The Reciprocating Pump Theory, Design, and Use - John E. Miller 2nd Edition

THE RECIPR CATIN
THEORY, DESIGN, ANO USE

Second Edition
PU P
John E. Mmer
White Rock Engineering, Inc. Dallas, Texas
KRIEGER PUBUSHING COMPANY MALABAR, FLORIDA 1995
Second Edition 1995 Printed and Published by KRIEGER PUBUSHING COMPANY
KRIEGER ORIVE
MALABAR, FLORIDA 32950 Copyright 1995 by Krieger Publishing Company Ali rights reserved. No par! of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including informa!ion storage and retrieval systems without permission in writing from the publisher. No liability is assumed with respecl lo the use of the iriformation contained herein. Printed in the United States of America.
FROM A DECLARATION OF PRINC!PLES JOINTLY ADOPTED BY ,A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION ANDA COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS: This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritalive information in regard to the subject matter covered. lt is sold with the understanding that !he publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional service. lf legal advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competen! professional person should be sought
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Pubiication Dala

Miller, John E. (John Evans), 1909-
The reciprocating pump : theory, design, and use / John E. Miller.-2nd ed. p. cm. lncludes index. ISBN 0-89464-599-4 (allc paper) L Reciprocating pumps. L Titie. TJ901.M55 1995 62L6'5-dc20
94-46260
CIP
!098765432
PRE
CE T
SEC NO EDITI N
In the four years following the First Edition, 'The Reciprocating Pump; Theory Design and Use' it became evident that the confsion between the Centrifuga! Pump and the Reciprocating Pump had greatly increased because of the increased interest in reciprocating pumps for highly technical applications and high to extremely high discharge pressures (l0,000 to !00,000 PSI) for such services as water purification by reverse osmosis, cutting and cleaning materials, food processing, etc. High discharge pressure requirements prompted a discussion of high-pressure pump design and the method of Autofrettage of pump liquid-ends in order to reduce corrosion-fatigue failures in high pressure use. Further experience with the use of multiple pump applications and how to these for mnimum cost is included. Additional experience in the complicated effects of suction requirements has led to a completely new approach to the problems. This Edition is dedicated to the memory of my loving Margaret, who away on April 16, 1991, after 56 years of companionship of the kind that gave me the encouragement to complete this book and who, with the ravages of Alzheimers, sat for hours with an autographed copy of the First Edition clasped to her breast.
JOHN
E.
MILLER
PREFACE
The intent of this book is to bring together rnost of the aspects of reciprocating purnps, keeping in rnind the requirernents of designers, rnanufacturers, and users. For rnany years there has been sorne confusion in the rnatter of the effects of liquid dynarnics (ftow variation and acceleration) on the performance of reciprocating purnps. One possible reason is the great difference between reciprocating and centrifuga! purnps; those dealing with the two types are usually not confronted with the sarne types of disturbances. Another reason is the neglect that reciprocating purnp theory has experienced in the midst of an increase in the problerns resulting frorn high-speed operation as the result of rnanufacturers' frequent speed upratings applied over the years dueto the pressure of cornpetition and econornics. Many subjects in this book are covered by rneans of discussion, allowing the reader to better understand the cause and effect. In rnany cases, examples of calculations and derivations are given to support the explanation. Aside frorn the casual interest associated with the past history of purnps, such history is sornetirnes used to draw attention to discarded ideas so that reinvention of the wheel will be avoided. (And they rnay stirnulate new ideas.) A rather new and wide application of reciprocating purnps is in the transportation of solids in the form of a liquid-rnixed slurry. This subject is covered in sorne detail. In order to provide a cornprehensive encyclopedia of reciprocating purnps, Chapters 13 and 14 contain many useful tables, charts, and conversions. After expressing appreciation to Oilwell Division of U.S. Steel Corp. for their sharing of knowledge to the industry, the author wishes to thank several experts and institutions in the field of purnping who have rnade valuable contributions, acknowledged throughout this text. Special thanks to Mike Rizzone, Bob Crane,

Viii
PREFACE
and my son Jim Miller, professional engineers, and my son Ben Miller. All are well experienced in the field of reciprocating pumps and have reviewed the manuscript and offered many worthy suggestions. My wife, Margaret, supplied the encouragement.
JOHN Dallas, Texas
E.
MILLER
NTENTS
1. PUMP TYPES
l.l l .2 1.3 l .4 1.5 Definitions I l Nomenclature and Definitions I 13 Double-Acting vs. Single-Acting Pumps / 23 Plunger vs. Piston Pumps I 33 Interna!. Gears / 34
2. DYNAMICS
2.1 2.2 2.3
36
2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2. 9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13
Introduction I 36 Standard Definitions / 36 Flow Variation I 37 Acceleration / 38 Derivation of Acceleration Pressure / 40 Derivation of Acceleration Pressure at Pump Inlet / 41 Critica! Suction Conditions I 42 Discharge Acceleration I 42 Hydraulic Flow and Pressure Waveforms / 44 Discussion of Ideal Waveforms I 44 Mean or Average Flow Rate I 46 Pump Displacement / 47 Graphics of Pump Performance / 51
SUCTION REQUIREMENTS
3.1. l 3.1.2 Introduction / 55 Analysis of Suction Requirements / 57
55
ix
CONTENTS
3.1.3 3.1.4 3.1.5 3.1.6 3. l. 7 3. 2 3.2. l 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6 3.2. 7 3.2.8 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.5 3.6 3. 7 3. 8 3.9 3.10
More on Suction Requirements / 58 Suction Requirement Factors / 63 Valve Leakage and Slip / 65 Typical Suction Pressure Waveforms / 67 Relation of Pressure Waves to Pump Cycle / 67 Performance Curves I 69 Method of Recording Actual Mechanical End-of-Stroke / 69 Performance-POSIVA and RPM / 69 Performance-Reduced Plunger Diameter / 72 Volumetric Efficiency Statistics / 72 Short vs. Long Suction Line / 73 Acceleration / 74 Computer Calculations / 75 Suction Stabilizer / 75 Testing Pumps for Suction Requirements / 80 Introduction / 80 TCP Required, (TCPR) ! 81 Procedure for Testing ! 82 The Myth of NPSH ! 82 Air and Gas Saturation of Liquids / 86 Dissolved Gas at Pump Inlet / 87 Notes Regarding TCP ! 88 Methods of Increasing TCP / 88 Cavitation / 89 Suction Systems / 89
4. PULSATION ANO SURGE CONTROL

4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.5 4.1.6 4.1. 7 4.1.8 4.1.9 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 Pulsation Types / 95 Type DV - Discharge-Velocity / 95 Type DO - Discharge-Valve Open / 100 Type DR101 - Discharge-Acceleration (P,ac) / 101 Type SV - Suction Velocity / 101 Type SA - Suction Acceleration / 101 Type SD - Suction Valve Opening (P,v0 ) I 101 Type VA - Vertical Acceleration / 10 l Type PS - Pulsation-Surge ! 101 (WH)-Water Hammer ! 102 Dampener Types / 103 Type G / 103 Type GCAE / 103 Type GUAE ! 104 Type GCDE ! 104 Type LNFA ! 104
95
CONTENTS
xi
4.2.6 4.2.7 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9
Type GFFE I l05 Type DCFR I 105 Reporting Degree of Pulsation / l 08 Discharge Dampening / 109 Gas-Type Dampener Sizing I l 11 Gas-Type Dampener Sizing Equations I 112 Derivation of K ! 114 PASAFE Pulsation Control Sizing / ll4 Multiple Dampeners I 117 Precharging Gas-Type Dampeners I l l 8 4.lO Vaporization or "Heated" Dampeners / 118 4.11 Manifolded Multiple Pumps (Phasing) I l l 9 4.12 The Suction Stabilizer / 120 4.13 4.14 The Discharge System I 120 Dampener Facts / 121 4.15 Dampener Performance 121 4.16 Acoustic Filters / 123 4.17 The Suction Stabilizer / 125 4.18 Surge Control in Water Systems I 127 4.19 4.19.l Methods of Surge Control in Water Systems / 131 4.19.2 Sizing of Surge Suppressors / l 35 4.19.3 Conclusion I 137 4.20 Sample Problem I 138
5. PUMP DESIGN
5.1 5.2 5.3 Rating Standards I 140 Family Planning I 142 Windows of Non-utilization I 143 5. 4 Piston Rod Load i 144 5.4. l Unusual Pressure in the Pump Cylinder / 145 5.5 Maximum Piston Diameter i 146 5.6 Stroke Length / 146 5.7 NumberofCylinders I 147 5.8 Speed I 147 5.9 Speed of Duplex and Similar Pumps 149 5.10 Speed of Multicylinder Pumps I 149 5. 11 Direction of Rotation I 150 5.11. l Rotation "Overrunning" / 150 5.11.2 Rofation "Underrunning" I 152 5.12 Offset Crankshaft I 152 5.13 Connecting Rod Forces / 153 5.13.1 Introduction I 153 5. 13. 2 Equations / 154 5.14 Crankshafl Bending Moments-Calculations I 159
140
XII
CONTENTS
5.15 5.16 5.17 5.17.1 5.17.2 5.17.3 5.18 5.18.1 5.18.2 5.18.3 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23
Crankshaft Bending Stress-Calculations I 161 Crossheads I 162 Bearings / 163 Roller Bearing B-10 Life I 164 Roller Bearing Average Life / 164 Journal Bearings / 165 Lubrication / 166 Pressure Lubrication / 166 Oil Cleaning I 167 Oil Temperature / 167 Volumetric Efficiency (Eq. 2.26) / 167 Mechanical Efficiency / 168 Intermittent Service I 169 Continuous Service / 170 Reciprocating Pumps with High Suction Pressure / 171
6. LIQUID ENDS
6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.3 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Typical Liquid-end Manifold Configurations / 172 S-N Curve I 172 The Goodman Diagram / 174 Stress I 176 Stress Reduction Methods I 177 Strain Bolts / 177 Autofrettage Procedure for Liquid Ends / 178 Shot Peening I 186 Coating and Plating / 186 Ultra-high Pressure Pump Design / 187 Abrasive Jet Cutting / 190 The Intensifier / 191
172
7. EXPENDABLE PARTS
7 .1 7.2 7 .2.1 7 .3 7.4 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.5 7. 5 .1 7.5.2 7.5.3 7.5.4 7.5.5 API Standards for Slush Pump Components / 193 Pump Liners / 206 Liner Development / 207 Pistons I 207 Plungers I 211 Metal-to-metal Plungers / 212 Ceramic Plunger Construction / 213 Packing / 215 Introduction and History / 215 Packing Types I 216 Split Packing Rings I 218 Spring Loaded Packing / 218 Segmenta! Metal Packing / 218
193
CONTENTS
xiii
7.5.6 7.5.7 7.5.8 7.5.9 7.5.10 7.5.11 7.5.12 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.10.1 7.10.2 7.10.3 7.10.4 7.10.5 7 .11 7.12 7.13 7.14
Multiple Material Assemblies / 219 Double Stack Height Seal Rings / 220 Spiral Packings / 220 FLAT-BAK Vee Ring I 222 Knitted Wire Mesh / 222 Packing "Dos" / 223 Packing "Don'ts" / 224 0-Rings / 225 Controlled-Compression Gaskets / 225 Basic Elastomers / 226 Elastomers in Carbon Dioxide / 227 Stuffing Box Brass or Trim / 228 Stuffing Box Wear / 228 Stuffing Box Design Criteria / 230 Gland Tightening (Screwed Gland) / 231 Packing Lubrication / 231 Lubrication by Lantern Ring / 232 Jacoby Leakage I 232 Glossary of Terms / 234 Guidelines for Material Selection / 236 Titanium as a Pump Material / 239
8. VALVES
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.6.1 8.6.2 8.6.3 8.6.4 8.6.5 8.6.6 8.6.7 8.6.8 8.6.9 8. 7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 Valve-Type Classification / 240 Pump Valves / 241 Valve Seats / 245 Valve Springs / 248 Valve Spring Design / 251 The Effect of Valve Design on Suction Requirements / 254 Determining Valve Efficiency / 255 Valve Tests / 256 Valve Combinations / 256 Velocity Through Valves I 256 Valve Through Area / 259 Required Valve Lift / 260 The Effect of Valve Weight / 260 Effect of Spring Load I 262 Summary / 262 Derivation of Val ve Velocity / 263 Unbalanced Valve Area I 264 Power-operated Valves / 265 Valves in Series / 266 Valves in Parallel / 266 Valve Flutter / 266
240
xiv
CONTENTS
8.13 8.14
Steady-State Flow Through Valves / 267 Valve Delay / 268
9. SLURRY PUMPING
9.1 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.2.5 9.2.6 9.2.7 9.2.8 9.2.9 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.5.1 9.5.2 9.5.3 9.6 9.7 9.7.1 9.7.2 9.7.3 9.7.4 9.7.5 9.8 9.8.1 9.8.2 9.8.3 9.8.4 9.8.5 9.8.6 9.8.7 9.8.8 9.8.9 9.8.10 9.8.11 9.8.12 9.9. 9.10 9.11 Slurry Properties / 270 Pumps for Slurry St>rvice / 271 Introduction / 271 Packing I 274 Plunger Flushing Methods / 276 Flushing Details / 278 Pistons I 280 Liners I 280 Piston Membrane Pumps / 280 Switch-Loop Pumping / 281 Other Methods / 281 Horizontal vs. Vertical Pumps for Slurry Service / 282 Suction Pressure for Slurry Puinps / 283 Coal Slurries / 284 Concentration of Solids l 284 Particle Size / 286 Concentration and Particle Size / 286 Valve Service for Slurry Pumping / 287 Slurry Erosion / 287 Introduction / 287 Slurry Wear Modes / 287 Effects of Wear / 289 Dry Abrasivity / 289 Conclusions / 289 Slurry Abrasion Testing / 293 Miller Number / 293 SAR Number (Slurry Abrasion Resistance) / 294 Test Equipment / 294 Procedure / 295 Calculation of Results / 295 Miller Number / 296 SAR Number / 296 A Miller Number System Overview I 297 Slurry Concentration, Particle Size, and Particle Shape / 299 Oil-Mixed Slurries / 300 Corrosion / 300 Corrosive Effect of Slurries / 301 The Gold Number for Low Abrasivity / 302 A Method for Locating a Plug in a Slurry Pipeline / 303 Black Mesa Pipeline / 304
270
CONTENTS
XV
9 .12 9 .13
Savage River Mines I 305 Slurry Tables I 305
PARTS WEAR AND LIFE

10. i 10.Ll 10. l.2 10.l.3 10.1.4 10.l.5 10.2 10.3 l0.3. l 10.3.2 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9
10. lO
316
The Mechanics of Wear in Pumps I 316 Introduction / 316 Wear Modes / 316 Effects of Wear I 320 Effect of Pump Stroke Reversa! Rate I 323 Piston Liner Clearance I 333 Phmgers I 333 Ceramic Plunger Pitting / 334 Causes I 335 Cures I 336 Theory of Ceramic Plunger Failure Mode I 336 Other Means of Reducing Wear Rate I 337 Slurry Abrasivity I 338 Examples of Parts Life in Hours I 338 Reducing DriHing Pump Parts Cost I 338 Danger of "Strainers" or "Filters" in the Suction Line I 340 Slurry Particle Size I 340
11. APPUCATIONS
1 Ll 11.Ll 11.1.2 l l. 1.3 11.l.4 11.2 ll.3 l l.3.1 11.3.2 11.3.3 11.3.4 11.3.5 11.3.6 11.4 11.5 11.5.l 11.5.2 11.5.3 11.5.4 11.5.5 11.5.6 Effect of Liquid Compressibility I 342 Pump Hook-up / 343 Charging or "Booster" Pump I 345 Pump Valve Unloading System I 345 Suction System Loops I 345 Hydraulics Institute Standards of Application I 347 The Dynamics of Liquid Piping Systems I 367 Where does Vibration Come From? I 368 How Does the Pulsation Couple into the Piping? 368 Cakulating Mechanical Natural Frequency / 369 Making the Application to Actual Piping / 37 l What About Generalized Finite-Element Analysis? I 372 Design Philosophy / 373 High Suction Pressure / 375 Sizing Pumps for Pipelines / 376 Pump Cost / 377 Expendable Parts Cost I 378 Methods of Cost Projection I 378 Standby Pumps I 379 Procedure for Pump Selection I 380 Stations I 381
342
xvi
CONTENTS
11. 5. 7 Calculations I 383 11.5.8 Study Results I 384 11.6 Bolt Tightening Specifications I 384
12. INSTRUMENTATION
12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 Pressure Measurement Methods I 387 Vibration Measurement I 389 Typical Waveforms I 389 Miscellaneous Waveforms (Oscillographs) I 390 Optical Phaser I 402 Positioning Strain Gages to Monitor Torsional Loads I 403 Damped Pressure Gauge I 405 Measuring Pressure Drop by Oscilloscope / 405
387
13. THEORY OF FLOW IN PIPE

13. l 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Index / 462
408
Introduction I 408 Physical Properties of Fluids / 409 Nature of Flow in Pipe-Laminar and Turbulent / 412 General Energy Equation-Bernoulli's Theorem / 414 Measurement of Pressure I 415 Darcy's Formula-General Equation for Flow of Fluids I 416 Flow Through Nozzles and Orfices I 419 Pressure Drop and Velocity in Piping Systems I 420 Pipe Line Flow Problems I 422 Flow Through Orfice Meters I 424 Reference Figures and Tables I 427 Summary of Formulas / 445 Nomenclature / 450 Symbols and Nomenclature-Conversion / 451 Subscripts I 459 Abbreviations / 460
1
PUMPTYPES
DEFINITIONS
RECIPROCATING PUMP. A mechanical device used to impart a pulsating, dynamic flow to a liquid and consisting of one or more single- or double-acting positivedisplacement elements (pistons or plungers). The elements in the liquid end are driven in a more or less harmonic motion by a rotating crank and connecting rod mechanism. The liquid flow generated by this reciprocating motion is directed from the pump inlet (suction) to the pump outlet (discharge) by the selective operation of self-acting check valves located at the inlet and outlet of each displacement element. HORIZONTAL PUMP. A pump in which the axial centerline ofthe cylinder, piston, piston rod, and CTO!'\Shead is horizontal. See Figure 1.1. VERTICAL PUMP.
A pump in which the axial centerline of the cylinder, plunger, extension rod, and crosshead is vertical. See Figures 1.2-1.3. This arrangement allows, in effect, a single-acting pump to perform like a double-acting, thereby eliminating the usual half-stroke period of no delivery. The delivery is divided into two reduced and equal flow rates per stroke, thereby permitting improved pulsation control with a dampener of smaller size. This is accomplished by making the ratio of diameters
SIMPLEX SINGLEDOUBLE-ACTING PUMP.
(1.1)
The uneven displacement generated by the piston rod of a conventional doubleacting pump is avoided. See Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.1. 1700 BHP duplex double-acting piston pump. (Courtesy Oilwell Division, U.S. Steel.)
Figure 1.2. Vertical triplex single-acting plunger pump. (Courtesy Worthington Pump Division, Dresser Industries.)
1.1
DEFINITIONS
Vertical triplex single-acting plunger pump. (Courtesy Wo1thington Pump Division, Dresser Industries.)
S!NGLE-ACTING PUMP.
A pump in which the liquid in each cylinder is discharged only during a head-end or crank-end stroke during one half of a revolution. See Figure 1.5.
DOUBLE-ACTING PUMP. A pump in which the liquid in each cylinder is discharged during both a head-end and a crank-end stroke during one full tevolution. See Figure 1.6.
ON
1
- + - - - - .....,_._
Simplex single-double-acting pump. (Courtesy American Spray Industries, American Power Equipment Co.)
.:.
Figure 1.5. Horizontal quintuplex single-acting plunger pump. (Courtesy Oilwell Division, U.S. Steel.)
Fabricated Steel Power Frame Double Extended Pinion Shaft Screw-Type Valve Covers
/
Hl-HARD Piston Rods Liner Retention Super Dl-HARD Liners Abrasion-Resistant Slurry-Type Pistons Roller Bearings Throughout
Figure 1.6. 1700 BHP duplex double-acting piston pump. (Courtesy Oilwell Division, U.S. Steel.) en
PUMPTYPES
Figure 1.7. 1700 BHP triplex single-acting piston pump. (Courtesy Oilwell Division, U.S. Steel.)
PISTON PUMP.
A pump in which the liquid is displaced by pistons. See Figure 1. 7. A pump in which the liquid is displaced by plungers. See Figures
PLUNGER PUMP.
1.8 and 1.9.
Figure 1.8. Horizontal single-acting plunger Pump. (Courtesy Worthington Pump Division, Dresser Industries)
Figure 1.9. Horizontal triplex single-acting plunger pump. (Courtesy Oilwell Division, U.S. Steel.)
....,
PUMPTYPES
1" to 2" Plunger by 2'h" Stroke Simplex
Figure 1.10. Simplex horizontal single-acting plunger pump. (Courtesy Kerr Machine Co. Ada, OK.)
SIMPLEX PUMP. A pump consisting of a single cylinder. Contains one piston or its equivalent, that is, a single- or double-acting piston. See Figure 1.10. DUPLEX PUMP. A
pump consisting of two cylinders. Contains two pistons or their equivalent, that is, single- or double-acting pistons. See Figures 1.1 and 1.6.
MUL TICYLINDER PUMP. A
pump consisting of three or more cylinders. Contains more than two pistons or their equivalent, that is, single- or double-acting. See Figures 1.11 and 1.12.
Figure 1.11. Horizontal triplex single-acting plunger pump. (Courtesy Oilwell Division, U.S. Steel.)
1.1
DEFINITIONS
Figure 1.12. Horizontal quintuplex single-acting plunger pump. (Courtesy Oilwell Division, U .S. Steel.)
ARTICULATED PUMP. A double-acting design attained by driving an opposed set of single-acting cylinders by means of articulated connecting rods that drive the opposed crossheads, giving the character of a single-acting pump in a doubleacting action. See Figure l. 13.
OPPOSED PUMP. A doubie-acting design attained by driving an opposed set of
single-acting cylinders by means of crankshaft-straddling connecting bars that drive the opposed crossheads, giving the character of a single-acting pump in a doubleacting action. See Figures 1.13 and 1.14. The membrane pump, (sometimes erroneously referred to as a "diaphragm" pump) differs from the diaphragm pump in that clean liquid displaced by a conventional piston pump is used in tum to ''pulse'' an isolated membrane of rather large diameter and of great placed in a chamber between the piston liquid end and the "dirty" or abrasive pumped liquid on the opposite side. See Figure l.15 and l.16.
MEMBRANE PUMP.
Figure 1.13. Horizontal triplex articulated piston pump. (Courtesy Worthington Pump Division, Dresser Industries.)
10
PUMP TYPES
Figure 1.14. 3200 BHP opposed triplex piston slurry pump. (Courtesy Worthington Pump Division, Dresser Industries.)
DIAPHRAGM PUMP. A single-acting or double acting reciprocating pump with the displacing piston being replaced with a fixed-edge flexible diaphragm being reciprocated by a piston-rod connected to the center of the diaphragm. This arrangement eliminates the actual wear and leakage path between a moving piston and the liner. Positive displacement is obtained by the alternating "pulses" of the diaphragm. These pumps were developed for low-pressure high-volume handling of abrasive liquids. See Figure l. !A. Neither the membrane nor the diaphragm pump will isolate the valves from the liquid being pumped. DUAL-DISC PUMP. Two tough rubber discs reciprocate in opposition to each other. A Iarge cavity is created between them at one end of the stroke, producing a positive suction and discharge sequence, resulting in a smooth positive pumping action. See Figure l .2A. HEAD END (HE) OF LIQUID END.
The end of the liquid end farthest from the crankshaft. Sometimes called the cylinder head end in horizontal pumps. The end of the liquid end closest to the crank-
CRANK END (CE) OF LIQUID END.
shaft.
HEAD-END STROKE.
Travel of the piston toward the head end. Travel of the piston toward the crankshaft.
CRANK-END STROKE.
UPPER OR OUTSIDE CROSSHEAD. An additional crosshead located outside the power end of the pump at the head end and usually driven by rods connected to the interna! crosshead. In such pumps the plunger travels toward the crankshaft on the delivery stroke. Most vertical pumps use this feature. The upper crosshead is
"' (;
O>
~"'
Cl >
-~~
11
DISCHARGE
1
VAL VE
FLEXIBLE DIAPHRAGM
RECIPRDCATING RDD VAL VE
SUCT ION
Figure l.lA Diaphragm pump
Figure l.2A Dual-disc pump (Courtesy MPL Pumps Limited, Victoria Road, Feltham Middlesex TW13 7DS)
1.2
NOMENCLATURE AND DEFINITIONS
13
,,,.----$>-
'
1 1
!_\__~~~~~~~~~~~~-~~~~~~
-------"--
Figure 1.16. Piston membrane pump, sectional, Hquid end. Wearing parts: (6) valve eones, (7) valve seats, (8) valve rubbers, (9) pump membranes. (Courtesy GEHO Pumps, Holthuis b.v., Venlo, Holland.)
noted for its ability to keep leaking liquid from entering the power end and tends to minimize plunger misalignment that can result from intemal crosshead misalignment.
OUTSIDE-PACKED. A term usually used
to refer to plunger pumps in which the displacement element (plunger) runs through a stuffing box extemally accessed.
1.2
NOMENCLATURE ANO DEFINITIONS
The text and illustrations of this section are taken from Hydraulic lnstitute Standards, 1983, by courtesy ofthe Hydraulic Institute. The Institute is an organization of pump manufacturers that has been in existence in the U nited States since 1917.
14
PUMP TYPES
It has been successful in setting up engineering standards for pumps of ali types
and continues to contribute to the industry through close association with most pump manufacturers.
Purpose The nomenclature and definitions in these Standards were prepared to provide a means for identifying the various pump components covered by these Standards and also to serve as a common language for all who <leal with this type of equipment. The following definitions and drawings illustrate typical construction of power pump components but do not necessarily represent recommended designs. Variations in design may exist without violating the intent of these Standards.
RIGHT ANO LEFT HAND SHAFT EXTENSION OF POWER PUMPS. "Right" or "left hand" designates the side of the power end from which the crankshaft or pinion shaft extends. (lt <loes not designate in which direction the shaft rotates). Horizontal Power Pumps are termed right hand or left hand as viewed when standing behind the power end with the liquid end being the most distant part. A left hand pump has the shaft extending out of the left side of the power end. A right hand pump has the shaft extending_ out of the right side of the power end. Vertical Power Pumps are termed right hand or left hand pumps as viewed when standing at and facing the suction manifold of the pump. A left hand pump has the shaft extending out of the left side of the power end. A right hand pump has the shaft extending out of the right side of the power end. LIQUID END.
That portion of the pump which handles the liquid. It consists of a liquid cylinder, valves, and other components.
LIQUID END PARTS

LIQUID CYLINDER.
A chamber(s) in which the motion ofthe plunger(s) or piston(s) is imparted to the liquid. The cylinder can be made integral with a suction and discharge manifold or can be made with separate manifolds. (See Figure 1.17.)
Figure 1.17. Liquid cylinder.
1.2 NOMENCLATURE ANO DEFINITIONS
15
Figure 1.18. Manifold.
CYUNDER UNER.
A replaceable liner which is placed in the cylinder of a piston The piston reciprocates within the liner. (See Figs. 1.36 and 1.37.)
MANIFOLDS.
A suction manifold is a chamber which accepts liquid from the suction port(s) and distributes it to the suction valves. (Fig. 1.18.) A discharge manifold is a chamber which accepts liquid from the individual discharge valves and directs it to the discharge port(s). {Fig. L 18.) A cover for the valves within the cylinder. (Fig. 1.37 .) A plate that contains the suction or discharge valves.
VALVE CHEST COVER.
VAi.VE PLATE (VAlVE DECK).
(Fig. 1.37.)
PISTON. A cylindrical body which is attachable to a rod and is capable of exerting pressure upon a liquid within the liquid cylinder. A piston usually has grooves for containing rings which seal against the cylinder or cylinder liner. A piston in a reciprocating pump is usually double-acting. The pistons in Figs. 1.19 and 1.20 have followers which retain the packing Other types of pistons are shown in Figures 1. 21-1. 23.
Figure 1.19. Piston assembly.
Figure 1.20. Bull and snap ring piston.
Figure 1.21. Cup type piston.
Figure 1.22. Slush piston.
16
1.2
NOMENCLATURE AND DEFINIT!ONS
17
Figure 1.23. Individual ring piston.
PLUNGER. A smooth rod which is attachable to a crosshead and is capable of expressure upon a liquid within the liquid cylinder. Sealing rings for a plunger are stationary, the plunger sliding within the rings. A plunger is normally single-acting, requiring a double-acting pump to have two plungers on each crosshead axis. (See Figure l STUFFING BOX. A cylindrical cavity through whch the plunger or piston rod reciprocates and in which liquid leakage is controlled by means of packing. (Fig.
1.25.)
A follower ring and throat bushing are used to guide the plunger or rod-as it reciprocates. The throat bushing and follower ring contain the packing within the stuffing box.
PACKING. A material used to provide a seal around the plunger, pston rod, or piston. (Fig. 1.26.)
GLAND. A part which retains the packing in the stuffing box. (Fig. 1.27.)
LAlllTERN RING (SEAL CA.GE). A ring located in the stuffing box to provide space for the introduction of a lubricant ora barrier liquid. (Fig. 1.28.) VAL.VE ASSEMBLY. Usually consists of a seat, valve, spring, and spring retainer. It allows liquid to enter and leave each pumping chamber of the cylinder. Each pumping chamber has one or more suction and discharge valve(s). (Figs. 1.29 to 1
Figure 1.24. Plunger.
Figure 1.25. Stuffing box.
Figure 1.26. Packing.
Figure 1.27. Gland.
Figure 1.28. Lantern ring.
18
Figure 1.29. Plate valve assembly.
Figure 1.30. Disc valve assembly.
Figure 1.32. Ball valve assembly.
19
20
PUMP TYPES
UPPER CROSSHEAD. U sed in vertical plunger pumps to transmit the reciprocating motion of the side rod to the plunger. (Fig. 1.33.)
uaum
ENDS. Figures 1.34-1.37 show the typical liquid end configurations for most types of reciprocating pumps, as described. POWER END.
That portion of the pump in which the rotating motion of the crankshaft is converted to a reciprocating motion through connecting rods and crossheads.
POWER END PARTS

POWER FRAME. That portion of the power end which contains the crankshaft, con-
necting rods, crosshead, and bearings used to transmit power and motion to the liquid end. It may consist of one or two pieces. If two, one upper and one lower half. (Fig. 1.38.)
CRANKSHAFT.
The stepped shafi which transmits power and motion to the connecting rods. Main bearings and connecting rods are fitted on this member. (Fig. 1.39.)
MAIN BEARING. The bearing which supports the crankshaft. Main crankshaft bearings may be sleeve or antifriction type, mounted at each end ofthe shaft or located elsewhere to provide proper support. These bearings absorb the liquid and inertia loads which are developed by the plunger as it displaces the liquid. (Figs. 1.40 and 1.41.)
CONNECTllllG ROD.
Articulates the motion of the crankshaft to the crosshead. Power is transmitted thru compression and/or tension. (Fig. 1.42.)
Figure 1.3;3. Upper crosshead.
1.2 NOMENCLATURE ANO DEFINITIONS
21
CRANKPIN BEARING. Transmits the oscillating reciprocating load transmitted by the connecting rod to the crankshaft. (Fig. 1.43.) POWER CROSSHEAD. Creates a linear reciprocating motion derived froi the crankpin rotary motion thru the connecting rod. The reciprocating motion of the crosshead is applied to the plunger or piston via the side rods or crosshead extension. (Fig. 1.44.) WRIST PIN.
Connects the connecting rod to the crosshead. (Fig. 1.45.)
WRIST PIN BEARING. Transmits the reciprocating load of the crosshead into the connecting rod. (Fig. 1.45.) CROSSHEAD EXTENSION (PLUNGER EXTENSION).
Connects the crosshead to the
plunger. (Fig. 1.46.)

FRAME EXTENSION. Connects the liquid end to the power frame when the liquid end is not bolted directly to the frame. A horizontal extension is sometimes called a cradle. (Fig. 1.47.) Diagrams ofpower ends are shown in Figures 1.48-1.50.
Figure 1.34. Liquid end, horizontal plunger power pump. Cylinder, Liquid Head, Liquid Cylinder Plunger Valve Assembly, Discharge Valve Assembly, Suction 309 Manifold, Suction 310 Box, Liquid Stuffing 311 Gland, Liquid Stuffing Box 312 Fing, Follower 314 Bushing, Throat 315 Packing 321 322 323 331 Deftector Ring, Lantem Cover, Valve Flange, Discharge Companion 332 Flange, Suction Companion
Figure 1.35. Liquid end, vertical plunger power pump. 301 Cylinder, Liquid 303 Plunger 306 Valve Assembly, Discharge 307 Valve Assembly, Suction
308 309 310 311
Manifold, Discharge Manifold, Suction Box, Liquid Stuffing Gland, Liquid Stuffing Box
312 314 315 316 324
Ring, Follower Bushing, Throat Packing Crosshead, Upper Ring, Gland
22
1.3
DOUBLE-ACTING VERSUS SINGLE-ACTING PUMPS
23
323
306
321
302
317
1.36. Liqud end, horizontal side pot piston pump. Cylinder, Liquid Head, Liquid Cylinder Piston, Liquid Rod, Liquid Piston Valve Assembly, Discharge
310 Box, Liquid Stuffing 311 Gland, Liquid Stuffing Box 313 Ring, Liquid Piston 315 Packing
317 Follower, Piston 321 Deflector 323 Cover, Valve 325 Liner, Cylinder
DOUBLEmACTING VERSUS SINGLEmACTING PUMPS
The design of the common double-acting piston pump (Fig. 1.6) is such that the piston-rod displacement reduces the theoreti.cal volumetric piston displacement on the crank-end stroke. The larger the piston-rod diameter, the greater the reduction. When a double-acting pump is uprated in pressure, it is necessary to increase the piston-rod diameter to provide the increased strength demanded by the increased pressure. If this process is continued to the extremes of high pressure, it can be seen that the piston rod becomes excessively large in dfameter, eventually approaching the diameter of the piston with complete loss of any liquid delivery from the crank-end stroke. The double-acting pump then becomes a duplex single-acting pump with about the greatest flow variation and pulsation that could be experienced. As shown in Chapter 5, Pump Design, the flow variation of a typical triplex single-acting pump has about one-half the flow variation of a typical duplex doupump. The single-acting multicylinder type was developed to obtain even greater improvement in fiow variation of reciprocat.ng pumps.
320
306
302 326 327 305 317
Figure 1.37. Liquid end, horizontal valve plate piston pump.
301 Cylinder, Liquid 302 Head, Liquid

Cylinder
311 Giand, Liquid 312 313 315 317 318

Stuffing Box Ring, Follower Ring, Liquid Piston Packing Follower, Piston Cover, Liquid Valve Chest
304 Piston, Liquid 305 Rod, Liquid Piston 306 Valve Assembly,
Discharge
319 320 325 326 327 333
Plate, Valve Plug Liner, Cylinder Nut, Piston Nut, Piston Jam Foot, Liquid Cylinder
307 Valve Assembly,

Suction
310 Box, Liquid Stuffing
Figure 1.38. Power frame.
24
Figure 1.39. Crankshaft.
SLEEVE BEARING
Figure 1.40. Sleeve bearing.
Figure 1.41. Roller bearing.
25
Figure 1.42. Connecting rod.
CRANK PIN BEARING

\ f
--1
Figure 1.43. Crank pin bearing.
Figure 1.44. Power pump crosshead.
26
PIN SEARING
Figure 1.45. Wrist pin bearing.
Figure 1.46. Crosshead extension.
Figure 1.47. Frame i:;xtension.

