. Thus, once lit (active), the catalyst remains lit (active) down to inlet temperatures approaching ambient. Following the catalyst lightoff event depicted in gure 6, the inlet air temperature was reduced to less than 200C, but catalyst activity was not diminished. This is shown below in gure 7, which plots the same parameters as gure 6, now after several hours of testing following the initial lightoff. Here, still at 15 atm pressure and with the same ow of natural gas fuel, catalyst activity was maintained until the fuel was shut off at an inlet air temperature less than 200C. Alternate Hydrocarbon Fuel Capability Sub-scale fuel-rich catalyst tests have also been performed using alternative (non-natural-gas) hydrocarbon fuels. In particular, liquid fuels have been tested (gasoline and Diesel No. 2 fuel) with performance similar to that obtained using methane or natural gas, and a simulated landll gas fuel has also been tested.
CATALYTIC REACTOR
Fig. 8. Photograph of PCIs 10 atm sub-scale combustion rig, for testing fuelrich catalytic reactors with downstream combustion. Bulk ow is from right to left in this photograph.
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Sub-scale tests with alternative fuels were performed in a 10 atm combustion test rig at PCI equipped for obtaining combustion emissions measurements, as shown in gure 8. The gas-phase combustion section of this rig is nominally 2 inches in diameter and 18 inches in length, and is fabricated from high-temperature ceramic and housed in a steel pressure vessel as shown in the photograph of gure 8. Reactants enter the ceramic-lined combustor through an air-cooled fuel-rich catalytic reactor of nominally 3/4-inch
Fig. 9 (left panel). Combined graph showing catalyst operation for both natural gas and liquid fuel (gasoline) at 7 atm pressure and 0.4 equivalence ratio (), as a function of time. For both fuels, the inlet gas temperature (Tgas in) was initially held steady at about 350 C, and then ramped down to about 200 C without catalyst extinction.
Fig. 10 (right panel). Catalyst surface temperatures, and lightoff and extinction temperatures, for diesel fuel operation. Tests were performed with non-steam prevaporizer, at 6 atm pressure and 0.33 overall equivalence ratio (). "Tinlet" represents air temperature entering the reactor, and "Tcatalyst" represents catalyst surface temperature.
In gure 9, catalyst temperatures for 7 atm operation on gasoline are compared to those for natural gas. As shown, catalyst operating temperature (Tsurfaces) and catalyst lightoff temperature are both very similar for the two dissimilar fuels. Note that for both fuels the overall equivalence ratio was 0.4 downstream of the catalyst, after mixing of catalyst cooling air with fuel-rich catalyst efuent. Catalyst lightoff and extinction temperatures for diesel fuel were tested using the rst-generation prevaporizer at 6 atm pressure and 0.33 equivalence ratio, as shown in gure 10. For this test, temperature of the prevaporized fuel was between 350 and 380C before mixing with air. For catalyst lightoff, inlet air temperature was ramped up from about 345C until denitive lightoff occurred at about 360C inlet air temperature, as indicated by a rapid increase in catalyst temperature. Prior to this event, some reaction occurred along the length of the reactor, as evidenced by catalyst temperatures nearly 75C higher than the inlet temperature (e.g. 420C versus 350C). After lightoff, inlet air temperature was ramped down until sudden loss of activity (catalyst extinction) occurred at about 200C inlet air temperature. Note that for all fuel types tested under fuel-rich conditions, catalyst extinction temperature was well below catalyst lightoff temperature. Also note the similar catalyst operating temperatures for diesel fuel as compared to gasoline and natural gas operating temperatures, as a result of fuel-rich operation of the catalyst. Although successful operation on diesel fuel was obtained using the non-steam prevaporizer, it could only provide enough prevaporized fuel to establish an overall equivalence ratio of 0.33 downstream of the catalyst. A steam prevaporizer was therefore designed and used, allowing catalyst temperatures and combustion emissions to be measured over a wider range of equivalence ratios (ame temperatures), as shown in gures 11 and 12. For diesel fuel operation using the second-generation prevaporizer, steady-state catalyst temperature data (T surface) are shown as a function of the reactors overall equivalence ratio in gure 11. Diesel fuel operating data were obtained at the prevaporizers maximum operating pressure of 6 atm, and at 430C inlet temperature. Average gas temperature exiting the reactor (T gas out) is also shown. Note that T gas out and overall equivalence ratio are both dened after mixing of catalyst efuent with catalyst cooling air.
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Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle
Fig. 11. Catalyst performance with diesel fuel versus methane, for second-generation prevaporizer (~5:1 steam:fuel ratio by weight) operating at 6 atm pressure and 430C inlet air temperature. Compare to methane tests at 9 atm and 440C inlet temperature.
As shown in gure 11, catalyst operating temperatures are insensitive to operating condition (overall equivalence ratio) for both methane and diesel fuels, and in general very similar catalyst performance was obtained for both fuels. As stated earlier, catalyst temperatures do not vary signicantly with fuel/air ratio because reaction rate (heat release) upon the catalyst surface is controlled by oxygen ow (air ow) under fuel-rich conditions. Thus, the oxygen available for reaction (the limiting reactant under fuel-rich conditions) is the same at all test conditions, with the result that heat release and temperatures in the catalyst bed are insensitive to equivalence ratio, and are very similar for both methane and diesel fuels despite a wide difference in reactivity between these two fuels. NOx emissions from the fuel-lean combustion zone downstream of the fuel-rich catalyst were also measured for both liquid fuels and gaseous fuels, as shown in gure 12. Note that NOx emissions from the diesel fuel are primarily due to fuel-bound nitrogen, except at the highest ame temperature tested (near 2900F). The Diesel fuel tested was red-dyed Diesel No. 2 fuel, and its nitrogen content was measured at 188 ppm by weight by an independent laboratory. At this concentration, nearly complete conversion of fuelbound N to NOx is expected [4]. Thus, based on fuel-bound nitrogen content, the diesel fuel would emit at least 8.1 ppmv NOx (at 15% O2) when burned. Fuel-bound nitrogen for all other fuels was zero. NOx emissions are shown in gure 12 for three fuel types: methane, simulated bio-mass landll gas (essentially diluted methane), and Diesel No. 2 fuel. Here, NOx emissions are measured on a dry basis and are corrected to 15% excess O2. NOx emissions are shown as a function of maximum measured ame temperature (via type S thermocouple) for each data point. For all data points obtained, CO and unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) emissions were less than 2 ppmv.
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20 18 16
NOx (15% O2) ppmv
Methane - measured NOx (32 ms, 9 atm) , calculated adiabatic flame temperature Biofuel - measured NOx (32 ms, 9 atm) , calculated adiabatic flame temperature Diesel (prevap, steam) - measured NOx (32 ms, 6 atm), measured flame temp Diesel (prevap, steam) - measured NOx (32 ms, 6 atm), measured flame temp Calculated NOx emissions from fuel-bound nitrogen in Diesel Prediction 10 atm, 30 ms
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1900
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For methane and bio-mass landll gas fuels, NOx emissions were below 3 ppm for measured ame temperatures below 2600F. For diesel fuel, NOx emissions were about 10 ppm for measured ame temperatures below 2600F, compared to the 8.1 ppm expected based on fuel-bound nitrogen alone. Thus, about 2 ppm NOx is likely formed by prompt (non-thermal) mechanisms at low ame temperatures (below 2600F). At higher ame temperatures, NOx increases due to thermal formation mechanisms for all three fuels, as shown. The low NOx levels at low ame temperature indicates that well-mixed fuel-lean combustion was achieved downstream of the catalyst for all three fuels: methane, bio-mass landll gas, and diesel.
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Fig. 13. Side-mounted combustor conguration in modied Saturn engine, showing variable airow control valves in primary zone air pipe and dilution air pipe.
The test engine was a modied version of a two-shaft recuperated Saturn T1200 engine, nominally rated at 750 kW (1000 hp) after modication. This engine was selected as a test bed because its external combustor conguration was amenable to modication. For catalytic combustor testing, the recuperator was removed, but the compressor discharge scroll and turbine inlet scroll were retained, allowing a single side-mounted combustor can to be installed. The overall combustor conguration is shown in gure 13. Note that variable airow buttery valves were tted in the combustor primary zone air pipe and the dilution air pipe, to allow combustor air to be varied for best emissions at any given fuel ow (engine load). Also note that a preburner was located in the combustor primary zone air pipe below the buttery valve, to temporarily increase catalyst inlet air temperature to about 350C (660F) to ensure catalyst lightoff. The preburner was turned off after catalyst lightoff, and before engine emissions were measured. All fuel and air entered the combustor through the four RCL-injectors (neglecting leakage air). The combustor liner was backside cooled with dilution air, before the dilution air entered the hot gas path 24 inches downstream of the combustors upstream end (the round plate through which the post-mix ducts are inserted, visible in gure 14, forms the combustors upstream end). The combustor liner itself was cylindrical and 15 inches in diameter. At full Saturn engine load, and assuming 1.3 pps airow through each RCL-injector for ultra-low-emissions operation, combustor residence time was about 35 ms. Engine Operating Procedure Engine start-up data are shown in gure 15, with annotations, giving a graphical depiction of the start-up procedure. Note that there are three fuel circuits: a preburner fuel stage, which received about 25 kg/hr (55 pph) fuel during catalyst lightoff, and two RCLinjector fuel stages, which together received up to about 275 kg/hr (600 pph) fuel at load. RCL-injector fuel stage A supplied fuel to the top two injectors, while RCL-injector fuel stage B supplied fuel to the bottom two injectors. At cold crank conditions (29% gas producer shaft speed, Ngp) the preburner was ignited and adjusted to 260C (500F) outlet temperature, below the catalyst lightoff temperature. As seen in gure 15, the small preburner fuel ow provided little motive power to the engine and negligible increase in engine speed. Next, while still at 29% Ngp, fuel was introduced to the RCL-injectors and combustion was ignited by a torch igniter in the main combustor. With the starter motor still engaged, fuel ow was ramped up as the engine accelerated to 65% Ngp. At 65% Ngp the starter motor was disengaged and the engine controller added fuel to maintain a constant idle speed of 65% Ngp (no load). Preburner outlet temperature remained at 260C (500F), and the catalysts remained inactive.
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30 20 10
turn preburner fuel off @ 80% Ngp -catalysts remain active (lit off)
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Fig. 15. Saturn engine start-up data, showing engine acceleration, catalyst activation by preburner (followed by preburner shutoff with continued catalyst activity), and operation at engine load by fuel supplied through four RCL-injectors.
