HUMANBE REVIEWER CHAPTER 7 Leadership Leadership Influencing and supporting others to work enthusiastically toward achieving objectives Three

ee Important Elements o Influence or Support o Voluntary Effort o Goal Achievement Catalyst that transforms potential into reality Ultimate Test of Leadership o Degree to which it identifies, develops, channels, and enriches the potential that is already in an organization and its people and then sustain it across both good and bad times Leadership Styles o Behavioral Approaches descriptive and offers a variety of ways in which the actions of leaders often differ o Contingency Approaches analytical and encourages managers to examine their situation and select a style and best fits Traits of Effective Leaders Most Important Traits: o A High Level of Personal Drive o The Desire to Lead o Personal Integrity o Self-Confidence Narcissism leaders become filled with their own importance, exaggerate their own achievements, seek out special favors, and exploit others for their personal gain Alpha dogs when leaders are intensely aggressive, egocentric, domineering, and controlling Leadership Behaviors Behaviors and skills can change while traits are more permanent Three Broad Types of Skills Leaders Use o Technical Skill a persons knowledge of, and ability in, any type of process or technique The distinguishing feature of job performance at the operating and professional levels Become less important as you get promoted o Human Skill - working effectively with people and building teamwork o Conceptual Skill thinking in terms of models, frameworks, and broad relationships Increases in importance in higher managerial jobs Situational Flexibility Three Elements that Affect Appropriate Leadership Behavior o Leader o Followers o Situation

The key task for a leader is to recognize different situations and adapt to them on a conscious basis

Followership Being an effective follower is a testing ground for future leaders Positive Followership Behaviors o Being loyal and supportive, a team player o Becoming actively engaged by pursuing dialogues and generating suggestions o Acting as a devils advocate by raising penetrating questions o Constructively confronting the leaders ideas, ethical values, and actions o Anticipating potential problems and actively preventing them Negative Followership Behaviors o Competition opposing the leader to catch the limelight o Uncritical saying yes all the time o Rebellion actively opposing a good leader, or supporting a bad one o Passivity failing to actively participate when the opportunity is provided to them Leadership Style Total pattern of explicit and implicit leaders action as seen by employees A consistent combination of philosophy, skills, traits, and attitudes that are exhibited in a persons behavior In Terms of Motivation o Positive Leadership emphasizes rewards economic or otherwise and a supportive approach o Negative Leadership emphasis on threats, fear, harshness, intimidation, and penalties In Terms of Using Power o Autocratic Leaders centralized power and decision making in themselves Negative threats and punishment Benevolent Autocrat give rewards to employees o Consultative Leaders asks for inputs from employees which he can choose to use or ignore o Participative Leaders decentralized authority Two Different Leadership Styles Used With Employees o Consideration (Employee Orientation) concern about human needs of employees o Structure (Task Orientation) keeping people busy, monitoring employee actions, ignoring their personal issues and emotions, and urging them to produce at even-higher levels Glass Ceiling an invisible barrier that has prevented many females from reaching important positions Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid o Robert Blake and Jane Mouton o A tool for identifying a managers own style o Dimensions of consideration (concern for people) and structure (concern for production) o Country Club Leaders 1,9 High in concern for people

 Low in concern for production o Authoritarian Bosses 9,1 Overly concerned with production o Backup Style what managers tend to use when their normal style does not get results Contingency Approaches to Leadership Style A number of models that have been developed to explain exceptions when a different style is needed Fiedlers Contingency Model o Fred Fiedler o Leadership style depends on whether the overall situation is favorable, unfavorable, or in an intermediate stage of favorability to the leader o Leaders effectiveness is determined by the interaction of employee orientation with three additional variables that relate to the followers, the task, and the organization: Leader-Member Relations manner in which the leader is accepted by the group Task Structure degree to which one specific way is required to do the job Leader Position Power organizational power that goes with the position the leader occupies

Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Model o Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard o Development level of a subordinate is the most important factor affecting the selection of leaders style Task-specific combination of an employees task competence and commitment (motivation to perform) Theory Y appropriate guidance, job experience and rewards means developed employees o Uses a combination of guidance (task) and supportive (relationship) orientations to create four majors styles Telling high directiveness (employee willingness or commitment) and low supportiveness (employee ability or competence)