27
102 119 107
115
106
103
110
114
104
101
112
Figure 1.48. Power end, horizontal plunger power pump. 101 102 103 104 105 Frame, Power Crankshaft Rod, Cennecting Crosshead, Power Pin, Wrist
106 Bearing, Crankpin 107 Bearing, Main Crankshaft 109 Bearing, Wrist Pin 110 Extension, Crosshead
112 114 115 119
Cover, Crankcase Box, Wiper Breather Housing, Crankshaft Bearing
28
1.3 DOUBLE-ACTING VERSUS SINGLE-ACTING PUMPS
29
Frame, Power Crankshaft Rod, Connecting Crosshead, Power Pin, Wrist Bearing, Crankpin
107 Bearing, Main Crankshaft 109 Bearing, Wrist Pin 111 Extension Crankshaft 112 Cover, Crankcase
115 117 118 124
Breather Rod, Side W ay, Crosshead Cover, Crankshaft Extension
In selecting the type of pump for a given application, the features of each design 'must be considered. The single-acting pump offers: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Greater mechanical efficiency. No piston-rod displacement reduction. No wearing piston rod. Fewer valves and piston rubbers to replace. Possibility of conversion to plunger pump. Simpler piston or plunger connection to crosshead (Fig. 1.51). Lower dampener cost in view of lower ftow variation. Operation at greater speed than is possible with the double-acting pump. Ease of liquid-end servicing.
30
PUMP TYPES
Figure 1.50. Power end, horizontal duplex power pump with integral gears.
101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Frame, Power Crankshaft Rod, Connecting Crosshead, Power Pin, Wrist Bearing, Crankpin Bearing, Main Crankshaft
108 109 112 113 114 115
Bearing, Pinion Shaft Bearing, Wrist Pin Cover, Crankcase Cover, Cradle Box, Wiper Breather
119 Housing, Bearing 120 121 122 126

Crankshaft Pinion Shaft Pinion Gear Housing, Bearing, Pinion Shaft
Sorne advantages of a double-acting purnp, on the other hand, are:

l. Pistons can be of srnaller diarneter.
2. Sorne operators have clairned that because the liner is cooled by the purnped liquid on both sides of the piston, there rnay be less piston and liner wear.
1.3 DOUBLE-ACTING VERSUS SINGLE-ACTING PUMPS
31
Catastrophic failure of a piston does not flood the cradle with liquid that might enter into the power end. :gure 1.51 compares other features of the single-acting vs. the double-acting mp. ble 1.3 tabulates certain pump parameters as related to pump power, such data ing been taken from a current manufacturers catalog. Note that the most sigcant factor is the inherent greater weight-per-horsepower of the Duplex Dou-acting type, partly contributed by the longer stroke.
e
A
(a)
11 11
11
11
Liner
e
Extension rod Crosshead
11
(b)
Features of (a) double-acting versus (b) single-acting pumps.

(a) Double-Acting (b) Single-Acting
Two taper-thread connections requiring high-torque tightening (and loosening). Long piston rod subject to high reversing stress and column loading. Taper piston fit requires high-pressure pulling tool. Stuffing box and packing required. Piston rod and packing subject to wear. Sensitive to misalignment.
Two flanged and clamped connections. Cap screw fastening with hand tools. Short nonwearing piston rod with one-half stress range. All loads in compression only. Straight piston fit for easy removal. No rod or packing wear. More tolerant to crosshead or other rod misalignment or inherent lateral rod motion.
(a)
TABLE 1.3 Pump Parameters Related to Pump Power
Triplex BHP
Stroke
DIA
GPM
RPM
PSI
WT, LB
PRL
LB/HP
GPM/HP RPM/HP PSl/HP PRL/HP
1700 1400 1100 850

600
400 300 200 100
12 JO JO 9 8 8 8 6 4
7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7 7 4.25 4.25 4
J033 861 861 826 700 700 332 354 294
150 150 150 160 175 175 225 320 450
2540 2540 1992 1584 1325 882 14JO 881 525
41997 413JO 38839 36469 19600 18090 8300 3952 2300
112214 112214 88004 69979 50992 33943 20003 12498 6597
25 30 35 43 33 45 28 20 23
0.6 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.8

1.1
1.8 2.9
0.09 0.11 0.14 0.19 0.29 0.44 0.75 1.60 4.50
1.5 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.2 4.7 4.4 5.3
66 80 80 82 85 85 67 62 66
Duplex
1700 1400 JOOO
18 18 18
7 7
7.75
683 683 870
65 65 65
3640 3000 1675
68311 64000 47690
140084 115454 79015
40 46 48
0.6 0.6 0.8
0.09
O.JI
1.5
0.14
1.8 1.8
82 82 79
1.4
PLU~JGER
VERSUS PISTON PUMPS
33
PISTON
t:;A;.,-.. ... w
importance is the often overlooked fact that the packing action of an ne-mu..:r._cu single-acting plunger pump is opposite to that of ""'U'~"-'" all multicylinder single-acting piston pumps. purpose of packing is to close up the clearance gap between the ger and its associated in the box or between the piston and its box With ordinary packing r between the piston rod and its using a material with considerable """"'""' ~ e mechanics of all packing are such that uoi~a1uno:s~ the pressure acts to force that member the clearance j\ccordingly, all sealing and subsequent wear or extrusion take place at a 1 comer or "heel" of that packing member. a pump 1.52) (with both and piston-rod packing), the rod is traveling on its pressure stroke, the tends to be dragged friction into the dearance gap, thus that force ~-'Y"'~~ ""'~'~'- and creating excessive extrusion (destmction). When the plunger ,_,-,~'""''" pump (Fig. l is traveling through the hydraulically loaded tends to counteract the effect of the friction generated by the .raulic pressure and reduce the tendency for extmsion. Thus the single-acting pis inherently a ' ' pump. is extremely in service. It can ubrication of that only with the single-acting plunger pump can a lubricant be applied plunger as it is entering the pressure-loaded when lubrication is needed. (See Figures 1.52 and 1 Any attempt to lubricate a piston or
1
LUBRICATION
PISTON ROD TRAVEL
HEEL (extruded)
DOUBLE ACTING PISTON PUMP ON PRESSURE STROKE Note travel-of-piston and rod drag is reinforcing tendency lar pressure to extrude pack1r.g into clearance.
rPintrirr.in"
pump packing action on pressure stroke. Note traveltendency for pressure to extrude into clear-
34
PUMP TYPES
LUBRICATION
ffi
HYDRAULIC
.__--llll~::~ ~ PRESSURE
..
SINGLE ACTING PLUNGER PUMP ON PRESSURE STROKE.
Figure 1.53. Single-acting plunger pump packing action on pressure stroke. Note travelof-plunger drag is counteracting tendency for pressure to extrude packing into clearance (clearance exaggerated).
piston rod is not effective because the lubricated parts move into the packing on the unloaded suction stroke. Because of the typical packing mechanics, a plunger pump is not <;>rdinarily as satisfactory as a piston pump for pumping abrasive liquids. Since the packing is relaxed on the suction stroke of a plunger pump, the "dirty" plunger can readily load the packing with abrasive particles; the packing subsequently acts asan efficient lapping tool to wear the plunger. But this problem can be overcome by adequate flushing of the internal packing with clean liquid, even to the exterit that a flushed plunger pump is more desirable for pumping abrasive liquids than a piston pump if the dilution from flushing can be tolerated. For a discussion on plunger packing flushing, see Chapter 9, Slurry Pumping, Section 9.2.4.
1.5 INTERNAL GEARS