Preburner temperature was then increased to about 350C (660F) to ensure catalyst lightoff. Engine speed was increased to 80% Ngp, the preburner was turned off, and the catalysts remained active. Engine speed was then increased to 90% and the variable airow valves were adjusted to obtain optimum emissions. The valves served to vary the airow to the RCL-injectors thus allowing control of NOx and CO emissions. Emissions data were taken as engine speed was reduced in increments of about 1% Ngp. The airow valves were adjusted for best emissions at each speed. Engine controls were based on a Saturn T1202R design and used a state of the art Allen-Bradley microprocessor console to run the logic. For the RCL combustor engine tests, catalyst temperatures were not used in the fuel control algorithm. Instead, fuel control was performed according to standard DLN methods (primarily monitoring engine speed versus set point), with the addition of a preburner fuel control during initial start and catalyst lightoff. This was possible because catalyst temperature is insensitive to fuel/air ratio under fuel-rich conditions, as shown in gure 2.1.2 for the single-injector rig tests. In addition, the RCL catalyst is air-cooled by a large fraction of the total combustion air, and reactions on the catalyst are limited by available oxygen (fuel-rich); thus, the catalyst is resistant to ashback, autoignition, and overheating damage, and can operate safely without active temperature control. Engine Performance with RCL Combustor With RCL combustion, Saturn engine NOx emissions averaged 2.1 ppm with less than 10 ppm CO over an achievable engine operating range (82% to 89% Ngp), as shown in gure 16. Over this engine operating range, UHC emissions remained below 3 ppm, and combustion-driven pressure oscillations (CDPO) remained less than 0.7 kPa (0.1 psi) peak-to-peak (less than 0.15% peak-to-peak of mean combustor pressure). At 89% Ngp, combustor inlet air (compressor discharge air) was at 5.0 atm and 223C (434F). At 82% Ngp, combustor inlet air was at 3.9 atm and 191C (376F). For all data points shown in Figure 2.1.16 the preburner was turned off, the catalyst remained active at the available compressor discharge temperatures (as low as 191C / 376F), and NOx emissions remained below 3 ppm. Measured power output ranged from 237 kW (318 hp) to 453 kW (607 hp) over the 82% to 89% Ngp operating range, or about 32% to 61% load based on a 750 kW (1000 hp) nominal power rating for this modied engine. Engine load was delivered to a water dynamometer. Engine operation was limited to the 82% to 89% speed range. At less than 82% Ngp the compressor was at its surge condition, and the compressor bleed valve was opened to prevent surge. This reduced the airow to the RCL-injectors thus increasing NOx emissions. At speeds greater than 89% Ngp operation was limited by locally hot temperatures within the scroll ducting downstream of the combustor. This limitation was not attributable to the RCL combustion technology but to inadequate mixing of combustor dilution air. Improving the test rig dilution mixing was deemed unnecessary to document the controllability of the RCL system. Table 1 summarizes the Saturn engine operating data at the low-end and high-end of the achievable operating range. In general, the results show good combustor performance (low emissions and low combustion-induced pressure oscillations, or CDPO) even at very low inlet temperatures. In addition, the Saturn engine operation shows the feasibility of engine start-up, acceleration, and operation at load using RCL combustion with simple engine controls. The engine was successfully started, accelerated, and powered at load by fuel injected through the four catalytic reactors, using conventional engine instrumentation and controls without instrumentation input from the catalyst.
Preburner Fuel (Wf_pbn) RCL Stage A fuel (Wf_A) RCL Stage B Fuel (Wf_B) Shaft Speed (Ngp)
Ngp
100 90
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10
NOx / CO (ppm, @ 15% O2 dry)
Fig. 16. RCL combustor emissions during Saturn engine operation, showing ultra-low NOx and CO emissions over an achievable engine operating range of 82% to 89% speed. Table 1 Saturn engine operating data at low-end and high-end of achievable operating range. Note catalyst activity and ultra-low-emissions achieved at inlet temperatures as low as 191 C (376 F).
Engine Speed NOx Emissions CO Emissions CDPO (noise) Power Output Nominal Load Comb. Inlet Pressure Comb. Inlet Temp.
82% Ngp 2.2 ppm 9.5 ppm < 0.7 kPa pk-pk 237 kW / 318 hp 32% 3.9 atm 191 C / 376 F
89% Ngp 2.2 ppm 5.7 ppm < 0.7 kPa pk-pk 453 kW / 607 hp 61% 5.0 atm 223 C / 434 F
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Table 2 Syngas fuel compositions used for high-pressure sub-scale tests.
H2 (%) 20 15
CO (%) 20 15
CO2 (%) 10 10
N2 (%) 50 60
Emissions measurements reported here were obtained from a water-cooled gas sample probe located 15 inches downstream of the catalyst, corresponding to about 50 ms residence time in the 2-inch inside-diameter ceramic-lined combustor. This represents the maximum residence time expected in a low-emissions gas turbine combustor, and therefore also represents the maximum expected NOx emissions for a given operating condition. Note that all emissions reported in ppm are parts per million by volume, and are corrected to 15% O2 dry. All measurements were made with a combustor inlet air temperature of 750F (400C) and a syngas fuel temperature of 570 F (300C). Adiabatic ame temperatures were calculated based on fuel/air ratio as measured by the emissions analyzers (i.e. from gas samples extracted at the 15-inch gas sample probe location). Combustor Emissions and Turndown Figure 17 plots measured NOx and CO emissions as a function of adiabatic ame temperature at 10 atm pressure for the baseline syngas composition listed in row 1 of Table 2, having a Lower Heating Value (LHV) of 117 Btu/ft3. With this fuel composition, NOx emissions were 2.0 ppm (0.011 lbs/MMBtu) at the 2550F (1400C) ame temperature data point corresponding to baseline operation in the Tampa Polk IGCC plant at 100% load. As the fuel/air ratio was decreased, CO emissions remained near zero for ame temperatures greater than about 2250F (1230 C), permitting a 300F (150C) turndown in ame temperature from the 2550F (1400C) baseline point, allowing ultra low emissions operation over a wide range of loads. These results CO near zero, and NOx equal to or less than 2 ppm (0.011 lbs/MMBtu) for full load and below easily met PCIs emissions goals for these tests.
0.030
NOx ((lbs NOx)/MMBtu)
0.000 0.0 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 Adiabatic Flame Temperature @ emissions probe (F)
Fig. 17. Measured NOx and CO emissions for 10 atm baseline syngas tests, as a function of adiabatic ame temperature at the emissions probe.
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Subsequent to the baseline tests, the heating value of the diluted syngas fuel was reduced to determine operability and emissions for highly-diluted low-Btu syngas fuels. NOx emissions are shown in gure 18 for the low-Btu syngas composition listed in row 2 of table 2, as well as for the baseline syngas composition. It is important to note that the right-hand vertical axis in gure 18 (NOx values in ppm) is only applicable to the baseline syngas composition, as marked. For the fuel composition with the lower heating value (88 Btu/ft3), NOx emissions in ppm are slightly lower than shown (for the low-Btu fuel, 0.011 lbs/MMBtu is equivalent to 1.6 ppm). It is worth noting that, as shown in gure 18, catalytic combustion allows stable operation with low emissions for the low Btu syngas case (88 Btu/ft3) even at ame temperatures as low as 2300F (1260C). CO emissions were less than 5 ppm in all cases, and were near zero for ame temperatures greater than 2200F (1200C).
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diluent in the blast furnace gas, oxygen levels would never approach 15% in an actual engine application. Therefore, the raw NOx data are probably as relevant as the corrected NOx data, or perhaps more so, and both are therefore plotted in gure 19. In either case, NOx emissions were ultra-low as a result of the low blast furnace gas ame temperatures.
3
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Fig. 19. NOx emissions, uncorrected and corrected to 15% O2, as a function of adiabatic ame temperature in the downstream combustion zone of the RCL combustor burning blast furnace gas (23% CO, 1.4% H2, 0.6% CH4, 22% O2, and 53% N2).
Renery Fuel Gas Testing of RCL combustion of renery fuel gas was also conducted using the same hardware conguration as previous tests for syngas and blast furnace gas. Results showed NOx emissions below 3 ppm for ame temperatures below 2800F (1538C). For the renery fuel gas tests, the simulated renery fuel gas comprised 30% H2 and 70% CH4, and entered the reactor without passing through a fuel heater. However, some fuel heat was obtained from hot combustor rig components so that the fuel plenum gas temperature measured about 347F (175C). Combustion air entered the reactor at about 734F (390C). Tests were performed over a range of adiabatic ame temperatures, from about 2400 to 3000F (1315 to 1650C) in the combustor burnout section, and at a pressure of about 10 atm. NOx and CO emissions were measured at each condition, as well as O2 and CO2. NOx emissions for the RCL combustion of renery fuel gas are plotted in gure 20, as measured by sample extraction from the cooled probe located 15 inches downstream of the catalyst exit, corresponding to about 50 ms residence time. As shown, NOx emissions were measured below 3 ppm for ame temperatures less than about 2800F (1540C). CO emissions were less than about 1 ppm for all conditions shown.
9 8 7
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 2400 2500 2600 2800 2700 Adiabatic Flame Temp (F) TTeTemperature (F) 2900 3000
281
Fig. 20. NOx emissions, corrected to 15% O2, as a function of adiabatic ame temperature in the downstream combustion zone burning renery fuel gas (30% H2 and 70% CH4).
Fuel Tested Methane Landll Gas Diesel No. 2 Gasoline Renery Fuel Gas Syngas Blast Furnace Gas
Chemical Formula CH4 0.65 CH4 + 0.35 CO2 Multi component not analyzed 0.70 CH4 + 0.30 H2 20% H2 + 20% CO + 10% CO2 + 50% N2 23%CO+22%CO2+1.4%H2+0.6%CH4+53%N2
C/H Ratio by Wt (%) 75 / 25 46.5 / 10.1 87.6 / 13.0 not analyzed 71.2 / 28.8 14.75 / 1.64 17.6 / 0.17
In addition, for IGCC applications with coal-derived syngas fuels, consideration must be given to the high volume ow of fuel that must pass through the catalytic reactor, to prevent excessive size or pressure drop penalties. Depending upon the application, this may require system level re-design and development of the catalyst and combustor. Finally, it is also recognized that syngas fuels carry trace levels of catalyst contaminants that may affect long-term catalyst durability. This needs to be examined and remediated if problematic. Long-term durability tests are required, preferably in an actual syngas slipstream at an operating IGCC plant, where real contaminants will be present.
3.2.2.1-12 Conclusions
For natural gas operation, the Rich-Catalytic Lean-burn (RCL) combustion concept has been tested at gas turbine conditions, rst in a full-scale full-pressure single-injector rig, and second in a modied industrial gas turbine. These constitute two signicant experimental milestones: 1. Experimental conrmation of the ultra-low-NOx capability of the RCL combustion concept. In particular, we conrm the ability to mix fuel-rich catalyst efuent with primary combustion air, without inducing autoignition, yet imparting signicant stability to the downstream combustion process. Demonstration of RCL combustion feasibility for gas turbine engine operation. In particular, we demonstrate engine start-up, acceleration, and robust operation at load by fuel injected only through RCL-injectors (effectively a single fuel stage, with all fuel contacting the catalyst), and with simple engine controls that do not monitor catalyst temperature.
2.