Selling (Coaching) high directiveness (employee willingness or commitment) and high supportiveness (employee ability or competence) Participating (Supporting) low directiveness (employee willingness or commitment) and high supportiveness (employee ability or competence) Delegating low directiveness (employee willingness or commitment) and low supportiveness (employee ability or competence) Path-Goal Model of Leadership o Robert House and Martin Evans o Derived from expectancy model of motivation o The leaders job is to use structure, support, and rewards to create a work environment that helps employees reach the organizations goals o Two Major Roles: To create a goal orientation To improve the path toward the goals so that they will be attained o Task Support help assemble the resources, budgets, power, and other elements that are essential to get the job done o Psychological Support stimulates people to want to do the job and attend to their emotional needs o The leaders goal is to help employees understand what needs to be done (the goal) and how to do it (the path) o Leadership Styles Directive Leadership clear task assignments, standards of successful performance, and work schedules Supportive Leadership concern for employees well-being and needs while trying to create a pleasant work environment Achievement-Oriented Leadership setting high expectations for employees and encouraging them through his confidence on their abilities Participative Leadership invites employees to provide inputs to decisions and seeks to use their suggestions as final decisions are made o Contingency Factors Two Major Factors General Work Environment o Task structured or not o Formal Authority System directive or participative o Work Groups social and esteem needs Characteristics of Employees o Locus of Control Internal Locus participative External Locus directive o Willingness to Accept the Influence of Others High directive Low participative o Self-Perceived Task Ability high supportive low achievement-oriented leader Vrooms Decision-Making Model

o V.H. Vroom o Problem Attributes Decision Quality cost considerations and availability of information, and whether or not the problem is structured Employee Acceptance need for their commitment, their prior approval, the congruence of their goals with the organizations objectives, and the likelihood of conflict among the employees o Leadership Options Autocratic I information is already available and the leader solely try to solve problems Autocratic II data is obtained from subordinates but the leader decides Consultative I leader explains the problem and obtains ideas individually before deciding Consultative II leader meets with a group of subordinates to share the problem and obtain input before deciding Group II leader shares the problem with the group and facilitates discussion of alternatives and reaches a group agreement for a solution o Assumptions Managers can accurately classify problems according to criteria offered Managers are able and willing to adapt their leadership style to fit the contingency conditions they face for each major decision Managers are willing to use a rather complex analytical model Employees will accept the logic of different styles being used for different problems, as well as the validity of the leaders classification of the situation at hand

Model University of Michigan and the Ohio State University Black and Moutons managerial grid Fiedlers Contingency Model Hersey and Blanchards Situational Model Path Goal Model Vrooms Decision-Making Model

Soft Emphasis Consideration People Employee Orientation Relationships Psychological Support Employee Acceptance

Hard Emphasis Structure Production Task Orientation Task Guidance Task Support Decision Quality

Steven Kerr modest contingency flavor Neutralizers attributes of subordinates, tasks, and organizations that actually interfere with or diminish the leaders attempts to influence the employees Substitutes for Leadership factors that make leadership roles unnecessary through replacing them with other sources Coaching the leader prepares, guides, and directs a player but does not play the game

Sensemaking (Karl Weick) similar to cartography (map making); process of finding order in complex or ambiguous situations, requiring situational awareness, data gathering from multiple sources, the two-way act of fitting data into a menta model and/or adapting a mental framework to fit the data, and checking with others on an ongoing basis to gain from their perspectives Visionary Leaders those who can paint a portrait of what the organization needs to become and then use their communication skills to motivate others to achieve the vision CHAPTER 8 Empowerment and Participation Leadership Influencing and supporting others to work enthusiastically toward achieving objectives Low Self-Efficacy Powerlessness Conviction among people that they cannot successfully perform their jobs or make meaningful contributions Impostor Phenomenon Individuals at all levels and in all industries fail to acknowledge properly their own expertise and accomplishments Empowerment Process that provides greater autonomy to employees through the sharing of relevant information and the provision of control over factors affecting job performance Five Broad Approaches 1. Helping employees achieve job mastery (result in initial successes) 2. Allowing more control and holding them accountable 3. Providing successful role models (observe peers who already perform successfully on the job) 4. Using social reinforcement and persuasion (raise self-confidence) 5. Giving emotional support (reduction of stress and anxiety)

Participation The mental and emotional involvement of people in group situations that encourages them to contribute to group goals and share responsibility for them o Involvement meaningful involvement (ego-involved) Pseudoparticipation fake involvement or merely a faade o Motivation to Contribute more than getting consent for something that has already been decided; heightens sense of responsibility for goal attainment o Acceptance of Responsibility good organizational citizens Roethlisberger, Coch and French o Participation tends to improve performance and job satisfaction Spirit need for meaning and fulfillment at work Ethical Imperative highly nonparticipative jobs cause both psychological and physical harm to employees

The Participative Process

Impact on Managerial Power Leader-Member Exchange leaders and their followers develop a unique receiprocal relationship o In-group employees attaining favored status o Out-Group employees perceiving some unfairness in their treatment o Two views of Power and Influence Autocratic View Power Is a fixed amount Comes from the authority structure Participative View Power Is a variable amount Comes from people through both official and unofficial channels