Because manufacturers have incorporated an internal gear reduction as part of the power end of sorne of their pumps, a general discussion of the application of pump drive connections is in order. In Chapter 5 a discussion on pump speed will show that there are physical and practica! limitations to the speed at which a reciprocating pump can be operated. Most prime-mover speeds are much greater than those of typical large reciprocating pumps. There must always be a speed-reducing device between the pump and the prime mover. These permanent speed-reducing devices are usually single or double reduction gear sets, pulleys and belts, or sprockets and chains. The larger pumps with their inherent lower speed require a greater speed reduction. Therefore, sorne pumps above 100 BHP incorporate partial speed reduction by the installation of a main or "bull" gear on the crankshaft anda pinion
1.5
INTERNAL GEARS
35
gear on an integral input shaft, with a reduction of about 5 to l. For example, oil well drilling mud pumps of 500-1700 BHP (Figs. 1.1 and 1 have intemal gears and operate at up to 125 RPM, being driven by internal combustion engines or electric motors of 900-1200 RPM. A belt or chain drive from the rig to the pump then requires a ratio of only 3 to l instead of 15 to 1 if the pump has no intemal reduction. Because drilling rigs must be capable of being moved from one site to another, partial reduction is most suitable, because a chain or belt extemal drive is readily dismantled and reassembled and is tolerant of sorne misalignment. For permanent installations, a single external reduction gear can be used. The overaU cost of the extemal gear reducer is about 60% of the internal-external reduction arOne of the most important reasons for omitting the gear from the interior of the power end is the oppmtunity to elirninate an oil-bath type of lubrication with its propensity to pick up abrasive or corrosive debris from the bottom of the crankcase and direct it to the running parts, A "dry sump" can be used that will allow all circulating oil to be cleaned and filtered before it is recirculated to the running
2
DYNAMICS
2.1
INTRODUCTION
The positive displacement pump generates very specific dynamic liquid ftow and pressure conditions, but the response of the system to the pump dynamics is a result of the system operating conditions and specific piping arrangements. There are three steady-state pressure conditions that affect system liquid dynamic responses: friction-generated pressure from the average liquid ftow, vertical head from a column of liquid, and pressure applied by a gas blanket. There are also three sources of dynamic pressure disturbances generated by the positive displacement pump: frictional pressure drop, acceleration from the liquid flow variation of the pump, and low-amplitude waterhammer-type pressure disturbances that occur each time a pump valve opens or doses. System response dynamics will be discussed in Chapter 4, Pulsation and Surge Control.
2.2
inlet.
STANDARD DEFINITIONS
The entire piping system that connects the liquid supply to the pump
SUCTION.
INLET. The actual connecting point ofthe suction to the pump, usually in the form of a ftanged, screwed, clamped, or welded joint on a manifold that connects all cylinder inlet valves to a common point. DISCHARGE.
The entire piping system that connects the liquid delivery to the pump
outlet.
36
2.3 FLOW VARIATION
37
TLET. The actual connecting point of the discharge to the pump, usually in the nn of a flanged, screwed, clamped, or welded joint that connects all cylinder tlet valves to a common point.
FLOW VARIATION
eciprocating pumps exhibit certain typical flow variations in the discharge (outt) and suction (inlet) caused by the rotary motion of the power end driving the placement elements (pistons and plungers). This is demonstrated by the geetry in Figure 2.1. The formulas for instantaneous velocity are:
Vp(ft/s) 0 = 0.042sw[sin () + (s/4Lc) sin
W]
(2.1)
= =
27rN /60
(2.2) (2.3) (2.4)
Vs (ft/s)o Vd (ft/s)o
: vp Vs ~
Vpi : vp Vd -i
vi
e general Equations for Velocity and Velocity Pressure in pipes are;
V = 0.4085 x GPM vi
Pv
~~~~~~
(2.5) (2.6)
0.0001137 x (GPM)i/D4
.e Symbol Notation in Appendix.

Stroke s, in pipe sze, m
270
Pisten diameter, in Head end
lnlet connection pipe size, in
Figure 2.1. Pump geometry.
38
DYNAMICS
where
. . 2 AP = area o f p1ston, m Ad = area of discharge pipe, in2 As = area of suction pipe, in 2
= piston velocity, ft/s

Vd
Vs = suction {Jiquid) velocity ft/s = discharge (liquid) velocity, ft/s E = summation (algebraic) of individual cylinder functions
The type of pump is responsible for large differences in the shape of the ftow pauem (Fig. 2.2). This shape depends on both the ratio of connecting rod length Le to crank radius r and the loss of displacement on the piston rod end (crank end) of a double-acting pump. Conventional pump design is such that the arrangement and number of cylinders generate different maximum and minimum ftow rates. The flow rates are expressed as a percentage of the average as shown in Figure 2. 3, which illustrates one typical pump geometry with specific Le/ r ratio. For instance, a triplex single-acting pump has six points of maximum flow rate per revolution. These points are duplicated in both the discharge and the suction of a pump. Because frictional pressure drop in a pipeline is a function of the square of the velocity, these flow variations will be converted into pressure variations (pulsation) following the same shape as the flow pattern.
2.4
ACCElERATION
In reciprocating pumps, again because of the typical harmonic motion, the liquid entering and leaving each pump cylinder experiences a "start-and-stop" flow with velocities ranging from zero at the beginning and end of a stroke to a maximum at midstroke. The velocity variation and its contribution to the instantaneous value of acceleration is determined by the following:
(2.7)
The accelerations of the liquid at the suction and discharge connections are the result of the cylinder-generated acceleration and are cakulated by
as (ftlsz)o =
ad
: aP Dsz
Dp2 Dp2
(2.8)
(ft/s 2)e
2.: r Dd 2
(2.9)
2.4 ACCELERATION
39
Single-acting
Double-acting
360
re 2.2. Reciprocating pump mechanisms. CE = Crank end; HE = Head (cylinder) ; RH, LH = Right hand and left hand of opposed-cylinder pumps.
liquid, having mass, is subject to Newton's law of and acceleration converted to pressure according to the basic formula Force = mass X acceler-
P",(PSl) 8
0.0069Lpas 0.0069Lpa,
(2. l 1) (2.12)
P.;(PSl)a
0.0069 is a constant used to convert to PSI units.
40
DYNAMICS
Duplex double-acting
Maximum Minimum Total
+243 -223 463
Triplex single-acting
Maximum Minimum Total
+ 63 -173 233
Quintuplex Singel Maximum Minimum Total
+23 -5%
73
Septuplex singleacting Maximurn Minimum Total
+l.2% -2.63 3.83
Figure 2.3. Flow variations for multicylinder pumps.
2.5
DERIVATION OF ACCELERATiON PRESSURE
Newton's second law of rnotion is the basis of the calculation of pressure due to acceleration. The acceleration of a body (of liquid) is directly proportional to the resulting force acting upon it and is inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
2.6
DERIVATION OF ACCELERATION PRESSURE AT PUMP INLET
41
The proportionality factor K is made unity by choosing a proper unit of mass, the slug.
a= KF/m
Set K
(2.13)
1; then m
anda Where slug
= =
= =
Fla slugs
lb1/slug
(2.14) (2.15) (2.16) (2.17)
(lb/ft3)/g
lb s2 /ft4
The weight of a slug on earth is about 32.17 lb. Density p is expressed in slugs per cubic foot. p
1.94 for water.
2.6 DERIVATION OF ACCELERATION PRESSURE AT PUMP INLET

Basic premise: Pressure is due to acceleration; F
=
ma, or
(2.18) (2.19)
P,
0.0069aLp
for one cylinder
Pa,
0.0132aL
(2.20)
Transforming Pac into commonly used pump terms, we have Pac where C,
=
=
CLNQS! D 2 0.0132 d 2/NQS
(2.21) (2.22)
To derive C 1 set (2.13) equal to (2.12) and solve for C;;

C 1,LNQS d2 = 0.0132aL
so
C2
0.0132a.d 2 NQS
ubstitute the value for maximum acceleration (a) as computed for, for example, triplex single-acting pump; use that pipe diameter (d); and solve for C: C,
=
0.132
38.7
3.8262 /150
147
0.000339
r any type of triplex single-acting pump.
42
DYNAMICS
Solve for C 1 for all other pump types in the same manner. See Table 2.1. Wright equation for Suction Accelleration Head in feet (2.23)
TABLE 2.1. Constant C1
Pump Simplex DA Duplex SA Duplex DA Quadruplex DA Triplex DA
e
0.001660 0.001032 0.000624 0.000434 0.000338
Pump Triplex SA Sextuplex Quintuplex SA Septuplex SA Nonuplex SA
e
0.000339 0.000237 0.000190 0.000146 0.000107
DA = double-acting; SA = single-acting.
TABLE 2.2. Constant C2
Pump Type Simplex DA Duplex SA Duplex DA Quadruplex DA Triplex DA
C2 0.200 0.115 0.066
Pump Type Triplex SA Sextuplex SA Quintuplex SA Septuplex SA Nonuplex SA
C2 0.066 0.055 0.040 0.028 0.022
2. 7
CRITICAL SUCTION CONDITIONS
Two conditions in the suction system of a reciprocating pump that affect pump performance are (1) the pressure drop between the source and the pump due to frictional loss of liquid flow velocity and (2) the instantaneous pressure, which must always be of such magnitude as to accelerate the mass of liquid in the suction pipe at that instant. In both cases, the pressure reduction created at the pump inlet may vaporize the liquid and cause cavitation in the cylinder. Of these conditions, acceleration problems in the suction are by far the most severe.
2.8
DISCHARGE ACCELERATION
Acceleration can occasionally contribute to problems in the discharge of the pump. Reciprocating pumps of ordinary design, with their distinctive discharge flow characteristics, can generate pressures due to the variations of flow that vary linearly with pump speed. But the acceleration of the liquid at the beginning of each increase in flow rate generates a pressure proportional to the square of the pump
2.8
DISCHARGE ACCELERATION
43
Accordingly, acceleration effects from high pump speed can be the greatest of unsatisfactory performance in the discharge. In typical hydraulic systems, where the discharge pressure is generated by such pump(s), and is the result of friction losses from a rather long pipeline or through some sort of restriction, the hydraulic pressure variations (pulsations) dueto ftow are far greater than those generated by acceleration. However, when the discharge pressure is generated by a direct vertical head or other system with very small friction losses, the acceleration pressure variations can become predominant. For example, Figure 2.4(a) shows a pump forcing water out of a mine shaft at ' depth of 2000 ft through a vertical pipeline that has a fridion loss of only 1 PSI ,. r 1000 ft. This would result in a discharge pressure of 2000 X .43 + 2, or 862 SI. lfthis same line were laid horizontally, as in Figure 2.4(b) it would have to e 163 mi long to show a similar pressure. lt is obvious that the two systems resent completely different conditions to the pump. Also considera pump feeding
~ause
~peed.
~(ir\
2000 ft water = 860 PSI head + 2 PSI due to friction
~--~ Total pressure at pump = 862 P 1
(b)
163 mi; Friction .
= 1 PSl/1000 ft = 862 PSI
~ 1 0001~~~~~~~~\, . Total pressure at pump = 862 PSI 1 ,\\

(a)
Short connecting pipe
000
Total pressure at pump = 862 PSI

(e)
Pressurized system 860 PSI
ure 2.4. Dynamic differences in pump discharge systems. (a) Vertical discharge. (b) orizontal discharge. (e) Pressurized systems.
44
DYNAMICS
an existing pressurized pipeline with a short, low-friction connecting line, as shown in Figure 2.4(c). Sorne of these applications may exhibit discharge pressure pulses of the waterhammer type due to acceleration as discussed, with amplitudes far in excess of those normally generated by ftow variation. Experience shows that these highfrequency pulses cannot be attenuated by the use of conventional gas-bladder devices simply because such devices cannot react quickly enough to absorb much of the pulse. See Chapter 4, Pulsation and Surge Control. Since such acceleration disturbances are related to high pump speed (to the second power), unexpected problems from these excessive disturbances in verticallift applications could certainly be minimized by limiting the pump speed.
2.9 HVDRAULIC FLOW ANO PRESSURE WAVEFORMS

A centrifuga! pump differs profoundly from a reciprocating pump in that it always has hydraulic communication between the suction and the discharge so that dynamic disturbances in the suction can greatly affect the discharge and vice versa. The discontinuity and isolation between the suction and discharge hydraulics of a reciprocating pump are the result of the valve action. A suction valve cannot begin to admit liquid until the discharge valve has completely closed and the cylinder pressure drops to below the liquid suction pressure minus the spring loading of the valve. Because of this discontinuity, suction deviations can be studied apart from the discharge deviations, or vice versa. The basic hydraulic pressure variation from the positive-displacement pump is generated by the varying velocity resulting from the mechanical geometry of the pump. As angular momentum of the pump's crank (Fig. 2.1) is translated into a sliding linear motion, a varying velocity or instantaneous ftow rate is generated based on the mechanical design of the pump (Fig. 2.2). A graphical presentation of one revolution of several pump types is presented in Figure 2. 3 to demonstrate how the instantaneous discharge velocity or ftow rate varies with pump type. As the number of pump cylinders is increased, the range of instantaneous velocity or ftow rate decreases. The ways in which hydraulics and pressures affect system and pump performance will be discussed in Chapter 4.
2.10
DISCUSSION OF IDEAL WAVEFORMS
Before beginning a discussion on pump generated waveforms, the three distinctly different discharge systems encountered in practice, namely those shown in Figure 2.4, should be considered. a. A long horizontal pipeline, about one mile or longer, where the principal pressure generated by the pump is due to the frictional liquid ftow losses in' the pipe.
2.10
OISCUSSION OF IDEAL WAVEFORMS
b. A vertical discharge pipe with very little frictional loss but with enormous acceleration disturbances resulting from the forces to accelerate the slug of in the column. c. A short low-resistance line connecting an already pressurized such to a pipeline. Unless other pulsations are present in the this anangement produces the least amount of disturbance. n each of these cases, one should consider the unpredictable acoustic disturbances that may exist in sections of tuned to a harmonic of the basc pump-M.~r~"""1 frequencies. 2.5 is the waveform of a triplex single-acting pump for one revolution . .The upper chart shows the instantaneous flow at various of crankshaft
Discharge flow rate
t\
\ \ \ \
'
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Crank a11gle, degrees
Figure 2.5. Ideal
44
DYNAMICS
an pressurzed pipeline with a short, low-friction connecting line, as shown in Figure 2.4(c). Sorne of these applications may exhibit discharge pressure pulses of the waterhammer type due to acceleration as discussed, with amplitudes far in excess of those nonnally generated by fl.ow variation. Experience shows that these highpulses cannot be attenuated by the use of conventional gas-bladder debecause such devices cannot react quickly enough to absorb much of See Chapter 4, Pulsation and Surge Control. Since such acceleration disturbances are related to high pump speed (to the second power), unexpected problems from these excessive disturbances in verticallift applications could certainly be minirnized by limiting the pump speed.
HYDRAUUC FLOW ANO PRESSURE WAVEFORMS

A centrifuga! pump differs profoundly from a reciprocating pump in that it always has hydraulic communication between the suction and the discharge so that dynamic disturbances in the suction can greatly affect the discharge and vice versa. The discontinuity and isolation between the suction and discharge hydraulics of a reciprocating pump are the result ofthe valve action. A suction valve cannot begin to admit liquid until the discharge valve has completely closed and the cylinder pressure drops to below the liquid suction pressure minus the spring loading of the valve. Because of this discontinuity, suction deviations can be studied apart from the discharge deviations, or vice versa. The basic hydraulic pressure variation from the positive-displacement pump is generated by the varying velocity resulting from the mechanical geometry of the pump. As angular momentum of the pump's crank (Fig. 2.1) is translated into a sliding linear motion, a varying velocity or instantaneous ftow rate is generated based on the mechanical design of the pump (Fig. 2.2). A graphical presentation of one revolution of several pump types is presented in Figure 2.3 to demonstrate how the instantaneous discharge velocity or flow rate varies with pump type. As the number of pump cylinders is increased, the range of instantaneous velocity or flow rate decreases. The ways in which hydraulics and pressures affect system and pump performance will be discussed in Chapter 4.
2.10
Before beginning a discussion on pump generated waveforms, the three distinctly different discharge systems encountered in practice, namely those shown in Figure 2.4, should be considered. a. A long horizontal pipeline, about one mile or longer, where the principal pressure generated by the pump is due to the frictional liquid flow losses in the pipe.
2.10
b. A purely vertical discharge pipe with ver little frictional loss but with enormous acceleration disturbances resulting from the forces to accelerate the slug of liquid in the column. such c. A short low-resistance line connecting an to a pipeline. Unless other are in the ~,,,.,~,,.y,,,. produces the least amount of disturbance. In each of these cases, one should consider the unpredictable acoustic disturbthat may exist in sections of pipe tuned to a harmonic of the basic pump----~~n" frequencies. 2.5 is the wavefonn of a triplex pump for one revolution. upper chart shows the instantaneous flow at valious degrees of crankshaft
Discha rge flow rate
175
165 Ave
137
/ '
A
?""" !"-
-~~
/"""1'
......
\/
!
One cylinder /
/
I I !
I I
\ 1/ ~\
\ \
'
,.,.
\ \
t
Suction flow rate - Sarne purnp
The discontinuity
i
137
\ \
'
I I
\
'
1
\ \ \
'
\
o
\\
J
I I __ L__
1
'
1
J
\
'-
J\ u ~ J \ "
V
,,,., 1 "-
!.r
30
60
90
120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Crank angle, degrees
Figure 2.5, Ideal
single-acting pump.
46
DYNAMICS
rotation. Note how the three single-cylinder displacements add to generate a typical six-node flow curve. Almost an exact mirror image of the discharge flow rate is seen in the suction system of that pump (see lower chart). The typical ftow pattem, shown in Figure 2.5, will generate a pressure _"pattem" of the same shape but of an intensity proportional to the frictional pipe or stricture presented to the pump. Experience has shown that a nondampened discharge system whose discharge pressure is the result of frictional drop due to liquid velocity will experience pressure variations of approximately double the ftow variation of the pump times the average operating pressure. This pressure variation can be explained by the steadystate equation for frictional pressure drop in a pipeline where the. pressure differential is a constant times the square of the velocity. A reciprocating pump discharging through a short frictionless pipe generates no "flow-induced" pressure pulses. Figure 2.6 shows another source of pressure generation dueto the acceleration of the liquid as it moves through the system at varying velocity. At each change in velocity of flow an acceleration pressure will arise, and this pressure component must be added to the existing flow-induced pressure, drastically modifying the resultant waveform. This is shown in the upper chart of Figure 2.6. The lower chart of Figure 2.6 also shows that the pressure waveform in the suction is almost completely controlled by the intensity of the acceleration pressure. All reciprocating pumps exhibit this difference in performance. Pump systems that have a substantial discharge pressure due to the acceleration of gravity on a vertical column or vertical lift will experience !1 amplification effect on the liquid acceleration pressure component. Acceleration pressures are neutral from a steady-state standpoint-they only cause pressure ftuctuation and do not contribute to discharge pressure Fig. 2. 7. Figure 2.8 shows the discharge pressure as affected by the valve operation delay inherent in reciprocating pumps. Figure 2.9 shows the nonuniformity of ftow rate in a duplex double-acting pump. It is obvious that the pres~ure waveforms observed in real pumps present a myriad of shapes that must be objectively analyzed ..
2.11
MEAN OR AVERAGE FLOW-RATE
Referring to Figure 2.5 one may ask "What factors tell one to place the mean flow-rate at only about six percent below the peak flow, from 175 to 165 GPM, but about 16 percent above the mnimum ftow-rate of 137 GPM?'' Such a decision need not be made-the average or mean delivery rate of 165 GPM has already been exactly determined by the pump displacement per time, or an amount controlled by the pump piston diameter, stroke length, number of active cylinders and speed in RPM. Around this basic ftow-rate of 165 GPM the dynamic geometry of the pump generates the typical instantaneous ftow-rate related modified sine wave expected for that pump.
2.12
PUMP DISPLACEMENT
47
These departures above and below the average ftow-rate become less in value and of different relation to each other as the number of active cylinders are increased. See Table 2.3
PUMP DISPLACEMENT
The actual rate of volume output of a reciprocating pump, Q", is called Displacement and is described as the rate-of-flow in US Gallons per minute. A
Discharge: Resulting pulsation, 513

1
1195
i Q..
Ave 1028
V,
,I
I
\,
\
11,...., :-.., / / ,.
\, ~
1 \
~,
/.
/'
V
/
.i::"'
"' . ...... """' ro:::;

u
V>
i5 5.
"'"'
Normal "floJ" pressure
~ II
.....
~' 7' 1\
Plus "acceleration" pressure
'
669
'
oc..
''
~,
'\
<:
\
o
'\
\
1
, ,,
'\
i\1
'
\
\
',\
~ ~
u O> "'"' u ... ..; a.
~~
Acceleration
1
''
'\
~,
'' '
'
''
'
The discontinuity Suction: Same pump ("Abs O" not applicable to lower trace)
45
C Q..
-
Static
IJ)
ge a.
e:; o if -
"'
35 25
/ // V
/ / V !/ /
j
~J
Lf
V
,,
"Acceleration" ma jor ettect
e:;
~e -"'"' "' "'<Jl u"' u ....
oO..
Abs
t
_,/
//
/
".
30
J/1
/
I
I"
,/'
//
.,,i'
//
,,,,/
/
[/
/
/
< a.
60
90
120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Crank Angel, Degrees
2.6. Ideal waveform-triplex single-acting pump. Effects of acceleration on suction and discharge.
48
DYNAMICS
cating pump seldom delivers one hundred percent of the theoretical displacement volume of the swept stroke length, due to slip through the valves and to decompression of the liquid remaining in the cylinder at the end of the delivery stroke (Clearance Volume 1). Accordingly, Q0 must be determined by test or actual measurement of the liquid volume delivered for a definite number of strokes.
~
~
1400 815
Ave
t
o
:;;,,-= ~ r-- ;;;.;;,;:::

/
::
=>
e o.
"' :;
~
-= -- - - v-- --- rr- -Acceleration pressure Discharge pressure
-......;;; ~ ;;;.;:;;..:: ::::,,. t-;.;::;: ~ ----~
--
.r:.
30
60
90
120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Figure 2.7. Ideal waveform-triplex single-acting pump. Discharge pressure. 1800 ft vertical head, 77% pulsation.
DISCHARGE PRESSURE - 10 VALVE DELAY, 300 RPM, 933 PULSATION

1217r--=~-r~-r-~-r-~r---.r---,.~-r~-r-~-r-~r---,
966 ...............~..................._...,...,,,,_--+-......-+----+--<r---+-.........~-+-l~+---+->--+-'.........- - I
Ave
'
,,...
1 1
Acceleration pressure
30
60
90
120 150 180
210 240 270 300 330 360
Figure 2.8. Ideal waveform-triplex single-acting pump. Discharge pressure-10 valve delay, 300 rpm, 93% pulsation.
2.12
PUMP DISPLACEMENT
49
The theoretical displacement is used to evaluate the Volumetric Efficiency and is ca!culated by the following formulas; For Single-acting Purnps;
Q,
For
OJXJ34D;snN
(2.24)
0.0034(2D; -
(2.25)
DISCHARGE FLOW RATE ~ 62 GPM 46 PERCENT FLOW VARIATION
86
::;
(.!)
o..
2 r:
3
:;::
62
"' E:'
.;:;
"' i5
"'
J'
t o
o
cyiio~l\
I
\
I
I I
\
\ \
\
The discontinuity
t
:a; o..
('J
2
:;:
o
;;::
e
51.
e
o ~
U)
:>
o
Figure 2.9. Ideal
30
60
90
120
150
180 210 240
270 300 330 360
double-acting pump. Discharge flow rate
62
gpm, 46% flow variation.
g:
TABLE 2.3. Constant
C:i
Crank Angle 360 180 180 90 120 120 120 120 120 90 90 72 72 60 60 51.4 51.4 45 45 40 40 A(I) 0.58 0.29 0.29 0.24 0.06 0.062 0.061 0.05 0.06 O.JI O.JI 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.012 0.012 0.026 0.026 0.006 0.006 8(2) 1 1 1 0.22 0.17 0.17 0.12 0.09 0.17 0.22 0.22 0.05 0.05 0.17 0.17 0.026 0.026 0.052 0.052 0.002 0.002 Total(3) Percent 158 129 129
46
Pump Type Simplex SA Simplex DA Duplex SA Duplex DA Triplex SA Triplex SA (0) Triplex SA (30) Triplex SA (60) Triplex DA Quadruplex SA Quadruplex DA Quintuplex SA Quintuplex DA Sextuplex SA Sextuplex DA Septuplex SA Septuplex DA Octuplex SA Octuplex DA Nonuplex SA Nonuplex DA
Numb Cyls 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9
K(4) 0.684 1.368 0.558 0.199 0.100 0.100 0.078 0.061 0.200 0.143 0.286 0.030 0.076 0.100 0.200 0.016 0.032 0.035 0.070 0.009 0.018
Max Press Percent(5) 250 166 166 93 43 44 35 27 43 62 62 14 14 43 43 8 8 15 15 2 2
--
23 23 18 14 23 33 33 7 7 23 23 3.8 3.8 8 8 2.1 2.1
NOTES; (1) - "A" Flow variation above average, decimal.
(2) - "B" Flow variation below average, decimal. (3) - Flow variation, total percent (4) - K Factor for calculation of dampener size (Equation 4.5) (5) - Maximum pressure variation (pulsation) without dampener, percent. (0) - Fixed phase angle of two pumps compounded. (30) - Fixed phase angle of two pumps compounded. (60) - Fixed phase angle of two pumps compounded.
2.13 GRAPHICS OF PUMP PERFORMANCE
51
Volumetric Efficiency is then calculated as follows; VE
Qa/Qt
100
(2.26)
To calculate the instantaneous piston/plunger position in the cylinder, in inches from the head-end dead-center, per degree of crankshaft rotation.
0.5 S(l - cos 8)
Le ( l + -;
Le
r: 'Sin 8))
(2.27)
x
S 8
= = = = =
Le
r
Position of piston or plunger from HE dead center, per degree of crank shaft rotation (8), in inches. stroke, inches. Crank angle, degrees. Length, con rod, inches. Crank radius, inches.
(1) See Section l l for discussion on Clearance Volume
GRAPHICS OF PUMP PERFORMANCE

Following a discussion of pump dynamics, it is proper to cover the different means of recording and displaying pressure and flow-rate waveforms. Val ve Delay and Compressibility of the Liquid tend to distort and complicate. the flow patterns and pressure waveforms of reciprocating pumps. For example, it is difficult to picture the Suction function being affected by the plunger Discharge stroke and vice-versa, keeping in mind the discontinuity between Suction aod Discharge. F-A is the actual or effective volume of output liquid leaving the pump. Figure 2. lA a typical flow-rate pattern, shows that Valve Opening or Closing elay and Liquid Compressibility, both being time-dependent, and while both generally exacerbated by high pump speed, the graphics tend to present a {ightly distorted view of the relative time involved when the data is plotted on 'degree of rotation' base, resulting in an equal-time unit base. Figure 2.2A is interesting in that it shows a completely different shape when he same data is plotted on an equal stroke-length unit basis with the discharge troke being folded back as in actual operation. Figure 2.3A is also presented in the normally used continuous pressure display here the full cycles are repeated over many revolutions on a constant time unit tsis. Figure 2.4A shows the Pressures or Flow-rates vs. Equal Stroke Length, olded back on itself as in an "indicator card".
(..)
:1
~~
~
o ...
co
1:1..
lle:
f'll
11
1'.11 N
CIJ
~
llro'2
1
o:
o
'
o
o
~
!11
E-::i 2:
><
;::
(i
(/)
o -< z )>
M ...
< i::
..'l
""
soo
H
-o QO
330
~ rnz
o
A
a)
a: o
ro
> ..l < >

so
:a
60 90
120
;:
g:,,
~ ~
o t.)
270
Q
.... fo a) z -o Qo
'
uso
D
180 E
219 240
300
339 360 30 80
H
A'
B'
C'
SEQUEN CE OF EVENTS
A
A-8
8
8-C
C-E
E
Start of Mechanical Suction Stroke. Discharge Valva Closing Delay. Discharge Liquid back-flows into Cylinder. Discharge Valve Closes. Decompression of Trapped Liquid. Suction Valve Opens, Suction Cylinder filling with liquid, Start of Mechanical Discharge Stroke.
-E-F
Suction Valve
Back-flow from D-E

F
F-G
G
G-H H-A' Equivalent Liquid back-flow to A'-B'.
Suction Valve Closes. Compression of trapped liquid in Cylinder, Discharge Valva Opens. Liquid delivered to System.
SIMPLEX SA PUMP 30 DEGREE DELAYS
zoo
150 100 50
-50 -100 -150
-zoo
o
.....;-.....
-250 '--~~~-'-~~~~-'-~~~~'--~~~-'-~~~~..i.....~~~--1
= -= ~-~-~ -= ~- ~L=-~ - e =-= 9 -~ =--------1-------- -t"~ l

3
STROKE - INCHES -e- SUCTION -e- DISCHARGE
Figure 2.2A
SIMPLEX SA PRESSURE WITH 30 DEGREE DELAYS 250
zoo
150 100 50
1 F -~-1 --..t--t--t-..I----- ...................... i----r--r.-..r-
o
-5
-10 -15
~lfFF
30
=tt---~ t:t~=t=
1
i
............. - -l-..--+---4---..----
1
1
!
i
!
i
-zo
-25
60
90
1ZO
150 180 210 240 DEGREES ROTATION
270
300
330
360
390
Figure 2.3A
53
SIMPLEX SA INDICATOR CARO WITH 30 DEGREE DELAYS
250 200 150 100
~
u.i
:::1
50
a: a:
w
..
o
-5
-10 -15 -20 -25
3
STROKE, INCH
'6
Figure 2.4A
54
3
SUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR RECIPROCATING POWER PUMPS
3.1.1
lntroduction
The definition of a reciprocating power pump is "A mechanical device used to impart a pulsating, dynamic fiow to a liquid and consists of one or more singleacting or double-acting positive displacement elements (pistons or plungers) reciprocating in a liner or stuffing box in the liquid end of the pump. These elements are driven in a more-or-less harmonic motion by a rotating crank and connecting rod mechanism. The liquid fiow generated by the displacement of these reciprocating,elements is directedfrom the inlet (suction) to the outlet (discharge) by the selective operation of self-acting check-va/ves located at the inlet and the out/et of each displacing element." While there are pumps of many combinations of multiple cylinders, from one to nine or more, and single-acting or doubleacting cylinders, this discussion will be confined to a popular triplex (three cylinder) single-acting pump as a model. The term NPSHR for a Centrifuga! Pump is a precise, absolute, and ideal and almost the only point on the suction-head performance curve at which the pump will operate at maximum efficiency and performance, and the system must provide those exact requirements. Figure 3.1. The present so-called 'NPSHR' ('NPIPR') value for a Reciprocating Pump, (whether given in geodetic head or pressure, makes no difference), published by the manufacturer is usually not the ideal point on the performance curve at which to run the pump-it is .most times a poor minimum that may allow the pump to barely operate at ali! Fi~ure 3.2.
55
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 HI 19 20 21 22 23 24
CAPACITY, 100 GPM
Figure 3.1 Centrifuga! Pump NPSH vs. Capacity and Head
100
9!1 - ....................................................................................................................
100 l'PH
100
+...........................i .............................+...........................
...... ,. ........................... ,. ..... 97
ll3 ........................................ ,. .. .
92 ............................................................................................................................................................... .
91>--~~~--<~~~--+~~~~--+~~-~-+-~-~~-+--~~~~91
-Hi
-10
-6
O
SUCT!Oli PRESSURE, PSIG
10
16
Figure 3.2 Reciprocating Pump-Volumetric Efficiency vs. Speed and Suction Pressure
56
3.1 INTRODUCTION
57
ROUNDED BOTTOM OF WAVEFORM AS IT EXTENDS INTO VAPOR PRESSURE REGION.
Suction Valve Opening Delay e-- Decompression .+-Discharge Val11e Seal ing Deloy Mechanical Stroke TCPP 0 +P 5 t+Psz-P 5 f-P 50 c-Pp -Pvp Psvo Psac + PP
Figure 3.3 Pump TCP
e adoption of the Centrifugal Pump term NPSHR for Reciprocating Pumps caused more technical confusion in the industry than it deserves and it should immediately eliminated and replaced with a performance curve from which operator can select the best operating point for the project at hand. f NPSHR figures are bandied about, it is possible that one reciprocating pump 'be unfairly rated over another. The general design of the liquid ends is not uch different that variation in suction requirements would be encounterede (spring) design and pump operating speed contribute to any great differs, both independent of basic liquid-end design.
Analysis of Pump Suction Requirements

these facts in mind, one should not stop the analysis of the reciprocating p suction requirements at the pump "inlet" flange or connection (as Jegitily allowed with Centrifugal Pumps)-it should continue through the inlet . ection and through the suction valve into the pump cylinder chamber at the terline of the cylinder. See Figure 3.3. Accordingly, this gives further support
58
SUCTION REC!UIREMENTS FOR RECIPROCATING POWER PUMPS
that the so-called 'NPSH' or 'NPIP' be discarded and be replaced with a new term, TCP (Total Cylinder Pressure). Or better still, just a Performance Curve of TCP vs VE from which the operating point can be judicially selected. Equations for suction requirements as listed in Section 3.2.6 will show that valve spring POSIVA (installed valve spring load of 'POunds per Square lnch of Valve Area') must be involved in ali calculations of sucton requirements, for example; Neglecting valve spring of POSIVA 4 PSI; Pre TCP Pre TCP 14.7 +O+ 4.3 l.69 + 0.14 - 0.13 10 = 7.32 PSI
However, in order for the liquid to enter thc cylinder it must now pass through that val ve having 4 PSI POS IVA; So; Pre TCP Pre TCP
+ +
0.14 -0.13
10 - 4
14.7 +o+ 4.3 - 1.69
3.32
Pump would rim (how reliable and efficient?) For valve spring POSIVA = 8, as required for high speed;
TCP = 14.7 +O+ 4.3 -
1.69 + 0.14 - 0.13 -
!O -
-0.68 PSI
pump would not run with riegative TCP. Then, TCP, available or required, is that absolute pressure ex1stmg in the pump cylinder at the instant of Suction Valve Opening-always after an unpredictable delay of a few degrees from start of the mechanical Suction Stroke.
3.1 .3
More on Suction Requirements
In order to better understand sorne of the mysteries surrounding the dynamic suction pressure alignment at the inlet and cylinder of reciprocating pumps, a discussion of these pressures is in order. Starting with the basic equations for TCP mentioned above, ali of the pressures involved are contained in these equations-(3. l) through (3.10), Section 3.2.6. Figure 3.4 shows the actual simultaneous cylinder and suction pressure wav- . eforms along with the corresponding theoretical flow-pattern for a 3 X 6 Triplex Single-Acting pump. Note a slight amount of "rounding" (cavitation) of the suction waveform even in a "good" suction system. Equation (3. 7), where it can be used, is the most accurate since the suction gauge pressure reading presents an integration of most pressure losses existing at
ACTUAL PUMP DISCHARGE PRESSURE TRACE
CYL ' Discharge
TilE OVERWHI:LMING TBI:ORETICAL su=oN ACCll.I:RATION Plll&.TION (ll) SUPDUMPOSI:D ON THI: TBI:ORETIC..U. fl.QW-INDUCI:D l'ULU.nDN (SV).
sucnoN V AL VE OPENING DELA y
(SA)
ACTUAL PUMP INLET PRESSURE 'ffiACE ------------~.....-----------------1-9

Figure 3.4 Composite Pump Dynamics
SO)
59
KEY TO FIGURE 3.4 - COMPOSITE RECIPROCATING PUMP DYNAMICS A-Real Oscillograph of Discharge Pressure Waveform of a 3 X 6 Triplex Singleacting Pump. Note the tendency to follow the theoretical flow pattern 'C'. 1-Maximum Discharge Pressure, 1644 PSI. 2-Average Discharge Pressure, 1400 PSI. 3-Minimum Discharge Pressure, l 151 PSI. B-Cylinder Pressure Waveform per stroke. 4-0vershoot Pressure, l 944 PSI. Seen only in Cylinder. 5-Average Discharge Pressure 1400 PSI. 6-Suction Pressure 15 PSI. C-Theoretical Flow-rate or Velocity. Note similarity in shape to actual. A-Points of Maxirnum Flow-rate or Velocity. B-Points of Maximum Plunger Acceleration. C-Points of Minor Acceleration. D-The Absolute Discontinuity between Suction and Discharge. Non-existant in Centrifuga! Pumps. E-Theoretical Flow-rate in Suction. A, B and C Points same as C above. F-Actual Suction Pressure Waveform (Typical). Note how Acceleration Pressure Overwhelms Flow-induced Pressure. 7-Peak Suction Pressure, 25 PSI. 8-Average Suction Pressure, 15 PSI. 9-Liquid Vapor Pressure, PSIA.
PULSATION AND CONTROL CLASSIFICATION PULSATION PRESSURES-TYPES Note; Pulsation Pressures in PSI: (DV) Discharge Liquid Velocity (DO) Discharge Valve Open (DA) Discharge Acceleration (SV) Suction Liquid Velocity
(SA) (SO) (VA) (PS) (WH)
Suction Acceleration Suction Valve Open Vertical Acceleration Pipeline Surge Water Hammer
60
3.1
INTRODUCTION
61
the pump inlet, excluding and the cylinder pressure resulting from PP, at the beginning of the plunger suction stroke-these must be included in Equations and 3. 7. A pressure transducer placed in the cy!inder head will revea! the pressure, top of Figure 3.4, for the entire cycle but the low pressure device must be of variation is difficult to observe because the amplification of both extremely low then high pressures. In the figures that follow, the pressures nvoived can be classified as; "static" that remain somewhat constant, namely; Ps,, P,.,, PP; then those that vary rotation, and Psac The least understood is probably Psac and PP. In order to accelerate the column of liquid in the suction pipe at the start of each plunger suction there must be present in the pump cy!inder sufficient potential pressure to overcome the inertia of that column of liquid. lf sufficient is not available in the cylinder the acceleration wave (always in the order of 50 to 150 Hz and not related to pump speed) may extend into the vapor pressure region, resulting in cavitation. It is interesting that high suction pressure does not necessarily reduce the effects of acceleration-it just moves the generated waveform higher and away from the vapor pressure region. The high initia! acceleration pressure, Psac, in 3.5 is the peak pressure demanded to accelerate the slug of liquid in the suction piping system. H should not be considered a loss since it generates a standing wave and most of the energy expended acceleration is returned to the liquid during the deceleration. The maximum acceleration, cakulated by Eq. 3.4, occurs at the start of each plunger stroke (at points "C") for a triplex single-acting pump, Figure 3.4 and 3.5. It is imperative that the value of Psac (which is actually initiated in the cylinder) must fall rapidly to a lesser value until the suction valve sees a greater '-'F"'"''""' force or pressure unbalance. Because it requires a finite time (and an apparent more or less constant time for any type and size valve, probably contributing to the consistent frequency of 50 to 150 frequency of the typical suction standing waves noted) for this pressure to fall so that the valve can open, a valve vv"'"'""' delay occurs which in effect reduces the displacement or volumetric efficiency, Incidentally, Psvo is shown as a negative value because that degree of pressure was required to accelerate the column of liquid, leaving an instantaneous low pressure in the chamber that quickly responds to the reaction to form a sharp spike or surge, resulting in a standing wave with an average value of pressure. Note that in Figure 3.3. the decompression to a deceleration wave-'retuming' energy) adds impetus to the further drop in pressure after the suction valve opens, ending up at a value of Ps"' Assuming that the pump is at slow speed the delay time is a small percentage of the total stroke but at high speed that delay time becomes pronmmced, creating a significant drop in volumetric efficiency. High speed operntion, in terms of reversals per minute, greatly increases such disturbances as cavitation and loss of efficiency. Over a long period of incipient cavitation, actual damage to the Hquid plungers and va!ves, with deep pitting, can quietly take The high frequency standing waveform described above dominates the of the entire suction pressure trace in reciprocating pumps. Because of the rela-
CHART 1 - Slmplex SA Pump wltll JO degree dlayii
250 200
150
~
100
a.
CJ
~ IC
50
o
50
100 150
200 A
.
30
D:E 1 E:J<' E F
270
F:A
250
1
300 330
A
380
60
90
120
150
180 210 240 DEGREES ROTATION
390
420
A- Start of Mechanical Plunger Suction Stroke; A:B - Oischarge Valve Closure Delay, Discharge Liquid trapped in Chamber; B- Discharge Valve Closes B:C- Decompression of Trapped Liquid. in Clearance Volume; C - Suction Valve Opens; C:D- Suction, Cylinder filling with Liquid; O - Start of Mechanical Discharge Stroke