In summary, the data presented show that fuel-rich catalytic reactions can stabilize fuel-lean premixed combustion to provide stable, quiet combustor operation with ultra-low NOx and CO emissions. In addition, the air-cooled fuel-rich catalyst system can operate safely without active temperature control because its temperature is insensitive to fuel/air ratio. The RCL system also provides signicant operational advantages as compared to earlier catalytic combustion systems. Most notably, the RCL reactor requires no preburner, is immune to issues of auto-ignition and ashback (and can therefore operate safely in high-ring-temperature machines such as F-class), and provides long catalyst life (as a result of the non-oxidizing fuel-rich catalyst environment).
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Finally, fuel-rich operation of the catalyst allows operation on multiple types of fuels, as successfully demonstrated at sub-scale for gaseous and liquid hydrocarbon fuels, for low-Btu fuels and high-hydrogen fuels, and for simulated coal-derived syngas. For all of these fuels catalyst temperatures were well controlled, and ultra-low emissions were achieved.
3.2.2.1-13 Notes
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1. C.L. Vandervort, 9 ppm NOx / CO Combustion System for F Class Industrial Gas Turbines, ASME Paper No. 2000-GT-0086, ASME Turbo Expo May 8-11, 2000, Munich, Germany. 2. D.K. Yee, K. Lundberg, and C.K. Weakley, Field Demonstration of a 1.5 MW Gas Turbine with a Low Emissions Catalytic Combustion System, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 123 (2001): 550-556; L.L. Smith, H. Karim, M.J. Castaldi, S. Etemad, W.C. Pfefferle, V.K. Khanna, and K.O. Smith, Rich-Catalytic Lean-Burn Combustion for Low-SingleDigit NOx Gas Turbines, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 127 (2005): 27-35. 3. J.H. Lee and D.L. Trim, Catalytic Combustion of Methane, Fuel Processing Technology 42 (1995): 339-359; R.A. Dalla Betta, Catalytic Combustion Gas Turbine Systems: the Preferred Technology for Low Emissions Electric Power Production and Co-generation, Catalysis Today 35 (1997): 129-135; P. Forzatti and G. Groppi, Catalytic Combustion for the Production of Energy, Catalysis Today 54 (1999): 165-180. 4. R.J. Farrauto, M.C. Hobson, T. Kennelly, and E.M. Waterman, Catalytic Chemistry of Supported Palladium for Combustion of Methane, Applied Catalysis A: General 81 (1992): 227-237; R.J. Farrauto, J.K. Lampert, M.C. Hobson, and E.M. Waterman, Thermal Decomposition and Reformation of PdO Catalysts; Support Effects, Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 6 (1995): 263-270; J.G. McCarty Kinetics of PdO Combustion Catalysis, Catalysis Today 26 (1995): 283-293; N.M. Rodriguez, S.G. Oh, R.A. Dalla-Betta, and R.T.K. Baker, In Situ Electron Microscopy Studies of Palladium Supported on Al2O3, SiO2, and ZrO2 in Oxygen, J. Catalysis 157 (1995): pp. 676-686. 5. R.A. Dalla Betta, T. Shoji, K., Tsurumi, and N. Ezawa (1994). Partial Combustion Process and a Catalyst Structure for Use in the Process, U.S. Patent No. 5,326,253; T. Furuya, K. Sasaki, Y. Hanakata, T. Ohhashi, M. Yamada, T. Tsuchiya, and Y. Furuse (1995). Development of a Hybrid Catalytic Combustor for a 1300C Class Gas Turbine," Catalysis Today 26 (1995): 345-350; Y. Ozawa, Y. Tochihara, N. Mori, I. Yuri, T. Kanazawa, and K. Sagimori, High Pressure Test Results of a Catalytically Assisted Ceramic Combustor for a Gas Turbine, ASME Paper No. 98-GT-381, Stockholm, Sweden, 2-5 June 1998; R. Carroni, V. Schmidt, and T. Grifn, Catalytic Combustion for Power Generation, Catalysis Today 75 (2002): 287295. 6. S.T. Kolaczkowski, Catalytic Stationary Gas Turbine Combustors: A Review of the Challenges Faced to Clear the Next Set of Hurdles, Trans. I. Chem. E. 73 Part A (1995): 168-190; D.B. Fant, G.S. Jackson, H. Karim, D.M. Newburry, P. Dutta, K.O. Smith, and R.W. Dibble, Status of Catalytic Combustion R&D for the Department of Energy Advanced Turbine Systems Program, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 122 (2000): 293-300. 7. M. Lyubovsky, L.L. Smith, M. Castaldi, H. Karim, B. Nentwick, S. Etemad, R. LaPierre, and W.C. Pfefferle, Catalytic Combustion over Platinum Group Catalysts: Fuel-Lean versus Fuel-Rich Operation, Catalysis Today 83 (2003): 71-84. 8. R.E. Hayes and S.T. Kolaczkowski, Introduction to Catalytic Combustion (Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1997); E.M. Johansson, D. Papadias, P.O. Thevenin, A.G. Ersson, R. Gabrielsson, P.G. Menon, P.H. Bjornbom and S.G. Jaras, Catalytic Combustion for Gas Turbine Applications, Catalysis 14 (1999): 183-235; also see note 6 (Kolaczkowski). 9. R.J. Rollbuhler, Fuel-Rich, Catalytic Reaction Experimental Results, 27th Joint Propulsion Conference, Sacramento, CA, 24-27 June 1991, NASA Technical Memorandum 104423, AIAA Paper No. 91-2463; T.A. Brabbs and S.A. Merritt, Fuel-Rich Catalytic Combustion of a High Density Fuel, NASA Technical Paper 3281 (1993). 10. G.O. Kraemer, (1996). Fuel-Rich Catalytically Stabilized Combustion for Aircraft Engine Applications, Ph.D. thesis, Yale University. 11. M.B. Colket, A.S. Kesten, J.J. Sangiovanni, M.F. Zabielski, D.R. Pandy, and D.J. Seery (1993). Method and System for Combusting Hydrocarbon Fuels with Low Pollutant Emissions by Controllably Extracting Heat from the Catalytic Oxidation Stage, U.S. Patent No. 5,235,804. 12. J.P. Kesselring, W.V. Krill, E.K. Chu, and R.M. Kendall. In proceedings of New fuels and advances in combustion technologies symposium, Mar. 26-30, 1979, New Orleans, LA. 13. W.C. Pfefferle, L.L. Smith, and M.J. Castaldi (2002). Method and Apparatus for a Fuel-Rich Catalytic Reactor, U.S. Patent No. 6,358,040. 14. See note 2 (Smith). 15. L.J. Spadaccini, and M.B. Colket, Ignition Delay Characteristics of Methane Fuels, Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 20 (1994): 431-460.
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BIOGRAPHY
Dr. Lance L. Smith is a senior research & development engineer in the Gas Turbine Products group at Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI), and a visiting assistant professor in the Engineering Department at Trinity College. Dr. Smith has 14 years experience in combustion research and combustor development, including work in turbulent non-premixed combustion, premixed combustion and premixing, aerodynamic design of combustor components, pulsed combustion, and catalytic combustion. His academic research has been primarily experimental, with a focus on laser-based measurements in ames, including work conducted as a visiting researcher at Sandia National Laboratories and as a post-doctoral researcher at UCLA. Dr. Smith is a principal engineer of, and holds multiple patents for, the RCLTM catalytic reactor. At PCI, he works with OEM gas turbine manufacturers to develop integrated catalytic combustion systems for ultra-low emissions gas turbines. A graduate of Brown University (B.S., 1986) and of University of California, Berkeley (M.S., 1990 and Ph.D., 1994), Dr. Smith is an elected member of the Tau Beta Pi and Sigma Xi honor societies, and a member of the Combustion Institute.
Dr. Shahrokh Etemad as Manager of Gas Turbine Products at Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI) in North Haven, Connecticut, has full responsibility for technical and commercial development of two major products. He manages an advanced technology group to develop low-emissions combustion products in close collaboration with several OEM gas turbine engine manufacturers and the U.S. Department of Energy. Dr. Etemad is responsible for budgeting, funding opportunities, technology direction, proposal preparation and complete R&D operations including concept development, computational analysis, experimental testing, full-size performance demonstration and productionization. Prior to his present position at PCI, he worked for several years at Textron Lycoming and United Technologies, Carrier. Dr. Etemad has published 28 technical articles and holds 28 patents in the eld of turbomachinery, combustion, and thermouid systems. He earned bachelors and masters degrees at Sussex University and University of London respectively, and received his Ph.D. from the University of Washington in 1984. He has been a member of ASME since 1995 and won the 2003 ASME Gas Turbine award.
Dr. Hasan Karim is a senior research & development engineer at Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI), where his responsibilities include design, development, analysis, numerical and computational uid dynamics, and testing of catalytic combustors for natural gas, syngas, and liquid fuel. He is the principal investigator for the catalytic combustor development project for the U.S. Navy and lead engineer for the catalytic pilot and catalytic combustor for downhole combustion programs. After receiving a bachelors degree from Indian Institute of Technology-Kharagpur in 1987, Dr. Karim earned his M.S. from New Jersey Institute of Technology in 1991, and his Ph.D. from Yale University in 1998. He is a co-inventor of air-cooled rich and lean reactor technology.
Dr. William C. Pfefferle invented the original catalytic combustor for gas turbine engines in the early 1970s and now holds over 90 U.S. patents. In 1986, Dr. Pfefferle co-founded Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI), a Connecticut-based company dedicated to developing clean and efcient technology for clean air. His research has led to important industrial advances such as the RCL catalytic combustor for ground power gas turbine engines, which is now in late-stage development and evaluation by several major gas turbine manufacturers, and the Microlith catalytic reaction system, which forms the basis for paradigm-shift, high heat mass transfer catalytic reactors for fast-lightoff automotive catalytic converters and fuel processor reactors. With a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from Drexel University (1944) and a Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from the University of Pennsylvania (1952), Dr. Pfefferle is a member of the American Chemical Society (ACS), and received the ACS 31st Northeast Regional Industrial Innovation Award. He was inducted into the New Jersey Inventors Hall of Fame in February 1990. He continues to work full-time to develop catalytic devices for clean and efcient energy.
3.2.2.2
3.2.2.2-1 Introduction
Large frame gas turbine engines employ three different types of combustion systems: diffusion ame, lean premixed combustion and catalytic combustion. In diffusion ame combustors the fuel and air are injected separately into the combustion zone where they mix and react. Because of the nature of the design, these combustion systems tend to have ame temperatures that are typical of stoichiometric combustion and therefore produce high NOx emissions. Obtaining reasonable emissions from a diffusion ame combustion system generally requires the injection of diluents into the combustion section to lower the ame temperature, typically either water or steam. At current F-class ring temperatures these systems can produce NOx emissions in the range of 25 ppm NOx. In the lean premixed combustion system, the fuel and air are allowed to premix upstream of the ame zone. This results in a signicantly lower ame temperature than the standard diffusion ame combustor resulting in lower NOx emissions without the need to inject water or steam. The limitation on low emissions from the lean premixed combustion systems is the combustion instabilities which occur as the lean ammability limit of the mixture is approached. These instabilities can lead to large pressure uctuation in the combustion chamber. At F class temperatures the lean premixed combustion system can obtain NOx emissions in the range of 7-9 ppm. The catalytic combustion system shows promise to achieve lower emissions because the combustion instabilities at the lean ammability limit are no longer a limiting factor. Although catalytic combustion systems have not yet been employed in large industrial gas turbines, results from current development are encouraging and emissions in the range of 2-3 ppm are achievable.