Is applied by management Flows downward

Is applied by shared ideas and activities in a group Flows in all directions

Prerequisites for Participation 1. Adequate time to participate 2. Potential benefits greater than costs 3. Relevance to employees interests 4. Adequate employee abilities to deal with the subject 5. Mutual ability to communicate 6. No feeling of threat to either party 7. Restriction to the area of job freedom (area of discretion after all restraints have been applied Contingency Factors Emotional Intelligence combination of two personal abilities self-awareness and self-management and two social competencies social awareness and relationship management Underparticipation and Overparticipation Expectations for Employees o Be fully responsible of their actions and their consequences o Operate within the relevant organizational policies o Be contributing team members o Respect and seek to use the perspectives of others o Be dependable and ethical in their empowered actions o Demonstrate responsible self-leadership Expectations for Managers o Identifying the issues to be addressed o Specifying the level of involvement desired o Providing relevant information and training (in advance) o Allocating fair rewards Participative Management When a company uses either a very significant approach with widespread application or a sufficient number of programs to develop a substantial sense of empowerment among its employees Participative Programs Suggestion Programs formal plans to invite individual employees to recommend work improvements Quality Circles voluntary groups that receive training in process improvements and problem-solving skills and then meet to produce ideas for improving productivity and working conditions o Guidelines Use them for measurable, short-term problems Obtain continuous support from top management Apply the groups skills to problems within the circles work area Train supervisors in facilitation skills

View quality circles as one starting point for other more participative approaches to be used in the future Total Quality Management a formal program with direct participation of all employees Self-Managing Teams (Semi-Autonomous Work Groups or Sociotechnical Teams) natural work groups that are given a large degree of decision-making autonomy and are expected to control their own behavior and results Employee Ownership Plans employees provide the capita to purchase control of an existing operation

Forces Affecting The Greater Use of Participation Research Results Productivity-Improvement Pressures Utilization of Workforce Diversity Employee Desires for Meaning Employee Desires and Expectations Ethical Arguments

Forces Affecting the Lesser Use of Participation Theory X Beliefs by Manager Lack of Support from Higher Levels Managerial Fear of Lost: Power, Status and Control Lack of Adequate Training for Managers and Employees Problems Encountered in Early Stages Substantial Efforts Needed to Implement

Servant Leadership stewardship paradigm where the challenge is to help others attain relevant goals while developing their skills and abilities CHAPTER 9 Employee Attitudes and Their Effects Entitlement a belief that they deserve things because society (or the employer) owes it to them Attitudes feelings and beliefs that largely determined how employees would perceive their environment, commit themselves to intend actions, and ultimately behave Positive Affectivity optimistic, upbeat, cheerful, and courteous Negative Affectivity pessimistic, downbeat, irritable, and even abrasive Employee Attitudes Job Satisfaction o Set of favorable or unfavorable feelings and emotions with which employees view their work o Three Elements of Employee Attitudes

Feelings Objective Thought (belief) Behavioral Intention o Morale overall group satisfaction o Overall Attitude miss hidden exceptions as they asses the employees overall satisfaction o Job related attitudes predispose an employee to behave in certain ways o Multidimensional view is best for job satisfaction o Job satisfaction varies o Spillover Effect influence in both directions between job and life satisfaction o Some Related Elements of Life Satisfaction Life Family Leisure Politics Religion Job Involvement degree to which employees immerse themselves in their jobs, invest time and energy in them, and view work as a central part of their overall lives o Organizational Identification employees blend in so well and fit the organizations ethics and expectations that they experience a sense of oneness with the firm Organizational Commitment (employee loyalty) degree to which an employee identifies with the organization and wants to continue actively participating in it o Three Forms: Affective Commitment positive emotional state in which employees want to exert effort and choose to remain with the organization Normative Commitment stays because of strong cultural or familial ethics that drive them to do so Continuance Commitment stay because of their high investments in the organizational and the economic and social losses they would incur if they left Work Moods variable attitudes toward their jobs

Effects of Employee Attitudes Dissatisfied Employees May Engage In: o Psychological Withdrawal o Physical Withdrawal o Aggression o Retaliation Four Simplified Characterizations of Employee Responses o Albert Hirschman o Exit voluntary departure o Voice constructive criticism of disliked policies o Loyalty remaining in the organization but not being verbal about problems o Neglect passively destructive Performance-Satisfaction-Effort Loop o Devote its efforts to aiding and facilitating employee performance Other Effects

o Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (prosocial behavior) discretionary and helpful actions above and beyond the call of duty that promote the organizations success Reasons for Doing So: Personal Traits Special Recognition or Rewards Image-Enhancement Negative Behaviors Turnover when employees leave an organization during a given time period o Negative Effects in the Organization: Separation Costs Training Costs for New Employees Vacancy Costs Replacement Costs Morale Effects o May have some functional effects Absenteeism and Tardiness o Presenteeism employees come to work despite troublesome physical and emotional health conditions that substantially affect their work performance Theft unauthorized use or removal of company resources o Part of bending the rules Violence verbal or physical aggression at work Studying Job Satisfaction Job Satisfaction Survey procedure by which employees report their feelings toward their jobs and work environment Daily Contacts and Existing Data Survey Design and Follow Up