D:E - Suction Valve Closure Delay. Suc~
tion Liquid returned to manifold;

E. - Suction Valve Clases; E:F-Compression of Trapped Liquid; F - Discharge Valve Opens; F:A- Liquid Volume delivered to outlet;
3.1
INTRODUCTION
63
ively low friction pressure drop at the inlet as compared to the discharge, beause of the usual short length and relatively large diameter of the suction pipe, he ftow-generated wave has little chance against the acceleration disturbances. It as been claimed that the liquid velocity in any suction pipe should not exceed .305 mis ( 1 ft/s), very good advice if it can be obtained.
Suction Requirement Factors

ne of the most important factors in the suction requirements of reciprocating mps, high pump speed (over about 200 fpm),-requires high valve spring POYA of about 8 in order to reduce valve delay and still retain a good degree of olumetric Efficiency, and which in turn then demands equivalently higher sucn pressure at any speed. This is where most pump problems in suction requireents usually originate. Normally, a good rule of thumb would be; one (1) SIVA for each (50 fpm) piston speed. Sorne applications of pumps at extremely low speed, 50 fpm or less, one can metimes get by with no suction valve springs, obviously with very low suction essure. The effect of pump speed and spring POSIVA is dramatically shown in Table l. The table lists ali operating data with pumps of different speed but with unger diameters that permit equal flow-rate of 135 GPM average. Figure 3.6 shows the same c;lata plotted and it reveals that the pump speeds of and 360 RPM would result in marginal or complete failure of performance cause the TCP in those cases are close to or below zero (negative). It is undesirable to use different POS IVA springs in suction and discharge ves because of the chance of interchanging such springs with possible drastic ults in performance. Experience has shown that high POSIVA suction valve springs are usually sirable (and TPC affordable) for high suction pressure applications. If the high ction pressure is turned in to the main pump equipped with .low POSIVA rings, before the main pump is started, continuous ftow may be established ough the main pump with the valves being held open. At the start-up of the ain pump, it may be difficult for it to ''pick up prime.'' When possible, the .ain pump should be started just before the application of high suction pressure. e Chapter 11, Applications, for other dangers of extra-high suction pressure. The characteristic curve of inlet pressure vs volumetric efficiency (perfornce), Figure 3.2 is such that if one tries to operate near the low end of that essure, the deterioration of the performance with low VE rapidly increases "th slight change in inlet pressure. During regular operation an unpredicted drop in suction pressure by, say, inase in liquid temperature, obstructions in the suction pipe such as scale or ttled particles, more than usual dissolved or entrained gas, tolerance of replaceent parts, especially valve spring rate and lnstalled load, change of valve type, c. may force the operation into an untenable point on the curve with possible mp delivery stoppage.
TABLE 3.1
Pump Speed vs TCP 10 FT 4" SUC Pipe, 135 GPM
Pst
= O, Psz = O, Pa = 14.7
Vel
Degrees
Accel
GPM 117 148 148 137 138 148 148 116 117 116 146 146 135 136 146 115 114 116 114 143 143 133 134 143 143 112 114 116 146 146 135 136 146 146 114 116
P.,..
P.if
P_,.,A
TCP 15.35 9.73 9.54 5.57 13.61 9.84 9.65 3.82 16.67 16.69 9.74 9.51 4.60 14.53 9.87 9.64 2.57 16.69 18.46 9.75 9.46 3.30 15.76 9.92 9.63 0.76 18.46 19.79 9.76 9.31 2.38 16.66 9.95 9.58 -0.56 19.70
3.375 X 6 TRIPSA SA 200 RPM 1 2.89 43.2 0.312 39 3.65 -1.13 3.65 40 60 3.38 -31.4 3.41 29.9 61 3.65 1.13 80 -0.313 81 3.65 120 2.86 -44.8 121 2.89 53.2 3 x 6 TRIPSA 250 RPM 1 2.86 53.4 3.61 0.385 39 -1.4 40 3.6 3.34 -38.8 60 61 3.36 36.9 1.4 80 3.6 3.61 -0.387 81 120 2.82 -54.3 121 2.86 53.4 2.625 x 6 TRIPSA 320 RPM 1 2.8 66.9 0.483 39 3.53 -1.76 40 3.53 60 3.27 -48.7 61 3.3 46.3 80 3.53 1.75 -0.485 81 3.53 120 2.76 -68.1 121 2.8 66.9 2.5 x 6 TRIPSA 360 RPM 1 2.86 76.8 0.55 3.61 39 -2.82 40 3.6 60 3.34 -55.8 61 3.36 53. l 80 3.6 2.01 81 3.61 -0.56 120 2.82 -78.2 121 2.86 76.8
0.06 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.09 0.09 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.09 0.09 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.00
0.06 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.10 0.10 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.10 0.10 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.06 0.06
5.66 0.04 -0.15 -4.12 3.92 0.15 -0.04 -5.87 6.97 7.00 0.05 -0.18 -5.09 4.84 0.18 -0.05 -7.12 7.00 8.77 0.06 -0.23 -6.38 6.07 0.23 -0.06 -8.93 8.77 10.07 0.07 -0.37 -7.32 6.96 0.26 -0.07 -10.25 10.07
64
3.1
INTRODUCTION
65
3 x 6 TRIPLEX SA - TCP VS SUCTION PRESSURE

30--~~~~-..-~~~~---,..--~~~~-.-~~~~--....~~~~---.
1 1 ...............-r---......... -......
1 ---. . -- - - - . ---1---..---..--!
................... 1 ....................................._ ...
,
1
10
5 o SUCTION PRESSURE, Ps
-s
-10
Figure 3.6
he data for all of the charts to be discussed in this Chapter was taken from ies of over 300 tests on a 3 x 6 Triplex Single Acting pump at all speeds 360 RPM (360 fps). The single low point at 82 percent indicates the minilimit of VE at which the pump would run-below that, complete stoppage livery occurred . . ost typical suction systems present a seldom recognized fact that the source ergy for the pump suction is at the supply tank, a finite distance from the , thereby introducing a time factor. consider an example with water as the liquid (Fig. 3.7), assume that the required to accelerate a slug of liquid at the beginning of a stroke is a generous isecond (1 ms = 0.001 s). Even with a normally "short" suction pipe of , it requires about 4 ms (O. 004 s) for a pressure wave to travel from the source ergy (tank head) to the pump inlet, about 3 ms too late! Because of the comtions and variations of the acceleration-generated waveforms in the suction, difficult to make precise predictions of how a pump will perform in actual cations.
Valve Leakage and Slip

rn valves may continuously leak liquid under high pressure and all valves ience "slip" whereby a small amount of liquid trapped between the valve
66
SUCTION REOUIREMENTS FOR RECIPROCATING POWER PUMPS
t
14 f
TANK
t
Location of transducer used to record oscillshown below.
000
TRIPLEX PUMP
Least pssible time in which pressure (head) at tank can be transmi tted to pump is at the speed of sound in water, or 20/4725= 0.004 s
CENTER CYLINDER PRESSURE
SUCTION PRESSURE
Acceleration ''spike''
generated by start of suction stroke shown in cylinder trace above.
One revolution,
0.162 s at 370 RPM
At points of maximum acceleration, the time involved is almost infinitesimalin this case not over 0,001 s.
Figure 3.7. Energy transit time. Showing why higher tank pressure or head alone v/ not cure acceleration problems in pump suction.
and seat immediately before closure must be displaced, part toward the dischar and part backward into the cylinder, tending to reduce VE. Moreover, Ieaking valves can cause an unusual effect in medium and hi pressure pumps. Despite the typical usually downward turn of the VE Curve w Speed increase, as shown in Figure 3.2, it is sometimes noted that the Cut will go through a slight rise early in a Test. This is explained by the fact t
3.1
INTRODUCTION
67
when pump speed is increased while the leakage rate remains constant, the overall effect is such that the increased delivery becomes an asset over the constant leakage until such speed reaches the point where the detrimental effects of speed begin to show up in the performance. This "hump" appears in many of the charts.
Typical Suction Pressure Waveforms

he Oscillographs shown in Figure 3.8 each depict, on' the bottom trace, the ction pressure waveform for one revolution with one cylinder pressure waverm immediately above it. They were selected from the records of an extended st program on a 3 x 6 (and a 2 x 6) Triplex Single-acting Plunger pump, nsisting of over 300 separate runs with water under varying conditions. Note the complex and variable nature of the suction waveforms (actually "sigtures" because each waveform differs in shape) which always exhibit an unedictable high frequency in the range of 50 to l 00 Hz regardless of the speed d size of the pump. But on each test they invariably retrace themselves exactly er severa! cycles. These complex frequencies are generated by the shock wave sulting from the suction valve opening and the high acceleration surge, systemoustic-related and excited by, but not related to, the pump RPM. The freency, amplitude and shape of these waveforms have no relation to the power the pump from which they were obtained-3 BHP or 3000 BHP. In each of these Graphs the actual average of the complex wave with its cursions, which mostly extend for ten to 50 psi above and below that average always in position at or near the actual suction pressure, P,. A rather large tension of these excursions can appear in a "good" suction waveform, Graph , for example-in fact, a badly cavitating pump may produce a waveform with ry small excursions. Significant in Graph 17 is the trace that begins to show existence of cavitation occurring in the pump inlet as indicated by the typical nded bottom negative excursions due to formation of vapor (cavitation) and ensive sharp upward spikes as the result of surges generated by the collapse the cavitation voids.
Relation of Pressure Waves to Pump Cycle

Figure 3. 8 observe in these waveform charts the obvious relation of suction turbances to the stroke position as revealed by the upper trace of the pressure the third cylinder, for example, of a triplex pump. If a suction disturbance urs nearly beneath the start of the suction stroke in the cylinder pressure eform (at B) as shown in the pressure traces, it can be attributed to an acration disturbance. If it occurs near (A) the center of the delivery stroke it be construed to be a :flow-induced disturbance. It has been observed that Y one or the other type of disturbance can appear in any one trace because
(11
1 Dlschorgo (tyliOO.rl
~~:~~G
g
..,
n
V . E.
+ 5
1
r
90 . 4
3 X 6 TRIPLEX SINGLE ACHNG PUHP DECREASING SUCH!lN PRES:S:URE. f'SIG _ ___...,. + 0 +5
,---L._j'
le f ~ _- ,r' ,
~I -
,.,_,.,.1..:....JL:...........o .............__..-'
{"Tll"""'I- " -- 1.,

9!L 9
riJ 'r-L_j-5
. . llo.... Jii 111. ~1/11-"" ir"'
11~
97 . B
10
~-...-
!.
'
g
N
] ~ .~ i!!
-: :M
..
- - ------------6
98 . 6
91:1 . 4
]!] ll
1 1
!i
~j
J
t
r--
-L__J-lt
r----i
1!1
~~'
91 . O 1 97 . 3 1 9!Ul
\L ,.\.,_ 11.
96 . 4
.:J 1
~ g i~ ~ ~
!i l
~!
93 . l
1 j~
96.3
96.0
96.3
96.0
!A'! tu' V vy 1 V111!1 tfl" '\fi/'FVfJO JU !Jl\]~nli~-j' 1 1i\f ;.AJj~A'fJiJ .1\JJHI r~A nn.i,, l!ll ~-";~ ' ~ ' \
;
95.5
94.11
Figure 3.8 Actual Suction Pump Pressure Waveforms
3.2
PERFOFlMANCE CURVES
69
one disturbance (acceleration) destroys the ability recover and initiate another ( flow-related) disturbance in the interval between them in high speed pumps and vice versa.
PERFORMANCE CURVES
3.4 and 3.5 show how valve opening and closing delays, caused by the compressibility of the liquid or the presence of dissolved or entrained air or gas, the elasticity of the system, and how such delays reduce the Volumetric of the pump by "robbing" part of the actual stroke. However, in rleiffee-c1t-rot2tt1cm ' based charts, it should be well recognized that these delays exaggerated as a proportion of the pump revolution. For example, the total only about 0.5 inches of a 6 inch stroke pump. degree delays shown real VE would be (6" - OS')/6 11 = 92 percent, not (!88 / 180 = 83
Method of Rec:ording Actual Mechanlcal

;,End~ofsStroke
is almost impossible to determine the mechanical end-of-stroke from the reoscillographs and for precise evaluation it is necessary to provide sorne of marking the graph at these points. One simple means is by the use of "optical phaser", a simple solid-state device that detects the presence of light an electrical output. The device is temporarily mounted and aimed at sorne part of the reciprocating say the exposed plunger in the pump cradle. A stamp-sized piece of paper taped to the plunger will enter the field of the phaser at the end of e generating a reflected light pulse on the graph (on a multi-channel ope) that will precisely mark the desired position. The other extreme of the roke can then be scaled from the pressure wave data. The device will normally ernte from light in a well lit room but it may be necessary to provide more ght on the "target", preferably by a flash-light with 'clean' DC light. See Fig-
Pertormance-POSIVA and RPM

Figure 3.10 note that at the relatively slow speed of 200 RPM (200 fprn piston suction valve spring characteristics are of little consequence and an exlow suction pressure can be tolerated, and less discussion is required. pump suction valve spring POSIVA, regardless of spring rate, has an enorFigure 3 l l shows the us effect 011 the performance of a pump at high extreme effect at the upper speed limit of this particular pump {360 RPM) with
70
Pump stroke, s (CE)

1 1
1
~--r
Pump stroke, s
.. -
T Oelay, compression : ki.

1
blip, end-of-stroke 1 Oelay, suction 1 1 1 1 t Oelay, discharge valvs closing ,........_,... valve closing
l 1 1 1 1 1
Delay, decompression
L ... ~ ..... .l. - .,.
1
1
1
1
]------.. ----
1 1 1
1
. ,. r -
' j - - - - -- - - , 1 1
1
1 1
J______ _L.- ----l

.:....
_,
Figure 3.9 Use of Optical Phaser to Upper Trace Mark End of Mechanical Stroke.
one type of valve with various POSIVA springs. The author has observed that this spring effect is most always ignored in pump testing. By any suction test procedure the pump in question would show different and widely separated "required" suction pressures, depending solely upon the combined effects of spring POSIVA and pump speed. The use of a higher POS IVA results in a higher VE but at the expense of ~ higher suction pressure, a typical compromise. Also shown is this typical como promise associated with spring POSIVA; i.e. lower volumetric efficiency with. lower suction pressure or higher efficiency with higher POS IVA-but never with cross results. Pointed out is also the old rule-Use 'light' (POSIVA) springs foi; low pressure and low speed and 'heavy' (POSIVA) springs for high speed anq high pressure.
3 x 6 TRIPSA - 200 RPM INLET PRESSURE VS VE AT VARIOUS POSIVA
90~
.. + .. .. + .. .......... + ................... ..
BB ..................................................................... + .................. +
66 ................................................................
84 ................................................................ +........................... +.. ..""''"""l""'""""""
-5
o
INLET PRESSURE, PSIG .._ 0.15 POSIVA ..,.. 2 POSIVA 4' 4 POS!\/ A .,. 8 POSIVA
Figure 3.10
3 x 6 TRIPSA - 360 RPM INLET PFIESSURE VS VE A T VARIOUS POSIVA
9!l ............................................................... + ..................................+ ................................................................. .
88 t ................................ t
84 , ...................................t .. ............................................................................................................................
821--~~~~~
......~~~~~+-~~~~~-1-~~~~~-1-~~~~~--l
-10
-5
16
INLET PRESSURE, PSIG -+- 0.5 POSl\IA 2 POSIVA 4 POSiVA _.,_ 8 POSIVA
Figure 3.H.
71
SUCTION REOUIREMENTS FOR RECIPROCATING POWER PUMPS
2 x 6 TRIPSA - 200 RPM iNLET PRESSURE VS VE AT VARIOUS POSIVA
98 t'""""''''''"'""'+""'''''''""""f''"''''""'""''
96 ~ .....................-...........- ................................ +....
' " ' " ' " " " ' " " " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' oooooooooo
...,.............................
~::
94 r---------------,==:=:=~~~--~"r=-=-~~.:~:~~-~=-.. ::-:-~=~::J;::~:::::::;;~;;;;,;;;;;;;;;:t:::;;;;;;;;;~;;::::::~~:::::i
92 ~ .................................~:::::::.::::::::::::::::::::::::::t..:.::.:.:.:.:.: ..::.:.:..::.:..::.:.:...::..::.:..: .:.:..~.1~:-::::~::.::.~~~~-~uuJ
------ ..
.............................,..
........... ,
90 ................................ ,................................................................................................................................
116 ................................................................................................................................................................ .
as ................................................................................................................................................................
84 .................................................................................................................................................................
a21--~~~~-+~~~~~-+-~~~~--1r--~~~~-t-~~~~--1
-10
10
11\!LET PRESSURE, PSIG ....,_ 0.5 POSIVA 2 POSl\IA -11- 8 POSIVA -+ 4 POSIVA
Figure 3.12.
3.2.3
Performance-Reduced Plunger Diameter
Figure 3. 12 shows the performance of the same pump as in Figure 3. 1O and at the same conditions, but with the pump equipped with 2 inch diameter instead of 3 inch diameter ph.mgers. Particularly in such pumps designed for the use of replaceab!e pistons or plungers from a range of different sizes, a very common practice, the increased clearance-volume resulting from the use of a smalier plunger combined with the decompression from the higher discharge pressure results in a lower Volumetric Efficiency but the reduced flow-rate contributes to a very "flat" curve at extremely low suction pressure.
3.2.4
Volumetric Efficiency Statistics
In a particular series of over 300 test records, the mnimum practica! operating Volumetric Efficiency was noted to be never less than about 85 percent. Below that minimum value complete loss-of-prime is usually experienced, indicating that a critica! point exists and it would be folly to try to operate near that pointit is in the critica! position where even a slight drop in suction pressure would result in a rapid and dangerous drop in performance.
3.2
PERFORMANCE CURVES
73
SHORT SUCTION
6 ft of 6"p1pe
LONG SUCTION
90 ft
of
4 pipe
100
J
#13E
,_,__r l_J \
VE 97.8 #1005
1~-Pv'~V
360
RPM
VE 98.1
#16E
VE 96.7
#1008
VE 96.0
ALL AT
t4.9
PSIG SUCT\ON
PRESSuR~
Figure 3.13. Short vs. Long Suction Line
3.2.5
Short Versus Long Suction Line
Figure 3. 13 shows selected graphs taken from a series of tests on suction requirements of the same pump with water under the same operating conditions but with a long (90 feet long, 4 inch pipe) versus a short (4 feet long, 6 inch pipe) suction line on the 3 x 6 Triplex Single-acting pump. Another factor to be considered is the effect of liquid and mechanical resonance of that length of suction pipe involved. lt appears that in this case at 100 RPM (Figure 3.13, Graph 1005) such resonance that appears in the waveform as standing waves is beneficial to the Volumetric Efficiency, a paradox that contributes to complications. See discussion on Pipe Vibration in Section 11.3.
74
TABLE 3.2 TCP by Degrees of Rotation, 10 Degree Delay

DEGREE
1! 5: 91 101 39. 40, 65 66: Pa 14.7
+ Pst: + Psz:
Oi
COr-tSTANT-
o:
Pp1 4!
1 1 1 i
!
1 1 ! 1 1 1 : !
'
so:
81' 129 1 130: 159 160' 1801
1
1
!
i
! *(ACCEL) shown for reference only. **Maximum Ps~c (required) at 10, 130 and 250 Degrees. Note; Minus (-) sign of Psac by Eq (3.4) used in Eq (3.1) becomes Plus().
'
flvp 1 1.5, 9.2; 9.21 9.21 9.21 9.21 9.21 9.2! 9.2: 9.2! 9.2! 9.2' 9.21 9.21 9.2i
..
Psf lACCElJ -36.6' 0.23 0.22 -38.9 0.21 -40.9 291 0.261 0.3 0.26' 0.3 -0.91 0.27 -31.9 18.2 0.29 0.3 0.91 0.3 -0.26! 0.21 -40.9 0.26 29 0.3 0.26 0.3 -0.9 0.28 -25.7
Psc -4.80 -5.10 -5.36 3.801 0.03 -0.12 -4.18 2.39 0.12 -0.03 -5.36 3.80 0.03 -0.12 -3.37
TCP
13.77 14.08 14.35 ** 5.14 8.87 9.02 13.11 6.52 8.78 8.93 14.35 5.14 8.87 9.02 12.29
A somewhat redeeming feature in long suction lines is the fact that pipe friction pressure losses are out of phase with acceleration pressure and they are not added to the already high value of acceleration pressure. This is also shown in Table 3.2.
3.2.6
Acceleration
The so-called acceleration head or pressure in a pump suction is sometimes erroneously considered as a "constant" demand of the pump for an entire cycle or revolution (shades of Centrifugal terminology) but, the maximum demand for high acceleration head or pressure occurs for only an infinitesimal instant three times per revolution in the case of a triplex pump, for example, as shown in Table 3.2. For a large portion of the stroke-time, the energy imparted to the liquid mass at the beginning of the suction stroke is being returned to the mass during the deceleration process, representing a low average demand. The average energy represented by the Psac values is extremely low, demanding little energy from the source. To demonstrate how rapidly the present concept of acceleration of a pump loses validity and viability with long suction lines, the pump represented in Figure 3.13, Chart 1008, with a 90 foot long suction pipe would require a calculated pressure of over 137 PSI (Eq. 3.3) to overcome acceleration pressure. However, the pump ran with good efficiency with only 4.9 PSIA suction pressure at the pump inlet. lt is evident that the concept neglects such factors as pipe resiliency; dissolved gas or air, liquid compressibility, energy conservation and probably
3.2
PERFORMANCE CURVES
75
others. Accordingly, to convert TCP test data to an actual complex suction system great caution must be exercised. It seems that the effects of acceleration in the suction pipe are limited to a maximum equivalent of about ten feet of pipe, even though the standing wave generated by the pump action is seen for the entire length of the pipe system. A more accurate and realistic TCP can be determined by the described test roethod using the pump inlet pressure reading, Ps Formula (3.7), because most of the energy factors, excluding P,.c and PP are integrate!f into a final figure by the damped suction pressure gauge. The final figure must include a further demand, PP, to open the spring-loaded suction valve. Figure 3.13 supplies overwhelming evidence that "acceleration" is not the demon for which it has been accused and that the presently accepted NPSH Formulas should be used with caution and that Formula (3.5), as used on actual suction pressure measurement is most accurate. IMPORTANT
It is suggested that in ali calculations of Acceleration Pressure, the value of L,
length of suction pipe, be assumed to be 10 feet regardless of the actual length. Many tests show that beyond that length the validity of the Equations begin to become questionable.
3.2.7
Computer Calculations
On account of such a large number of calculation points ( for 360 degrees Qf rotation) involved, the data can be programmed giving outputs like Table 3.2 and 3.4.
Suction Stabilizer
Since it has been inferred that additional head alone may not always "cure" acceleration problems of a long suction line, by the simple expedient of placing a "lumped" volume in the form of a small closed flow-through vessel, as close to the pump inlet as possible, will negate most of the acceleration effects by fooling the pump into thinking that, for repeated instances at the moments of maximum demand, the supply tank or source is at the pump inlet. The introduction of such a relatively large impedance, called a Suction Stabilizer, Figure 3.14 into the system also prevents the pump-generated acceleration disturbances from being transmitted to the suction line by an acoustic filtering effect. Experience has shown that if the Suction Stabilizer "liquid volume" is designed with adequate liquid volume greatly improved pump performance can be expected in marginal systems. See Chapter 4 for additional information on Suction Stabilizer design.
TABLE 3.3 EQUATIONS
Piston-Plunger Velocity, ft/s;
VP 9
Model (9) (10)
= 0.042sw [sin 0 + (sl4LJ sin 20]
= 0.042 X 6 X 20.9 X [0.156 + 0.083 X 0.309] = 0.956 = 0.042 X 6 X 20.9 X [0.174 + 0.083 X 0.342] = l.066
Suction Velocity, ft/s; 4" Suction pipe.
V,.9
Model (9) (IO)
= L VPaCD~ID;) = 3.64 x 0.563 = = 4.64 X 0.563 =
2.05 2.61
Piston-Plunger Acceleration, ft/s 2
+ (s/2LJ cos 20] Model (9) = 0.042 X 6 X 20.9'2 [0.988 + 0.167 X 0.951] = 126 (10) = 0.042 X 6X 20.9'2 [0.985 + 0.167 X 0.940] = 125
Pa
= 0.042swz
[cos 0
Suction Acceleration, ft/s 2 ; 4" Suction pipe

a
= 2.ap9 (D~ID";)
-53. l x 0.563 = -29.8 51.5 X 0.563 = 29.0
Model (9) (10)
= =
Suction Acceleration Pressure, PSI;

Psaca
= 0.0069La,9 p
=
Model (9) (10)
0.0069 X lO X (-29.8) X 1.9
-2.59
= 0.0069 X lO X 29 X l.9 = 3.80
TCP by Degrees Crank Rotation, PSIA;
Model (9) (10)
=
=
14.7 14.7
+ O + O - l.5 -4 -(-2.59) = 6.61 + o + o - 1.5 -4 -3.8 = 5.40
76
TABLE 3.3 EQUAT!ONS {Contnued)
Inlet Pressure (Test), PSI;
TCPe
+ Ps 14.35
Model (9) = 14.7 - 0.2 - 1.5 -4 - ((10) = 14.7 - 0.2 - LS -4 -3.8 = 5.2
Pressure at Pump Inlet, PSIG
= = o+ o0.2
Ps: -
=-
0.2
2nRPM/60
(3.9)
Model = 2 X 3.1416 X 200/60 = 20.9
Valve opening surge;

(3.
Model (9) Mode! (10)
-5.36 + 4 = -1.36 3.80 + 4 = 7.80
SYMBOLS
Description Units
length, suction pipe ft in length, pump connecting rod revolutions per minute RPM pressure, acceleration, suction PSI pressure, friction loss, suction PSI pressure, suction PSIG pressure, pump suction (inlet) PSIG pressure, velocty, suction PSI pressure, liquid vapor PSIA FT TO PSI pressure, tank head POSIVA (Pounds per Square Inch off Valve Area) pump stroke in specific gravity, liquid
TABLE 3.3 EQUATIONS (Continued)
Symbol
V
Description velocity of flow Diameter, suction pipe, Revolutions per Minute, Net Positive Suction Head, New Positive Inlet Pressure, Total Cylinder Pressure, Density, (Water l. 9) Crank Rotation
Units ft/s
m
Ds
N
NPSH NPIP TCP p 0
RPM ft PSI PSIA Degrees
TABLE 3.4A Pump C-3" x 6" Triplex Single-Acting 300 RPM, 1650 psi Selected degrees
PUMP ANALYSIS SUMMARY PUMP SPECIFICATIONS PUMP MODEL NUMBER OF PUMPS PHASE ANGLE BETWEEN PUMPS PUMP TYPE-NUMBER OF CYLINDERS PISTON DIAMETER-IN DOUBLE ACTING PUMPS ONLY PISTON ROD DIAMETER-IN CONNECTING ROD LENGTH-IN STROKE-IN CRANK ANGLE-DEG CRANK ROTATION PISTON/VALVE PUMPS ONLY LIFT-IN DELAYED SUCTION VALVE CLOSING-DEG DELAYED DISCHARGE VALVE CLOSING-DEG COMPRESSIBILITY DELAY-DEG INLET PIPE DIAMETER-IN OUTI.ET PIPE DIAMETER-IN OPERATING SPECIFICATIONS FLUID-SPECIFIC GRAVITY ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE-PSIA SUCTION STATIC PRESSURE-PSIG SUCTION FLOW FACTOR-FT SUCTION ACCELERATION FACTOR-FT DISCHARGE STATIC PRESSURE-PSIG DISCHARGE FLOW FACTOR-FT DISCHARGE ACCELERATION FACTOR-FT ALLOWABLE PULSATION-PSIG
triplex
o
3 3.0000
0.0000 18.0000 6.0000 120.0000 OVERRUN 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4.0000 2.0000 1.0000 14.7000 20 20 20
1.ooci
3,000 20 50
78
TABLE 3.4A
Continued
600 300
OAMPENER PRECHARGE-PSIG OPERATING SPEED-RPM PUMP ANALYSIS RESULTS TIIEORETICAL R.OW-OPM MAXIMUMS R.OW-GPM R.OW-% DISCHARGE PRESSURE-PSIG DISCHARGE PRESSURE-% MINIMUMS R.OW-GPM R.OW-% DISCHARGE PRESSURE-PSIG OISCHARGE PRESSURE-% OIFF BETWEEN MAX ANO MIN FLOW-OPM FLOW-% FLOW-GALLONS EFF FLOW OUR DISCH OF PEAK-GPM OISCHARGE PRESSURE-PSIG OISCHARGE PRESSURE-% PUMP STABILIZER ANO OAMPENER SIZING PASAFE LIQUIO VOLUME-GALLONS PASAFE GAS VOLUME-GALLONS
165.2354
17S.42S7 6.1672 1,720.8189 104.4938 137.2JS6 -16.94S4 1,463.0SlS 88.8413 38.1902 23.1126 O.OM687 12.S8S8 257.7674 IS.S2S 16.S23S 0.S-lS8
TABLE 3.4B
CRANK ANGLE DEO 1
40
Pump C-3"
PUMP-INLET
6" Triplex Single-Acting 300 RPM, 1650 psi

PUMP SUCTION ANALYSIS CYLINDERHF.AD END CYLINDER-CRANK END VELOCITY
VELOCITY FPS 3.55E ()() 4.4KE ()() 4.IKE ()() 4.4KE ()() 3.55E ()() 4.4RE 00 4.18E 4.4KE 3.55E 4.4KE 4.lRE 4.4KE l.42E l.79E l.66E l.79E l.42E l.79E l.66E 1.79E 1.42E 1.79E 1.66E 1.79E 00 00 00 00 00 00 0.1 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01
ACCEL FPS2 7.96E 01 -2.09E ()() 5.50E 01 -5.76E-OI 7.96E 01 -2.JJ9E 00 5.50E 01 -5.76E-Ol 7.96E 01 -2.09E 00 5.SOE 01 -5.76E-01 3.18E 02 -8.34E 00 2.31E 02 -2.30E 00 3.18E 02 -8.34E 00 2.31E 02 -2.30E 00 3.18E 02 -8.34E 00 2.31E 02 -2.30E 00
FLOW GPM l.39E l.75E l.64E 1.75E l.39E l.75E l.64E l.75E l.39E 1.75E 1.64E l.75E 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02
VELOCITY FPS l.60E-Ol 5.70E ()() 7.43E ()() 7.96E ()() 6.ISE ()() 2.26E 00
ACCEL FPS2 SUCTION 2.88E 02 l.96E 02 9.78F. 01 -l.02E ()() -l.46E 02 -2.00E 02 DISCHARGE
FLOW GPM 3.52E l.26E l.64E 1.75E l.35E 4.99E

()()
FPS
ACCEL FPS2 DISCHARGE
FLOW GPM
61 81 121 160 181 201 241 280 301 321 1

40
02 02 02 02 01 SUCTION
60 81 121 160 180 201 241 280 300 321
1.39E 02 1.75E 02 1.62E 02 l.75E 02 l.39E 02 l.75E 02 l.62E 02 1.75 02 1.391! 02 1.75E 02 1.62E 02. 1.75E 02. 2.38E 00 6.31E 00 7.96E 00 7.37E 00 5.59E 00
2.06F. 02 DISCHARGE 2.00F. 02 l.41E 02 -3.71E 00 - l.03E 02 -2.0lE 02
SUCTION 5.23E 01 l.39E 02 1.75E 02 1.62E 02 l.23E 02
79
80
Figure 3.14. Suction Stabilizer (White Rock Engineering, Inc.)
3.3 3.3.1
TESTING PUMPS FOR SUCTION REQUIREMENTS lntroduction
For reciprocating pumps ali reference to suction requirements as a discreet "number" should be replaced by a TCP (Total Cylinder Pressure) Performance Curve (and possibly a Liquid Performance Curve for liquids other than water). The TCP performance test will be performed under a strict set-up and procedure, using
3.3
TESTING PUMPS FOR SUCTION REQUIREMENTS
81
aerated water as the test liquid at room temperature. This curve will be a of the calculated TCP on the X-axis versus measured Volumetric on the Y-axis, using Equation 3.7. This method does not require an absolute knowledge of the acceleration . of whatever magnitude) because they and ali other losses the valve POS IVA are integrated in the suction pressure, If the test is performed to if the pump would at an ex1stmg or at a system suction pressure, the of expected operating conditons the TCP Performance Curve constructed from the test data will give a clue performance. This TCP Curve can also be used for comparing of different pumps or, most important, for a yard-stick to measure the effect of the design of expendable (more-or-less rapid wearing) liquidsuch as valves, pistons and plungers, on pump performance. It is alto always use this performance data to predict the to be expected on another complex system, particularly with liquids other than water. General application data could be compiled for any pump for conditions listed previously. Because of the general similarity in the design , of ali nearly the same performance would hold true for any make size of pump if ali of the previously listed conditions were equally and preestablished. It is possible that a so-called "published TCPR" for one pump >could be discriminatory and unfair to the reputation of another particular pump. The Liquid Performance Test should follow the same procedure as the water but will be run with any other liquid in question. The information thus will serve as a guide to be applied to an actual system.
TCP Required, (TCPR)

If it would be deemed desirable or necessary that a specific and verified value of be had, the performance curve could be generat~d, as stated, but instead selecting a point on that curve at three below the maximum VE value has been recommended ( following centrifuga! pump select a point as close to the "knee" in the curve where rate-of-change of VE begins to appear. It will be seen in sorne of the plotted charts that at high speeds and low pressure a distinct is observed where there is a increase in rate of Volumetric Effi.ciency drop or slope of the line increases rapidly. At high speed operation, where suction pressure is extremely a prescribed drop is to extend into the dangerous area so if a value is wanted, use that conservative point as described as the value for TCPR. The definition for becomes; That pressure in PSIA of water (above vapor pressure), as determined test, required at the pump cylinder to fil! the cylinders sufficiently so that no more than a specified in Volumetric Efficiency from maximum to that point on the curve where the first indication of a rapid change or "knee" on the VE curve appears. See Figure 3.2. It behooves a system designer or user to first select the lowest praciical pump and next, to provide the greatest suction pressure possible as
82
~-------------------
PROXll.llTY
ITALICS INDICATE DATA POINTS.
SYITCH
'-SLIP-RINO FOR li'PUT SHAFT S TRA 1N GAUOE
tT~-
TORQUE OETECT 1ON REAOOUT.
Figure 3.15 Test Set-up
delineated in high head and short, ample pipe size, straight suction piping system and with adequate pulsation control and suction stabilization. In an existing system, the use of a suction stabilizer or even a centrifugal "booster" or suctioncharging pump may be required to solve sorne obvious problems.
3.3.3
Procedure for Testing
Sorne means of measuring the quality of performance of a reciprocating pump must be adopted. Volumetric Efficiency, the relation of actual flow rate to theoretical, is most reliable and test data can be very accurately obtained without sophisticated instrumenting. In order to produce data of a viable nature that can be used to compare pump performance, or as a basis for measuring the efficiency of liquid end and expendable parts design, the tests must employ a system that will provide equal external conditions for each test. In order to accomplish this the test system must be "standardized" as muchas possible and Figure 3.15 shows such complete set-up that can best be described by the following features; A. A closed-system liquid supply tank with variable air-pressure supply and suction throttle valve to permit a wide choice of practical suction pressures required to develop a useful performance curve. The variable air (or hydrogen) blanket described is entirely satisfactory as an artificial means of increasing the effective head. The amount of air or hydrogen absorbed in room-temperature
3.3
83
DISCHARGE
2960
PRESSURE, PSI
--2"""6"'"'9_6,___ 2 8 2 8
3175
2828
CYLINDER PRESSURE, PSI

SUCTION
PRESSURE, PSI
(a)
SUCTION
PRESSURE AT INLET, PSI

(b)
~---
80
llP=38
66
Figu;e 3.H:.High-frequency pulsations. The trace of the discharge pressure in (a) shows that only a remnant of the flow-induced pulsations appear in the well-dampened pump. Had this pump not been dampened, the trace would have shown the ftow-induced pulsations of low frequency to be predominant. The acceleraton-induced pulsations are always predominant in the suction as shown in (b).
Pump Data
.l<'requencies Present Rotational, 3. 1 Hz Cylinder, 15.3 Hz Flow pulse, 31 Hz Acceleration, discharge, 138 Hz Acceleration, suction, 77 Hz
4i
x 9 quintuplex 184 RPM 2800 PSI discharge 80 PSI suction Pump well dampened
water is so miniscule that the effects are barely noted over the obvious improvement in performance resulting from the additional head. B. As opposed to a centrifuga! pump with a suction pressure that remains almost constant (with constant conditions), a reciprocating pump generates a rapidly varying and repeating pressure through each revolution that results in comwaveforms as shown in Figure 3.16. Tests have verified that a judicially damped bourdon-tube pressure-vacuum gauge will respond to an accurate average
84
suction pressure of P_,. An integrating amplifier used with a solid-state pressure transducer will also show a true average of a complex waveform. C. A suction pipe of a next-size larger than the pump inlet connection pipe size with a length no longer than five feet presents an ideal configuration without any complications of a complex system. D. A thermometer well will be provided near the pump inlet to monitor the liquid temperature. Fast response of the temperature measuring device is also importan t. E. NO SUCTION DAMPENER OR ST ABILIZER of any description will be installed on the suction system (unless such device is an intimate part of the pump) because of the unpredictable effects that would give distorted information on the hydraulic characteristics of that pump. One could, if deemed necessary and so noted, insert such a device to compare its effect on the pump. F. A gas-type energy-absorbing discharge dampener will be installed close to the pump outlet in order to suppress the pulsations on the ftow meter and the discharge pressure gauge. G. The displacement type ftow meter will be placed on the downstream side of the pressure-regulating choke. The specific-volume of the metered liquid will then match the specific-volume of the suction liquid. H. By returning the discharge liquid to the suction tank, a desirable constantstate suction head will be maintained for the duration of the test. l. The use of a stroke (revolution) counter, rather than a tachometer, allows a more precise calculation of the displacement of the pump per period of time, recognizing that a slight variation of crankshaft speed may occur during the test period. J. Ali pressure-access taps will be installed on the horizontal centerline of the pipe to eliminate the need for datum correction. Top centerline locations present problems from separated and trapped air or gas that "cushions" the true value. Bottom locations tend to collect sediment that could plug the passage.
3.3.4
The Myth of NPSH
Perhaps "NPSH" was overrated as a precise engineering requirement for reciprocating pumps, and in every application it behooves one to provide as much suction head as possible guided by the principies mentioned and for reasons explained in the following remarks. "NPSH" was a somewhat mythical figure that infers that a new pump may operate at a fair volumetric efficiency with a minimum suction head. But it is a fact that any suction pressure above that "NPSH" will: 1. Result in higher volumetric efficiency. 2. Reduce the effects of dissolved or entrained air or gas in the liquid. 3. Allow higher temperature liquid to be pumped.
3.3
85
4. Offset the effect of instantaneous pressure drop the valves. 5. Minimize effects introduced in multiple pump installations. 6. Reduce the arnount of air leakage through plunger or rod packing. The following discussion deals with each of these factors in tum.
L The simple definition of suction head pressure) for a is that it is that pressure, above vapor pressure, required to completely fil! each cylinder with on each suction stroke. Theory and experience show that a pump can actually lift liquid from a level . below the pump inlet. However, the term "completely" in the definition should
be modified to indicate sorne degree of completeness. With fed pmnps, the cylinder never reaches the perfection of 100% As the suction pressure on a pump is decreased, there is a gradual decrease in volumetric beginning at a rather slow rate wth a fairly high head but finally a region where the efficiency begins a rapid drop. In fact, the "NPSH" of a pump was based on an arbitrary acceptable value of lower volumetric efficiency, usually 3% below maximum. On the above basis alone it is clear that up to a limit the greater the suction pressure, the better the hydraulic performance of the pump. 2. The theory of NPSH is based on a "tme" liquid. Unfortunately, most liquids being pumped contain dissolved or entrained air or gas, which makes it difficult to predict what additional suction pressure will be required to overcome these e:ffects. Air or gas may break out in the vacuum created in the cylinder on the suction stroke and cause erratic performance. 3. Temperature of the liquid has a decided effect on the suction pressure requirement of a pump. Even water, with its relatively low vapor pressure compared to sorne hydrocarbons, requires increasingly greater suction pressure with increase in liquid temperature. In many pump applications there is a possibility that an performance if suction increase in operating temperature will result in pressure is not also increased. 4. Recent studies show that the pressure drop through the suction valves, particularly at the instant of maximum flow rate in the cycle, can be considerably greater than the available suction pressure without having a measurable effect on the volumetric efficiency of the pump. Cavitation, plunger pitting, poor packing life, etc., can result, and this is another case in favor of higher suction pressure. 5. More information is needed regarding the effect of suction pressure in the case of multiple pump installations. There is strong evidence that two or more pumps being fed with separate suction lines from the same tank somtimes experience detrimental interaction. The interaction of multiple pumps operating from a common header is even greater. It is logical to assume that greater suction pressure would help to overcome such effects. 6. The possibify of air leakage through the stuffing box packing on the suction stroke is minimized by greater NPSH.
86
TABLE 3.5 Solubility of Gases in Water
ft3 Free Gas/ 100
Water
Gas Air at 14.7 PSIA Air at 29.4 PSIA N2 at 14.7 PSIA N2 at 29.4 PSIA H2 at 14.7 PSIA H2 at 29.4 PSIA C02 at 14.7 PSIA C02 at 29 .4 PSIA