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Figure 2 shows a basic concept of the RCL design. In this design the inlet air ow to the catalyst is separated into two streams. A portion of the air is mixed with the fuel and reacts on the surface of the catalyst under fuel rich conditions. The remaining air is used to backside cool the catalyst. The two streams mix at the catalyst exit and then react and burnout in the homogeneous reaction zone. By operating the catalyst in the fuel rich region, the reaction rate is limited by the rate of diffusion of oxygen to the catalyst surface. Therefore this design is able to tolerate wider variations in air fuel ratio within the catalyst region than the LCL design. In this design the preburner is no longer required as the fuel and air react at compressor exit temperature typical of gas turbine engines. The choice of catalyst material is critical for this design in order to insure proper catalyst lightoff. Precision Combustion, Inc and Siemens Westinghouse have pursued the RCL combustion design2.
Catalys t
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M ix R eacted and N on-R eacted E ffluent
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Walter Ray Laster 3.2.2.2-3 Rich Catalytic Combustion Applied to Large Gas Turbine Engines
As part of the ATS program, Siemens Westinghouse performed an evaluation of both the RCL and LCL systems. Based on subscale module testing of both technologies, it was clear that either design could meet the emission targets of the catalytic program. The RCL design was chosen for two main reasons. By eliminating the pre-burner, the design was much more compact and could be easily t into the existing envelope of the current gas turbine combustor without major modication to the casing. Also because of the operation in the rich region the design was much more tolerant of variations in both air and fuel ow. Over ring tests were performed on both designs and the RCL design was able to survive a severe over fuel transient without damage. This was not the case for the LCL design. Under the ATS program, the basic design of the RCL catalytic module was developed and the conceptual design of catalytic basket was developed. This design was continued for application to the lower ring temperature SGT6-3000E engine. Full scale basket testing was performed on this design at both E-class and F-class ring temperatures. During the initial development phase of the RCL design, testing was performed on the subscale module level. The full scale combustor basket was divided into 6 individual subscale modules each of which was designed to operate at 1/6 of the total combustor basket ow. The basic design of the RCL catalytic module is shown in gure 3. In this design the catalyst is composed of tubes with catalytic coating on the outside surface. These tubes are brazed to a plate on the upstream end and ared on the down stream end. A portion of the inlet air (~15%) enters the fuel mixing chamber where fuel is injected and allowed to mix before entering the catalyst region. This rich fuel air mixture ows along the outside of the tubes and is allowed to react on the catalyst surface. The remaining air enters the inside of the tubes and provides backside cooling for the catalyst surface. Both streams are allowed to mix down stream of the catalyst zone before they enter the homogeneous reaction zone. The ratio of air ow between the reacting fuel region and the cooling air is determined by pressure drops between the two ow paths. For a given design the fuel split is xed. Figure 4 shows the catalytic module design used for testing. Catalytic module testing was performed at full engine conditions for both the STG-63000E and the STG-6-5000F engines. Module testing conrmed that emissions could be maintained at less than 2 ppm NOx and 10 ppm
Fuel Inlet
Cooli ng Air Inlet ~85%
Reactive Mixture
Fuel-MixerFuel Manifold
Gas Jets
45o
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3.2.2.2-4 Conclusions
The rich catalytic combustion approach has been designed for application to the Siemens SGT-6-3000E and STG-6-5000F engine. Rig testing has shown that the design is capable of emissions in the range of 2 3 ppm at SGT-6-5000F temperatures. This design has been shown to be robust with respect to variation in air and fuel ow. Additional work is underway to reduce the emissions. Current development on the RCL concept is focused on the fuel exibility aspects of the design and the application to syngas and hydrogen fuels.
3.2.2.2-5 Notes
_________________________
1. D.B Fant,G.S. Jackson, H. Karim, D.M. Newburry, P. Dutta, K.O. Smith, and R.W. Dibble, Status of Catalytic Combustion R&D for the Department of Energy Advanced Turbine Systems Program, ASME Journal of Enginering for Gas Turbines and Power, (2000): 293-300. 2. L. Smith, et al, US Patent No. 6,174,159, Method and Apparatus for a Catalytic Firebox Reactor, 1999; W.C. Pfefferle, L. Smith, M.J. Castaldi, US Patent No. 6,358,040, Method and Apparatus for a Fuel Rich Catalytic Reactor, 2000. 3. D.M. Newburry, US Patent No. 6,415,608, Piloted Rich-Catalytic Lean-Burn Hybrid Combustor, 2000.
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BIOGRAPHY
Dr Laster has a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from Purdue University with a specialty in the area of combustion. He taught combustion and heat transfer at Texas A&M University. He has 12 years industrial experience in the gas turbine eld at Siemens Westinghouse. He has been involved in the design of dry low NOx combustors and catalytic combustion systems. He has been involved in several projects related to alternatuve fuels for gas turbine systems.
3.2.2.3
3.2.2.3-1 Introduction
Surface-stabilized combustion is a simple approach that can maximize the emissions benet of lean fuel/air premixing by increasing ame stability, and doing so in a compact and exible manner. ALZETA Corporation is developing a surfacestabilized combustion system for industrial turbine applications capable of sub-3 ppm emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOX) with simultaneous low emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC). The application of surface-stabilized combustion to gas turbines is being developed under the name nanoSTAR. The development has been reported in a series of technical papers given at various ASME conferences1. Low emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOX), as well as carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons can be achieved with thorough fuel/air mixing and control of the adiabatic ame temperature of that mixture below about 1920 K (3000 F). One of the great difculties with such lean premixed systems has been maintaining ame stability in the narrow ame temperature range between high NOX production and lean ame extinction. Aerodynamically stabilized injectors have very narrow ranges of operation, necessitating multiple injector staging (up to four stages in some systems) or piloting2. When control of NOx emissions is achieved without the use of steam or water injection, it is referred to as a dry method, such Dry Low NOx, or DLN systems, have been successfully deployed to achieve sub-25 ppm NOx emissions in several gas turbine applications, and in some cases much lower. Surface-stabilized combustion is a simple approach that extends the operating range of lean premixed systems to achieve sub-3 ppm NOx emissions. The technology has advanced through proof-of-concept testing in pressurized rigs and demonstration in a one megawatt test engine. Prototype injectors for small industrial turbines have been designed, built, and rig tested. Multiple injectors have been tested in an annular combustor with varied combustion air inlet temperatures under atmospheric and elevated pressures while work is progressing toward an engine demonstration.
3.2.2.3-2 Technology
The surface-stabilized combustion inherent in nanoSTAR injectors is best described as laminar blue-ame combustion stabilized by signicant velocity gradients above a porous metal-ber mat. The operation of this type of surface-stabilized combustion is characterized by the schematic to the left of gure 1, which shows premixed fuel and air passing through the metal ber mat in two distinct zones.
Neil K. McDougald
ALZETA Corporation 2343 Calle del Mundo Santa Clara, CA 95054 phone: (408) 727-8282 email: nmcdougald@alzeta.com
A
Fuel/Air
Fig.1. Surface-Stabilized Combustion (reproduced by permission of the publisher from American Society of Mechanical Engineers [ASME]) Source: S. J. Greenberg, N. K. McDougald, and L. O. Arellano, Full-Scale Demonstration of Surface-Stabilized Fuel Injectors for sub-Three ppm NOx Emission, ASME Paper # GT2004-53629 (presented at the 2004 ASME Turbo Expo, Vienna, Austria, June 14-17, 2004).
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In the porous-only zone true surface combustion (A) is realized. Under lean conditions this will manifest as very short laminar amelets, but under rich conditions the surface combustion will become a diffusion-dominated reaction stabilized just over a millimeter above the metal matrix, which proceeds without visible ame and heats the outer surface of the mat to incandescence. This type of radiant surface combustion can be seen between the laminar amelets to the right of gure 1. Portions of the metal ber mat are perforated to allow higher mass ux (B). In these zones stretched laminar ames are established that are anchored by the adjacent surface combustion. This produces the distinctive ame pattern seen in the right-hand picture of gure 1. The specic perforation arrangement and pattern control the size and shape of the laminar amelets. The perforated zones operate at ow velocities of up to 10 times the laminar ame speed producing a factor of ten stretch of the ame surface and resulting in a large laminar amelets. The alternating arrangement of laminar blue ames and surface combustion, allows high ring rates to be achieved before ame liftoff occurs, with the surface combustion stabilizing the long laminar ames by providing a pool of hot combustion radicals at the ame edges. At atmospheric operation, nominal injector output would be 3.15 MW/m2 (1.0 million Btu/hr/ft2), so an injector with a red area of .047 m2 (0.5 ft2) would have a capacity of 146.5 kW (500,000 Btu/hr). Assuming the ring rate of the injector increases linearly with pressure, the SFR remains constant as pressure increases. This results in a compact injector size for a given capacity in high pressure systems. Therefore the 146.5 kW (500,000 Btu/hr) injector at 0.1 MPa (1 atm) becomes nominally a 1,465 kW (5 million Btu/hr injector) at 1 Mpa (10 atm). Put another way, based on a gas turbine with a heat rate of 10,000 Btu/kilowatt-hour and a combustion pressure of 10 atmospheres, only about one square foot of injector surface area would be required for every megawatt of gas turbine output. NanoSTAR injectors are constructed of small metal bers which are compressed and sintered, resulting in an all-metal structure. This porous pad is perforated to produce a proprietary arrangement of perforation zones. The perforated metal ber pads have a very low pressure drop but excellent ow uniformity. They also display excellent durability in red service. In an atmospheric cycling test, a nanoSTAR metal ber pad withstood over 15,000 ignition/cooling cycles over a 30-day period without a signicant loss in operability. Further material and oxidation studies are being conducted in order to estimate injector life which is expected to exceed 8000 hours. Figure 2 depicts an injector in a gas turbine combustor liner.
COMBUSTOR LINER
SINTERED METAL FIBER PAD
PREMIXED FUEL/AIR
DISTIBUTOR
MOUNTING RING
SELECTIVE PERFORATIONS
Fig. 2. Surface-Stabilized nanoSTAR Injector (reproduced by permission of the publisher from American Society of Mechanical Engineers [ASME]) Source: See g. 1.