Types of Survey Questions Closed-End Questions presents a choice of answers in such a way that employees simply select and mark the answers that best represent their own feelings Open-End Questions seeks responses from the employees in their own words o Directed Questions focus employee attention on specific parts of the job and ask questions about those aspects (analysis of satisfaction in a specific job condition) o Undirected Questions asks for general comments about the job (topics that are currently troubling employees) Backbones of Any Effective Study Reliability capacity of a survey instrument to produce consistent results, regardless of who administers it or when someone responded to it Validity capacity to measure what they claim to measure Intranets in-house versions of the internet CHAPTER 11 Conflict, Power, and Organization Politics

Conflict interpersonal process that arises from disagreements over the goals to attain, the methods to be used to accomplish those goals, or even the tone of voice used as people express their positions Levels: o Intrapersonal Conflict o Interpersonal Conflict o Intergroup Conflict Sources: o Organizational Change o Different Sets of Values o Threats to Status o Contrasting Perceptions o Lack of Trust o Incivility o Difficult Tasks o Personality Clashes Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) high popular personality test used in a wide array of organizations (Carl Jung) o Thinking using rational logic o Feeling considering the impact on others o Judging rapidly solving ordered problems o Perceiving preferring spontaneity o Extroversion asserting themselves confidently o Introversion preferring to work alone o Sensing organizing details in a structured fashion o Intuition relying on subjective evidence and gut feelings Model of Conflict Four Outcomes: o Lose-Lose o Win-Lose o Lose-Win o Win-Win Conflict Outcomes product of participants intentions and their strategies o Fixed-Pie (Zero-Sum) Viewpoint you can only succeed at the expense of others o Different Strategies Avoiding physical or mental withdrawal (lose-lose) Smoothing accommodating the other partys interest (lose-win) Forcing power tactics to achieve a win (win-lose) Compromising searching for a middle ground (no clear outcome) Confronting facing the conflict directly and working it through to a mutually satisfactory level (win-win Relationship-Restoring Approaches (Goffman) o Signaling the Offense o Acknowledgement of Error o Acceptance o Appreciation

Assertiveness process of expressing feelings, asking for legitimate changes, and giving and receiving honest opinions Opposite of Aggressiveness (people may humiliate others) and Passiveness (elicit either pity or scorn from others and seldom have much positive impact) Stages o Describe the behavior o Express your feelings o Empathize o Offer problem-solving alternatives o Indicate consequences Interpersonal Facilitation capacity to focus on others personal needs, sensitivities, and idiosyncrasies, and then work to keep conflict under control and collaboration high among team members Stroking any act of recognition for another Positive Strokes feel good when they are received, and they contribute to the recipients sense of well-being and self-esteem Negative Strokes hurt physically or emotionally and make recipients feel less proud of themselves Mixed Strokes positive strokes + negative strokes Conditional Strokes offered to employees if they perform correctly or avoid problems Unconditional Strokes presented without any connection to behavior Power ability to influence other people and events Types: o Personal Power (referent power or charismatic power) comes from each leader individually and is the power to develop followers from the strength of their own personalities o Legitimate Power (position power or official power) comes from higher authority o Expert Power (authority of knowledge) comes from specialized learning o Reward Power capacity to control and administer items valued by another o Coercive Power capacity to punish another, or at least to create a perceived threat to do so Effects of Power Bases: o Resistance o Compliance o Commitment Organizational Politics intentional behaviors that are used to enhance or protect a persons influence and self-interest while also inspiring confidence and trust by others o Four Key Dimensions Socially Astute (accurately perceiving and understanding what is taking place in social interactions) Interpersonal Influence (adapting ones behaviors to most effectively elicit a desired response from others) Useful Networks (developing personal contracts into useful allies and supporters) Sincerity (exhibiting honest and authentic intentions in ones interactions with others such that they trust you)

o Tactics Used To Gain Political Power Social Exchange Alliances Identification with Higher Authority Doing Favors for Others Control of Information Selective Service Power and Status Symbols Power Plays Networks Posturing Impression Management ability to protect and enhance their self-image while intentionally affecting anothers assessment of them