32F 2.8 5.7 2.3 4.6 2.1 4.2 171.3 342.6
83F l.6 3.2 1.4 2.8

1.8
140F 1.2 2.4

1.0
2.0
1.6
3.6 67.5 135.9
3.2 36.3 72.6
3.5
AIR AND GAS SATURATION OF UQUIDS
In regard to the effects of dissolved air or gas on the performance of reciprocating
pumps, the following conclusions have been developed on the basis of actual experience and analysis.
l. Water exposed to any gas blanket will become saturated with dissolved gas in direct proportion to the partial pressure of the gas. At any given temperature and pressure, the water will hold no more than a certain amount of gas in a true dissolved state. The encouraging fact is that the maximum amount of elementl gas (for example, hydrogen, nitrogen or oxygen) that can be dissolved in the water is actually very small. (This is not true, however, of gaseous compounds. For example, carbon dioxide will dissolve in water, and methane in hydrocarbons, in large amounts.) Table 3.5 shows the cubic feet of common free gas (STP) dissolved in 100 ft 3 of water at various temperatures and pressure. Note that according to Henry's law the concentration is directly proportional to the pressure. 2. The TCPA can be improved in direct proportion to the blanket pressure increase. One generally accepted method of measuring a pump's TCPR is to use a closed tank with a low water level and then measure the effect of volumetric efficiency of increased head or TCPA by applying a gas (air) pressure to the tank. Head is decreased by either applying a vacuum to the tank or by throttling a valve in the suction pipe. 3. The detrimetnal e:ffect of dissolved gas on the performance of the pump cannot be improved by increasing the blanket pressure. If hydrogen-saturated water from a closed tank at 83 F is lowered at the pump inlet to, say, 5 PSI below the tank pressure, the amount of free gas that can flash is in direct relation to the drop in pressure, or about 1.2% by volume, whether the blanket pressure is at 14.7 PSIA, 29.4 PSIA, or any other pressure. Therefore, the pump has to cope with the same amount of free gas in either case. Statement 3 then does not mean that the pump wm not perform better at the higher pressure, as will be explained.
3.6
DISSOLVED GAS AT PUMP INLET
87
The boron-charging systems encountered in most nuclear power plants consist a dosed suction system with a well-elevated supply tank with a hydrogen gas of about 15 PSI. The theoretical TCPA would be about 35 PSI, more for a normal pump, even considering the acceleration head and comfl.ashing of the 2 % of free hydrogen. Once the free gas flashes, the plunger continue its remaining stroke with "solid" water. Natural gas is sometimes used as a gas blanket to exclude oxygen and to a little additional head on oil-field water flood or disposal projects. The ingredients of natural gas are methane and ethane, which are only slightly more soluble than air in water, and the effects should be similar. There is evidence that improved performance can sometimes be had with such gas blankets.
DISSOLVED GAS AT PUMP INLET

Given: Water at 83F, 15.3 PSIG hydrogen gas blanket on supply tank. V 1 frorn Table 3.5. At constant temperature.
= 3.6
P 1 = 30 PSIA J 1 = J2
l. l
P2 = 25 PSIA 106 at constant temperature

w
0.5067 PSIA
(3.11)
Af
100 X
mol. wt. hqmd

-
100
62.4/18 = 346.7
(3.12)
Mx 1 = M P 1
pvp') ---: pvp) 12
= 346.7(30 - 0.5067 /1.1
10 6 )
= 0.009296
(3.13)
Af<i = M( P2 \
346.7(25 - 0.5067/1.1X106 ) = 0.007720 (3.14)
Since the quant;ty of dissolved hydrogen is proportional to Mx, the calculated mols per 100 ft 3 of water, it can be assumed that the volume of hydrogen flashed in the pump suction at a llP of 5 PSI would be related to the ratio of Mx 2 / Mx 1 at the two pressures. Therefore, if the quantity of dissolved hydrogen, V1 , is 3 .6ft3 /100 ft 3 of water 3.5) at P 1
= ___!__E =
VM Mx1
3.6
0.007720 /0.009296 .
3.0 ft 3
(3.15)
V = V1
=
V2 = 3.6 - 3.0
(3 .16)
0.6 ft3 free hydrogen per 100 ft3 water, or 0.6%
88
where
1 1 , 12 = modified Henry's constant = 14.7
X
= Henry's constant for gas M = moles of liquid per 100 ft3 liquid (solvent) Mx 1 = initial moles of gas per 100 ft3 liquid Mx 2 = secondary moles of gas per 100 ft3 liquid
H P 1 = initial pressure, PSIA = pump inlet pressure, PSIA Pvp = vapor pressure of liquid V = volume of free gas, ft3 w = specific weight liquid, lb/ ft3
P2
3. 7
NOTES REGARDING TCP
When calculating the TCPR for liquids other than water, it is recommended that at least 10% additional head pressure be provided to compensate for slight varia- , tions in the given properties of that liquid. With high-vapor-pressure liquids such as ethane, the temperature _of the liquid entering the pump cylinders must be maintained at the supply tank temperature. The term P,.c in the TCPR formulas should be used with caution, recognizing that if the calculated TCPR is Iess than the pump manufacturer's TCPR additional geodetic head, suction charging, or the use of a gas blanket may not solve suction problems. lt behooves one to install the most efficient suction system consistent with recommendations in this text.
3.8
METHODS OF INCREASING TCP
If it is necessary to increase the TCPA on an existing system, the following approaches should be considered, in the order of effectiveness:
1. Install a centrifuga! pump in the suction system. The capacity of this centrifuga! suction charging pump should be 150% of the reciprocating pump capac-' ity. The existing TCP for the reciprocating pump must obviously be sufficient for the proposed centrifuga! pump. A suction stabilizer at the reciprocating pump inlet provides a favorable transition from the steady-state delivery of the centrifuga! pump to the variable demand of the reciprocating pump. 2. Reduce pump RPM. 3. Increase suction head (raise level in tank or raise tank). 4. Provide gas blanket. 5. Install larger diameter suction pipe as short as possible and with fewer bends.
3.10 SUCTION SYSTEMS
89
6. Install suction stabilizer at pump inlet (if problem is attributable to acceleration). (See Chapter 4.) 7. Reduce valve spring POSIVA. (See Chapter 8, Valves.)
\ 3.9
CAVITATION
Cavitation in the liquid end of a reciprocating pump is described as the rapid conversion of the liquid to a vapor, followed by a sudden collapse of the vapor bubble to the liquid phase. lt is this sudden collapse that generates microscopic but intense blasts of high-velocity liquid. lf cavitation occurs near a metal surface, damage to that surface can be expected, usually in the form of pits or honeycombed surfaces in local areas. These areas are usually on the upper surface of horizontal bores (above the plunger travel) in the liquid end. lf pitting occurs at the intersection of bores, the stress risers created can induce early corrosion-fatigue failure. Plungers will sometimes show cavitation erosion on the packing area or on the end of the plunger exposed to the liquid. A ring of pits around a plunger is a sure sign of cavitation. Such conditions result in rapid packing wear. Pressure deficiency at the pump inlet can be the result of a poor suction system that can be described by "long" or "small diameter" or "sharp bends" or "low head. '' Pressure reduction can also be generated by the acceleration of the liquid at the beginning of a plunger or piston suction stroke. In that case, increasing the head on the supply tank or source alone may not cure the problem. The installation of a properly designed suction stabilizer will usually be the only remedy short of a newly designed suction system. lt is also believed that air or gas dissolved in the liquid can cause cavitation effects in the sense that sorne gas can break out with the same results as vapor formation. Cavitation is usually manifested by liquid knocking or pipe vibration. Examination of the instantaneous pressure at the pump inlet, measured with sensitive electronic equipment and displayed on an oscilloscope screen, will show the typical rounded-bottom, sharp-upward-spikes type of waveform instead of the usual symmetrical shape. Figure 3 .17 shows a typical waveform for cavitation in a pump suction. In this case, a great improvement was achieved, as shown in (b) by the use of a suction stabilizer as described in Chapter 4.
3.1 O SUCTION SYSTEMS

Cases 1 through V presented in Figures 3.18 through 3.21 show the physical arrangement of the five possible suction piping and equipment configurations that will be encountered. The appropriate formulas with examples are given in each case.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.17. Suction pressure trace showing typical cavitation waveform. (a) 63 PSI to peak. Pump not equipped with suction stabilizer. Note typical "cavitation" wavef1 with sharp upward spikes and rounded bottoms. Also note extreme pressure excursio,Q an upward or positive direction while the bottom of the trace is prevented from exte11' . into the negative region by the formation of vapor. (b) 13 PSI peak to peak. Same pu with suction stabilizer, same operating conditions. Note the "clean" sine wave and h frequency typical of "good" suction. The low-frequency cycles, over which the high quency is imposed, are the remnant of pump rotation-generated cycles. While this induced pulsation is not sertous, it could have been reduced by the use of a properl charged bladder in the stablizer.
90
Open tank
T
z
1--+------'---l
vp
ooo
Pump
Example
Water 120 degrees Pump RPM 150 Atmos 14.7 VP 1.5
10 ft L 10 ft f 0.5 POSIVA 4
TCP = 14.7 - 4.3 - 4 - 0.5 - 8.6 = +5.9
Figure 3.18. Typical suction system, Case 1: open suction tank, suction head.
91
Pump
l
Open tank
vp
Example
(3.18)
Water 120 degrees Pump RPM 150 Atmos 14.7 VP l.5
Z IO ft L IO ft f 0.5 POSIVA 4
TCP = 14.7 - 4.3 - 4 - 0.5 - 8.6 = -2.7 Pump will not run with minus TCP.
Figure 3.19. Typical suction system, Case U: open suction tank, suction lift.
92
Closed
tank
1
D
vp
Example
TCP =Pu+ P.,,+ P.,, - Pp- P4- P.'"c - P,"P

Water 120 degrees Pump RPM 150 Atmos 14.7 VP 1.5 TCP = 14.7 + 15
(3.19)
+ 4.3
- 4 - 0.5 - 8.6 - 1.5 =
+ 19.4
re 3.20 Typical suction system, Case III*: Closed suction tank, suction head.
for Cases 111 and IV:
hydrocarbons, saturated pressure = vessel pressure, but vapor pressure < vessel
93
D
.--------'-----t
ooo
Pump
_l
Closed
tank
Example
TCP =P.+ P.,, - P.,, - P" - P.>f- P...... - P,-.
Water 120 degrees Pump RPM 150 Atmos 14.7 VP 1.5 TCP = 14.7 (3.20)
+ 15 -
4.3 - 4 - 0.5 - 8.6 - 1.5 =
+ 11.3
Figure 3.21 Typical suction system, Case IV:* Closed suction tank, suction lift.
* Notes for Cases 111 and IV:

For boiling liquid, P.P =
P. + P
94
PUMP PULSATION ANO CONTROL
PULSATION TYPES
ciprocating pumps are responsible for the generation of many types of pressure turbances (pulsations) that may require special attention, Figure 4. lA. Followare the types of pulsation encountered and the Dampener Types usually reended. There are so many different Pulsation Types and features in the selection of ices for Pulsation Control, the following consolidated grouping of such will of assistance:
Type (DV)-Discharge-Velocity
erent and predictable pump ftow-variation generated pressure disturbances proed by any type of restriction to that ftow, more pronounced in the long pipes usually encountered in discharge systems. The frequency of these urbances are exactly related to the pump speed and the number of active linders, being in the order of about 1 to 50 Hz in most cases shown in Figure , ftow-rate patterns of various pumps. These types of pulsation are usually the st common and the most damaging because they are closely related to typical e support span lengths that have natural vibration frequencies, Figure 4.3. ch pulsations can generally be almost eliminated, both in the pump and in the em, by the proper installation of gas-filled, energy-absorbing, dampeners pe G, Figure 4.6, 4.11, and the judicious placement of pipe supports. The ree of pipe vibration is related to the driving force and any reduction of such ces by dampening will usually be effective in reducing that degree.
95
00
PUMP PULSATION AND CONTROL
TilI OVLRwm:L.'UNG T.BIORETICAL SUCTION ACC!l.I:RATION PULSA.TION (U) SUP!JUMl'OSl:D ON TilI Tm:ORETIC.U. >LOW-rnJJUCED YUI.SA.TION (SV).
sucnoN V AL VE OPEN!NG DELA y
( SA)
SO) 1 ............. ....-........~.......----........ -..........-...--.........;..................1--9
AcruAL PUMP INll'T PRESS1JRE TRACE

Figure 4.lA Composite Pump Dynamics
4.1
PULSATION TYPES
97
KEY TO FIGURE 4. lA - COMPOSITE RECIPROCATING PUMP DYNAMICS A-Real Oscillograph of Discharge Pressure Waveform of a 3 x 6 Triplex Singleacting Pump. Note the tendency to follow the theoretical flow pattern 'C'. 1-Maximum Discharge Pressure, 1644 PSI. 2-Average Discharge Pressure, 1400 PSI. 3-Minimum Discharge Pressure, 1151 PSI. B-Cylinder Pressure Waveform per stroke. 4-0vershoot Pressure, 1944 PSI. Seen only in Cylinder. 5-Average Discharge Pressure 1400 PSI. 6-Suction Pressure 15 PSI. C-Theoretical Flow-rate or Velocity. Note similarity in shape to actual. A-Points of Maximum Flow-rate or Velocity. B-Points of Maximum Plunger Acceleration. C-Points of Minor Acceleration. D-The Absolute Discontinuity between Suction and Discharge. Non-existant in Centrifuga} Pumps. E-Theoretical Flow-rate in Suction. A, B and C Points same as C above. -Actual Suction Pressure Waveform (Typical). Note how Acceleration Pressure Overwhelms Flow-induced Pressure. 7-Peak Suction Pressure, 25 PSI. 8-Average Suction Pressure, 15 PSI. 9-Liquid Vapor Pressure, PSIA.
PULSATION AND CONTROL CLASSIFICATION PULSATION PRESSURES-TYPES ote; DV) DO) DA) SV) Pulsation Pressures in PSI: - Discharge Liquid Velocity - Discharge Valve Open - Discharge Acceleration - Suction Liquid Velocity
(SA) (SO) (VA) (PS) (WH)
Suction Acceleration Suction Valve Open Vertical Acceleration Pipeline Surge Water Hammer
98
TABLE 1A. Dampener Classification
IDENT TYPE G L D Gas Liquid Dual BLADDER Confined Unconfined None Foam STYLE Appendage Flow-Thru Di verter PRINCIPLE Energy Absorbing Acoustic Reactive
FEATURES Use of Gas Conpression, usually Nitrogen. Ali Liquid. Use of Compressibility of Liquid. Device using both Gas and Liquid theory. Bladder Confined. Bladder Unconfined. Bladder None Baldder-Cellular Foam lnstalled on Tee in Pipe. Ali Flow passing through device. Gives effect of flow-thru by deflecting Liquid t Bladder containment. Compressibility of Gas. A device designed for the frequency to be filtere out by filter networks. Similar to Acoustic but requiring somewhat greate volume of Liquid. No Choke used.
e u
N F A F D
E A R
COMBINATION OF FEATURES Four-letter Groups: (Type-Bladder-Style-Principle) **GCDE (A3 4.11) DUFR (D 4.9) LNAR (NS) GCAE (Al 4.6) GUFE (NS) LNFR (NS) GUAE (A2 4.3) GNAE (NS) GFFE (C 4.4A) **Numbers refer to Type and Figure Number. (NS) Not shown. LNFA (B 4.7) LNFA (NS) DUFR (NS)
4.1
PULSATION TYPES
99
DUPLEX DOUBLE-ACTING
Maximum +247. Minim1.llll -227. Total 467.
o
V
\
60
120
180
240
300
360
I
\
I
I
"
\
"" \ ,,
\
I
/
I
\
"
"'
"V
17
'\
\
I I I I
TRIPLEX SINGLE-ACTING
"""'
\
'
'
' ' '
Maxim= +67. Minim= -1 77. Total 237.
60
120
180
240
300
360
QUINTUPLEX SINGLEACTING
~
...
I I
'
,. "'-... - -"... -' ,,,

'
-r-..,
/
_... _
'
/
_.1.-_r-...
;-'.
I
,
.._
_.__
' I 'I I
.(
...
' ...
'
'
/-
t'). ',
360
MaximUlll +27. Minimum -57. Total 77.
60
120
180
'
' 240
'
300
SEPTUPLEX SINGLEACTING
Maximum +1.27. Minimum -2.67. Total 3.87.
360
NONUPLEX SINGLEACTING
Maximum +0.67. Minimum - l. 5 % Total 2 .1%
60
l~O
180
240
300
360
Figure 4.2. Discharge Flow Variations (Velocity) of Multicylinder Pumps.
100
Frequency, Hz
RPM
Pump
Duplex Pulse
Triplex Pulse
50 100 150 200
0.8 1.7 2.5 3.3
3.2 6.8 10.0 13.2
2.4 5.1 7.5 9.9
Pulse= pump RPM x number of cylinders/60

(a)
30'
2", 5 lb Pipe
2.9Hz
8.5Hz
4.3Hz
12.5 Hz
l
(b)
1.9 Hz
5.5Hz
Figure 4.3. Typical pump and pulse frequencies and natural frequency of pipe spans.
4.1.2
Type (DO)-Discharge Valve Open
A pressure disturbance with a period unrelated to pump speed of a higher bu with a very close range of frequency of about 50 to l 00 Hz. These pulsation are caused by the acceleration pressure generated at the sudden opening of t pump valves but the frequency-determining factor is unpredictable. The ampl tude of these pulsations increase at the power of two of pump speed but they
4.1
PULSATlON TYPES
101
any of the listed dampener types
usually too serious and may be neglected. They can be alleviated by the use Type G.
(DA)-Discharge-Acceleration (Psac)
:ot::u"'""" the Acceleration pressure at the pump discharge is so miniscule, as comto the Velocity Pressure, it can usually be ignored. (Cases where it should
considered are cited.)
(SV)-Suction Velocity
velocity related disturbance but usually in exceptionally long or small diameter suction lines. They can be alleviated with much smaller Type G Dam-
(SA)-Suction Accelerafm
far the most serious disrupting disturbance encountered, for the reason that overwhelms any Velocity effects. A type D Dampener (Suction Stabilizer, (Figte 4.4), will tend to relieve the pump suction of any acceleration disturbances.
(SO)-Suction Valve Opening {Psvo)

Pulsation caused by the surge of the suction valve opening, being displayed as a ipidly dying almost pure pressure sine wave of a frequency not related to the p rotational frequency, always about 80 Hz, near the start of each plunger stroke. Probably the most important contributor to poor pump perforbecause the minus excursions may 'dip' into the vapor pressure, resulting
(V.A)-Vertical Acceleration
in Figure 4.5(a) that when the system involves a short vertical discharge, as a mine dewatering system, the pump "sees" a purely gravitational-inoutlet with little of the frictional losses of a long pipe line. In this case a pe D dampener is a must for proper alleviation. This also applies to pumps ith short connecting lines to an already pressurized system, Figure 4.5(c).
(PS) Pulsation-Surge-Not shown

hile not recognised as a pump related problem, the high amplitude instant presre surges caused by sudden opening or closing of valves downstream of the
102
6
11
~ilt;;~~~~~l}-~--5 .
o
o
Liquid
Figure 4.4. Type Suction Stabilizer (Courtesy, Greer, Inc.)
pump can result in excessive damage. A properly sized Type G Dampener wi'.I protect the system, See Section 4.13.
4.1.9
(WH)-Water Hammer
So-called 'Water Hammer,' a pipe-rattling, continuous vibration usually cause by small, loose parts in the system such as control valve buttons, etc., finding .. resonant part of the system to match.
4.2
DAMPENER TYPES
103
1
2000 ft water = 860 PSI head + 2 PSI due to friction
::\(0
''
000

(a)
163 mi; Friction
= 1 PSl/1000 ft = 862 PSI

(b)
Short connecting pipe Total pressure at pump = 862 PSI

(e)
Pressu rized system 860 PSI
Figure 4.5. Dynamic differences in discharge systems . a. Vertical discharge . b. Horizontal discharge. c. Pressured Systems.
4.2 4.2.1
DAMPENER TYPES Type G
Gas (Nitrogen) filled, bladder type, energy absorbing, adjustable pre-charge dampener, most commonly used.
4.2.2
Type GCAE
Provided with a bladder anti-extrusion device (button or poppet valve) to allow an almost unlimited high pre-charge pressure which extends the effectiveness of the device but precludes any protection below the pre-charge pressure. The use
104
Elastomeric bladder
Figure 4.6. Type GCAE Appendage Gas-type (Energy absorbing) Dampener. Restrained bladder. (Courtesy, Greer, lnc.)
of multiple-dampeners on a system, one of them precharged to a low pressure minimizes this objection. Figure 4.6.
4.2.3
Type GUAE
A "free-bladder" type dampener usually accepts a lower pre-charge which re duces its effectiveness at high pressure but it does provide attenuaton down zero discharge pressure. Figure 4. 7.
4.2.4
Type GCDE
A so-called "ftow-through" type of dampener equipped with a "diverter" baffl to provide an additional extremely effective filter action to prevent many of t high frequency disturbances from passing into the discharge or suction pipin system. Figure 4.8.
4.2.5
Type LNFA
Acoustic ( filter) dampener that filters out and prevents pump-generated pressu disturbances from entering the piping systems. For the low frequency of PV ty pulsations an abnormally large volume dampener is required and due to the. tentionally inserted chokes an actual back pressure is placed upon the pump. A, acoustic filter, per se, only "filters" and does not reduce the pulsations occurrin
4.2
DAMPENER TYPES
105
VENT""
PRE-CHARGE VALVE REMOVABLE CAP
..__..-......-1-~~,_,
BLADDER
GAS
U QUID
Figure 4.7 Type GUAE Appendage Gas-type (Energy absorbing) free-bladder Dampener. Limited pre-charge pressure.
in the pump as does any of the gas-type devices. Such acoustic dampeners must be designed for only one pump operating speed-at other speeds their effectiveness falls off rapidly. Figure 4. 7. The acoustic fil ter can be compared to the electrical analogy as shown in Figure 4. 9.
4.2.6
Type GFFE
Cellular type, fixed low pre-charge, gas type. Requires no pre-charging or bladder replacement and is effective for both flow-induced and acceleration-induced pulsations. lt is also effective from minimum discharge pressure but somewhat less effective at extremely high maximum pressure because of the limited but permanent so called "pre-charge". Figure 4. IO.
4.2. 7
Type DCFR
Combination Type G and Type L dampeners are almost mandatory for a reciprocating pump suction inlet, Figure 4.4. and for a pump outlet discharging into a vertical pipeline (such as a mine de-watering system) or long pipelines passing through mountainous country with exceptionally high and low elevations.
106
Antiextrusion rin Bladder button

Plu
Figure 4.8 Type GCDE Appendage, gas-type (energy absorbing) Dampener. Restrained b!adder. Diverter. "Pulse-tone" (TM Greer.)
In
Volume2 Chokes
Out
Figure 4.9. Type LNFA Acoustic Dampener
4.2 DAMPENER TYPES
107
Figure 4.10. Type GFFE Flow-through Closed-cell foam elastomer, energy absorbing, impedance dampener. (White Rock Engineering.)
Pressure gauge
Patented reinforced flexible membrane
Outlet
i-+--------Facetoface--------__..
1
Figure 4.11. Type GUFA PASAFE Dampener (White Rock Eng.)
108
LIOUID
REACTANCE
BAFFLE
Figure 4.12. Type LNFR Dampener
~: ~
MIN 680
t:.P 460
!\.
MAX1140
..
-+~-------'IJ------+- AVE 1 MIN 95

t:.P 70
~~iyc1021
ZERO
ZERO
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.13. Methods of reporting degrees of pulsation and control. (a) Case 1: Non. dampened waveform (from flow variation). (b) Case 11: Dampened waveform (from fla variation).
4.3
REPORTING DEGREE OF PULSATION
Method A: Used throughout this book and recommended as standard. Percent residu pulsation pressure:
Case 1: Case 11: liP/Ave
X
100 = 460/1000
100 = 46%
liP/Ave X 100
= 70/100
X 100
= 7%
4.4
DISCHARGE DAMPENING
109
~tbod
B: AP or change in pressure, min to max:

b.P = 460 PSI
D.P = 70 PSI
(4.2)
C: Percent attenuation or suppression:

I and Case II:
AP1
-
APn/ AP1
100 = 460 - 70/460
100 = 853
(4.3)
Percent transmission ratio: I and Case II:

!::.Pu/ AP1 X 100 = 70/460 X 100 = 15%
(4.4)
ortant:
N OF ERAGE)
ANY REFERENCE TO DEGREE OF PULSATION SHOULD APPLY TO THE. TOTAL EX-
!ON IN TERMS OF PRESSURE OR PERCENTAGE. fOR EXAMPLE, IN CASE
460 PSI (46 %) INFERS THAT THE EXCURSION TO 1140 PSI (14% ABOVE THE AVERAGE).
IS FROM
l, THE TOTAL PUL680 PSI (32 % BELOW THE
DISCHARGE DAMPENING
e application of gas-filled, bladder-type dampeners (Fig. 4.6) is the generally epted practice in most applications in "normal" service, particularly where eral pumps are discharging into the same system. Normal service includes long lines, oil-field water injection, drilling-mud circulation, and process systems high-pressure letdown, etc. Any practical degree of ftow-induced discharge tion attenuation can be had by selecting the proper dampener size and using correct gas precharge pressure. Experience shows that the high-frequency acceleration-generated pulses cannot attenuated by the use of conventional gas-bladder devices because these devices not react quickly enough to absorb much of the surge. There are about 30 different devices that can be used for pulsation control, ali them variations of the three basic types (Figs. 4.14 and 4.15). Most of them Id perform on a theoretical basis, but many are inefficient. The trouble-free gas-bladder type of dampener must be ruled out for pumps at uid temperatures above 300F because of the effects high temperatures have on elastomers, and also where there is the possibility of chemical attack on the stomer bladder. However, the gas or vapor-over-liquid type is justas efficient s of dynamic aspects, and perhaps something can be done to counteract two ections: (1) the difficulty of maintaining proper gas volume and (2) loss of gas y absorption in the liquid.
110
Long bladder
_}-
~~r-
-------------
lnverted bladder
Bourdon tube
10
11
Gas Gas
----------Metal bellows Gas bottle Manual charge Autocharge
13
vapor Water ........ or - - -- other 500 F 1 . .d
16
Water
ontinuous
as
9 u___ 1qu1
s-=-=-=-=-=}fi~
Cellular bottle
Sparger
Vapor bottle
17
18
Gas
19
20
Vaporization
Piston
Figure 4.14. Gas-type dampener variations.
4.5 GAS-TYPE DAMPENER SIZING
111
23
24
Acoustic
Wave trap
v.
Choke
Tuned trap
26
27Q~~~~ter 28
wall shell Turbulent vapor Turbulent vapor Low modulus
Multicylinder pumps 32
31
tn::
Gas
c_-_Lt~fJ:-~9LL~ ------------------i -5x1-rT1r11-{1---

Sleeve or "flow-through"
Gas
000
Offset pump
Perforated Elastomer sleeve sleeve
Figure 4.15. Acoustic and special methods of dampening.
Gas volurne could be rnaintained by the use of a liquid-level control or continous injection of hydrogen or other gas as part of a process. The bottle filled with as would provide the required darnpening effect. This would provide rnuch better ulsation darnpening than sparging gas into the systern downstrearn frorn the purnp. f course, continuous introduction of gas into the process would naturally elirniate objections to the continuous absorption of the gas in the liquid. As to the .roblern of gas absorption by sorne liquids, the problern is notas severe as it was first thought to be. For exarnple, the absorption of nitrogen in water is lirnited, .and sorne gas-over-liquid darnpeners at low pressure use an insignificant arnount of rnake-up gas.
GAS-TYPE DAMPENER SIZING

ormula (4.5) in Section 4.6 can be used to calculate the size (volume in U.S. allons) of darnpener by inserting the degree of residual pulsation allowed (gen-
112
erally 3-6%) and the value of precharge pressure. Precharge pressure of a gasbladder type of dampener is the charge of gas, usually dry nitrogen, injected into the bladder through sorne type of connector and valve. The most desirable precharge pressure is 60-70 % of the average working pressure or the limit allowed by the bladder design. If the precharge is higher, there is danger of the anti-extrusion valve (if so equipped) being destroyed by continua! closing on the seat at each pulsation. A precharge pressure below about 25 % of the average discharge pressure should be avoided to prolong bladder life by decreasing the degree of flexure. Low precharge pressure also reduces the effective size ofthe dampener. With the gas-overliquid type of dampener, the same sizing calculations can be used as for the bladder type, using a theoretical precharge of 100 %.
4.6
GAS-TYPE DAMPENER SIZING EQUATIONS
a. Volume of dampener, U.S. gallons:*
V8
where K
= =
KsD 2Pd/TP ..
(aQt%)!23l
=
*Based on Nitrogen charged Bladder with n
1.4.
b. Equivalent volume of multiple dampeners (a, b, e, etc.) with different precharge pressures, where Pea > Peb > Pee:
To calculate equivalent effect by eq (4.1) use Ve precharged to Pea c. Pulsation pressure, t', without dampener
(1
where
A B
+ A)\Pd + 14.7) - (1 - B)\Pd + 14.7)
= maximum instantaneous flow % (Table 4.1) = mnimum instantaneous flow % (Table 4.1)
TABLE 4.1
Pump Type Constants
Pump Type Simplex SA Simplex DA Duplex SA Duplex DA Triplex SA Triplex SA (0) Triplex SA (30) Triplex SA (60) Triplex DA Quadruplex SA Quadruplex DA Quintuplex SA Quintuplex DA Sextuplex SA Sextuplex DA Septuplex SA Septuplex DA Octuplex SA Octuplex DA Nonuplex SA Nonuplex DA
Numb Cyls 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9
Crank Angle 360 180 180

90
A(l) 0.58 0.29 0.29 0.24 0.06 0.062 0.061 0.05 0.06 O.ti O.ti 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.012 0.012 0.026 0.026 0.006 0.006
8(2) 1 1 1 0.22 0.17 0.17 0.12 0.09 0.17 0.22 0.22 0.05 0.05 0.17 0.17 0.026 0.026 0.052 0.052 0.002 0.002
Total(3) Percent 158 129 129 46 23 23 18 14 23 33 33 7 7 23 23 3.8 3.8 8 8 2.1 2.1
K(4) 0.684 1.368 0.558 0.199 0.100 0.100 0.078 0.061 0.200 0.143 0.286 0.030 0.076 0.100 0.200 0.016 0.032 0.035 0.070 0.009 0.018
Max Press Percent(5) 250 166 166 93 43 44 35 27 43 62 62 14 14 43 43 8 8 15 15 2 2
120 120 120 120 120

90
90
72 72 60 60
-NOTES;
(1) -
51.4 51.4 45 45 40 40
.... ....
"A' Flow variation above average, decimal. (2) - "B" Flow variation below average, decimal. (3) - Flow variation, total percent (4) - K Factor for calculation of dampener size (Equation 4.5)
(5) - Maximum pressure variation (pulsation) without dampener, percent. (0) - Fixed phase angle of two pumps compounded. (30) - Fixed phase angle of two pumps compounded . (60) - Fixed phase angle of two pumps compounded.
114
4.7
DERIVATION OF K
Flow rate, GPM Maximum flow Variation
Q, 3
158
Average Minimum (zero) Single-acting simplex 1
.67
E
;!:
;:
1
Maximum
~
Average Mnimum (zero) Single-acting duplex Double-acting simplex
129
.55
E
;!:
o :
Maximum Average Minimum Zero Single-acting triplex

1
23
.098
E
;!:
o :
Figure 4.H. Derivation of constan! K in dampener sizing Equation (4.5).

Vx
= =
KsD 2PjTP,
(4.5)
(4.6)
.6.Q%!231 (in 3 /gal)
4.8
PASAFE PULSATION CONTROL SIZING
The PASAFE Model selected for a given application is based on pump flow rate. Generally, the suction and discharge units are sized to be equivalent to 10% of the flow rate in volume per minute delivered by the pump. PASAFE Model (Gallons) PASAFE Model (Liters)
0.1 l. 7
* Flowrate (gal/min) * Flowrate (m 3 /hr)
4.8
PASAFE PULSATION CONTROL SIZING
115
MODEL Liquid Volume Liters Gallons

20 40 80 120 240 400
600
Gas Volume Gallons Liters

2.6 5 13 28 53 91 112 10 19 49 106 201 344 424
Max Gas PSI

300 250 200 150 125 100 100
Charge Bar
20.7 17.2 13.8 10.3 8.6 6.9 6.9
75 150 300 450 900 1500 2250
Calculate volume displacement of one pump cylinder using the pumps bore and stroke. VcvL (Gallons) = 0.7854 VcvL (Liters) = 0.7854
* Dia2 * Stroke/231
* Dia2 * Stroke *
(cu.in.) 10-6(mm.)
(4.9)
Pump ftow volume variation is the quantity of liquid the pulsation control unit must be able to accommodate and then dispense to stabilize pipeline ftowrate. A Factor for each pump type has been determined by integration of a computer generated ftow curve. Model assumptions are 10 degrees valve sealing delay and 10 degrees liquid compression delay. The resulting factors will be appropriate for 95% of the pump market. The exception are high pressure pumps with large clearance volumes or highly com-. pressive liquids. dVPuMP (Gallon or Liter) VcvL
* FACTORPT
(4.10)
where FACTORPT is: Pump Type Simplex SA Simplex DA Duplex SA Duplex DA Triplex SA Quintuplex SA
0.600 0.280 0.240 0.160 0.026 0.016
Calculate gas volume available in the dampener at system operating pressure:

(4.11)
116
where:
Ve
P0
PASAFE Gas Volume at System Operating Pressure System Operating Pressure PASAFE Initial Gas Volume (psi or bar) = PASAFE Nitrogen Charge Pressure 50% of System Pressure or Maximum PASAFE Charge Pressure whichever is less.
Vep
PCP
Residual pressure variation resulting from changing frictional pressure drop as a result of downstream flow variation when using the selected PASAFE Unit is cakulated using formula (4.12). Gas volume provided by the PASAFE Unit allows down stream flow variation to be reduced because of its ability to accommodate peak flow and dispense fluid during periods of low pump flow. Pressure pulsations when operating below normal system pressure wil! always be less than the pulsations created at normal system pressure. This is not true for appendage dampeners when system pressure is below the dampener charge pressure. (4.12) where:
Po (psi or bar) Ve (gal or liter)
System Operating Pressure PASAFE Gas Volume at Operation Pressure.
Target residual pressure variation (peak to peak) is figured as a percent of system operating pressure. The following table lists industrial recommended standards. However, system requirements or economics may require a different Target o/odP to be used.
Type Pump
Duplex DA Triplex SA Quintuplex
Target %dP
10% 3% 2%
Percent dP
IOOdP / P0
(4.13)
Adjustment of residual pressure pulsations can be obtained by selecting a larger or smaller PASAFE Unit or by the addition of an appendage pulsation dampener to augment pulsation control at high system operating pressures. The addition of gas volume from another dampener requires an adjustment to the total gas vol-
4.9
MULTIPLE DAMPENERS
117
ume and dampener charge pressure to recalculate the residual hydraulic pressure variation at design operating pressure. Since the PASAFE Unit has a relatively tow nitrogen charge pressure, the PASAFE Unit provides pulsation control over a broad operation pressure range. An appendage dampener used to augment the PASAFE performance can be charged toan optimum higher charge pressure. Use the following equation to determine a new gas volume available at system operating pressure. (4.14) where:
Vap
PcP
VGA
PASAFE Initial Gas Volume PASAFE Nitrogen Charge Pressure Appendage Dampener Initial Gas Volume Appendage Dampener Nitrogen Charge Pressure
PcA
4.9
MUL TIPLE DAMPENERS
For reciprocating pumps in long pipelines, the use of two or more discharge dampeners (with a total gas volume as required for one dampener) should be considered for the following reasons: 1. Because pipeline start-up pressure rise is brought about overa relatively long period (severa! minutes to an hour or more}, there is a period during which the pump pressure is less than the optimum precharge pressure of about 60 % of the discharge pressure for one dampener. During that time, the pumps would operate without pulsation control. With two dampeners (the second of which is precharged to about half of the first}, for example, pulsation control is extended well into the critica! start-up period. 2. In sorne cases, it is necessary to pump altemate batches ofliquids with widely differing viscosities. lt is obvious that the pump pressure required to displace the less viscous liquid is less than that for the more viscous-sometimes less than the optimum precharge pressure for one dampener at maximum pipeline pressure. A second dampener precharged to a lower pressure would give protection for a wide range of pipeline pressures. 3. The use of multiple discharge dampeners provides sorne redundancy and protection in case of the loss of precharge or bladder failure in one of the other dampeners. Figure 4.18 shows why multiple dampeners are desirable on long pipelines or in other applications where there are long periods of operation at various pressures.
118
600
;/
500
Theoretical without
dampener
~
400 .2
~
~
300 !? ::!
"' ~
~ ~
Q.
~,/
(..)
Q,
76 200
i /~ ~/ i e
!
a;
"' iQ,/ / "'1 <

e!!!
i e
100
..,..,,,..
,,,,,.,,,..
,,,,..,,,.. .....
...,,,,,..
One 30allon dampener
Thr111 lOpllon
dampener~
1000 Oper11tng pipeline pr111ur11, PSI
1200
1400
Figure 4.17. Multiple-discharge dampeners. 9 by 12 in triplex pump. Maximum operating pressure, 1400 PSI.
4.10
PRECHARGING GAS-TYPE DAMPENERS
Figure 4.16 can be used to estimate the volume of high-pressure nitrogen re-. quired to precharge gas-type dampeners of various sizes. The chart is based on th amount of gas contained in the popular T cylinder of 300 ft 3 capacity. Remember the basic rule for precharging: 1. There should be no pump or system pressure on the dampener during precharge. 2. Never pre-charge a dampener in excess of 60-70% of the working pressure.
4.11
VAPORIZATION OR "HEATED" DAMPENERS
A simple method of generating a continuous "gas" charge for a bottle-type dampener (no bladder) is by the expediency ofplacing an externa! heatng coil (electric; ' or steam-trace) around the upper part of the bottle. With sufficient heat applied, theHquid in the bottle will be converted to vapor, thereby providing the necessary gas for cushioning. The limiting factor in such an application is the system pressure. At high . sure an exceedingly large amount of heat would be required, and above the critical pressure of the pumped liquid no vapor would ever be formed. Also, on account of the lower ratio of specific volume of vapor to liquid at high pressure, such
4.12
MANIFOLDED MULTIPLE PUMPS (PHASING)
119
Dampener size, gal
Example:
1One cylinder of N2 would precharge about
540 PSIG (always 603 of discharge or
1 1one 40-gal (or tour 10-gal) dampeners to
200
1 system pressure). 1 1 1 Example: Cylinder pressure reduced 1 to precharge 1 of abot 540 PSIG.
100
V
500
1,000
------ avaiiitl1e--
234cuft N2(STP)
Maximum
cylinder pressure
1,500
2,000
2,500
Nitrogen cylinder andlor precharge pressure, PSIG
Figure 4.18 Nitrogen cylinder and/or precharge pressure, PSIG
l. Draw a line from the desired precharge pressure on the base of the chart, upward to the dampener size line at the top ofthe chart. Read the numberof gaUons of dampener size that can be precharged from the top scale. For this example, dampener size is about 45 gal. Accordingly, four 10-gal, or one 10-gal four times, or eight 5-gal dampeners could be precharged.
2. Draw a line horizontally through the point of intersection of the diagonal line and the vertical. This shows how much nitrogen is left (left side) or how much was removed (right side) in cubic feeL The remaining low-pressure nitro.gen can be used to precharge low-pressure suction stabilizers. 3, The precharge pressure should be about 60-70% of the average discharge or suction pressure or' to the limit allowed by the manufacturer .
.devices are more efficient at lower pressure. Accordingly, such dampeners are satisfactory for pump suction systems with reasonably low suction pressures, but for discharge systems they are in most cases impractical.
MANIFOLDED MULTIPLE PUMPS (PHASING)

n the case of multiple ptmps discharging into a common system, there are two
onsiderations;
120
l . Ali pumps coupled with fixed phase angle maintained. 2. Pumps with independent drives with no regard to fixed phase angle. When pumps are arranged as in No. l, the fixed phase angle should be selected for each pump by the following rule so as to result in minimum ftow-rate induced pulsations; Phase angle, degrees
crank angle/number of pumps
For example, two triplex single-acting pumps would require a fixed angle of 6 degrees. Pumps with independent drives will normally seek an in-and-out phase re! tionship resulting in maximum and minimum degrees of pulsation, unless a elaborate precision prime mover speed control is used. With either selection the required pulsation dampener size will not be ef fected-each pump will require the size based on a single pump. Table 4.1 includes a set of data on the effects on the pulsation degree different phase angles of two pumps.
4.13
THE SUCTION SYSTEM
The friction losses in a suction system are usually low because of the relative short length and large diameter of piping involved. Accordingly, the ftow-induc A-type pressures generated are of low magnitude compared to the accepted p centage of change. For example, if the suction pressure is a static 20 PSI, the 23 variation of a triplex single-acting pump would generate a theoretical A-type p sure variation of only 9 .2 PSI. This is hardly enough energy to set pipes in motio compared to the A-type pressure variation of 644 PSI in the discharge at 1400 P at the same ftow variation. But the forces of acceleration become the overwhelming disturbances in suction. Pressure pulses of more than 25 PSI are encountered in pumps even systems with short suction pipes. A small amount of dampening of the ftow-i duced PSI can reduce it to a negligible amount, leaving the 25-PSI C-type acc eration pulsations present for any damage they can cause by possible cavitation:
4.14
THE DISCHARGE SYSTEM
To carry the example to the discharge, the same forces are at work, but the pre at A due to ftow-induced pulsations becomes overwhelming at 460 PSI. The PSI contribution from acceleration at C is a small percentage (2.5%) of the~t discharge pressure. An exception is when the pump is delivering into a low-friction, high-press
4.16
DAMPENER PERFORMANCE
121
system such as a short vertical discharge system in mine dewatering (Fig. 4.5a);
to an already pressurized system such as a pressurized pipeline through a short
connecting pipe, or to an already pressmized system such as hydraulic press accumulators and similar systems (Fig. 4.5c). In those cases, the acceleration pressures can become the overwhelming disturbance, particularly if the piping system is relatively long compared to a suction system (but considerably shmter than a ''pipeline'
4.15
DAMPENER FACTS