The laminar blue ame combustion zones created by the surface stabilization contribute to lower NOX emissions in three ways. The dominant mechanism is the expected benet from using a fully premixed fuel and oxidizer, resulting in a uniform temperature across the reaction zone, and lean burning, resulting in reaction temperatures below the 1920 K (3000 F) limit for thermal NOX formation. The second is the much lower residence time in the hot combustion zone. The peak temperatures are realized in the combustion front formed by each laminar amelet which, like that of a Bunsen injector ame, is very thin. So the residence time in the peak ame temperature zone for a nanoSTAR injector is a fraction of that of a typical aerodynamically-stabilized injector. The third mechanism is a more rapid post-ame cooling of each blue-ame zone via the gas phase radiation mechanism. By spreading the ame over a larger surface, the gas layer thickness at any specic location on the injector is thin (relative to that of a conventional injector) and can more rapidly transfer energy as a result. These mechanisms combine in a nanoSTAR injector to produce lower NOX emissions than a typical lean premixed aerodynamically-stabilized injector. Figure 3 shows a comparison between nanoSTAR injector emission results from a high-pressure rig test and perfectly-premixed aerodynamically-stabilized emission results from a 1990 paper by Leonard and Correa3. In both cases the tests were conducted at 1.01 Mpa (10 atm) and 535-590 K (500-600 oF) inlet temperatures. A nanoSTAR injector ring in under atmospheric pressure in a quartz enclosure is shown in gure 4. In addition to lower emissions with a wide turndown window, nanoSTAR injectors can be designed to t within existing combustor liners and tted to existing fuel/air premixers without extensive modication to the combustion equipment or pressure case. Furthermore, they require no extraordinary control schemes or equipment beyond that which would be required for an aerodynamicallystabilized lean-premixed injector.
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Neil K. McDougald
Fig. 3. Surface-Stabilized Compared to AerodynamicallyStabilized Emission Results at 1.01 MPa (10 atm) Pressure and 535-590 K (reproduced by permission of the publisher from American Society of Mechanical Engineers [ASME]). Source: See g. 1.
Fig. 4. Surface-Stabilized nanoSTAR Injector (reproduced by permission of the publisher from American Society of Mechanical Engineers [ASME]). Source: See g. 1.
2750
2800
2850
Fig. 5. Comparison of Sector Rig NOX Data with Single Injector Rig Data at 1.2 MPa (12 atm) Pressure and 640 K (690F) Inlet Temperature (reproduced by permission of the publisher from American Society of Mechanical Engineers [ASME]). Source: See g. 1. above.
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A full-scale annular combustor was tted with twelve equally spaced nanoSTAR injectors. The assembly was tested under atmospheric conditions which allowed for visual observation of the red injectors as in gure 6. Four thermocouple rakes recorded temperatures around the combustor outlet to create the outlet prole shown in gure 7. The outlet prole was uniform with an overall pattern factor of 0.16 that is well within acceptable limits.
4 10 2 8 0 6
2 x x
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1950
2000
2050
0
1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
Fig. 6. Interior of Full Scale Annular Combustor during Atmospheric Testing (reproduced by permission of the publisher from American Society of Mechanical Engineers [ASME]). Source: See g. 1. above.
10 8 6 4 2600 16 2 14 0 12 10 8 6 4
NOx
CO
2 0
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1750
1775
1800
1825
1850
1875
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Fig. 7. Plot of Temperature Contours at Exit Plane of Annular Combustor at Atmospheric Pressure and 650 K (700F) Inlet Temperature (reproduced by permission of the publisher from American Society of Mechanical Engineers [ASME]). Source: See g.1. above.
Fig. 8. Emissions Data Collected During Full Scale Pressurized Testing at 0.5-1.2 MPa (5-12 atm) Pressure and 475-700 K (400-800F) Inlet Temperature (reproduced by permission of the publisher from American Society of Mechanical Engineers [ASME]). Source: See g. 1. above.
The full-scale combustor was installed in a high pressure test cell and operated at pressures between 0.5-1.2 MPa (5-12 atm) with inlet air temperatures between 475-700K (400-800F). Emissions data collected during these tests are presented in gure 8. The results were consistent with previous sub-scale results and provided data necessary to design an engine-ready combustor.
3.2.2.3-4 Conclusions
Surface stabilized combustion extends the lean premixed combustion stability allowing ultra-low emissions to be realized under small industrial gas turbine operating conditions. ALZETAs nanoSTAR technology has progressed through a series of sub-scale and full-scale rig tests consistently demonstrating ultra-low NOx emissions of less than 3 ppm (corrected to 15% O2) over a broad range of operating conditions. The next stage in the development is an engine demonstration which should be completed by the end of 2005.
3.2.2.3-5 Notes
_________________________ 1. C.K. Weakley, S. J. Greenberg, R. M. Kendall, N. K. McDougald, and L. O. Arellano, Development Of SurfaceStabilized Fuel Injectors With Sub-Three ppm NOX Emissions, ASME Paper # IJPGC2002-26088 (presented at the 2002 International Joint Power Generation Conference, Phoenix, AZ, June 24-26, 2002; Greenberg, S. J.); N. K. McDougald, C. K. Weakley, R. M. Kendall, and L. O. Arellano, Surface-Stabilized Fuel Injectors With Sub-Three ppm NOX Emissions for a 5.5 MW Gas Turbine Engine, ASME Paper # GT2003-38489 (presented at the 2003 ASME Turbo Expo, Atlanta, GA, June 16-19, 2003); S. J. Greenberg, N. K. McDougald, and L. O. Arellano, Full-Scale Demonstration of Surface-Stabilized Fuel Injectors for sub-Three ppm NOx Emission, ASME Paper # GT2004-53629 (presented at the 2004 ASME Turbo Expo, Vienna, Austria, June 14-17, 2004.). 2. C. L. Vandervort, 9 ppm NOX/CO Combustion System for F Class Industrial Gas Turbines, ASME J. of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 123 (2001): 317-321. 3. G. L. Leonard and S. M. Correa, NOX Formation in Premixed High-Pressure Lean Methane Flames, Fossil Fuel Combustion Symposium 1990, S. N. Singh, ed. (New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1990): 69-74.
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BIOGRAPHY
Neil K. McDougald
ALZETA Corporation 2343 Calle del Mundo Santa Clara, CA 95054 phone: (408) 727-8282 email: nmcdougald@alzeta.com
Since July 2000, Dr. McDougald has been leading ALZETAs effort to develop nanoSTAR, an ultralow emissions combustion system for gas turbines. The nanoSTAR is a surface-stabilized lean premixed combustion technology that provides ultra-low NOx emissions while avoiding unstable combustion dynamics. As Director of Product Development, he is responsible for management and technical support for ALZETAs existing and emerging combustion products.
3.2.2
Catalytic Combustion
3.2.2-1 Introduction
The earliest work on what is now termed catalytic combustion was conducted by Pfefferle at Engelhard Corporation in the 1970s and introduced the use of both catalytic and non-catalytic combustion reactions in a temperature range amenable to both1. The original-type catalytic combustor is a ceramic honeycomb monolith containing catalytically-coated parallel channels and placed within a combustion chamber2. In this original-type catalytic combustor, surface reactions release heat and reactive intermediates into the boundary layer above the surface, eventually inducing gas-phase (non-catalytic) reactions. As a consequence, combustor operation can be at lean limits well beyond those feasible without the inuence of a catalyst, and pollutant emissions can be extremely low. Early work on systems of this type were conducted at Engelhard, Acurex, Westinghouse, NASA, the Air Force, and elsewhere3. Active interest in catalytic combustion for power generation increased during the early 1990s as it became clear that continued pressure for reduced emissions could not be met simply by re-design of conventional combustors. A new approach of partial conversion in the catalyst bed and the use of metal catalyst substrates to circumvent thermal shock issues, revived catalytic combustion for power generation. Metal-substrate type catalyst beds were thus employed for catalytic combustion with increasing success during the 1990s, demonstrating the low NOx potential of catalytic combustion for gas turbine applications4. Ultimately, two very different systems emerged during this period: a fuel-lean catalyst system developed by Catalytica, Inc. and a fuel-rich catalyst system developed by Precision Combustion, Inc5. Engine tests of these two systems are described, respectively, in Yee et al. and Smith et al.6 . These systems are also described in greater detail in Sections 3.2.2.1.1 and 3.2.2.1.2 of this Handbook.