A gas-bladder energy-absorbing type dampener of a specified size is not to the effects of pump speed-the reduced pressure resulting from the reduced speed still provides the same percentage of alleviation. Multiple pumps operating in parallel without precise or fixed phasing demand a maximum degree of dampening because of the adverse effects of the frequent "in-phase" or simultaneous delivery of severa! pumps. Individually driven pumps are almost impossible to be driven in fixed phase. If so, a permanent!y maintained 60 degree out-of-phase with two triplex pumps, for instance, would require less dampening than two triplex pumps. See Table 4.1. Any dampener equipped with elastomeric (rubber) bladders or are temperature limited to about 140 degrees F. Viton can be used up to about 200 degrees F but any elastomeric bladder suffers reduced life at higher temperatures and in adverse chemical environment.
4.16
DAMPENER PERFORMANCE
The most important function of the gas-type dampener is to prevent the generation of the most destructive low-frequency pulses such as those generated by the pump rotary motion and the combination of flow from each of the pump cylinders, basically RPM times number of cylinders. Accordingly, on the basis of a maximum of 500 RPM for most small pumps, the maximum frequency involved should not be over about 50 Hz. Above 50 Hz, such as at frequencies generated by the acceleration of the liquid and the system acoustics, the strictly gas-type dampeners become less efficient. From 50 Hz to around 200 Hz, the acoustical type is rather efficient. But, interestingly, it becomes exponentially more efficient and less complex with even higher frequencies. It is therefore evident that there may be a place for both types of dampeners. Figure 4.8 compares the performance ofthe most popular types on a typical pump. It is evident that in this particular case the gas-type dampener offers better performance then the acoustic type.
122
An analysis of reciprocating pump pulsations is based on the premise that pres~ sure or pressure variation (pulsation) due to ftow velocity or ftow-velocity variation is a function of the square of such velocity. And the system must present enough resistance to ftow, due to pipe friction, bends, fittings, chokes, etc., to allow pressure or pulsation to be generated in the first place. The magnitude of that pressure is directly related to the resistance. The analysis is also based on the premise that the acceleration of the liquid at the beginning of an increase in ve~ locity (start of stroke) generates a pressure _pulse, and the magnitude is directly related to the length of pipe connectd to the pump suction or discharge. lt is alsc>. inversely related to the diameter of the pipe and directly related to the rate q change of velocity. Because the inherent ftow variations of a reciprocating pump are of the sa intensity (but out of phase) in both the suction and discharge, for many years was believed that a pulsation dampener of the same size as the discharge shoul be used on the suction, and many such installations can be found. However, fro" the standpoint of ftow-induced pulsations iilone, it is logical that a smaller da pener can be used on the suction. Por example, a typical triplex single-acting pum has a ftow variation of about 23 % in both the suction and the discharge. If all this ftow variation were converted to pressure pulsations, the pulsations woul show a maximum of 46% of the average pump pressure. In our example, . maximum change in pressure at the discharge would be about 460 PSI at 1000 P average pressure. Now if there is, say, a 50-PSI suction pressure, the change i pressure there would be only 23 PSI; that is, there would be about 20 times le energy available to set the piping in motion. lt is also now known that the acceleration due to velocity variations is the sa in the suction and discharge systems of the pump. In the suction system, however, such disturbances usually overwhelm the disturbances due to flow variation, an conversely, in the discharge system the ftow-induced pressure pulses usually ovell" whelm the acceleration pressure pulses. There is evidence that only a flow disturbance or an acceleration disturbance (not both) can exist during any suction or discharge stroke of a pump. One will overwhelm and reduce the effect ofthe other. A plausible explanation is the theorSi that in pumps of greater than about 300 FPM piston speed, a disturbance of either type will momentarily reduce the volumetric efficiency to such an extent that .it cannot recover fast enough to allow the ftow rate to reach an adequate value ta. affect another disturbance in the short period of time, about 3 ms, between disturbances. There is no worry with pumps of slow speed because few if any distur bances are generated. lt is conceivable for a pump with high inherent flow variations to actually de liver an almost pressure-pulseless liquid into an open-ended (in effect), short, refa atively large-diameter horizontal discharge pipe. Sorne typical cases are pumps' with short connecting pipes feeding a large-diameter already-pressurized syste such as an existing pipeline or hydraulic press supply. If the discharge pipe is no made vertical, as in a mine dewatering system, the acceleration of the liquid col~ umn due to gravity becomes the predominant generator of pressure pulses. This
4.17 ACOUSTIC FILTERS
123
dynamic and hydraulic di:fference is shown in Figure 4.5, where the pump ' the same discharge pressure under three di:!ferent physical arrnngements: Pure vertical discharge-pump pressure is predominantly due to gravity head liquid; (b) pure horizontal discharge-pump pressure is predominantly due to velocity friction losses; and (e) discharge into pressmized system-pump presnre is predominantly dueto the constant pipeline or system pressure. Energy-absorbing or gas-type dampeners may not solve pulsadon problems in (a) and (e), and filter or acoustic-type dampeners should be considered. In cases, combination energy-absorbing and acoustic-type dampeners may be
Jt is impossible to speculate on the cause of disturbances of an obviously denature in existing systems. A pressure survey of the system by the use of and oscilloscope readout will reveal the causes and allow proper on control to be applied. See Chapter Instrumentation.
ACOUSTIC FilTERS
filters (dampeners) opernte on distinctly different pri.nciples than gas-type dampeners. Acoustic filters, as the name implies, do not alleflow variations but they do filter out the high-amplitude pressure waves enerated by the pump befare they trnvel into the downstream system of piping, whereas gas-type dampeners prevent the generation of such waves by the pump actual reduction of the flow-variations. Because reciprocating pumps are the main interest of those this book, it only fair to emphasize that the acoustic filter, reacting to the deliberate insertion of flow restriction in the device, can impose greater discharge pressure and con"'"""r1t1" higher pressure pulses in the pump liquid end itself, even beyond those an undampened pump. This is weH demonstrated in Figure 4. where the electrical analogy shows that the insertion of resistance alone reduces the down0stream pulsations but increases the amplitude of the upstream pump-generated _pulses. Acoustic filters are most efficient at only one particular design pressure wave which militates against their acceptance for systems that require variin speed or displacement, liquid type, and temperature. They also become more efficient at higher frequencies, while gas-type dampeners exan inverse reaction to frequency. (See Fig. 4 .18.) This feature precludes the use of acoustic filters on large, low-speed pumps, such as slurry pipeline triplex at 75 RPM, which have a basic frequency of 7.5 Hz. This low frequency .,v,uuu1<ou with the great flow rate would dictate an abnormally large and costly acoustic device. It has been shown that reciprocating pumps usually generate pressure pulsations of several different frequencies in both the suction and the most violent ,and damaging being that related to the basic pump pulse frequency determined by
124
the pump RPM times the number of cylinders and usually times a number rela to the crank arrangement. Figure 2.3 illustrates various pump-type ftow peaks stroke. These basic frequencies seldom exceed about 50 Hz. Secondary highquency pulsations result from the effect of acceleration discontinuities in both; suction and discharge. These are on the order of 75-150 Hz, having no relatio pump speed. Unpredictable pressure pulses are also generated when the acou properties ofthe system result in "noise" from flow-through orifices, valves, ulators, etc. These latter high frequencies can certainly be reduced by the us a properly designed acoustic filter. As previously mentioned, combining the features of both types is often e tive. The suction stabilizer shown in Figure 4.9, the PASAFE* (pump accelera stabilizer and flow equalizer) in Figure 4.10, and the PULSETONEt gas-type ener shown in Figure 4.11 are examples. An excellent example of how such a combination can improve the contro pulsation is shown in Figure 4.8(d), where the PULSETONEt [Fig. 4.11) re in improved downstream control by "filtering out" the secondary high-frequ pulsation as compared to that of Figure 4.8(d), a typical gas-type appen dampener, Figure 4.8(c). Note that the "pure" acoustic filter [Fig. 4.8(b)] mediocre low-frequency relief, both on the pump and downstream. It is beyond the scope of this book to include the design of such devices. I ested readers should contact the manufacturers or suppliers directly. The following acoustic filter formulas are intended only to show how al parameters of an acoustic filter are related. Refer. to Figure 4. 7 for a typical a tic filter configuration.
Acoustic Filter Formulas tt
K', effective bulk modulus, PSF
= 144 K/[1 + (KD/Eh)(l -
2 )]
a, acoustical velocity, ft/s

C, acoustic capacitance of volume,
(K'g/p) 5
ft5 /lb = Vg /pe?
C, acoustic capacitance of volume, ft5/lb

L, acoustic inductance of tube, lb-s2/ ft5
RA, acoustic resistance of pipeline, lb-s/ft5
P, pressure of rapid valve closure, lb/ft2
= V/ K'
= pL
1/
gB
= P/ Q = paQ/gA
*PASAFE, White Rock Engineering, Inc. tpuLSETONE, Greer Hydraulics, lnc. ttModified from E. J. Hicks, T. R. Grant, "Acoustic Filter Controls Recip Pump Pulsatio and Gas Journal, Jan. 15, 1979.
4.18 THE SUCTION STABILIZER
125
RA = paf gA
PdP0 , transmission ratio
(4.24) (4.25)
= ../1/(X + Y)
X= [(wL/RA) 2 (CR~/L)- 1 ] 2
(4.26) (4.27)
Y= (wL/RA{( CR~/L) 2
= flow area of pipeline, ft2

=
cross-sectional area of tube, ft2 , (tria!). = pipe inside diameter, in = modulus of elasticity of pipe, PSI f = frequency of pulsation, Hz g = gravitational constant, ft/ s2 h = pipe wall thickness, in K = bulk modulus, uncorrected for pipe, PSI L 1 = tube length, ft, (trial). P = pressure, lb/ft2 PL = peak pulsating pressure with filter, lb/ft2 p o = peak pulsating pressure without filter' lb/ ft 2 Q = volume of fl.ow, ft3/s V= capacitance volume, ft 3 , (trial). p = liquid density = lb/ft3 x 0.53 = Poisson ratio w = 27rf
B D E
THE SUCTION STABILIZER

the most economical and efficient pump performance, particularly with the ent of higher pump speeds for greater capacity, the suction system deserves ful consideration. small energy-absorbing, gas-type dampener on the suction will prevent the eration of flow-induced "A" pulsations. As for acceleration-induced high-frency "B" and "C" pulsations, it was discovered sorne years ago that the pump
126
with a long suction system could be made to act as though it had its suction close to the inlet. This was done by installing a lumped volume (vessel) wit and out connections in a flow-through configuration, a baffle to further interf with passage of certain pressure waves, and a small gas-type dampener as pre ously described. Such a device, called a suction stabilizer, was patented seve years ago (Fig. 4.9). Additional advantages of a suction stabilizer will beco evident from the following discussion. Most liquids contain varying amounts of dissolved or entrained air or gas. iow-pressure area is created in the pump cylinder, resulting in "breakout" of so of this gas with subsequent lowering of volumetric efficiency. Another problem the fact that these gases break out of the liquid with greater ease than they d solve-it takes a longer time and higher pressure to redissolve them in the liq Consequently, even though the pressure in the cylinder quickly builds up to discharge pressure on the delivery stroke, sorne of the gas remains to account sorne loss of displacement. Since a low-pressure region exists near the pump inlet, most of the air or tends to break out there. If space is provided in the upper part of the stabilizer the fluid velocity is reduced to give time for good separation (by its large volu most of this gas will migrate upward and accumulate there instead of procee into the pump cylinder. Somewhat the same problem is introduced by liquids inga high vapor pressure. Vapors can break out with the same results. A secondary, and perhaps more noticeable, effect of air or gas in a suction 1i is the tendency for the gas to accumulate in small pockets at the high spots in system. The pockets eventually grow large enough to move through the pump slugs and cause either momentar or long-lasting air lock or loss of prime, associated noise and knocking. Again, if a sufficiently large intemal space is vided in the stabilizer where these slugs of air or gas can accumulate, they never reach the pump. What happens to all the gas accumulated in the stabilizer over a period of ti Of course, if there is an excess it should be bled off through a vent. However most cases, the pressure-smoothing ability of the stabilizer minimizes the l pressure disturbances in the pump suction, which in tum minimizes breakout small amount of gas will redissolve slowly and consistently and will be ca through the pump without slugging. Reciprocating pumps are inherently good pressure wave generators. All wav tend to add or subtract to produce undesirable effects and loss of efficiency. produced by one pump can be reflected back on each other to produce the amplified effect as multiple pumps. As with electric devices, such interlering wa can be prevented by' the use of simple impedance-transforming devices. In hyraulic aspect, such transforming can be done by the shape, size, and arran ment of connections and baffies. By flowing through the stabilizer at the Pif suction, maximum filtering of interfering waves is had, particularly from o. pumps in the system. Again, the belief that additional suction pressure alone, provided by a charg
4.19
SURGE CONTROL IN WATER SYSTEMS*
127
pump or by greater head, will negate all of the problems of a ''poor:' suction system is erroneous. On a long suction line the source of additional potential energy is so far away from the main pump that its effect is not fully realized because of the time delay encountered. Al so, if a centrifugal charging pump is placed close to the main pump, there is little chance for the constant delivery from the charge pump to transform to the varying demand of the main pump. At those recurring mome:ms of maximum demand of the reciprocating pump, the "constant" supply of the centrifugal pump may actually act as a restriction. Sorne fluid "fiexibilty" must be introd_uced. In both cases a properly designed stabilizer will provide the necessary effect. The advantage of using a gas-filled bladder in the suction stabilizer is that it provides an energy-storing device to take care of the inherent low-frequency flow characteristics of a reciprocating pump, and it is most desirable on multiple-pump Remember, these are actual ftow variations and can be handled by such a device. As previously mentioned, the large-volume ftow-through features are required to control the high-frequency pressure wave disturbances resulting from the effects of liquid acceleration disturbances. On pumps handling sand-laden mud or highly concentrated slurries, the need for suction stabilization is just as important or more so. But a legitimate fear is sometimes expressed regarding the use of a stabiiizer. Such devices have been used successfully, and if the function is analyzed, fears of settling will be dispelled. Even though the velocity through the device is reduced, the loss in velocity is replaced by an increase in turbulence, which enhances the solids-carrying ability. Also, even with a stabilizer volume of about 10 times the pump displacement per revolution, all ofthe liquid in the device, say at 120 RPM pump speed, is displaced every 5 s, hardly time for much settlement. Finally, assumng that there is sorne settlement, the increased velocity due to reduced space would soon induce reentrainment of the settled solids.

Pressure surge in liquid pipelines, or ''waterhammer,'' as this phenomenon is more commonly known, is probably the most undesirable feature of any liquid piping system. Waterhammer has been the greatest cause of pipeline failure, weakened joints, loosened fittings, extemal leakage, severely damaged valves, and hammernoises followed by vibration of the piping. Noise and vibration are transmitted to the entire structure of the building housing the piping and in sorne instances even to the municipal piping system.
*This entire section is from the publication "Surge Control in Water Systems" by comtesy of the author, Zeke Zahid, president of Zemarc Corp., Los Angeles, CA.
...
~
!f11\jllflfVt
(a)
163 PSI 20% PULSATION

l
78 PSI 10% RESIDUAL
/11/\lf\jl\ft\
--~""'i",t"'I~~
163 PSI
98 PSI
1(b)
55 PSI 7% RESIDUAL 20 PSI 2.5% RESIDUAL 81 PSI 81 PSI
(e)
(d)
Figure 4.19 Performance of different dampener types, 3 by 6 in triplex pump, 800 PSI discharge. Top trace: Downstream of dampener. Bottom trace: Upstream of dampener. (a) No dampener. (b) Acoustic-type dampener. (e) Gas-type dampener. (d) Greer tlow-through dampener (Pulse-tone T ).
4.19
129
No dampener
Acoustic filter Combination of above volumes
50
Frequency of pressure disturbance, Hz
100
Figure 4.20 Attenuation characteristics of gas-type dampeners vs. acoustic filters. (CourtesyWhite Rock Engineering, Inc.)
Waterharnmer is caused by the sudden stoppage or rapid deceleration of liquid flowing in a pipeline, which results from the quick closure of a valve in the line. This instantaneous ftow stoppage generates a pressure wave that propagates at the speed of sound upstream from the valve until it reaches a larger-diameter riser or tank; the wave is then reflected back to the valve, causing an increase in the line pressure. This cycle is repeated ata regular frequency (depending on the length of the pipeline and speed of pressure transmission) until the wave's energy is finally dissipated as friction, heat, and elastic energy in the pipeline. In order to select proper methods to alleviate the waterhammer, it is essential to know its magnitude. The fundamental knowledge of the waterhammer phenomenon presented above can be applied in determining the intensity of shock or pressure rise it causes. Assume a simple water system consisting of a pipe, a water tank, anda quickclosing shutoff valve. Under a free-ftow or steady-state condition (Fig. 4.19) the water ftows from the reservoir through the piping at an initial constant velocity of V. The water pressure at the valve is P. Now, if we consider the valve closing completely and instantaneously, the following sequence of events takes place (Fig. 4.20). The ftow ofthe water mass immediately adjacent to the valve is completely ecelerated to zero, and the unconsumed kinetic energy in the water is converted o a pressure rise that compresses the water and expands the pipe walls. The transormation of kinetic energy takes place, generating a pressure wave that travels pstream to the end of the pipe at sonic speed of propagation designated by a in igure 4.21. If the length of pipe is assumed to be L, then it will take L /a s for the pressure
130
Valve=~
===E
Figure 4.21 Steady-state condition.
=e
wave to reach the end of the pipe. At this moment, water will be at rest, and the water density, pressure, and pipe diameter will tend to be greater than those of the normal free-ftow condition. When the pressure wave reaches the reservoir, it rebounds back into the pipe, traveling toward th<;: valve and arriving at the valve in 2L /a s after the valve closure. The water pressure is reduced to its normal level, and the pipe retums to its original diameter. The time 2L /a is considered the critica! valve closure time. This surge phenomenon repeats with decreasing pressure amplitudes until the total original kinetic energy is absorbed. If the valve closure is accomplished in time t ~ 2L /a the closure is assumed to be instantaneous. The pressure rise, therefore, can be expressed as
Pressure rise, where

!:J..P v
w
a
6.P
wavl l44g
(4.26A)
= pressure rise, PSI = initial velocity of water in the pipe before valve closure,
= specific weight of water, 62.4 lb/ft3
ft/s
speed of pressure wave in water, which also depends on the pipe material. However, an average value of 4000 FPS can be used. g = acceleration dueto gravity, 32.2 ft/s 2
Therefore, for the water system, the maximum waterhammer pressure can be calculated by modifying the pressure rise formula to
6.P
The maximum system pressure is
Pmax
53.8v
(4.27A)
6}J
P,
(4.28)
4.19
131
-
1
where
Pressure wave (Propagating at speed A) Quickly closed valve ~----- ......
1 ;( .$ _,}-1 --
..........
1 ""' """"' '
---___
_,,.
---
Figure 4.22 Sudden stoppage of water ftow (creation of waterhammer).
P5 Pmax
= =
normal static water pressure, PSI 53.8v
+ Ps
For example, in a water system with normal pressure of 60 PSI and velocity of 5 ft / s, the maximum system pressure, as a result of quick closure of valve, would be
Pmax = (53.8
5)
+ 60
= 329 PSI
This example clearly demonstrates that waterhammer can easily create a pres~ sure rise of more than five times normal system pressure. Figure 4.22 is a chart that can be used to determine the maximum system pressure of a water system once the flow velocity (flow rater divided by pipe area) and pressure have been determined. Once a basic understanding of the phenomenon of waterhammer has been achieved, an examination of various methods of control is in order.
4.19.1
Methods of Surge Control in Water Systems
Several methods can be employed to reduce waterhammer pressure. Waterhammer is generated by the rapid deceleration of water flow, and the resultant pressure increase is proportional to the rate of deceleration of the water flow in the pipeline. Consequently, if moving water is stopped gradually, the pressure rise will be considerably smaller than if the water flow is stopped suddenly. Thus, an obvious method to reduce waterhammer is to close the valve gradually. A valve can be closed rapidly during the initial closing stages but slowly toward the end to bring the moving water to a more gradual stop. The length of the pipe and the velocity of the water determine the rate and degree of closure necessary to prevent waterhammer. The longer the pipe and the higher the veloc-
132
4760.6
4000
"'
>
3500
ro
3000 29.5 24 2500
()
~ !!'.
"' "' e
:::>
o
g
>
03
D.
15
2000
12 11 10
1500
3.4
25
50 75 100 125 Pipe inside diameter/Pipe wall thickness
150
Figure 4.23 Pressure wave velocity, water. Numbers to right of curves indicate modulus. of elasticity in millions of PSI units. C, = 0.91.
the slower the valve closure should be. However, one can readily see that this. does not o:ffer a very practical or accurate solution. The second method to reduce waterhammer is a simple bypass or a relief device (Fig. 4.23). These devices basically relieve the excessive pressure by discharging the decelerating water volume either to the atmosphere or into the piping downstream ofthe rapidly closing valve. In sorne cases, the water is discharged into the supply tank through a line connecting the relief valve to the tank. This method not very reliable and requires frequent inspection and maintenance. Air chambers also offer a solution for the waterhammer problem. An air -.,~- .. ., . ber is simply a tank or a large pipe with its top closed to prevent the release of entrapped above the water level (Fig. 4.24). Air within the chamber occupies only
4.19
SURGE CONTROL IN WATER SYSTEMS
133
:;
Vl
wlOOO~~~-.-~~~.,-~~--.-~~~..-~~--.
ti)
Q.
~ 800F=~~--+-~~~+-~~--1-~~---1
:;
'5 :;
"' e
!JI)
] i
\':'.
~
6001--~~-+~-=""""......=='---+~~~-i--~~--1
~
400r-~~-r-~~-=--~~-t~~~T-~~--i
:: "'
Q.
"'
"'
2001--~~-+-~~~+-~~-1-~~~+-~~--1
x
::;;
E :::l E
30
60
80
120
Water ilow pressure, PSI
Figure 4.24 Maximum system pressure. A = 15 ft/s, B = IO ft/s, C = 5 ft/s.
25 or 20% of the total chamber volume, depending on the water system pressure. The air inside the ar chamber accommodates the kinetic energy i.n the system by compressing. Kinetic energy is thus converted to potential energy. However, if the system pressure reduces below the design pressure, trapped air in the air chamber will discharge into the system, thus rendering the entire device ineffective. In addition, the compressed air in direct contact with the water tends to slowly dissolve into the water, which also diminishes the device's surge-dampening capability. Then, when the system pressure is reduced, the dissolved air resumes its gaseous fonn, causing undesirable sponginess in the system and possible damage to the system components. The shortcomings and deficiencies of air chambers are e:ffectively eliminated in gas-loaded, flexible, separator-type surge suppressors (Fig. 4.25). Gas confined inside a flexible bladder separator provides an efficient means of transfonning the system's kinetic energy into potential energy. A gas-filled separator-type surge suppressor is installed upstream and close to the valve, which is the source of the waterhammer (Fig. 4.26). In the event ofthe valve's sudden closure, the suppres~ sor accommodates the abruptly stopping column of water immediately adjacent to the valve (Fig. 4.27). As the system pressure increases after quick valve closure, the gas, which is indirectly in contact with the water through the flexibie bladder, is compressed, thereby absorbing and suppressing the high-pressure surges that would otherwise be dissipated only after they had been detrimental to the system's piping, components, and ultimate performance.
134
Relief val ve By-pass line
Tank Quick-Closing valve
Figure 4.25 Relief valve upstream of the shutoff valve.
Air-pressurizing valve connection
Gas charging valve Bladder: BUNA N
Shell: Alloy steel
Figure 4.26 Nonseparator-type surge suppressor.
Figure 4.27 Gas-loaded flexible type surge suppressor.
separator~
4.19 SURGE CONTROL IN WATER SYSTEMS*
135
4.19.2
Sizing of Surge Suppressors
The size of a surge suppressor must be properly calculated, taking into account all the effective system parameters, if the unit is to perform with optimum efficiency. The following simplified explanation illustrates the method of determining the surge suppressor capacity for water systems. The analysis is based on two assumptions: (1) friction losses are small and may be disregarded and (2) the energy absorbed by compressing the column of water and expanding the pipeline is very small compared to the energy stored and absorbed by the surge suppressor and, consequently, is also a negligible factor. The sizing of the surge suppressor, based on these assumptions, offers a conservative answer, which is desirable since all the system variables cannot be known or taken into account. The water ftowing in a pipeline possesses a finite amount of kinetic energy (KE) which can be expressed as KE where
w
wALv 212g
(4.29)
= specific weight of water, 62 .4 lb/ ft 3 A = effective area of pipe, ft2 v = initial velocity of water at normal ftow, L = length of pipe, ft g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/s
ft/s
When the system ftow is stopped abruptly, this kinetic energy has to be transferred to the gas inside the separator. The gas follows Boyle's law:
(4.30)
P1 P2 V1
= = = V2 = n =
initial gas pressure (precharge), the same as system pressure, PSIA allowable surge pressure, PSIA surge suppressor volume (gas volume inside suppressor), in3 gas volume at the allowable surge pressure, in3 polytropic exponent of expansion of the gas ( nitrogen = 1.4)
Therefore, to achieve energy balance in the system before and after the valve closure, the k:inetic energy of the system before the valve closure is equal to the energy stored in the suppressor gas volume V1 between the pressure limits P 1 and Pz. Hence,
(4.31)
136
Surge suppressor
Valve open
Figure 4.28 Free-flow surge suppressor installed in line.
Surge suppressor
Quickly closed valve
Figure 4.29 Sudden stoppage of flow (suppression of waterhammer).
4.19
SURGE CONTROL IN WATER SYSTEMS
137
1.4
1.2
\
\
i
1.0
.8
e
.6
.4
.2
""'!--_
!----__
o
1.00 1.251.50 1.75 2.00 3.00
3.50
4.00
Figure 4.30 Pressure constant C curve.
For the water system,

4.65ALv 2
(4.32)
To reduce mathematical computations, this formula can be further simplified to (4.33) The value of C, based on the pressure ratio Pi/ P, can be readily determined from Figure 4.28. A cakulation illustrating the use of the above formula is given at the end of this discussion.
4.19.3
Conclusion
One aspect of surge control not directly connected with maintenance cost savings bears mention. Because of new safety codes and noise control laws and regulations, surge control in water systems may soon become a necessity. Thus, water system engineers and designers should become thoroughly familiar with pending legislation a:ifecting their current and future efforts. Such legislation is an expression of the growing concern over noise pollution and industrial safety, and costly retrofit programs may be avoided by careful consideration of surge control during the initial system design.
138
4.20
SAMPLE PROBlEM
Problem. Determine the surge suppressor capacity required to Hmit the maximum surge pressure to 125 PSIA in a water supply system with the following parameters: Pipe length, 1200 ft; pipe size, 8 in, schedule 40 Pump flow rate, 1500 GPM System pressure prior to valve closure, 80 PSIA Liquid pumped, water at ambient temperature Valve closure time, 0.4 s
Solution. The necessary surge suppressor size is determined by the equation (4.10):
4.65ALv 2
where
V1 = surge suppressor capacity, in3 L = 1200 ft A = 0.348 ft 2
flow velocity flow rate / ftow area = 1500 X 232 / 50 = 9.67 FPS P 1 = normal system pressure = 80 PSIA
= =
720
Pmax = maximum shock pressure = 53.8v + P 1 P2 = maximum allowable surge pressure = 125 PSIA te= critical time= 2L/a = 2 X 1200/4000 = 0.6 s
Since the valve closure time is less than the critical time, this condition can be treated as an instantaneous valve closure (the valve doses before the pressure wave retums to the valve).
p max
Therefore,
= 53.8
4.65
9.67
+
X
150
670 PSI
0.348
1200
286 -
(9.7/ 1]
80[(125/80)"
Vi=
16,690 in 3 (72 gal)
An 80-gal capacity surge suppressor is required.
4.20 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
139
lternate Method. The size of the necessary surge suppressor can also be determined by equation (4 .11)
(4.35) bere C is the pressure constant determined from Figure 4.28 for a corresponding to of P2 /P 1 When Pi/P 1 = 1.56, C = 0.54. Therefore,
V
= 62.4
0.348
1200
93.5
0.54 /80
= 16,690 in3 (72 gal)

n 80-gal capacity surge suppressor is required.
FINAL IMPORTANT NOTES

word about the most severe type of pulsation in the discharge of a reciprocatg pump-the 'flow-variation-induced' pulsations inherent in the pump itself. gure 4.2. Gas-type dampeners work on the principie that they prevent the foration of pulsations in the entire system, including the pump, by the simple cess of 'smoothing' out the entire discharge system ftow-variations themselves that the cause of pulsation is removed. Pure 'acoustic' type dampeners not only allow the pulsations to be formed, n to be partly 'filtered' out of the downsteam side of the system only-they metimes add resistance to that flow in the form of chokes and 'tu bes' to be ded to the power load of the pump. Such devices must be large with respect the pump.
PUMP DESI N
5.1
RATING STANDARDS*
The following definitions are reprinted from Hydraulic Institute Standards, 1985, by courtesy of the Hydraulic Institute. The purpose of this section is to define terms used in pump ratings. These ratings are characteristics of pump design and not conditions of the specific application.
STROKE.
One complete uni-directional motion of piston or plunger. Stroke length is expressed in inches.
PUMP CAPACITY (Q). The capacity of a reciprocating pump is the total volume through-put per unit of time at suction conditions. It includes both liquid and any dissolved or entrained gases at the stated operating conditions. The standard unit of pump capacity is the U. S. gallon per minute. PUMP DISPLACEMENT (D).
The displacement of a reciprocating pump is the volume swept by all pistons or plungers per unit time. Deduction for piston rod volume is made on. double-acting piston-type pumps when cakulating displacement. The standard unit of pump displacement is the U.S. gallon per minute. For single-acting pumps:
D=-231
Asnm
(5.1)
*Nomenclature in Section 5.1 may not be consistent with that in the main text.
140
5.1
RATING STANDARDS
141
For double-acting piston pumps with no tail-rod(s):

(2A - a)snm
231
(5.2)
where
A
a
= plunger or piston area, square inch

= = = =
piston rod cross-sectional area, square inch (double-acting pumps) stroke length, inch RPM of crankshaft number of pistons or plungers
s n m
PLUNGER OR PISTON SPEED (v). The plunger or piston speed is the average speed of the plunger or piston. lt is expressed in feet per minute.
ns
V= -
(5.3)
PRESSURES.
The standard unit of pressure is the pound force per square inch. The liquid pressure at the centerline of the pump
Discharge pressure ( Pd ). discharge port. Suction pressure ( Ps ).
The liquid pressure at the centerline of the suction port. The difference between the liquid discharge pres-
Differentia/ pressure ( Ptd ). sure and suction pressure.
Net positive suctiOfJ head required (NPSHR). The amount of suction pressure, over vapor pressure, required by the pump to obtain satisfactory volumetric efficiency and prevent excessive cavitation. The pump manufacturer determines (by test) the net positive suction head required by the pump at the specified operating conditions. NPSHR is related to losses in the suction valves of the pump and frictional losses in the pump suction manifold and pumping chambers. Required NPSH does not include system acceleration head, which is a system-related factor.
s ). Slip of a reciprocating pump is the loss of capacity, expressed as a fraction or percent of displacement, dueto leaks past the valves (including the backfiow through the valves caused by delayed closing) and past double-acting pistons. Slip. does not include fluid compressibility or leaks from the liquid end.
SLIP ( POWER (P).
Pump power input (P )-The mechanical power delivered to a pump input shaft, at the specified operating conditions. Input horsepower may be calculated as follows:
142
PUMP DESIGN
P; =
--~-
Q X
Pu1
1714
X Y/p
(5.4)
Pump power output ( P0 ) - The hydraulic power imparted to the liquid by the pump, at the specified operating conditions. Output horsepower may be cakulated as follows:
p
()
X P1c1
1714
(5.5)
The standard unit for power is the horsepower.

EFFICIENCIES ( 11 ). Pump efficency ( rP), (also called pump mechanical efficiency)-The ratio of the pump power output to the pump power input.
p P;
(5.6)
Volumetric efficiency ( r v ) -The ratio of the pump capacity to displacement.
r,. =
/5
(5.7)
PLUNGER LOAD (SINGLE-ACTING PUMP). The computed axial hydraulic load, act-
ing u pon one plunger during the discharge portion of the stroke is the plunger load. It is the product of plunger area and the gauge discharge pressure. It is expressed in pounds force.
PISTON ROD LOAD (DOUBLE-ACTING PUMP). The computed axial hydraulic load,
acting upon one piston rod during the forward stroke (toward head end) is the piston rod load. It is the product of piston area and discharge pressure, less the product of net piston area (rod area deducted) and suction pressure. It is expressed in pounds force.
5.2
FAMllY PLANNING
It is usually anticipated that a family of pumps of any one type wiU be produced in a series of horsepower sizes. The hoice of sizes should follow sorne order of progression, and the geometric series seems desirable. For example,
n, nr1 , nr 2 , nr 3 , nr4 ; etc.

where
(5.8)
n r
base horsepower (BHP)
= progression ratio
5.3
WINDOWS OF NONUTILIZAT!ON
143
TABLE 5.1. Geometric Si:ze Progression
n = 100
= 100 BHP
n4
= 100 X 5.1
510
n 1 = 100 X 1.5 = l 50
n5 = 100 x 7.6 = 760

= 100 X 11.4 = 1140 n1 = 100 X 17. l = 17 10
n6
n 2 = 100 X 2.3 = 230 n3 = 100 X 3.4 = 340
TABLE 5.2. Arithmetic Si:ze Progresslcm
n = n 1 = 100 !12 = 200 n3 = 300
+ 100 + 100 + 100
= BHP = 200
=
300
= 400
n4 = 400 n5 = 500 11.5 = 600 !17 = 70.0
+ +
+ +
100 100 100 100
500 600 = 700 = 800

= =
With a base of 100 BHP anda progression ratio of 1.5, each term is 50% larger than the previous term (see Table 5.1). An arithmetic series may sometimes be desirable. This is
n; n 1
where n d
= n + d;
n2
= n1 + d;
= n2 + d;
n4
n3
+ d; etc.
(5.9)
= base horsepower (BHP) = progression difference
Table 5.2 illustrates the first seven members of an arithmetic series with a basen of 100 BHP anda difference d of 100.
5.3
WINDOWS OF NONUTIUZATION
.Predictable pumping requirements include a wide order of displacement and pressure pararneters. This unavoidably large variation of and mandatory economic limit on the number of pumps in a family contribute to the complexity of the familysize selection process. Sometimes a project may warrant the design and manufacture of a pump of a particular size to exactly fit that project. This is true in the long slurry pipeline that entails a great number of large pumps and a long lead time from conception to completion. Nevertheless, there are unavoidable gaps or "windows of nonutilization" in the overlapping pump specifications, as shown in Figure 5.L These are regions in the typical pressure vs. displacement curve for each pump of a family where operation is impossible on account of the pump overload. The chart shows the in-
144
PUMP DESIGN
1500
1400
Maximum pump pressure (minimum piston diameter)
1200
800
600
5001----L~~--:'-_.__._..___.__,___;,,._....L...l-,--~""""~....i.~~-L.::,,,_--I
Minimum pump pressure (maximum piston diameter)
100
200
300
400
500
GPM
600
700
800
900
Figure 5.1. Performance characteristics of a typical family of reciprocating pumps. Win dows of nonutilization (shaded areas).
herent disparity in displacement vs. pressure characteristics of a family of fo* similar pumps of any practica! progression. For example, if a pump requirement falls at point A (280 GPM at 1300 PS just outside the 210-BHP envelope, one would be forced to choose a 320-BH pump ( point B) and accept a certain amount of first-cost penalty of excess installe power.
~;
f;
5.4
PISTON ROO LOAD
There is no absolute rule for selecting the piston rod load (PRL) for a particul pump design. However, the nature ofthe mechanism associated with reciprocaf pumps of all types along with past practices dictate that the PRL be directly rela to the hydraulic horsepower (HHP) in about the following ratio: 192 X BHP PRL=---n where n = number of cylinders An exception to this rule is the case of multicylinder plunger pumps where same reciprocating parts, both power-end and liquid-end, are used for econom advantage in all of the cylinders of the triplex, quintuplex, septuplex, and non plex. In those instances, the PRL is based on the original triplex design and i
5.4
PISTON ROD LOAD
145
SMALL PIN FDR RETURN STRDKE
TYPICAL FASTENING r----".--~~~~~~--~~~~------

/ 1
DIRECTIDN DF LOAD - - - CONNECTI NG ROD
_J
END OF CONNECTING RDD GROUND TO BEARING

FINISH.
BEARING
Means of Increasing Crosshead Pin Bearing Load on Single Acting Pumps
used for the other multicylinder pumps. The horsepower increase in each succeeding increase in the number of cylinders comes from this addition of cylinders rather than from an increase in PRL. The PRL is a function of piston area AP and the discharge pressure: (5.1 l) where Pd
= maximum allowable pressure,
PSI
In double-acting pumps, the piston-rod diameter reduces the effective area of the piston on the cmnk-end stroke. The pump must be designed on the maximum PRL seen on the head end of the piston where the full area is subjected to the discharge pressure. A high suction pressure on a double-acting pump will tend t0>reduce the PRL, but this should not inftuence the design of the pump, because the actual suction pressure cannot be predicted or guaranteed.
Unusual Pressure in the Pump Cyiinder

Naturnlly, any excessive pressure in the pump cy!inder will show up in excessive bearing loads and the question arises as to what maximum pressures can normally be expected. An investigation started about 35 years ago on the failure of luid ends on pumps due to corrosion-fatigue, with sorne statements that, "Pressure as high as seven times the average discharge (design) pressure have been measured". This led first to a study of the best means of measuring these pressures and the conclusion was that the strain gauge type of pressure transducer
146
PUMP DESIGN
with a small, ftush, sensing diaphragm mounted directly into the pump cylinder head without any connecting pipes, valves, etc., is required. Then the pressure read-out should be by means of an oscilloscope to eliminate any mechanical (inertial) effects associated with any strip-chart type of recorder. With literally thousands of oscillographs taken in the cylinder of 1 BHP to 1700 BHP pump in every conceivable service, it can be said that the normal cylinder over-pressure seldom exceeds 10% at the beginning of each pressure stroke. Now there are occasions when a poor suction system or other contributions can cause an increased over-pressure but even then, the worst that has been observed is about 100% and in those cases corrective measures had to be taken. While on this subject, it is important to note that a typical cylinder pressure is theoretically a "good" square wave which means that the cylinder (and the associated bearings) "see" the full discharge pressure for almost ali of the 180 degrees of discharge stoke. This is a departure from the less severe pressure waveform seen in gas compressors and interna! combustion engines. lt is also of interest that the "overshoot" pressure, sometimes seen in the cylinder, is usually not seen in the discharge pressure waveform. A good example is shown in Figure 4.3, Parts A and B. Never-the-less, the crankshaft and bearings "see" this elevated pressure load.
5.5
MAXIMUM PISTON DIAMETER
There must be sorne size limit to the piston diameter, but here again there is no absolute rule. One guideline is that the practica! diameter of the piston should be no greater than the pump stroke length s, thus setting the ratio of maximum displacement to maximum pressure limits:
Dmax
=S
A pump with such a piston diameter is known as a '' square'' pump. With pump~ having a range of replaceable and multisize liners and pistons, the PRL /MAP relation must be maintained. The design approach in that case is to assume an arbitrary piston diameter of approximately half-stroke length:
Dave
= s/2
Maximum limits of PRL dictate that for extremely high pressure pumps (abov~ 10,000 PSI MAP), a drastic reduction in the plunger size/stroke length ratio is required.
5.6
STROKE LENGTH
The selection of a design stroke length is roughly related to accepted past practices, dictated by the mechanisms associated with reciprocating pumps, usually resulting
5.8 SPEED
147
TABLE 5.3. Pl1mp Stroke length
PumpBHP
Stroke, in
4
Pump BHP
Stroke, in
----~--
50 100 200
400
800 1600
5
7
10 13 18
in the "square" pump limitation previously with the maximum stmke about equal to the piston diameter. St.roke length is more closely related to pump horsepower in the arbitrary manner:
0.7(BHP)" 44
(5.14)
But sorne departure will be encountered. This relation is illustrated in Table 5.3 for sorne common pump horsepower values. See also the relation of pump RPM to stroke in Sections 5.9 and 5.10.
5. 7
NUMBER OF CYUNDERS
Duplex double-acting pumps with four pressure strokes per cyde would naturally require 90 crank angle spacing of the two throws to generate a tolerable flow variation pattem. Multicylinder pumps can be designed with any number of cylinders, but for most efficient distribution of flow variations per cycle, the use of an odd number of cylinders, namely 3, 5, 7, or 9, is desired. Even numbers of cylinders result in superjacency of two or more flow pattems per cylinder, which in turn result in emphasized peaks that generate greater pressure pulsations. Sometimes the main reason for using a multicylinder pump is its more desirable flow pattem, with lower values of flow valiation and subsequent pulsation. As illustrated in Table 5.4, even-numbered cylinders have an inherently greater valiation.
5.8
SPEED
There is a great temptation to increase the horsepower rating of pumps by simply increasing the speed. An existing pump can be uprated only slightly in speed. At a higher speed the liquid velocity through the valves may be greatly exceeded, to the extent that hydraulic difficulties would be encountered. The. valves in an existing pump were probably designed for a practica! maximum velocity as determined for its original rated pump speed and piston size.
...
TABLE 5.4. Pump Type flow Variation
Pump Type Simplex SA Simplex DA Duplex SA Duplex DA Triplex SA Triplex SA (0) Triplex SA (30) Triplex SA (60) Triplex DA Quadruplex SA Quadruplex DA Quintuplex SA Quintuplex DA Sextuplex SA Sextuplex DA Septuplex SA Septuplex DA Octuplex SA Octuplex DA No1mplex SA Nonuplex DA
NOTES;
Numb Cyls
1 1 2 2
Crank Angle 360 180 180 90 120 120 120 120 120 90 90 72 72 60 60 51.4 51.4 45 45 40 40
A(I) 0.58 0.29 0.29 0.24 0.06 0.062 0.061 0.05 0.06 0.11 0.11 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.012 0.012 0.026 0.026 0.006 0.006
B(2)
1 1 l 0.22 0.17 0.17 0.12 0.09 0.17 0.22 0.22 0.05 0.05 0.17 0.17 0.026 0.026 0.052 0.052 0.002 0.002
Total(3) Percent 158 129 129 46 23 23 18 14 23 33 33 7

"7 1
K(4) 0.684 1.368 0.558 0.199 0.100 O.lOO 0.078 0.06! 0.200 0.143 0.286 0.030 0.076 0.100 0.200 0.016 0.032 0.035 0.070 0.009 0.018
Max Press Percent(5) 250

166
3
3 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9
--
23 23 3.8 3.8 8 8 2.1 2.1
166 93 43 44 35 27 43 62 62 14 14 43 43 8 8 15 15 2 2
(1) - "A" Flow variation above average, decimal.
(2) - "B" Flow variation below average, decimal. (3) - Flow variation, total percenl (4) - K Factor for calculation of dampener size (Equation 4.5)
(5) - Maxirnum pressure variation (pulsation) without dampener, percent. (0) - Fixed phase angle of two pumps compounded. (30) - Fixed phase angle of two pumps compounded. (60) - Fixed phase angle of two pumps compounded.
5.10
SPEED OF MULTICYLINDER PUMPS
149
TABLE 5.5. RPM of Dup!ex Pumps
Stroke, in
RPM
Stroke, in
12 14 16 18
RPM
100 86 75 67
,., ,_ 4 6 8 10
600 300 200

150
120
However, dueto competition and economic reasons, there has been a tendency to design greater speed into pumps, and the hydraulic limit has probably been reached. Greater speeds will no doubt require drastic design approaches, such as positively actuated valves, tending to offset any economic advantages associated with the speed. The greater the pump speed (RPM), regardless of stroke length, the greater the detrimental effect of high acceleration pressure at the pump suction and discharge. In other words, maintaining a constant piston speed (FPM) by choice of RPM vs. stroke length results in constant displacement in GPM, but the short-stroke highspeed pump suffers most from acceleration problems. It has also been shown that liquid-end parts life is exponentially reduced by increases in RPM and/or in number of reversals. See Chapter 10, Parts Wear and Life.
5.9
SPEED OF DUPLEX AND SIMILAR PUMPS
Aside from the hydraulic limiting factors affecting maximum RPM, the imbalance of pump crankshafts with nonsymmetrical throws, such as the duplex double-acting with two throws at 90 separation, creates intolerable rotary imbalance. Such pumps must be limited to a relatively low RPM, because the e:ffects of the unbalanced forces (centrifuga!) increase to the power 2 with rotating speed. Accordingly, a practical speed rating for such pumps is
(5.15)
where FPMd Table 5.5 was constructed on that basis.
= 200
5.10
SPEED OF MULTICYLINDER PUMPS
Pumps with symmetrical crankshafts (equally crank angles) such as a duplex single-acting and all multicylinder pumps can be operated at much higher
150
PUMP DESIGN
TABLE 5.6. RPM of Multi-Cylinder Pumps
Stroke, in
RPM
Stroke, in
RPM 160
2 4 6 8
10
600
450
300
225 180
12 14 16 18
130 112
100
Note: An arbitrary limit has been set at 600 RPM for stroke of 3-in. or less.
speeds because of the inherent static balance of the crankshaft, but now being limited by the hydraulics. Liquid flow or friction pressure increases directly with velocity. Liquid acceleration pressure increases as the second power of crankshaft rotating speed. Both of these factors affect the volumetric efficiency of the pump, and there must be sorne limit to the maximum speed at which the pump can operate. Due to economic factors and competition, the industry has seen a gradual increase in the maximum allowable speed (MAS) for multicy linder pumps. lt appears that a limit has been reached beyond which the problems associated with high speed cannot be tolerated. In fact, sorne manufacturers have followed a trend to lower speeds. Speed reduction is desirable in many cases where suction conditions are minimal. See Chapter 2, Dynamics. An acceptable range of basic speeds for multicylinder pumps is determined by the following formula, based on a constant piston speed of 300 FPM: RPMMax. = FPMs/(2s/12) where FPM5 (5.16)
= 300
Table 5.6 illustrates this relationship. For further discussion of the effects of pump speed see Section 10.1.4 Chapter 10. Parts Wear and Life.
5.11 5.11.1
DIRECTION OF ROTATION Rotation "Overrunning"
In an overrunning pump the crank rotation is such that the crank approaches the crosshead from the top of the rotation circle as shown in Figure 5.2. This motion is preferred for horizontal pumps because the connecting rod force component R and the weight component W are always directed downward. To resist the normally high crosshead forces, more rigidity can be built into the lower crosshead guide,
Crank end
Head end
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.2. Direction of rotation. (a) Overrunning. (b) Underruning.

l'lhl -
PIN BEARING
.. LIJAD?~
CRDSSHEAD PIN ANO BEARING ASSEMBLY VITH CLEARANCE DBTAINED VITH PARTS OF DIFFERENT SHDVING CEXAGGERATED J THE LINE CDNTACT PRESSURE RESULTING IN EXTREMELY HIGH CDMPRESSIDN STRESS FRDM APPLIED LDADS. THE MDDULUS DF ELASTICITY DF THE METALS DF BDTH PARTS CTHAT OF THE BEARING BEING THE LDVEST J ALLOVS AN AREA CDNTACT . TO BE GENERATED
Figure 5.2A. Oscillating Crosshead Bearing Arrangement.

151
152
PUMP DESIGN
since it is tied into the base of the power end. Overrunning also minimizes cross' head slap or knock.
5.11.2
Rotation "Undem.mning"
Rotating in the opposite direction, an underrunning purnp, in Figure 5.2(b) has force component R that is always directed upward while the weight component is always downward. These altemating forces can cause crosshead slap or kno Extremely close crosshead and guide clearances must therefore be incorporated.
5.12
OFFSET CRANKSHAFT
As described in Section 5 .11, all crosshead forces or loads are usually direct downward in a horizontal reciprocating pump. The offset crankshaft (Fig. 5. causes a modification of these loads in such a manner that the maximum downw load at the center of the stroke is reduced by an amount that is transferred to upper guide at the beginning and end of the stroke (Fig. 5.4). A slight impro ment in mechanical efficiency should be expected, but there is the possibility' crosshead slap or knock at the points of load reversal. The offset crankshaft offers little if any advantage with respect to the standpoint. The acceleration at the ends of each stroke is not altered, and the pattern change is almost undiscemible. The following special formulas apply to the offset crankshaft:
X=
r(l - cos 8) + (r sin()+ h) 2/2Lc arctan [ ( r sin ()
h) /
~L~
- ( r sin ()
+ h) 2 ]
90
Figure 5.3. Offset crankshaft.
5.13 CONNECTING ROD FORCES
153
UPPER GUIDE
~UNNING
CLEARANCE
SH1JE
LO\.JER GUIDE
UPPER CLEARANCE
EXAGGERATED J
IJRDNG
SHOES TURNED TO
RIGHT
SH!JES TURNEO TO Sl\ME D l AME TER AS
CR!JSSHEAD !lDRE .
D!AMETER LESS THAN GUIDE Dll\METER
RESULTS IN L!NE '"-----'

CONTAtH
RESUL TS lN 1007.
BEAP.INu CONTACT.
Figure 5.3A. Shim-Adjusted Crosshead Shoe and Guide Fits
= 27N /60
r 12
sin ( ()
(5. l 9)
V=-w
+ o:)
sin (1.57 - a)
(5.20)
a = 0.084rw 2 ( cos ()
+ - cos 2e + - sin fJ)

Le Le /
(5.2l) (5.22)
R = (tan a)PRL
CONNECTING ROO FORCES
lntroduction
fundamental mechanism of the power end of a reciprocating pump is the crank-
nnecting rod-crosshead system. The design of a crankshaft provides single or
154
PUMP DESIGN
2" Offset crankshaft Underrunning
....~+-~+--~I----+~--+~~ .!+1--~~,.......+~--+~-+-....,...'"+--~ to
~
c.
al
l=----l~---l-...::::,,.....~::::.._~--1--~-t=-~J-~-l------ll-----l-~---+~-I
b8
No offset Overrunning
"'
;::
180 210
240
270
300 330
180
210
240 270
300
330 360
Crank angle, deg
Figure 5.4. Offset crankshaft, crosshead loads.
multiple throws or crank pins, the axis of which are on the desired distance (radiu from the axis of the main shaft. Many forms of crankshaft configuration are used, most representing differen methods of manufacture such as forged, cast and machined-from-billet and eve bolted assemblies. Figure 5.5 shows the general shape of several crankshaft de signs, all having opinionated features. The basic geometry of a crank-connecting rod-crosshead system is shown i Figure 5.6. The pump mechanism forces are shown in Figure 5.7 for a conven tional crank mechanism and in Figure 5.8 for an articulated mechanism.
5.13.2
Formulas
The following formulas are used to calculate the crank mechanism forces and a example is shown in Figure 5. 9.
Example: Triplex Single-Acting; Type 111 Crankshaft
See Figure 5. 7.
r
3 in; Le
18 in; PRL
10,000 lb
Pd = 1415 PSI; Ps = 100 PSI
~ Bearing ~ Frame
Gear
Cast eccentric Multicylinder Single- or double-acting
Barrel type Duplex only VI Gear
11
Shaft-eccentric Multicylinder Single- or double-acting
Overhung crank Duplex only VII
111
Cast marine type Multicylinder Single- or double-acting Optional full or half "back-up" journals VIII
Modular eccentric Multicylinder Single- or double-acting
Forged marine type Multicylinder Single- or double-acting
lntermediat.e journal
Figure 5.5. Crankshaft types.
155
StrokeS, in 270
Outlet connection pipe size, in Piston diameter, in
180
90 pipe size, in
Figure 5.6. Pump geometry.
CD O CD
Q)
<"O ::o g:~~
o- -:::i:::i
3., u; Discharge press
"O c O ::T "O
!"
:.._,,,.,...,.~~:-:---:--::-~~::.!!.~~-=:;:;oR't--t-HE:""j'P~:'re
Piston diameter O - 180 Cycle: Suction: lnside crosshead Discharge: Outside crosshead (Double-acting pumps: Subtract suction pressure on CE from discharge pressure on HE.)
Figure 5. 7. Pump mechanism forces.
156
5.13 CONNECTING ROO FORCES
157
a1
arcsin (r sin 8/Lc)
arcsin (3 sin 86)/18
= +9.57 (5.23)
(5.24) (5.25) (5.26) (5.27) (5.28)
PRL CRL XHL Nonnal load Tangent load where
= 0.7854 X D 2 X PSI = 0.7854 X 32 X 100 = +707 lb = PRL/cos a = 707 /0.986 = +717 lb = CRL sin a= 717 x 0.166 = +119 lb = CRL cos (8 +a) = 717 (-0.097) = -70 lb = CRL sin (8 +a) = 717 (0.995) = +714 lb
Symbols: a-rod to crosshead axis angle, deg. {3-rod to crank angle, deg. 0-crank rotation, deg. L,.-connecting rod length, in r-crank radius, in.
Displacement Articulated end
r2
--
- --
Displacement
Regularend
Figure 5.8. Articulated pump mechanism forces. a = angle between rod and crosshead angle, deg; fJ = angle between articulated rod and crosshead angle, deg; O = crank angle, deg; Le = connectiQg rod length, in; L 0 = articulated rod length, in; r 1 = crank radius, in; r2. = effective radius of articulated rod, in; e = connecting rod extension, in;
= sin a(Lc
+ e)
fJ = arcsin (ri/L0 )
a = arctan (ri/Lc)
Suction,
PRL = +7071b
100 PSI
(a)
Discharge, 1415 PSI
o2 = o1 + 120 = 206
(b)
PRL = 10,000 lb
(e)
Figure 5.9. Connecting rod geometry offorces for Example A: triplex single-acting, Type III crankshaft. See Section 5.13 for calculation. (a) Forces on connecting rod l. (b) Forces on connecting rod 2. (e) Forces on connecting rod 3. Consider crosshead weight if significant.
158
5.14
CRANKSHAFT BEND!NG MOMENTS-CALCULATIONS
159
D = piston diameter, in. PRL = Piston rod load, lb
CRL = Connecting rod load, lb XHL = crosshead load, lb PSI = pressure, PSI
Rod 2, 82 = 86
120 = 206
XHL = -733 lb
PRL
10,000 lb
Normal load = - 9309 lb Tangent load = - 3725 lb
CRL = 10,027 lb Rod 3, 03
= 206 +
120 = 326
a 3 = -5.34 PRL
XHL
-935 lb
10,000 PSI
Normal load =
+ 7768
lb
CRL = 10,044 lb
Tangent load = -6367 lb
Note: Consider each crosshead weight if significant.
5.14
CRANKSHAFT BENDING MOMENTS-CALCULATIONS
See Figure 5.10 for bending moment diagram construction.
Example: Triplex Single-Acting Pump, Type 111 Crankshaft

Moment signs: Clockwise, plus ( + ); counterclockwise, rninus (- ). Cakulate forces on rods 1, 2, and 3 at any degree of (} for rod 1, at (1 for rod 2, and t O + 240 for rod 3. See Section 5.13. To solve for RAA, take moments about RBA:
120
-(D4
PRL3) - [(D4
+ D3)x PRL2) -
[(D4
+ D3 +
D2)
PRLl]
+ [(D 1 + D2 + D3 + D4) x RAA] = O To solve for RBA, take moments about RAA:
Solve for RAA.
(5.29)
+(DI x PRLl) + [(Dl
D2) x PRL2]
X RBA] = O
+ [(Dl + D2 + D3)
Solve for RBA.
PRL3] (5.30)
-[(DI + D2 + D3 + D4)
(+)(=)
cw ccw
MA
(a)
(b)
(e)
Figure 5.10. Crankshaft bending mornent diagram for Example A: triplex single-acting;c:\ Type III crankshaft. See Section 5 .15 for calculation. (a) Axial plane. (b) Coaxial plane. (e) Resultant.
5.15 CRANKSHAFT BENDING STRESS-CALCULAT!ONS
161
Calculate bending moments (axial), MA, and plot on Figure 5.10:

i>AA at rod l = (Dl X RAA)
(5.31)
MA at rod 2 = ( D l MA at rod 3 = (Dl
+ +
D2) x RAA - ( D2 X rod 1 force) D2
(5.32)
X
D3)
RAA - (D2
+ D3)
rod 1 force) (5.33)
- (D3 x rod 2 force)
Calculate bending moments (coaxial), MC, and plot. Repeat as for MA but forces from coaxial plane. Cakulate bending moments (resultant), MR, and plot:
MR = ..JMA2
MC 2
(5.34)
CRL RAA RBA RAC RBC RAR RBR MA MC MR D
connecting rod load, lb reaction B, axial, lb reaction B, coaxial, lb reaction A, resultant, lb reaction B, resultant, lb moment, axial, in-lb moment, coaxial, in-lb moment, resultant, in-lb spacing between rods, in moment, in-lb
= reaction A, axial, lb
=
= reaction A, coaxial, lb
= =
= =
= =
M =
5.15
CRANKSHAFT BENDING STRESS-CALCULATIONS
Example Assume 5-in uniform diameter. Select:

4340 oil-quenched and tempered steel, 360 BHN Ultimate strength, 170,000 PSI Yield, 156,000 PSI Allow combned stress of 18 % of ultimate, or 30,600 PSI. Reduce by 25 % for stress risers, or allowable stress, 23,000 PSL
162
PUMP DESIGN
l = 17/4 x r 4 = n/4 X 2.5 4 = 30.7 in4

O"max
= Mr/l =
150,480
2.5/30.7 = 12,254 PSI
BHP pump = 145; RPM = 300 Torsional stress 'Y

J = 2
T
'Y
X [ = X
Tr / J
30.7 = 71.4
X
= 63,000
= 30,450
BHP/N = 63,000
145/300 = 30,450 in-lb
2.5 /71.4 = 1066 PSI
Maximum Principal Stress:

s = a/2
Y(a/2) 2
y2
12,254/2 Nomenclature
+ \/(12,254/2) 2 + 1/36,356
12,631
l = moment of inertia, area, in4 J = moment of inertia, polar, in4 M = bending moment, in-lb N= RPM r = shaft radius, in
s = stress, PSI = torque, lb-in a = normal stress, PSI 'Y = torsional stress, PSI
T
5.16
CROSSHEADS
From the mechanical and lubrication viewpoint, the crossheads bearings of reciprocating pump power ends are the most critica!, and too, they are a most inefficient mechanism, contributing to a significant lowering of the pump's mechanical efficiency. Because of the reversa! or intermittent loading and the oscillatory motion of , the crosshead bearing, it is impossible to depend upon much of a dynamic-oil-f~ film and an oil-pressure-film is hard to come by because of the difficulty making a reliable oil-pressure connection to the reciprocating part.
5.17 BEARINGS
163
'ee Figure 5. 1A for one method of increasing crosshead pin bearing capacity on ngle acting pumps. Figure 5.2A shows the diffic~lty of obtaining sufficient bearing area in typical xed-diameter pin-and-bearing fits. The author's opinion of full-compliment needle-type crosshead bearings is ewhat negative because of the tendency for the rollers to skew or cant and ult in difficult assembly or damage to the bearing. Caging the rollers to pret this, drastically reduces the number or rollers (and bearing capacity). Very good performance has been had with plain sleeve bronze or bi-metal sshead pin bearings, properly grooved to conduct oil around the outside dieter to at least three equally spaced (120 degree) closed-end inside longitudinal ooves, running on a hardened and ground steel pin. In horizontal pumps satactory lubrication can be had by use of an oil gallery to supply a flow of oil , a funnel-shaped oil-hole in the eye of the connecting rod or by use of a sepate oil line from the oil pump. In either case, ample ftow should be provided to ercome any possibility of capillary attraction diverting ali of the oil along the 'per shoe surface to the outer edge. A system of upper shoe oil grooves that not extend beyond the edge& or ends of the shoe, thereby preventing the ersion of oil from the connecting rod through open-ended grooves, is also ommended. In vertical pumps, the only possible means, other than "splash", of lubricatg the crosshead bearing is by the use of a rifte-drilled connecting rod, sharing il pressure delivered through a drilled crankshaft. In horizontal pumps the bottom crosshead shoe should also incorporate closednd oil grooves and it is imperative that a pressured oil supply be furnished brough the bottom guide on heavily loaded pumps. The closed-end grooves will ,ben provide a desirable hydraulic lifting action on the crosshead near the center the stroke where the load is maximum. The closed-end grooves at each end ''( the longitudinal oil groove should be allowed to slightly over-stroke beyond e guide at both ends of the stroke so as to provide a momentary but repeated 'flushing" effect for rejection of any unwanted trapped foreign matter at each of e two zero-load positions. With vertical pumps, both crosshead shoes should be supplied with pressured )1 in heavily loaded pumps. ' Because of the vulnerability of crosshead problems, it is wise to use compatible materials for the shoes and guides that tend to minimize the generation of destructive debris from wear, particularly in an oil bath lubricated power end. Bronze shoes running on cast iron guides is most satisfactory. Figure 5.3A illustrates a method of obtaining full bearing area for crossheads y using shim-adjusted shoes turned to diameter of ways.
;f-
BEARINGS
In the matter of the seiection of bearing types, roller or joumal, for the power end of a pump, both types seem to be widely used with complete satisfaction.
164
PUMP DESIGN
It cannot go without notice that pump manufacturers in the Unit'ed States have completely converted to roller bearings for drilling mud pumps, mostly in the 5001700 BHP size. Of course, sorne plain bearings are still used at such locations as crosshead pins, eccentrics, and sorne crankpins. Roller bearings are thought to be rather immune to occasional oil contamination, particularly to contamination by solids, which can be flushed out. All journal beaiings are intolerant of any contamination. The question of whether a roller bearing can be readjusted seems moot, since there is only one recommended clearance for the application at hand, and if a bearing wears to the point of requiring readjustment it is probably worn beyond its useful life. A practice that should be avoided in the installation of bearings is the provision for a dam or reservoir at the bottom of that bearing to retain a small quantity of oil in place for start-up. Because of their tendency to accum.ulate water and debris, such pockets do more harm than good. At certain minimum speeds, plain or journal bearings depend upon the dynamic generation of a high-pressure load-carrying and separating oil film, and the mechanical efficiency is equal to that of roller bearings. For assurance against accidental damage from a start-up and the lack of lubri cation on crosshead guides, sacrificial bronze crosshead shoes running on cast-iron guides are usually used. Should any scuffing of the shoe take place, the generated debris is not damaging to the other bearings in the pump if it is mixed in the main oil bath.
5.17.1
Roller Bearing B-10 Life
The life of a bearing is expressed as the number of revolutions or the number of hours at a given speed for which the bearing can be used before any evidence of fatigue develops on the rolling elements or the raceways. Bearing life may va11 from one bearing to another, but it stabilizes into a predictable pattern when .~ large group of bearings of the same size and type are considered. The rating lije of a group of similar bearings is defined as the number of hours or revolutions (at a given constant speed and load) that 90 % of the tested bearings will exceed before the first evidence of fatigue develops. This is called "B-10 life" or "minimull life."
5.17.2
Roller Bearing Average Life
The results of testing a large group of ball or roller bearings may be graphicall illustrated. The distribution curve is obtained by plo~ing relative life versus per cent of bearings tested. From this curve it is determined that the average life i approximately five times the minimum life. About 50% ofthe bearings will exc the average life. Since it is not possible to predict the exact life of a single bearing
5.17 BEARINGS
165
a safety factor must be allowed to minimize the risk of early failure. The cost of replacing a bearing plus the expense of machine downtime may greatly exceed the relatively low cost of the bearing. Therefore, most designers prefer to use minimum life as a design basis. In sorne applications where safety or maintenance economy is not critica! and low initial bearing cost is desirable, the average life value may be used.
5.17.3
Journal Bearings
Sorne of the problems to be avoided with split joumal bearings are:

l. Distortion or pinching-in of split bearings by poor mating or distortion of the bearing housing. 2. Improper selection or installation of shims, where used, that allows the shims to rub against the joumal with resultant oil scraping. 3. Lack of proper backing for the bearing shells due to improper machining of the housing or effects listed above. Anything that interferes with good metal-tometal contact of the shell to the housing interferes with heat transfer and allows , local destructive "hot spots" to develop on the bearing. 4. Ductile iron joumals rotating in bearings in the opposite direction to that at which the joumals were originally tumed and polished may result in rapid wear of the bearings.
The ability of joumal bearings to generate a dynamic oil film that reduces friction is a very powerful argument in their favor. The following formulas show the factors that affect such friction:
T= FLr
F
(5.42) (5.43)
(5.44)
= 27r,pr / C
U= 7rDN/60
T = [27r,e( 7rDN /60) r/C] Lr
Example:
(5.45)
D = 8 in, L = 8 in, C = 0.006 in, RPM = 85, ~RL = 30,000 lb SAE 70 oil at 150F = 100 cP, /1-e = 0.00209 lb-s/ft2
T
= [6.28
X
0.00209(3.1416 4 = 9974 lb-in
85/60)
4/.006]
166
PUMP DESIGN
The relationship ZN / P is used to classify joumal bearing applications, since it contains the three most important limiting factors. Any value below about 15 is considered marginal.
ZN /P
= lOO
85 30000/(8
8)
18
where
e = radial bearing clearance, in

D F L N= RPM P = force per square inch of projected bearing area, PSI
= bearing diameter, in = tangential friction force per unit axial length, lb = bearing length, in
PRL = piston rod load, lb r = bearing radius, in T = torque, friction, lb-in Z = absolute viscosity, cP , = absolute viscosity, cP ,e = absolute viscosity, lb-s / ft2 U = tangential velocity, in/ s See Tables 13.17 and 13.18 for viscosity equivalents.
5.18 5.18.1
LUBRICATION Pressure Lubrication
With pressure lubrication applied to the bearings, the actual pressure is not a~: critica! as the amount of oil or rate to and through the system. Most lubricatin systems use positive-displacement oil pumps (gear, vane, piston, etc.), and unles excessive bearing clearances exist somewhere in the system the required amoun(' of oil should be circulating to the proper places. In other words, as the oil increases' in temperature, the pressure drops radically but the volume or rate probably increases due to self-improved volumetric efficiency of the oil pump. In a power pump, the lube oil pressure drop dueto temperature increase presents a problem in monitoring because the great change in viscosity prevents the pre- diction of an exact operating pressure. Pressure ranges of 20-40 PSI at operatin temperature are usually acceptable and give good reference for monitoring. In many applications, the lube oil pump is driven by the main pump and at; reduced speeds below the recommended, a separately driven oil pump and perhaps cooling equipment are recommended.
5.19
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
167
Ol Cleaning
The natural accumulation of airbome moisture, dirt, sand, dust, and even metal ""''w,~~ carried into the crankcase through the "breathers" or the diaphragm packing can be injurious to bearings, patticularly joumal bearings, so continuous removal by proper filtering is rnost desirable. (In some humid, corrosive, and dirty ~~~,n'"'"'Q it is the practice to bleed an inert dry gas such as nitrogen or clean drv air into the crankcase of any pump so as to maintain a slight positive pressure 0 { a few o unces to minimize entrance of such materials.)
Oil Temperature
The viscosity of oil is affected by ambient temperature, and in certain geographical !ocations this can be a problem. In extreme cold, the oil has a tendency to congeal and the pump may run far several minutes before oil circulation is established. In such cases it is usually the practice to install electric crankcase heaters so the oil can be heated before start-up. An annoying problem with cold operation is the excessive momentary pressure buildup that may damage the pressure-sensing or pressure-controlling devices. In cold climates, sorne operators follow a dangerous practice of diluting the oil with diesel fuel. Heaters or special low-temperature oils should be specified.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY (Eq. 2.26)

Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual displacement of Hquid to the calculated theoretical (100% VE) displacement based on pump piston diameter, stroke, and speed, on a percentage basis. Accurate volumetric efficiency is difficult to calculate on account of the unpredictable value of valve slip, a term used to describe a combination of conditions, namely, dynamic delay in val ve closing and opening (a function of val ve spring load, valve weight, dimensional proportions of the valve, life limitations, liquid viscosity, and specific gravity-none of these being the result of pump speed or pressure). Another important factor is the physical condition of the val ve and seat. A worn valve or valve insert will allow a certain amount of leakage, and of course the amount of leakage is related to the discharge pressure and the time of subjection. Subjection time leads to a phenomenon that generates a curve for volumetric efficiency versus RPM that shows a tendency to peak early on the RPM base, showing that ata low speed the val ve will leak for a longer period of time at closure due to "wear-clearance" leakage. The effect becomes less apparent at slightly higher speeds, but then the dynamic effects of NPSH take over, causing a drastic rate of VE reduction as shown in Figure 5 .11.
168
PUMP DESIGN
95
l>~
;,:; e 90 :
u
i:
"'
<l.>
u ;::
'$
>
80
85 E :::
100
200
Figure 5.11. High-pressure valve performance plex single-acting pump at 3000 PSI, with 2, 4 and 8 POSIVA valve sprin of a 3 by 6 in tri
1':\S.
This chart shows the desirability of proper val ve . 0 w speed, the 4 POSIV A spring load is superior, but at high speed the ;Pn.ng load. fo~ns to show its advantage. High-speed requires high POSIV A, obviously r .Pos1v A be~.R for that pump. It also shows the "peaking" of volumetric effi.ciency . 1sing the NP pM, where the time period for valve slip is relatively shortened. From tha~t about 200 ~ he effects of insufficient cylinder filling (cavitation) due to increased Sf>e 5Peed upwar ~tribute to a rapid drop in volumetric efficiency. ect starts to ca
5.20
MECHANICAl EFFICIENCy
Introduction Mechanical Efficiency (ME) of a pump is ge of input horsepower (BHP) or energy imparted to the liquid be the percenta ng pumped; ME = (HHP/BHP) (5.46)
X: 100
HHP = (gpm X PSi)/(174 X v1J3) (5.47) With modem pump design and construct0 cal efficiency of 85% in double-acting pumps and 90% in single-act~' mechalll 0 be expected. The horsepower required for a double-a. l~g pumps cahould be calculated from formula (5.39), Section 5.22. Cting pump 5 For the same reason that a single-actin~ . bigh suction pressure has higher stresses in the power end, all the be P~mp with ore heavily loaded in relation to the work being done and therefore n.ngs are '1'.cal efficiency is reduced. the mechalll
5.21
INTERMITTENT SERVICE
169
Q.,"
;;:~ 0.6 , _ _ - - - - + - - - - + - - - - + -........- - - - - - - -
~
:::J
"' 0.4 t-----+-----+----+-----i\-------1

Q_
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.9
1.0
Mechmical efficiency ME
Figure 5.12. Single-acting pump mechanical efficiency vs. suction pressure / discharge pressure. To determine BHP: Calculate pressure ratio; determine mechanical efficiency from curve; substitute in:
BHP = (Pd - P,) x GPM/1714
X
ME
(5.48)
where Pd = discharge pressure, PSI; and P, = suction pressure, PSI.
lt has been determined by test that the relation shown in Figure 5.12 exists. There-
fore, for a single-acting pump the required horsepower is derived from formula (5.40) Section 5.22. Since the manifestation of low mechanical efficiency is sensible heat generation, higher power-end temperatures will be expected with high suction pressure.
5.21
INTERMITTENT SERVICE
Any pump can be overloaded by a reasonable amount for a few minutes of operation at rare time intervals by increasing either the pressure or speed or both. And any pump can probably be operated at extremely slow speed for a short period without harm. Spurred by the need for the greatest amount of power packed in a small space for portable use in the oil fields for sand fracturing, acidizing, and cementing, most manufacturers offer such pumps for this and other services. By increasing the
170
PUMP DESIGN
GPM
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
0 01--~2~5~-..Jso'--~7~5~-1~00~~12~5~-1~5-0~1~7-5~--'
RPM
Curve Curve Curve Curve ABCOlntermittent service, constant horsepower Continuous service, proportional horsepower lntermittent service, proportional pressure Continuous service, constant pressure
Figure 5.13. Continuous vs. intennittent duty.
design piston rod load (PRL) three- or fourfold and increasing the maximum speed about twofold, pumps with a threefold reduction in weight per horsepower have been produced. These so-called constant-horsepower pumps are rated for intermittent service and typically Iimit the duty to l 1/2 hours per day. Figure 5.13 shows the performance curve of two pumps of this type with equal design horse" power. lt is obvious that such pumps will require more frequent replacement of bearings and parts.
5.22
CONTINUOUS SERVICE
Continuous service denotes operation at rated conditions of speed and pressure for 24 hours a day. Basically, this is a constant-torque operation with a 'speed turndown of about 50% allowed, such turndown usually being limited by the types of bearings and the lubrication system provided. Antifriction (roller) bearings throughout the power end will allow a greater turndown than journal or plain bearings. The design criteria incorporated into this text apply to continuous service P" eration.
5.23
RECIPROCATING PUMPS WITH HIGH SUCTION PRESSURE
171
5.23 RECIPROCATING PUMPS WITH HIGH SUCTION PRESSURE

For Double-Acting Pumps BHP = (Pd - P,) For Single-Acting Pumps BHP Triplex pumps Quintuplex pumps Septuplex pumps Nonuplex pumps
X
GPM/1714
0.85
(5.49)
= (Pd
- P,) X GPM/1714 X ME*
(5.50) (5.51) (5.52) (5.53) (5.54)
p
P P P
= pd + !P, = Pd + ~P, = Pd + iP, = Pd + ~P,
P Pd P,
= artificial discharge pressure upon which plunger/piston is selected
BHP GPM *ME
= = = = =
when suction pressure is in excess of 5 % of discharge pressure actual discharge pressure actual suction pressure input brake horsepower actual U.S. gal/min mechanical efficiency from Figure 5.12
Example A certain triplex pump rated at 1000 PSI with 3-in plungers ( PRL 7200 lb) would have to be equipped with 2i-in plungers ( 1250 PSI at PRL 7200 lb) to pump at actual 1000 PSI with 500 PSI suction pressure.
1000
+ 500 /2 = 1250 PSI
6
LIQUID ENDS
6.1
TYPICAL LIQUID-END MANIFOLD CONFIGURATIONS
The valve-over-valve configuration for multicylinder pumps is probably the m efficient from the standpoint of suction problems and efficiency and ease of mai tenance (Figure 6. la). Pumps with long suction and discharge passages, called surge legs (b) and is lation leg (e), where the valves are placed a great distance from the cylinder the dubious reason of isolating the piston from abrasive materials in the liqti often exhibit poor hydraulic performance. These long passages tend to mag the acceleration and ftow problems because of the greater mass of liquid that m be moved from a "dead-stopped" condition. The large volumetric clearance the isolation-leg design results in low volumetric efficiency and contributes to ni? and rough running. This is particularly true if air, gas, or vapor is present in liquid. The inverted configuration (d) has been considered for slurry services on contention that the solids would "naturally" fall through the liquid end with danger of plugging and stacking. But its shortcomings include the inability to p itself of air or gas, and valve replacement would be ext~emely awkward.
6.2
S-N CURVE
As shown in the S-N curve (stress vs. number of cycles) of Figure 6.2, if maximum stresses are kept lower than 35 ,000 PSI there should never be failu air. In water, a stress of about 15,000 PSI would be the limit.
172
Minimal length
(a) NORMAL -
VALVE-OVER-VALVE
Sign ificant length (b) SURGE-LEG
(d) INVERTED
(e) ISOLATION LEG
Figure 6.1. Liquid-end configurations. (a) Normal, valve-over-valve. (b) Surge leg. (e) Isolation leg. (d) Inverted.
50
.te ...
...
40
-= 30
rr.ie en en Q)
ti 20 E :::1 E ;;e
:E
...
10
105
106 107 Fatigue life N, cycles
loB
Figure 6.2. S-N curve. Exposure of steel to water greatly reduces fatigue life. Salt water and hydrogen sulfide still further reduce life .. Curve A, dry fatigue life; curve B, wet fatigue life.
173
174
LIQUID ENDS
MOD IFI ED GOODMi\N DIAGRAM

11l0 .......
180 . ..... 140 .... ~ . ... ....
........ . .:......... .. ;..... .. .. .. . : .. ........ : ..........:.... ...... .: .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
100 .. . ....... ; . .....
r !::: ................ ..
. .. ~w.1.m.<tM ..-!r.1r~s
. .
~
. j . . .... ;. ... . :. . . . . . . . .
. .
. . . .
. .
. . . .
. . . .
..
80
8~[ ..........: >[:[

.
:
80 . . ...... [ .. ..... .. \. .. . . . . ..
.... .. . .......... .......... j ...................
40 :
i .......... j: .
::- .................. .
120 140 160 180
20
>-r ........
1 r-:-- :. r........
80 100
JNJTIAL STRESS, 1000 PSI
200
Figure 6.IA
The results to be expected with the material being stress cyded in even a slightly corrosive liquid (pure water with dissolved air, for example) differ greatly; the stresses that would allow extended life are far below those in air. In figure 6-2, a stress level of about 17 ,000 PSI would offer a fair amount of additional life, but it is now believed that the corrosion-fatigue curve never flattens out and that such stressed parts will have a finite life (hopefully beyond the life of the unit of which they are a part). Liquid ends and expendable parts of all pumps are subject to corrosion-fatigue failure, and therefore it is important to consider this in their design. Where corrosion fatigue is expected, the logical approach would be to design for the lowest possible stress. In parts with associated stress-risers (intersecting bores in liquid ends, notches, pitting, machining marks, sharp shoulders, and drastic change in cross section being the most important), steps can be taken to reduce stresses or protect the point of stress concentration.
6.2.1
The Goodman Diagram
In the design of repeatedly-stressed parts or devices, such as valve springs, with a material in question one can take advantage of the fact that most materials exhibit a trait that if the stress range is limited by a certain minimum stress of higher value than zero, fatigue strength can be substantially increased as shown in Figure 6.2A.
6.2 S-N CURVE
175
YIELD
115.000 psi
'
--210.000 psi
CD1nens1on X" .. )
DIA AD
RADIUS 1\LL BDRE INTERSECTlDHS t 1/4' l. ADD THAf RADIUS/4 1 .061 TD BDRE RADIUS "ID OBTAIN RI.
D
cu cu o:: cu
u
D2R2 A1R2 AlRI A

cu <
o::
o::
CI
...
o::
CI
Q:
o::
111
cu o:: cu < cu