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forming combustion products. For solid fuels such as coal, this means that liquefaction or gasication of the fuel is required to enable contact with the solid catalyst surface in the presence of air. Regardless of fuel type, the need for the reactants to contact a solid catalyst surface also means that a high substrate surface area is desirable, as is a high rate of mass transfer to the solid surface. Thus, catalyst substrates typically take the form of small pellets, rods, wires, tubes, honeycombs, foams, or other high-surface-area shapes through which ow can pass. Channel diameters through such structures are typically between 1 mm and 1 cm in diameter, depending on size and pressure drop requirements. Substrates can be made of metal or ceramic materials, but must withstand the expected operating environment in a gas turbine engine, particularly with regard to thermal gradients and thermal shock8. Metal substrates best ll this need, but their temperature must be limited to less than 950C (1750F) to ensure sufcient material strength and long life. Ceramic materials can operate at higher temperatures, but issues of thermal shock failure during the transient operating conditions required for gas turbine operation have not been fully resolved. Thus, despite their inherent temperature limitations, metal substrates have been nearly universally adopted for gas turbine catalytic combustion, even for machines with ring temperatures hundreds of degrees higher than 950C (1750F). As a result, a prominent feature of successful catalytic combustor designs has been control or limitation of catalyst temperature without sacrice in engine, combustor, or emissions performance. Once the reactants are in contact with the substrate surface, it is also desirable that catalytic reactions proceed quickly. This requires a large number of active catalyst surface sites per unit surface area of substrate. For this purpose a high-surface-area support material such as a porous ceramic washcoat may be applied to the substrate, creating a new rough or porous surface that can have thousands of times the surface area of the raw substrate. The catalyst is nely dispersed across this rough surface and throughout its pores, to give a high density of active sites for chemical reaction. Specic procedures for preparing such supported catalysts have been disclosed in the literature9. Figure 1 presents a cross-sectional view of an actual washcoat support, containing precious-metal catalyst, and bonded to an underlying metal substrate. A high density of active surface sites is especially important in achieving the lowest possible lightoff temperature for a given catalyst. For practical applications of catalytic combustion, lightoff temperature is a critical parameter that determines both system operation and system design. The lightoff process can be depicted graphically as suggested by Pfefferle and Pfefferle and as shown schematically here in gure 210. Prior to catalyst lightoff the temperature difference between the catalyst surface and the reactant gas stream is small (tens of degrees or less) and the reaction rate is slow enough that this temperature difference is sufcient to remove all heat released at the surface. Pre-lightoff operating conditions correspond to region I in gure 2. However, if gas and catalyst temperatures are increased, reaction rates will increase exponentially with temperature until Fig. 1. Microscope photograph of sectioned catalyst support and substrate. The reactants are consumed as quickly as they arrive at catalyst support is a ceramic washcoat, bonded to the underlying metal substrate. the surface. When this occurs, the surface reaction is The scale of this photograph is roughly 100 m (0.004 in) in total height. said to be mass transfer limited, since mass transfer of fuel and oxygen to the surface now limit the overall reaction rate and temperature has little impact. At this condition the catalyst temperature will greatly III heat release exceed (by hundreds of degrees) the temperature of the reactant gas stream, and in fact, the catalyst will operate close to the adiabatic ame temperature Heat of the reactant gas stream if no external cooling is II Rate provided. This changeover to mass transfer limited (W) operation at greatly increased catalyst temperature is known as catalyst lightoff, and occurs rapidly (on heat removal the order of seconds) once the lightoff temperature is Ql.o. I reached. Figure 2 indicates how lightoff temperature Tgas Tl.o. Temperature (K) is dened and why lightoff is rapid. The solid curve represents heat release rate (in Watts, for example) Fig. 2. Representation of heat generation and heat removal as from exothermic reactions at the catalyst surface, a function of catalyst temperature, as during catalyst lightoff as a function of catalyst temperature. The dashed curve indicates the effect of catalyst temperature on the rate of heat removal from the catalyst surface,
reactants (gas)
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Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle
predominantly by convection to the reactant stream. The dashed curves point of intersection on the x-axis is the gas stream temperature. Note that the solid curve is independent of gas stream temperature, but the dashed curve will slide left and right, depending on gas stream temperature, with a constant slope determined by the convective heat transfer coefcient. For steady-state operation heat removal must equal heat release, so operation must be at an intersection point of the solid and dashed curves. Furthermore, for this intersection point to be a stable operating condition, an increase in catalyst temperature must lead to greater heat removal than heat release. At lightoff, this stability condition fails, and lightoff temperature Tl.o. is dened at the point of tangency between the solid and dashed curves, as shown. At this point, any increase in catalyst temperature leads to greater heat release than heat removal, with the result that catalyst temperature rapidly increases until reaction rate is limited by mass transfer of reactants to the catalyst surface. Thus, catalyst temperature passes through the unstable region II, and stabilizes at its mass-transfer-limited value in region III where the dashed curve and the solid curves again intersect. Catalyst lightoff is therefore a rapid transient event, and can be measured for any catalyst material with only weak dependence on heat transfer coefcient. Note that some authors dene lightoff temperature in terms of the gas temperature Tgas during lightoff, instead of catalyst temperature Tl.o. at lightoff as dened here. Catalyst materials for combustion applications have been carefully evaluated by a number of researchers11. Methane and natural gas fuels have been the recent focus of interest because natural gas is currently the low-emissions fuel of choice for power-generating gas turbines. Johansson and co-workers have reviewed the catalytic combustion literature and summarized lightoff temperatures for fuellean oxidation of methane on various catalysts, as listed in table 112. Dalla Betta (1997) reviewed and summarized fuel-lean methane reaction rates at 400C (750F) for a range of catalyst materials tested, and the more active of these are also listed in table 113. In both reviews, palladium (Pd) catalysts show the greatest activity for methane oxidation, and in general the consensus in the literature has been that, for fuel-lean combustion of methane, Pd-based catalysts are the only practical choice because only they offer acceptable activity, lightoff temperature, and resistance to volatilization. However, the adoption of Pd-based catalysts has come with difculties resulting from the complex morphology and behavior of the Pd-PdO system and its reactions with methane, including deactivation at high temperature (above about 750C (1380F)), hysteresis in reaction rate over heating and cooling cycles, and oscillations in activity and temperature14. In addition, lightoff and extinction temperatures are well above 300C (570F) for fuel-lean reaction of methane on Pd-based catalysts, thus requiring the use of a preburner in many engine applications15. A wider choice of catalysts is possible for fuel-rich reaction of methane, and the complex behaviors of fuel-lean methane reaction on Pd are avoided. For example, Lyubovsky et al. compared fuel-lean and fuel-rich activity for three precious metal catalysts in an isothermal reactor, and demonstrated that all three could be practically used for fuel-rich catalytic reactors16. A comparison of measured catalyst activity for Pd, Pt, and Rh catalysts, under both fuel-rich and fuel-lean conditions, is shown here in gure 3 as a function of catalyst temperature17. Note that gure 3 does not depict thermal lightoff in the same sense as gure 2, since the data in gure 3 were obtained at isothermal conditions (heat transfer was essentially innite, so the catalyst could not self heat). The rst observation to make in gure 3 is that, for all three catalysts, methane conversion (a measure of catalyst activity) is generally much higher under fuel-rich conditions than under fuel-lean conditions. Furthermore, under fuel-lean conditions, only the Pd catalyst shows sustained measurable activity below 600C (1110F), whereas all three catalysts are always active in this range under fuel-rich conditions. Evidently the oxidizing environment of fuel-lean mixtures leads to oxidation of the catalyst and this has a pronounced effect on catalyst activity. Oxidation also leads to greater volatilization of Pt catalyst, limiting the usable life of Pt-based catalysts even at temperatures far below 950C (1750F). For fuel-rich combustion of methane, however, Pd, Pt, or Rh-based catalysts may be used without suffering from oxidation.
Table 1 Lightoff temperature and reaction rate for methane oxidation under fuel-lean conditions, for various catalyst materials
Lightoff Temperature(C)
1
340 460 590 710 390 690 500 700 600 - 750
300 50 7 1 3
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Fig. 3. Catalyst activity for methane oxidation under fuel-rich and fuel-lean conditions. Filled symbols represent increasing temperature, and closed symbols represent decreasing temperature (the selected temperature ramp was externally controlled by electric heaters).
For syngas and high-hydrogen fuels, catalyst lightoff of CO and H2 is of interest for both fuel-lean and fuel-rich conditions. Recent work at Precision Combustion, Inc., sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, has shown a precious-metal catalyst lightoff temperature of 180C (350F) for fuel-rich reaction of syngas. This value has been measured for a syngas mixture composed of 25% H2 and 35% CO (remainder diluent), but the lightoff temperature is relatively insensitive to syngas composition unless CO levels drop to very low values, thus leaving essentially a high-hydrogen fuel having signicantly lower lightoff temperature. Light-off temperatures for fuel-lean syngas mixtures were also measured below 180C (350F). In all cases, the 180C (350F) or lower lightoff temperature is well below the compressor discharge temperatures of industrial and large-frame turbines, and the need for a preburner is thereby avoided.
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Note that in all cases, catalytic combustion provides additional benets other than low emissions. In particular, catalytic combustion can be used to provide extended turndown by allowing stable combustion at low part-load ame temperatures and can also be used to reduce combustion dynamics (combustion-induced pressure oscillations) by shifting fuel energy release to the catalyst surface and away from the gas-phase combustion zone. Reduced combustion dynamics may be an especially important benet in high-ringtemperature machines that are susceptible to combustion dynamics as a result of their inherent high rate of fuel energy release.
Table 2 Categories for gas turbine applications of catalytic combustion, based on turbine rotor inlet temperature. The term 1-Stage means a single stage system combining both catalyst and gas-phase reactions. The term 2-Stage means that combustion occurs in two stages, sequential and separate, where the rst stage is catalytic and the second is gas-phase. (See Figure 4 for schematic examples of 1-Stage and 2-Stage systems.)
Low-Temperature (Uncooled) Turbines Engine Applications Approaches to Catalytic Combustion Benets: 1. Emissions 2. Turndown 3. Dynamics Barrier Issues Microturbines 1-Stage or 2-Stage
Ultra-High Temperature (> F-Class) Turbines FB-Class G-Class 2-Stage 1- or 2-Stage Ceramic Materials Develop. Low Oxygen 2-Stage (EGR) Cycle & Machine Develop.
? -
Specic considerations for each of the categories in table 2 are discussed in the following subsections, especially as related to catalytic combustion system design for each category.
Catalytic Reactor
Partial Conversion
Total Conversion
Fig. 4. Schematic examples of 2-Stage (partial conversion catalyst) and 1-Stage (total conversion catalyst) catalytic combustors, in left and right panels, respectively
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Catalytic Combustion at High Flame Temperatures (Tame > 1525 C (2780 F))
In the highest ring-temperature machines used for power generation, such as the recent FB-class and G-class machines, gasphase combustion temperatures may need to exceed 1525C (2780F), before addition of necessary cooling air, in order to meet turbine rotor inlet temperature requirements. At the current level of machine, combustor, and catalyst materials development, this means that NOx emissions will likely exceed 3 ppm at 15% O2. In spite of this, there are possible developments to reduce NOx emissions at these high ame temperatures, and there are non-emissions-related benets of catalytic combustion (improved turndown and combustion dynamics) that are available immediately. Combustion dynamics in particular have been problematic in low-emissions high-ring-temperature machines24, and there is great incentive to nd an economical solution. One possible solution is catalytic combustion. Catalytic combustors have been reported to have low combustion dynamics (Smith et al., 2005; Schlatter et al., 1997), since gas-phase energy release in the combustor is the driving force for combustion-induced pressure oscillations (combustion dynamics) and these oscillations are reduced when a portion of the fuel is catalytically reacted prior to gas-phase combustion25. Thus, regardless of pollutant emissions levels, catalytic combustion may prove useful even when ame temperatures must be well in excess of 1525C (2780F) to meet high turbine inlet temperature requirements. In fact, it is at these high ame temperatures that combustion dynamics often become most problematic and a solution is most needed. In addition, non-catalytic premixed combustors now often employ piloting or fuel staging to tune out combustion dynamics, at the cost of increased NOx emissions. Thus, a catalytic combustor that operates with low combustion noise without piloting or fuel staging (that is, with more perfectly premixed combustion) may offer reduced NOx emissions as compared to an equivalent non-catalytic system, even at the same overall combustor outlet temperature. There is also the potential that catalytic combustion may allow low-NOx operation even at ame temperatures above 1525C (2780F). While it has generally been reported that NOx emissions exceed 3 ppm (at 15% O2) when ame temperatures exceed 1525 C (2780F) for hydrocarbon fuels burning in air, these reports have typically focused on conventional ame stabilization techniques that use recirculation or backmixing of hot combustion products to sustain combustion. Schlegel and co-workers have shown through experiments and modeling that lower NOx emissions are possible for two reasons26. First, their work shows that NOx production is most signicant in the stirred or backmixed ame stabilization zone, and that NOx emissions can be reduced by reducing the size (bulk residence time) of such backmixing zones. Catalytic combustion can facilitate such NOx reduction by improving ame stability and lean blowout, such that smaller (shorter residence time) backmixed zones are feasible. For example, model results by Schlegel and co-workers show that NOx emissions from a 1500C (2730F) combustion process can be reduced by more than 1 ppm by decreasing the stirred-zone residence time from 0.6 ms to 0.1 ms27. Because of this potential, a question mark was indicated in table 2 for the emissions benet of 2-stage catalytic combustion in ultra-high ring-temperature machines. Second, Schlegel and co-workers have shown that by increasing the percentage of fuel that is reacted on the catalyst, NOx emissions are reduced because the chemical mechanisms for NOx formation are affected in the gas-phase combustion zone28. This effect is most pronounced at high levels of catalytic fuel conversion (> 50%, preferably > 80%) as shown in their 1500C (2730F) combustion experiments and modeling. At these fuel conversion levels, NOx reductions of more than 1 ppm are possible at 1500C (2730F) ame temperature. Note that materials development will be required to effectively implement this technique with long-term durability, since catalyst operating temperatures will greatly exceed the limits of currently available materials at such high levels of fuel conversion. Table 2 therefore indicates low emissions in a 1- or 2-stage ceramic-based catalytic combustor, with the caveat that materials development is required for implementation. The third approach to catalytic combustion listed in table 2 for ultra-high ring-temperature machines is a low-oxygen environment, where NOx emissions can remain below 3 ppm even at ame temperatures in excess of 1525C (2780F). Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is one possibility for obtaining such a low-oxygen environment and has been investigated for gas turbine emissions reduction in the past without the use of catalysts29. Because premixed combustion can be difcult to sustain under such low-oxygen conditions, a catalytic combustor will be benecial in providing the needed ame stability, and could permit ultra-low NOx emissions even from ultra-high temperature machines. Development needs are great for such systems; however, since this concept requires a signicant change in the working uid of the engine. This is indicated in table 2 with regard to both cycle and machine development needs.
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Dr. Lance Smith, Dr. Hasan Karim, Dr. Shahrokh Etemad, Dr. William C. Pfefferle
The propensity for high-hydrogen fuels to autoignite, together with their wide ammability limits, require special attention to premixing design. In addition, syngas fuels carry trace levels of catalyst contaminants that may affect long-term catalyst durability, and this needs to be examined and remediated if problematic. Long-term durability tests are required, preferably in an actual syngas slipstream at an operating IGCC plant, where real contaminants will be present.
3.2.2-6 Conclusions
Catalytic combustion has been established as providing low NOx emissions for modern gas turbines along with subsequent reduction in combustion dynamics and improved operability. Feasibility of catalytic combustion has been established for both high and low ring temperature gas turbines. For natural gas combustion, the challenges of catalytic combustion have been met and initial engine demonstrations have successfully shown that catalytic combustion is capable of driving a gas turbine engine and delivering ultra-low NOx emissions. Further eld trials and engine operating experience will advance the catalytic combustion applications for gas turbines. For alternative fuels, particularly coal-derived syngas, further development is required; but, initial demonstrations have shown the potential for ultra-low emissions catalytic combustion in future IGCC power plants. In recent years, metal catalyst substrates have been adopted, together with a two-stage approach to catalytic combustion that maintains catalyst temperatures within their material limits. In addition, the two-stage approach allows gas-phase combustion temperatures to rise to the levels needed for good combustion efciency and high efciency turbine operation. Prior material limitations have been largely resolved through design concepts such as reactor backside cooling and reactor mode of operation as well as availability of high temperature metal alloys. Multiple approaches to catalytic combustion have been pursued over the years in the quest for ultra-low NOx emissions from power generating gas turbines. Low, single digit, NOx emissions with low combustion dynamics have been demonstrated in engine environments permitting a wider operating regime from part load to full load conditions. These benets make catalytic combustion a viable, low cost approach as compared to selective catalytic reduction (SCR) to meet the low emissions requirements.
3.2.2-7 Notes
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Emissions Fuel Conversion, ASME Paper No. 75-WA/Fu-1(1975). 2. Ibid. 3. D.N. Anderson, R.R. Tacina, and T.S. Mroz, Performance of a Catalytic Reactor at Simulated Gas Turbine Operating Conditions, NASA Technical Memorandum X-71747(1975); J.P. Kesselring, W.V. Krill, E.K. Chu, and R.M. Kendall. In proceedings of New fuels and advances in combustion technologies symposium, Mar. 26-30, 1979, New Orleans, LA; P.W. Pillsbury, Update of FullScale Catalytic Burner Testing for Combustion Turbines, ASME Paper No. 84-GT-54 (1984); T.J. Rosfjord, AIAA Paper No. 7646 (Washington DC, Jan. 1976). 4. R.A. Dalla Betta et al., Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 119 (1997):, 844-851; P. Dutta, D.K. Yee, and R.A. Dalla Betta, ASME Paper No. 97-GT-497 (1997); S. Etemad, H. Karim, L.L. Smith, and W.C. Pfefferle, Advanced Technology Catalytic Combustor for High Temperature Ground Power Gas Turbine Applications, Catalysis Today 47 (1999): 305-313; D.A. Smith, S.F. Frey, D.M. Stansel, and M.K. Razdan, ASME Paper No. 97-GT-311(1997). 5. R.A. Dalla Betta, T. Shoji, D.K. Yee, and S.A. Magno. Catalyst Structure Employing Integral Heat Exchange. U.S. Patent 5,512,250; R.A. Dalla Betta, N. Ezawa, K. Tsurumi, J.C. Schlatter, and S.G. Nickolas, Two Stage Process for Combusting Fuel Mixtures, U.S. Patent No. 5,183,401 (1993); W.C. Pfefferle, L.L. Smith, and M.J. Castaldi, Method and Apparatus for a FuelRich Catalytic Reactor, U.S. Patent No. 6,358,040 (2002). 6. D.K. Yee, K. Lundberg, and C.K. Weakley, Field Demonstration of a 1.5 MW Gas Turbine with a Low Emissions Catalytic Combustion System, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 123 (2001): 550-556; L.L. Smith, H. Karim, M.J. Castaldi, S. Etemad, W.C. Pfefferle, V.K. Khanna, and K.O. Smith, Rich-Catalytic Lean-Burn Combustion for Low-Single-Digit NOx Gas Turbines, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 127 (2005): 27-35. 7. G. Leonard and J. Stegmaier, Development of an Aeroderivative Gas Turbine Dry Low Emissions Combustion System, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 116 (1994): 542-546. 8. E.M. Johansson, D. Papadias, P.O. Thevenin, A.G. Ersson, R. Gabrielsson, P.G. Menon, P.H. Bjornbom and S.G. Jaras, Catalytic Combustion for Gas Turbine Applications, Catalysis 14 (1999): 183-235; R.E. Hayes and S.T. Kolaczkowski, Introduction to Catalytic Combustion (Amsterdam:Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1997); D. Anson, M. DeCorso and W.P. Parks, Catalytic Combustion for Industrial Gas Turbines, International Journal of Energy Research 20 (1996): 693-711; S.T. Kolaczkowski, Catalytic Stationary Gas Turbine Combustors: A Review of the Challenges Faced to Clear the Next Set of Hurdles, Trans. I. Chem. E. 73 Part A (1995): 168-190.
1. W.C. Pfefferle, R.V. Carruba, R.M. Heck, and G.W. Roberts, Catathermal Combustion: A New Process for Low
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BIOGRAPHY
Dr. Lance L. Smith is a senior research & development engineer in the Gas Turbine Products group at Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI), and a visiting assistant professor in the Engineering Department at Trinity College. Dr. Smith has 14 years experience in combustion research and combustor development, including work in turbulent non-premixed combustion, premixed combustion and premixing, aerodynamic design of combustor components, pulsed combustion, and catalytic combustion. His academic research has been primarily experimental, with a focus on laser-based measurements in ames, including work conducted as a visiting researcher at Sandia National Laboratories and as a post-doctoral researcher at UCLA. Dr. Smith is a principal engineer of, and holds multiple patents for, the RCLTM catalytic reactor. At PCI, he works with OEM gas turbine manufacturers to develop integrated catalytic combustion systems for ultra-low emissions gas turbines. A graduate of Brown University (B.S., 1986) and of University of California, Berkeley (M.S., 1990 and Ph.D., 1994), Dr. Smith is an elected member of the Tau Beta Pi and Sigma Xi honor societies, and a member of the Combustion Institute.
Dr. Shahrokh Etemad as Manager of Gas Turbine Products at Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI) in North Haven, Connecticut, has full responsibility for technical and commercial development of two major products. He manages an advanced technology group to develop low-emissions combustion products in close collaboration with several OEM gas turbine engine manufacturers and the U.S. Department of Energy. Dr. Etemad is responsible for budgeting, funding opportunities, technology direction, proposal preparation and complete R&D operations including concept development, computational analysis, experimental testing, full-size performance demonstration and productionization. Prior to his present position at PCI, he worked for several years at Textron Lycoming and United Technologies, Carrier. Dr. Etemad has published 28 technical articles and holds 28 patents in the eld of turbomachinery, combustion, and thermouid systems. He earned bachelors and masters degrees at Sussex University and University of London respectively, and received his Ph.D. from the University of Washington in 1984. He has been a member of ASME since 1995 and won the 2003 ASME Gas Turbine award.
Dr. Hasan Karim is a senior research & development engineer at Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI), where his responsibilities include design, development, analysis, numerical and computational uid dynamics, and testing of catalytic combustors for natural gas, syngas, and liquid fuel. He is the principal investigator for the catalytic combustor development project for the U.S. Navy and lead engineer for the catalytic pilot and catalytic combustor for downhole combustion programs. After receiving a bachelors degree from Indian Institute of Technology-Kharagpur in 1987, Dr. Karim earned his M.S. from New Jersey Institute of Technology in 1991, and his Ph.D. from Yale University in 1998. He is a co-inventor of air-cooled rich and lean reactor technology.
Dr. William C. Pfefferle invented the original catalytic combustor for gas turbine engines in the early 1970s and now holds over 90 U.S. patents. In 1986, Dr. Pfefferle co-founded Precision Combustion, Inc. (PCI), a Connecticut-based company dedicated to developing clean and efcient technology for clean air. His research has led to important industrial advances such as the RCL catalytic combustor for ground power gas turbine engines, which is now in late-stage development and evaluation by several major gas turbine manufacturers, and the Microlith catalytic reaction system, which forms the basis for paradigm-shift, high heat mass transfer catalytic reactors for fast-lightoff automotive catalytic converters and fuel processor reactors. With a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from Drexel University (1944) and a Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from the University of Pennsylvania (1952), Dr. Pfefferle is a member of the American Chemical Society (ACS), and received the ACS 31st Northeast Regional Industrial Innovation Award. He was inducted into the New Jersey Inventors Hall of Fame in February 1990. He continues to work full-time to develop catalytic devices for clean and efcient energy.
3.2
3.2-1 Introduction
The technical challenges surrounding syngas and hydrogen fuel combustion have been outlined in section 3.1. Given the issues presented there, various options can be considered for combustor design and operation. First, it is critical to dene the type of combustion system that will be used. There are two broad categories: diffusion ame combustors, and premixed combustors. These are described below, but before discussing the combustion strategies, it is useful to review how NOx pollutants are formed.
National Energy Technology Laboratory 3610 Collins Ferry Rd. P.O. Box 880 email: george.richards@netl.doe.gov phone: (304) 285-4458
Nate Weiland
National Energy Technology Laboratory P. O. Box 10940 Pittsburgh, PA 15236 email: nathan.weiland@netl.doe.gov phone: (412)386-4649
Pete Strakey
Energy Systems Dynamics Division National Energy Technology Laboratory 3610 Collins Ferry Rd. P.O. Box 880 Morgantown, WV 26507-0880 phone: (304) 285-4476 email: peter.strakey@netl.doe.gov
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atmospheric oxygen. A number of studies have been conducted to evaluate rich-lean combustion as an approach to reducing fuel bound NOx. These studies have shown as much as 95% of the fuel ammonia can be reduced to nitrogen and water using rich-lean combustion, with the remaining 5% converting to NOx.4 Untreated syngas ammonia concentrations can exceed 1000ppm, where even 5% conversion would lead to 50ppm NOx, which is well above desired emissions levels. Thus, it is desirable to remove fuel ammonia during gas cleanup, rather than rely on combustion techniques to reduce it to water and nitrogen.
10 6 4 2 Ideal Premixing 1 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950
Poor Premixing
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Pete Strakey, Nate Weiland, Geo Richards 3.2-4 Lean Direct Injection
Lean Direct Injection (LDI) combustion was developed as a low NOx alternative to Lean Prevaporized Premixed (LPP) combustion for aircraft gas turbines, where the inherent ashback and dynamic instability concerns of LPP combustion are considered too great of a risk for ight application. In LDI combustors, liquid fuel is directly injected into the combustion chamber, where it is mixed with air in the shortest possible distance. The intent is to provide an essentially lean premixed fuel/air mixture that burns in a low-NOx ame, similar to LPP combustors, which are discussed in the Premixed Combustion section below.6 Low-NOx performance is compromised in an LDI combustor if the fuel and air are not perfectly mixed before combustion occurs, creating regions with higher fuel content that burn hotter and generate more NOx. Similarly, the mixture may burn upstream of the premixed zone in a diffusion ame, with combustion occurring at stoichiometric conditions that result in higher temperatures and NOx production. Nevertheless, ashback and auto-ignition concerns are nearly eliminated in LDI combustors, and they can operate over a wide turndown range with a high degree of static and dynamic stability using a wide range of fuels. The desire to burn high-hydrogen fuels in gas turbines used for power applications raises similar concerns of ashback and instability when operating in the Lean Premixed mode of combustion, so LDI combustors seem to be a natural t for burning these fuels in a low NOx gas turbine system. To demonstrate the potential of LDI combustors, researchers at NASA Glenn have recently studied various low NOx LDI concepts for pure hydrogen combustion in aircraft gas turbine combustors.7 Five separate injector concepts from different manufacturers were tested at aircraft gas turbine conditions (4.8 13.6 atm, Tin = 600 1000 F). At low combustor exit temperatures, it was possible to achieve very small NOx levels (~1 ppmv, wet, uncorrected). NOx emissions were primarily controlled by lowering equivalence ratios to limit combustion temperatures, and no hydrogen dilution cases were considered. One of the tested injectors at NASA Glenn was similar to those used in current IGCC gas turbines that burn syngas, where fuel is injected axially into a swirling airow. Although this injector was very robust, it produced substantially higher NOx than the other tested injectors. Some of the other tested injectors were similar to those studied recently at GE Energy, where multiple fuel jets were injected at an angle into a central air jet.8 Their results show that more fuel injection ports per air jet reduce NOx emissions due to higher fuel jet momentum and mixing. Increasing the number and decreasing the size of the air jets is shown to reduce NOx by reducing the length of the combustion zone, although this comes at the expense of increased combustor pressure drop. Similar injector congurations studied at NASA Glenn had better NOx emissions, due in part to the shortened combustion zone. However, in some cases, this also led to overheating problems and injector failure, since the combustion zone was located much closer to the fuel and air injectors. Pressure drops in the NASA Glenn injectors were sometimes very large (4-25%). Redesign and optimization for power gas turbines could reduce these pressure drops. In addition, large pressure drops may have been required to reduce the ashback or ameholding potential in those injector designs that operated more in a premixed combustion mode than a diffusion combustion mode. As the injectors were tested on pure hydrogen, dilution with nitrogen will reduce ame speeds and may decrease the necessity for large injector pressure drops and high air velocities to avoid these issues.
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Tmax
0.12
w NO (kg/m s) and X O
Fig. 2. Strain rate effects, adapted from Sanders et. al. wNO = NO formation rate, XO = O-atom mole fraction, Tmax = peak temperature Source: Sanders, J. P. H., Chen, J.-Y., and Gokalp, I., Flamelet-Based Modeling of NO Formation in Turbulent Hydrogen Jet Diffusion Flames, Combustion And Flame, Vol. 111, pp. 1-15, 1997.
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3.2-9 Notes
__________________________ 1. Konnov, A.A., Colson, G., De Ruyck, J. (2000). The new Route to Forming NO via NNH, Combustion and Flame, Vol. 121, pp. 548-550. 2. Leonard, G., Stegmaier, J. (1994). Development of an Aeroderivative Gas Turbine Dry Low Emissions Combustion System, ASME J. Eng. For Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 116, pp. 542 546. 3. Sattelmayer, T., Polifke, W., Winkler, D., Dobbeling, K., (1998). NOx-Abatement Potential of Lean-Premixed Gas Turbine Combustors, ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 120, pp. 48- 59. 4. Fietelberg, A. S., Lacey, M. A., (1997). The GE Rich-Quench-Lean Gas Turbine Combustor ASME 97-GT-127; Hasegawa,T., Sato, M., Ninomiya, T. (1997). Effect of Pressure On Emission Characteristics In LBG-Fueled 1500CClass Gas Turbine, ASME 97-GT-277; Constant, D. R., Bevan, D. M, Cannon, M. F., Kelsall, G. J. (1997). Development of an LCV Fuel Gas Combustor for an Industrial Gas Turbine ASME 97-GT-38; Folsom, B.A., C.W. Courtney, Heap, M. P. (1980). The Effects of LBG Composition and Combustor Characteristics on Fuel NOx Formation, ASME J. Eng. Power, V102, pp459-467; Domeracki, W.F., Dowdy, T. E., Bachovchin, D. M. (1997). Topping Combustor Status for Second-Generation Pressurized Fluidized Bed Cycle Applications, ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 119, pp. 27 33. 5. Takagi, T., Xu, Z. and Komiyama, M., Preferential Dissusion Effects on the Temperature in Usual and Inverse Diffusion Flames, Comb. and Flame 106: 252-260 (1996); Gabriel, R. Navedo, J. E. and Chen R.,, Effects of Fuel Lewis Number on Nitric Oxide Emission of Diluted H2 Turbulent Jet Diffusion Flames, Comb. and Flame 121:525-534 (2000). 6. Tacina, R., Wey, C., Liang, P., and Mansour, A., A Low NOx Lean-Direct Injection, Multipoint Integrated Module Combustor Concept for Advanced Aircraft Gas Turbines, Clean Air Conference, Porto, Portugal, NASA/TM-20022111347; Tacina, R. R., Wey, C., Choi, K. J., Flame Tube NOx Emissions Using a Lean-Direct-Wall-Injection Combustor Concept, 37th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Salt Lake City, Utah, July 8-11, 2001, AIAA-2001-3271. 7. Marek, C. J., Smith, T. D., and Kundu, K., Low Emission Hydrogen Combustors for Gas Turbines Using Lean Direct Injection, 41st Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, Tuscon, Arizona, AIAA-2005-3776, July 10-13, 2005; GE Energy, Premixer Design for High Hydrogen Fuels Final Report, DOE Cooperative Agreement No. DE-FC2603NT41893, November, 2005. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid. 10. Joshi, N. D., Mongia, H. C., Leonard, G., Stegmaier, J. W., Vickers, E. C. (1998). Dry Low Emissions Combustor Development, ASME 98-GT-310; Lefebvre, A.H. (1998). Gas Turbine Combustion, 2nd ed, pp. 349, Taylor and Francis. 11. Sewell, J. B., Sobieski, P. A., (2005). Monitoring of Combustion Instabilities: Calpines Experience, in Combustion Instabilities in Gas Turbine Engines, Lieuwen, T. C. , Yang, V. [eds.], American Institute of Astronautics and Aeronautics, pp. 147 162.
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BIOGRAPHY
George Richards
National Energy Technology Laboratory 3610 Collins Ferry Rd. P.O. Box 880 email: george.richards@netl.doe.gov phone: (304) 285-4458
Geo Richards received his Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from Purdue University on the subject of gas turbine combustion. Since coming to the National Energy Technology Laboratory in 1988, he has conducted research on various topics in thermal science and energy production, with a particular emphasis on combustion dynamics. He currently leads the Energy System Dynamics Focus Area, providing technical direction for research groups investigating turbine combustion, carbon dioxide capture, high-temperature fuel cells, fuel processing, and stationary reciprocating engines. In addition to conducting his own research, Dr. Richards responsibilities include developing and executing cooperative research agreements with private industry and academia, and evaluating proposed concepts related to energy conversion. He also serves as a research advisor for both graduate and post-graduate investigators visiting NETL from academic institutions.
Nate Weiland
National Energy Technology Laboratory P. O. Box 10940 Pittsburgh, PA 15236 email: nathan.weiland@netl.doe.gov phone: (412) 386-4649
Nate Weiland graduated with a Bachelors Degree in Mechanical Engineering from Purdue University in 1997, received his Masters Degree in Mechanical Engineering from Georgia Tech in 2000, and completed his PhD in thermoacoustics at Georgia Tech in 2004. He is currently an ORISE Post-doctoral Research Fellow at the National Energy Technology Laboratory, where he is investigating various gas turbine combustor concepts burning dilite diffusion hydrogen ames. His reserach interests include experimental, computational and theoretical studies of the interactions between acoustic, thermal, and chemical processes, and the development of novel devices utilizing these interactions.
Pete Strakey
Energy Systems Dynamics Division National Energy Technology Laboratory 3610 Collins Ferry Rd. P.O. Box 880 Morgantown, WV 26507-0880 phone: (304) 285-4476 email: peter.strakey@netl.doe.gov
Pete Strakey received his Ph.D. in 1995 from the Pennsylvania State Univeristy in the eld of Mechanical Engineering. The emphasis of his research is uid dynamics, combustion and laser diagnostics. He spent 9 years at the Air Force Research Laboratory, Edwards AFB, CA working in the eld of rocket propulsion, specically high-pressure liquid rocket injector atomization and mixing. Since coming to NETL, he has been primarily involved in research on gas turbine combustion and the application of laser diagnostic techniques to combustion systems. He has also been involved in computational uid dynamics (CFD) modeling of combustion systems as well as model validation. He has authored numerous technical papers on liquid atomization, combustion and laser diagnostics.