o::
111
<
--i:
LDCATIDN DIA AB DIA BC DIA CD DIA DA AlRl A1R2 A2Rl A2R2 BIRI BIR2 B2Rl
B2Ri~
INCH R2/Rl LAME R

'{. 77
'"/.88 '/107
2.0,,.
" J,,,
7.5'
'''
},O'f
2.fl,,f
"''
.J,or,,
3. '(t.
'(, l
,/5
/. 2 'I
J. l'f
cu
CIRI CIR2
111
wi::i
w
ot ....
B2Rl B2R2
aj
a:
lLI
.J "' <"!
IJIA
1 BC
C!Rl CIR2 C2Rl C2R2 DIRI DIR2 D2Rl D2R2 EIRI El '2
J. I/
e .ocs
f2.S/
S.'lt.
/.o
J. /'f
2. "(1
9.'I!.
8.'f
2.53 .S. 4 I
fj.13
'' r
Figure 6.2A. Liquid End Data for Autofrettage.
176
LIQUID ENDS
For example, a material in question with zero mm1mum stress may show fatigue limit a of 80,000 PSI but that could be raised to about 115,000 PSI the minimum stress never was allowed to extend lower than about 60,000 PSI.
6.3
STRESS
Maximum stresses in typical pump liquid ends occur at the intersections of bores since stresses there are magnified by a stress concentration factor. Experience h shown that this factor has a value of 2. 75 for all configurations. For instance, the simple T-block illustration of Figure 6.3, the maximum stresses occur at A
Strain-bolt holes
Figure 6.3. Stress concentration in liquid ends. Strain gauges were installed in a block and then pressured. Two l~-in diameter strain bolts, 400 ft-lb torque, in-lb Bolt tension = - 0.2D
by Lam formula, is
=
4800 = 19,200 lb 0.2 X 1.25
Without strain bolts, using stress concentration factor of2.75, theoretical hoop stress
R1
=
R~ - Rt
R2
1 X
2.75
3.5 2 + l. l2 3.5 2 - l. 12
4000
2.75
13.411 PSI
(Compare this to actual stress of 14 ,400 PSI.) Note: W ith bores of different diameters, :u largest diameter for source of R 1 .
6.4
STRESS REDUCTION METHODS
171
BORE 11111ERSECTION STRESS

RADIUS RA. 10 VS TOTAL MUlTiPLIEA
2.oo+--'""-1-t------i----;l--+---1---+----l----+----l
z.oo 4.oo e.oo e.oo
+
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
18.00
20.00
3,7
li.=3
k~:/R\.
k"5
Figure 6.3A. Bore Intersection Stress.
stress resulting from hydraulic pressure applied to the interior. Using the wall thickness at B to calculate R 2 , the calculated stress, by Lam's
Stress
( R;
2 + R2 ~) R2 - RI
P X 2.75 PSI
(6.1)
'-'"''"''~""'
different size bores, use mnimum R2 and maximum R 1 of these stresses, compounded by the cyclic nature of the liquid presliquid ends tend to have a finite life. It is at the point denoted A in Figure .that practically all liquid-end failures occur, beginning with an infinitesimal ck that propagates slowly but defiantly to the outer surface. (An interesting light of the above calculation is the revelation that as the wall thickness aphes infinity, the inner stress can never be reduced below the actual hydraulic
Strain Bolts
imple but effective method of reducing the stresses in liquid ends of adaptable pe (Fig. 6.3) is to use strain bolts in the locations shown. Tests have shown
178
LIQUID ENDS
With strain bolts 400 in/lb torque, Stress = 260 x 30 = 7800 PSI
4000
Compare this to calculated data of 13,389 PSI using 2.75 stress concentration factor
-300
-200
-100
in/in
+100
+200
+300
Tension strain
+400
Compressive strain
Figure 6.4. Effect of strain bolts on liquid end. Plotted strain gauge test data showing critica! point A is forced into compressive stress by strain bolts. Maximum stress du pressure of 4000 PSI is reduced from 14,400 PSI to 7800 PSI.
that the critica! stresses can be reduced by as much as 60 %. This method c used to decrease the weight of Iiquid ends or to improve the integrity of exi. parts if the configuration of the part allows its application. Figure 6.4 shows the details of a test on a liquid end with strain bolts and graphic results.
6.4.2
6.4.2.1
Autofrettage Procedure for Liquid Ends*

INTRODUCTION
The rather simple process of Autofrettage ("self-strengthening") is fairly known and it has been used extensively with simple thick-wall cylinders s~ gun barreis. But high-pressure reciprocating pump Iiquid ends by design must have, .; secting cylindrical bores, usually in solid metal blocks, Figure 6.3. The st generated by interna! hydraulic pressure during regular use of the pump ar~ that they are multiplied in the order of two to three times the stress calc by the Lame formula for straight cylinders, caused by an intensification of s at the intersection of cylinder bores. This intensification, (factor k) along
*Note; It is most desirable to employ the help of a person well experienced in the appl instrumentation and interpretation of data in the strain-gage procedure described herein for me strain. Otherwise, one may find this an expensive and drastic learning enterprise.
6.4 STRESS REDUCTION METHODS
179
the pulsating nature of a reciprocating pump discharge combine to produce early fstress-corrosion-fatigue failure of the liquid end, always initiating at one of the fintersections. There are several methods of "pre compression-stressing" these intersections y placing the metal around the "hot spot" into permanent residual compressive tress that will tend to prolong the life of the liquid end, but autofrettage is onsidered superior to any of the others because of the ability to make a greater nd deeper "compression" area that is more damage proof, permanent and efective. Figure 6. lA. Coatings to protect the metal from chemical (corrosion) ffects lack permanency and are easily damaged. Because of the described Stress Concentration Factor, a blessing in disguise, utofrettaging a pump liquid end becomes a very practical and enduring method f prestressing. By reason of the natural effect of the stress concentration at the ntersections, a predetermined internal high pressure hydraulic application will Jectively overstress (beyond the yield) those "hot spots" without affecting the raight bores or other passages in the liquid end. But for reasons of this same Jessing, great care must be exercised in pre-analysis and execution of the proess. When this temporary "high" autofrettage pressure is released, the yielded hot ot will acquire a compressive stress from the contraction of the non-yielded etal around the spot. Thus the stress at the hot spot generated by a much Jower orking pressure will never force the spot into tension, the secret of overcoming ress-corrosion fatigue. Because metals differ in character and the encountered stresses are a function f both the metal and the configuration of the liquid end and the bores, it is ather difficult to precisely predict the autofrettage pressure and the following rocedure is recommended.
4.2.2 PRELIMINARIES
the actual demonstration example included, ali values referred to the given xample are placed in parenthesis. l. Determine the R2/R1 ratio for each intersecting bore. See Figure 6.2A and ssociated Table 6.1. Note that where there are radiused edges the R 1 dimension ould include the edge radius and represents the actual radius at the point of eatest strain. To the bore radius add edge radius divided by 4. These Ratios (R2/ R 1) range from about 1 to 6 in typical Iiquid ends and natully one is encouraged to design around the greatest value practical, generally in e order of 3, the greatest advantage coming from the higher number. Values ater than 5 or 6 tend to offer Jess advantage and conversely, values below the stresses tend to skyrocket. See Figure 6.3A. 2. Start with the preparation of Table 6.1, Calculated Data, including the R2! 1 followed by a determination of the Lame' equation for thick-wall cylinders. uation 6.2. 3. Calculate and add to Table 6.1, a MULTIPLIER "M" which, when mulIied by the applied pressure results is the stress at that point. Equation 6.4.
180
LIQUID ENDS
TABLE 6.1. Celculatec:I (Theoretlcal) Straln and Stress at Fivepoints

A D B e Rl R2 Rl R2 7.56 AlRl 2.065 AlR2 12.31 A2Rl A2R2 2.565 9.13 BlR2 BlRl 2.438 B2R2 7.56 B2Rl 2.47 8.44 ClRl ClR2 2.47 9.13 C2Rl 2.065 C2R2 DlR2 12.31 DlRl 2.065 D2R2 8.44 D2Rl 2.47 ElR2 9.13 ElRl 2.53 E LAME RATIO,R2/Rl, EQ 6.1 F LAME MULTIPLIER, EQ 6.2 INTERSECTION MULTIPLIER, EQ 6.4 G H STRESS AT 10000, E 6.3 E F Lame M R2 R 3.66 1.16 4.80 1.09 3.74 1.15 3.06 1.24 3.42 1.19 4.42 1.11 5.96 1.06 3.42 1.19 3.61 1.17 1.17 H STRESS AT 10000 Pa x G I STRESS at 15000 Pa X G L STRAIN at 50000 STRESS/
= = = =
= = =
POINT A
B
STRS lOK 31934
I STRS.15K 47902
J STRS.50K STRS. 65 STRN.50K 159672 207574 6919
D E
RULE OUT MINIMUM FOR EACH POINT Because of the design features of this Ji.quid end, the most hi.ghly stressed point is 'B' as indicated.
Stress at
Stress at
Strain at
Hoop at
15,000 47902 44994 47584 51109 48978 45698 43639 48978
65,000 207574 194976 206199 221472 212237 198024 189101 212237
65,000 6919 6499 6873 7382 7075 6601 6303 7075
10,000 12774 11999 12689 13629 13061 12186 11637 13061
Because of the design features of this liquid end, the most highly stressed in section is R1B2 as indicated here.
6.4
181
SECTION THROl.Di
RI
/
/
/
INTERSECTION.
GAGE
LOCATICPN ON CENTER OF RADIUSEO EOGE WITH AXIS PERPENOICLLAR PAGE.
51
1NSET SHOWS REo..NJANT GAGES AS ALTERNATE. R - BCIRE RAOIUS. IN RI 80RE R
+ d~
SINGLE ELEMENT STRAIN GAGE MOUNTEO WJTH AXIS SHOWN BY ARROW BELDW SINGLE ELEMENT [XJMMY GAGE M!JU'ITEO ON STEEL BLOCK ANO LA ID 1N SOME CONVEN 1ENT PLACE 1N CYLJNOER. ALL GAGES. INCLUOING DUMMY. SHDLLO BE PREPAREO WITH 3 FOOT BEELOEN PAAIREO WIRE. TAG ALL LEAOS WTH LOCAT 1ON MARK.
IN
R2 - OUTER WALL A T LEAST OISTANCE FRDM BDRE CENTER. IN

r
= IBTERSECTION RAOIUS. IN
Figure 6.4A. Placement of Strain Gages.
4. Complete Table 6.1 by calculating all of the theoretical stress and strains ed for the points in question. 5. Short single-element strain gages (l/16"), while difficult to install, are rec.mended and it is worthwhile to obtain gages with short factory-soldered leads ached. On the workbench, build up gage units by soldering the gage leads to ~rminal strip. Then to the terminal strip solder paired lead (Belden 8430) about feet long which will be finally soldered to the feed-through fitting. Be sure tag all leads for identification. lt goes without saying that all gage assemblies tested with an ohm-meter for continuity and proper resistance. Just before allation dip each gage assembly in a cup of acetone for a few seconds and Jet in a clean environment. For maximum accuracy make all leads from each e to the instrument of equal length. 6. Follow exactly the suppliers procedure for cementing strain gages and apply (preferably two, for redundancy, end-to-end with leads facing away so that sing elements _will be as close together as possible) gages on the center of the iused intersections. Figure 6.4A The time and expense involved for reduncy will more than pay for the time involved due to "loss" of a gage during high pressure application. The axis of the gage(s) should be parallel to the p direction, which would be represented on the drawing as vertical to the face, on Figure 6.2A'.
182
LIQUID ENDS
7. Mount a 'dummy' gage on a small block of steel and lay it in a convenient place in the cylinder. One 'dummy' can provide the second arm of the four-arm Wheatstone Bridge Circuit for ali test locations by switching it in to the circuit. This dummy will serve to provide 'pressure' and 'temperature' compensation on the active gages. 8. As stated, one or two gages should be cemented to a section of the largest diameter straight bore as shown in position E, Figure 6.2A. 9. Prepare the high pressure pump to handle water-free transformer oil instead of water for the high pressure liquid medium. This will preclude the need for any difficult water-proofing of the gages.
6.4.2.3 HIGH PRESSURE APPLICATION PROCEDURE
One must follow this procedure on a step-by-step basis because of the unknown reaction of a newly designed liquid end to exceptionally high pressure. Once the pressures for one design of liquid end are determined, and if there are no apparent anomalies, subsequent liquid ends could be autofrettaged with just one or two strain gages at the most highly stressed point for monitoring. In order to maximize the autofrettage effect a certain area around the critica( point must be kept in a non-yielding condition so as to provide the re-compression forces expected at the critica! point. Experience has shown that the maximum autofrettage effect will be had where the critica! point is placed in its desired state with a strain of no more than 10,000 microstrain. To avoid the possibility of bursting or damaging the liquid end by excessive pressure during the autofrettage cycle, a safety rule should be observed; "Never expose the liquid end to pressures that would generate yielding in the straight bore sections of the largest straight bores, as at (E= 111,"810 PSI)". One is concerned with over stressing those areas at the points of high stress only at the bore intersections. In fact, as stated above, the under strained area beyond the point of protection is required to generate the re-compression stresses required that makes the theory of autofrettage acceptable as an "improver" and points like "E" may limit the maximum pressure to be applied. There is little danger from over-stressing typical liquid ends but in those shapes where the straight bores are of considerably greater diameter than the bore at the intersection or with materials of a low modulus, care should be taken.
6.4.2.4 PRESSURE APPLICATION
1. Provide a safe location for the liquid end involved, preferably an underground pit. Closed circuit television can be used to observe the pressure gauge readings, etc. Prepare a Test Data Report Form similar to Table 6.2. 2. It is good practice to first zero ali gages and then apply a pressure of approximately the design or working pressure of the liquid end, (10,000 PSI). This will provide a check on the reliability of the gages and the use of the recording instruments. Incidentally, if re-zeroing is necessary on any gage, those gages should be so noted and viewed with suspicion. Any change in zero of the gage installation is usually caused by improper cementing technique where air is trapped under the gage with thick layers of cement, unclean surfaces or lack of
6.4 STRESS REDUCTION METHODS
183
BLE 6.2. Test Data and Calculated Stress

8
TARGET
e
PRESSURE
o
STRAIN 8 931 1590 2260, 2911 3608 4431 4809 5269 5593 598:' 645(. 6932 7461 797S 8531 8988
318~
STRESS 8
LAME' B
o
2
o
5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 32000 34500 36000 38000 40000 42000 44000 46000 48000 50000 10000
o
27930 47700 67950 87330 li 240 13; 930 144270 15i070 16. 790 17' .\60 19 ~90 20. 160 22. J30 23' 250 25'. ?30 269640 9$670 41.\98
o
5964 11927 17691 23854 29818 35782 38167 41149 42938 45323 47709 50094 52480 54865 57251 59636 11927
G H STRAIN A STRESS A STRAIN E STRESS E
5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 32000 34500 36000 38000 40000 42000 44000 46000 48000 50000 55000 60000
1318
701 1316 1885 2406 2964 3566 3847 4295 4464 5046 5415 5910 6333 6688 7179 7587 2789 1273
21030 39480 56550 72180 88920 106980 115410 128850 133920 151380 162450 177300 189990 200640 215370 227610 83670 48390
611 1136 1626 2063 2536 3215 3021 2510 2418 2746 2845 3082 3295 3536 3629 3727 1270
18330 34080 48780 61890 76080 96450 90630 75300 72540 82340 65350 92460 98850 106680 108870 111810 38100
Run Number Pro>osed Pressure Range Act al Pressure Applied Instrument Styrain Reading Calculated Stress (O x 30) Lam<.' Stress - ( R2'2+Rl '2 )/( R2'2-Rl '2 j x Pressure Inslrument Strain Reading ~ Calculated Stress ( G x 30) - Strain at Plain Cylinder E - Striss at E
ficient application pressure. Sometimes a slight shift of zero on a dubious gage 1 "heal" with the first tria! application of pressure. . .3. Re-zero ali gauges and apply increments of about 5000 PSI and record in. When ~he plotted data shows a distinct departure from a straight line oportional limit),. that point represents the instant of yield and from that point ard, the relation of strain to applied pressure or stress has no apparent meanso the upper limit of pressure must be decided. (See above text). 4. The STRAIN reading at a point can be used to determine the actual Stress ncentration Factor. k, (for what it is worth) at, for example Point B, apparently highest stressed point, by comparing it to the strain at [E],. (8988/
7
2.41) .
2.5 INTERPRETATION OF PRESSURE-STRAIN CURVE
le 6.2 shows the total autofrettage pressure excursions for a typical liquid end. te that the applied pressure of (50,000 PSI) generated a residual strain of about 83) microstrain of residual compression. It is felt that reading the residual in after release of pressure is not necessarily the most accurate method bese of danger of a damaged or altered gage after being subjected to the high
184
LIQUID ENDS
pressure. The following interpretation also precludes the accuracy of strain mea surement-regardless of the value of the readings, they are relative to each othe . and if they ali differ, the results will always be the same. The use of rosett~ strain gages is considered superftuous because of the complicated stresses existing at the point of two radii when only the hoop stress is significant. See Figure 6.5A and 6.6A. Accordingly, single-element gages can be used. As shown in Figure 6.5A, plot the test data of the highest strained intersectio stress (usually at the intersection with the least metal section as noted in Figur 6.2A) on the X axis and applied pressure on the Y axis. Construct a curv through the average of the data points from zero ending at maximum applie pressure.
6.4.2.6 AUTOFRETTAGE-INTERSECTING BORE EQUATIONS E = Young's Modulus of Elasticity (steel = 30) actually 30 X 106 (Multipli
106 can be ignored since strain is given in microinches.) Stress (lbf/in 22 or PSI) = 30 X Strain Strain (Microstrain) = Stress/30 Pressure, PSI Rl = lnside cylinder or intersection radius, in. R2 = Outside cylinder, in. or shortest distance to outside wall. Lame' Ratio of Wall Thickness = R2/Rl Lame' Multiplier for Thick Wall Cylinders
ML
(R2 2
Rl 2)/(R2 2
RI2)
Stress in ID of Thick Wall Cylinder; Stress (PSI) = ML X P Modified Lame' Equation for Intersecting Bore Stress;
Where MT SYMBOLS
ML = Lame' Multiplier
= ML + Me
Me
Concentration Multiplier (sometimes called k)
(can vary with design-about 2.75) MT = Total Multiplier
PA = Pressure, applied, PSI
6.4
185
AUTOFREITAGE
SINGLE ELEMENT HOOP STRESS
..:
.............................,..............................,....... .;.............................................
.......................................................... 0000 . . 0000 ................
50,000
100,000
51,140
07,330
150,001) STRESS, PSI
200,000
250,000
300,000
216,500
269 ,>40
Figure 6.5A. Autofrettage Analysis-Piotted Data
AUTOFRETTAGE
ROSETIE CALCULA T!ON
::::::::::::~:~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:~::::..:::::.. .......
.,
/ .................................. j ..
+.. ............... j
:::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::7!...... :::::. ::::::::::. :::::::::::::: ................................
:::::::::. .~:::::::::t:::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::

60000
100000 150000
200000 171 ~ 000
250000
40,664
68.,445
STRESS, PSl
211,664
Figure 6.6A. Autofrettage Analysis-Rosette Gage Data
186
LIQUID ENDS
=
=
Concentration Factor (Approx. 2. 75, Cakulated 3. 7) Bore Radius, in. Outside radius or shortest distance to outside wall.
Rl
R2
6.4.2.7
CAlCUlATIOlllS FROM TEST DATA (See Figure 6.5A)
This method is preferred because it utilizes strain gage differential readings averaging, superior to a single actual residual strain gage reading at fin; with the pressure released.
[ l] Calculate SLOPE of Proportional Curve; Se!ect an Applied Pressure
low the yield and positively on the Curve, for example, at (20,000) PSI, , could apply greater accuracy by averaging severa! points on that line. Slope
Stress/Pressure
(2911) x 30 (20,000)
(4.37)
[2] Project Proportional Curve to Maximum Applied Pressure;
Projected Stress
Slope
x Maximum Applied Pressure

x 50,000
=
= 4.37
218,500 PSI
[3] Select Actual Indicated Stress at Maximum Applied Pressure, (269,640,

[4] Determine Stress Difference;
Delta Stress = [3] - [2] = 269,640 - 218,500 [5] Calculate New Allowable Working Pressure;
51,140 PSI
Project line from Maximum Applied Pressure Stress (269,640) pari Proportional (Slope = 4.37), through [4] (51, 140) to intersect zero ( sure abscissa at the New Working Pressure; New Working Pressure = (51,140)/(4.37) = 11,750 PSI without tensile stress at the critica! point in the working pressure range.
6.4.3
Shot Peening
Shot peening is usually scientifically applied to the critica! areas in a liquid bombarding them with glass beads. The shot particles in effect "peen" the layer, compressing the "skin" surface and in tum protecting against c fatigue.
6.4.4
Coating and Plating
Coating and plating have been used as protection against corrosion (subse against corrosion fatigue), but because of the strict requirements for comple erage (no "holidays") and the fragility of such coatings, they are seldom ~,
6.5
ULTRA-HIGH PRESSURE PUMP DESIGN
187
29
r\T . . . :....... .......... :. ."[' ...... f.. . T..... : ................ .

FACTOR ll
~
WATER COMPRESSIBILITY
r:: :~~; T !
....,
TI < , ., .
.-:::
. .
'ut'~>:
:J l I t?;LJ~~l~J__ .
"! ........ - .................................................... ..........
2.2
10000
2000!l
30000
40000
50000 6000!) PRESS\JRE, PSI
70000
60000
90000
100000
Water Compressibify Compressibility Factor jj, x I0- 6 Contraction in Unit Volume per PSI Pressure tCompressibility from 14.7 PSIA at 68 F.
UlTRAmHIGH PRESSURE PUMP DESIGN

requirements for hydraulic pressures extending into the 100,000 psi range '~"u~'"'"' and the most severe problem in pumping at high pressure liquids resulting from excessive clearance-volume in a pump, that volume of liq.aining in the cylinder between the suction and discharge valves after the ement element (piston or plunger) has completed its delivery stroke. Typimp design involves significant ammmts of clearance volume, as a percentf displacement, in the order of l 00 to 200 percent, an ammmt that does not t a serious problem below about 5000 PSI. basic reason that a high clearance volume contributes to the poor perforof a reciprocating pump is because of the compressibility of liquids, FigPicture a cylinder ful! of high pressure "compressed" just as unger starts its return (suction) stroke. Before the suction valve can open, ble movement of the plunger is required to allow the compressed liquid to the suction pressure. A part of the useful stroke is forever lost as a of completely filling the cylinder and the ful! capability of the pump is
re 6.8A shows proposed suction valve design which takes advantage of a feature of reversing the suction valve spring from the cylinder side, or
188
LIQUID ENDS
LIOUIO ENO
/777777:_:/
f\IN!f\Uf\ CLEARANCE VOLUf\E NOTE STYLE OF VALVE ANO PLACEf\ENT
Figure 6.SA. Ultra High Pressure Suction Valve.
UHP PUf\P !ULTRA HIGH PRESSUREJ FEATURES:

ASSISTED SUCTIDN VALVE CLDSURE 'ZERD ' CLEARANCE VOLU/\E
LIOUID ENO BLOCK
Figure 6.9A.
top, of the valve to the suction or bottom side, thereby removing a volume occupied by the spring and its associated mechanism from t side, resulting in the ability for the displacing element to sweep almos cent of the cylinder volume. Another feature, not formerly recognized, that will improve hig pump performance is the "augmented" closing force on the suction sulting from the pressure surge created by the reversal of the plunger of its delivery stroke, by placing the suction valve directly in front of:
6.5
ULTRA-HIGH PRESSURE PUMP DESIGN
189
nger. That pressure surge is aimed directly toward the open suction valve, the closing force of the valve spring at the instant when rapid valve s desired to minimize delay and leakage through a partially closed valve. mp design places the suction valve in positions whereby such assisting greatly attenuated by turns and restrictions in the path from the end lunger to the valve. (Quick-closing of the discharge valve is also desirable an be obtained by the use of an extremely strong spring load without g the pump cylinder filling problems). See Figure 6.9A. understood that a single-acting multi-cylinder (probably a triplex) plunger ould be selected because of the inherent and desirable anti-extrusion efpacking friction counteracting the hydraulic pressure extrusion effect. See 'NGER VERSUS PISTON PUMP. s 6. lOA and 6.1 IA are examples of "high-pressure" pumps now on the
A power pump liquid end for operation at pressures up to 30,000 psi. ght Kobe, /ne. Used with permission.)
190
LIQUID ENDS
1
IJ
11 =
Suction water
= High-pressure water = Suction valve
Pump pistan
Courtesy
Paul Hammelmann
Maschinenfabrik GmbH
Zum Sur.dem 13-21 Post Box 3309 04740 Oelde W.-Germany Phone 02522176-0 Telex 89455
Figure 6.HA. Ultra-high Pressure Pump
6.6
ABRASIVE JET CUTTING

"NOTHING ON EARTH IS SO YIELDING AS WATER, BUT FOR BREAKING DOWN THE FIRM AND STRONG IT HAS NO EQUAL" -Lao Tzu 600 BC.
Many industries are looking at the use of a high-velocity water jet as a cutti tooL In order to generate the high velocity required, high pressure and low vq ume are the parameters needed. Pressure in the order of 60,000 PSI or more used. For cutting metal, an abrasive like fine silica sand is introduced into t jet stream at the sapphire cutting tip or nozzle. Several years ago a drilling contractor ran a test oil weU drilling rig whereb the formation rock was disintegrated by the use of 10,000 PSI drilling m charged with chilled steel shot as the abrasive medium. The high pressure m was pumped through typical roller bearing rock bits equipped with special sm diameter nozzles, the disintegration of the formation being purely the result impingement of the shot-laden mud. Here again, intensifier type of pressure ge eration was used. This system compromised on the pressure-volume relations on account of the relatively high circulating rate of mud to carry the rock cutti. to the surface. Incidentally, the drilling rate in hard rock was increased about fold but the overall operating cost was found to be prohibitive.
6.7 THE INTENSIFIER
191
POVER-OPERATED FOU.-VAY VALVEI
J X 1 11UM.D' llta.I ..
_,. .....- ......
10 X 24 100 GPW
P~
C'Yl.IN>ER
7 X 24 HIOHPRESSlRE C'Yl.IN'.>ER
43 OPM 11.:1110 PSI
HIGHPRESSlRE LIQUID Tf.H<
5000 PS 1
Figure 6.12A. Typical Single-Cylinder Intensifier
THE INTENSIFIER
e intensifier is an ingenious but rather costly way of generating low-volume 'gh-pressure services for such applications as cutting materials, liquid sandlasting, autofrettaging and oil well formation fracturing and cementing, or other uirements for extremely high pressure to about 100,000 PSI. The principie usually involves the output of a medium-high pressure reciproting pump of about 5000 PSI to operate a differential tandem direct-acting draulic pump-a large diameter piston and cylinder connected by a common ston-rod to aoother small diameter piston in a cylinder. The pressure magnifition being directly. related to the square of the two piston diameters. Figure 6.12A shows the basic principie involved in a typical intensifier. lt ould be noted that the delivery or ftow-variation generated pulsations of the imary pump will .not be reftected and magnified by the same percentage. lt is portant that the primary pump be well dampened in order to protect the system om shock-pressure waveforms generated at the intensifier reversals. In order to eliminate the inherent zero delivery pressure occurring at each end the piston stroke, sometimes two or three such units are operated in parallel, e stroking being phased by sequential operation of the four-way valves being grammed by end-of-stroke detecting switches (micro or proximity). A severe rge problem can arise from improperly timed valves. Why not generate the ultra-high pressure directly with a typical multi-cylinder wer pump? The problem of handling a high-concentration of abrasive solids, ch as used for "sand fracing" oil well formations (the high pressure separating
192
LIOUID ENDS
the formation layers with the sand grains acting as a "propping" agent stimulating the rate of oil flow to the well bore), takes advantage of th~ long-stroke and low stroke-reversal-rate of the intensifier. Por other appli with clean liquids, properly designed multi-cylinder pumps could be use conserving cost and space. A discussion on the design of ultra-high p liquid ends is covered in Section 6.5.
7
EXPENDABLE PARTS
API STANDARDS FOR SLUSH PUMP COMPONENTS*

The American Petroleum lnstitute (API) has rendered a valuable service to the oilwell drilling industry in promoting standards for mud (and sorne slurry) pumps, pistons, and piston rods, liners, valve pots, and extension rods. Standardization has made it possible to use such parts interchangeably in any malee of pump. Such standards also serve as a guideline in the design of nonstandard parts. The API Standards on Parts in the following pages are reprinted here by permission from the American Petroleum Institute, 211 N. Ervay, Suite 1700, Dallas, Texas 75201. Figure, table, and paragraph numbers have been changed to be consistent with the rest of this volume.
S/ush Pump Piston Rod and Piston Body Bore, Fluid End
7. 1 Sizes and Dimensions. Fluid ends of slush-pump piston rods and piston body bores shall be in accordance with Table 7 .1 and Figs. 7 .1 and 7 .2 for doubleacting pumps and Table 7 .2 and Fig. 7 .3 for single-acting pumps. 7.2 Threads. Threads on rod ends and in retainer nuts shall conform to the dimensions given in Tables 7 .1 and 7 .2, and shall be controlled by class X gages conforming to the stipulations in ANSI Bl.2: Screw Thread Gages and Gaging. If supplementary production or working gages are used, they shall be accurate copies of the master gages.
*Nomenclature used in Section 7 .1 may not agree with that used in the main text. 193
194
EXPENDABLE PARTS
TABLE 7.1. Fluid End of Double-Actlng Slush Pump Plston Rods and Plston Body Bores (All dlmenslons are in lnches. See Flgs. 7.1and7.2.)
2
4
Piaton Rod.
9
~iat.ou
10
11
Taper, In. Per
Pilt:on .. Rod Ft. on Diam
12
13
Plotoa
.. Rod
.Diamet.er
Rod A
TaNo.
a......
1 2
1 -l l' - lH a 1'1.i - lH 4 l'!!i-2 5 2' - 211 6 2114 - 2H 5HP** 2114 - 3'1.i 6HP 3 - 3'1.i
3'!!! 5'1.i 7'1.i 8 8% 9% 8% 9%
1.000 1.250 1.500 1.875 2.250 2.750 2.225 2.725
1'1.i 2'1.i 2% 4 4 4'1.i 3% 4'
2n
lU
0.979 1.229 1.474 1.854 2.229 2.729 2.229 2.729
u
1,i. ls\ l/r lU 2% lU 2%
1% 1 '!!i 2tt 2U 2U 2U 2U 2U
1.000 1.000 1.250 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
' ' ' ' ' ' 0.041 0.113 0.041 0.113
~.~jjrfn:~~meter tolerancea for API rod numbers 1 and 2:+0.0l0-().005 inch. For rod number 3 and larger:
Recommended aa a substitute for API 6HP piston for reduced liner sizes only. HDimeneion G, column 8, relates to dimension S, min. only (column 12).
~t
_ TAPER K
PISTON (HANOTIGHT)
/R OR
~~------
~~O~L~tiNOCCURS _J t-4-----D~
__
!.........,_.................,~.~
1
r--E
i---------- 8---
Figure 7.1. Tapers 1 through 6.
7.3 High Pressure Pistons and Rods. Shoulder faces M and N of pisto rods numbered 5HP and 6HP shall be square to the taper within 0.001 inc indicator reading (TIR). Shoulder face P shall be square to the taper within . inch TIR.
7.4 High Pressure Piston lnstallation lnstructions.
a b. c. d. e.
Clean rod and piston tapers and assemble (ol free). Piston must stand off from rod shoulder when made up handtight. Apply lubricant on thread and nut faceto prevent galling. Draw piston to rod shoulder with nut. After initial shoulder contact, mark relative position of both nut and p with punch marks or paint stripe. Continue tightening 60 to 72 deg
7.1
API STANDARDS FOR SLUSH PUMP COMPONENTS
195
'-._BREAK
b, MAX
~
MAX-j
-~1
FlLLETS a DERCUT DIA TO BE PRESTRESSED BY COLDWORK!NG
UNDERCUT DETAil
. . ,._________
Figure i .2. Tapers 5HP and 6HP.
TABLE 7.2. Fluid End of Single-Acting Slush Pump Pistan Rods ami Pistan Body Sores (A!I dimensions are in inches. See Fig. 7.3.)
2 Piston andRod
Connection No.
SA-2 SA-4 Connection
Diamete:r~
5 Piston Rod Start of Thread from Shoulder, maximum
..-----...
Shoulder Diameter
Piston
nominal
Diamete:r,
A
0.997-0.999 1.497-1.499
Rod
Length Rod End,
Bo:re
Thread Designation l-8UNC-2A l'h-8UN -2A
1.000-1.003 1.500-1.503
,..
B
-h
D
4i'.
1~
l'h
5t.
2%
2 3%
2~ splines for API 5 locknut with 12 splines and 2~ to 3 splines for API 6 locknut with 15 splines).
Markng
a. Pistons, Double Acting. Pistons with a taper confonning to this specification shall be marked with the manufacturer's name or mark, the API monogram, and the taper number. High pressure pistons number 5HP and 6HP are di-
196
EXPENDABLE PARTS
Figure 7 .3. Fluid end of single-acting slush pump piston rod and piston body bore. See Table 7.2.
mensionally interchangeable with pistons 5 and 6. It is permissible to stamp both tapers on shoulder P. b. Pistons, Single Acting. Pistons with straight bores conforming to this spec~. ification shall be marked with the manufacturer' s name or mark, the API monogram, and the connection number. c. Rods, Double Acting. Piston rods conforming to this specification shall be marked with the manufacturer's name or mark, the API monogram, and the taper number. The crosshead extension end of the piston rod shall be marked with the API monogram and the taper thread number or the straight thread number from Table 7.3 or 7.4. d. Rods, Single Acting. Piston rods conforming to this specification on the flui end shall be marked with the manufacturer's name or mark, the API mono gram, and the connection number. If the crosshead extension end of the piston rod conforms to Par. 7 .6 or 7 .9, this end shall be marked with the API monogram and the taper thread number or the straight thread numbe from Table 7.3 or 7.4.
Slush Pump Crosshead, Crosshead Extension, and Piston Rod Connections-Tapered Thread Type
7.6 Sizes. Tapered thread type connections between crossheads, crosshead extensions, and piston rods shall be 8 TPI, Series UN, Class 2A-2B modified, in th sizes given in Table 7 .3.
7.1
197
TABLE 7.3. Crosshead, Crosshead Extenslon, and Plston Rod Connectlons-Tapered Thread Type (All dlmenslons are In lnches. See Flg. 7.4.)
1 Taper Thread Number Tl T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 TS T9 TlO Tll T12 Tl3 T14 T15 Tl6 T17 T18 T19 T20
2 Nominal Size,* A 1 1% 1% 1% 11h 1% 1% 1% 2 2% 2% 2% 3 3% 31h 4 4% 5 51h 6
Length of Taper Thread, B 1%
4 Length of Straight Thread, Min
Locknut Thickness,
D
lU
1-h 1% 2n 2-ilr 2H 21h 2U 3% 3* 3% 4r 4% 5 5% 6% 6% 7%
lit
1 1 1 1
%. %.
1% 1% 1% 11h 1% 1% 1% 2 2 2% 2% 2%
21~
H~
2% 2%
1 1 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1%. 1% 2 2 2 2 2 2
% %
*Ali threads are 8 TPI, Series UN, Class 2A-2B modified.
7. 7 Thread Dmensons and Tolerances. Tapered thread type connections shall conform to dimensions given in Table 7 .3, Figs. 7.4 and 7 .5, and the following tolerances:
a. Taper. Tapered threads shall have a taper of 2 in. per ft on pitch cone di-
Figure 7 .4. Crosshead, crosshead extension, and piston rod connections-tapered thread type. See Table 7 .3.
198
EXPENDABLE PARTS
TABLE 7.4. Crosshead, Crosshead Extension, and Piston Rod Connections-Straight Thread Type {All dimensicms are in inches. See Fig. 7.7.)
Straight Thread Number

Sl
Nominal Size A*
1
Length of Internal Thread B
Le~th
Externa! Thread
5 Locknut
Thickness Min. D
82
SS 89
S3 S4 S5 S6 S7
1% 1% 1%
11h
lH
lH l/ir
1%
2ii 2/ir 2H
2%
%.
S10
1% 1% 1% 2 2%
3
S16 S18
819 S20
S11 S12 S13 $14 S15
2% 21h
2 2-h 2U 21h 2ii

3%
3.[g
1%
3U
3i
3S\i
3%
1 1
% * %
41'\r
5%
6~
1% 1% 1%
1% 11h 1% 1% 1% 2 2 2
3'.lh
4
3%
S17
41h
51h
6
71h
4% 5 5% 6% 6%
4-fr
3%.
4% 5i\6% 7% 7% 81h
9%
9%
2 2
*All thr!'ad111 are 8 TPI, Series UN, Class 2A-2B.
ameter with a tolerance of +0.000, -0.020 in. for intemal threads and +0.020, -0.000 in. for externa! threads. b. Concentricity. Within limitations of good practice, threads shall be concentrie with rod design axis. Angular misalignment of thread axis with rod design axis shall not exceed 0.0005 in. per in. of length.
---0-
Figure 7.5. Tapered thread form. See Par. 7.7,
7.1
API STANDARDS FOR SLUSH PUMP COMPr~ENTS
199
B = 1.25.A. c. Length. Total length of externa! threads = B + d. Perpendicularity. Face of intemal thread member shall be perpendicular to thread axis within 0.001 in. per in. of face diameter.
e. Lead. Lcad tolerance shall be 0.0022 in. per in. Cumulative lead tolerance shall be 0.0022 in. f. Thread Angle. Half angle tolerance of thread angle shall be l deg. g. Truncation. Crest on both intemal and externa! threads shall be truncated parallel to taper to produce a fiat 0.030 in. wide. Root on both interna! and external threads shall be truncated paraUel to thread axis to produce a flat 0.015 in. wide. Root of interna! threads may be trnncated parallel to taper of thread at option of manufacturer. Straight threads truncated same as tapered threads. h. Pitch Diameter. Pitch diameter and pitch diameter tolerance of straight threads shall be as designated in [111] ANSI B 1.1: Unified Screw Threads. L Standoff. In gaging tapered threads, stando:ff of product from plain and threaded plug and ring gages shall be maintained within a tolerance of 1/16 in. CAUTION TO USER: Threads must not be damaged, as damage will cause misalignment and failure.
TB Lock Nuts. Crosshead extension and piston rod lock nuts shall be fumished in accordance with Par. 7 .12. Slush Pump Crosshead, Crosshead Extension, and Piston Rod Cormections-Straight Thread Type
7. 9 Sizes. Straight thread type connections between crossheads,' crosshead extensions, and pistan rods shall be 8 TPI, Series UN, Class 2A-2B modified, in the sizes given in T~ble 7 .4.
7. 10 Thread Dimensions and Tolera.neas. Straight thread type connections shall conform to the dimensions and tolerances given in Table 7.4, Figs. 7 .6 and 7. 7 and ANSI B 1.1: Unified Screw Threads, and shall be gaged in accordance with ANSI Bl.2: Screw Thread Gages and Gaging. The following requirements are also applicable: a. Concentricity. Within limitations of good practice, threads shall be concentric with rod design axis. Angular misalignment of thread axis with rod design axis shall not exceed 0.0005 in. per in. of length. b. Length. Interna!: B = 1.25A Extemal: C = B + D
+ 0.25
200
EXPENDABLE PARTS
INTERNAL THREAD
EXTERNAL
-.____ ______ -.J.-__L
TH~EAD
THRE'AD
_J'v'~I"
.
AXIS7
~ltr'
/
PITOH--i
Figure 7.6. Straight thread form. See Par. 7.10.
c. Perpendicularity. Face of interna! thread member shall be perpendicular to thread axis within 0.001 in. per in. of face diameter. 7. 11 Lock Nuts. Crosshead extension and piston rod lock nuts shall be fumished in accordance with Par. 7 .12. 7. 12 Lock Nuts. Crosshead extension and piston rod lock nuts shall be fumished in accordance with Fig. 7 .8. 7. 13 Taper Threads. Locknut threads for the taper type connection shall form to the requirements of Par. 7. 7.
con~
7. 14 Threads. Locknut threads for the straight type connection shall confo to the requirements of Par. 7. 1O.
} ct-L
:
CROSSHEAD EXTENSION LOCKNUT PISTON
Figure 7. 7. Crosshead, crosshead extension, and piston rod connections-straight threa type. See Table 7.4.
7,1
201
Figure 7 .8. Crosshead extension and piston rod lock nut.
Slush Pump Valve Pots

7. 15 Sizes and Dimensions. Slush pump valve pots shaH be fumished in the sizes and dimensions given in Table 7.5 and Fig. 7.9, as specified on the purchase order. API valve pots for caged valves shall provide a minimum G dimension (see Table 7 .5) for cage clearance.
A.BLE 7.5. Slush Pump Valve Pots ;(All dimensions are in inches. See Fig. 7.9 for explanation of dimensional symbols. 'oimensions for pot sizes 1, 2, and 3 are tentative.)
1 2
,---------
10
Valve Pot Dimensions
12 11 Sp:ring Mounting Dimensions

M
2%
A 2% 3% 3%
B
2 2 2
e
1
Pis
1%.
1 \/2
314 3% 41,4
E So lid
4%
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1%
5
5% 5% 6% 7 7%
4%. 5%
5% 6
6%
7~~
s~;g
lf.
1i'c. l1i1
11:;1.i
u u u
F 1%
2%
G
Solid
3% 331 14
J
21,4
21,~
r---~
2%
3
2%
2%. 3% 3% 3% 3% 3%
41/g
1 1% 1%
2 2% 2%. 2%.
3
3
N 2 112 314
3%
2*
41/s
4%
1%
1% 2 2',i 2% 31,1,
Ho
3 3%.
3% 3% 3%. 3% 3%
3%
3%
3%.
3%
514
51,4
4% 4%
4% 4%,
lf.
8'11.
9%
2Vs
8% 9%
u. H,
3%. 4
41,4 4%
5%
6
,g 6"' 6% 7'/s
2%,
2% 2% 2% 2%
5
5%
4%
3%.
3%
5 1h
5%
5%.
*Dimensions for these pot sizes are tentative.
202
EXPENDABLE PARTS
,jr
JT,n
t L
CM
~
,i
ON
.//, r---B lTAPER r'ER FOOT
.:!_:':
DIAME+-~[R)
--
L_.___ .L ___
______ JMINIMUM
CLEARANCE
Figure 7.9. Slush pump valve pot. See Table 7.5 for dimensions.
7. 16 Spring Mounting Dimensions. Valve pot spring mounting dimensions shall conform to dimensions L, M, and Nin Fig. 7.9 aild Table 7.5. 7. 17 Marking. Slush pump valve pots fumished to this specification shall b marked with the manufacturer's name or mark, the API monogram, and the valv pot size number. Markings shall be cast or die stamped on the fluid cylinder applied to a plate securely affixed to the fluid cylinder. Markings shall be applie in a location visible after installation of the fluid cylinder on the pump and ma be applied to either pot. For pumps having divided fluid ends, each section sh be marked.
Slush Pump Pistons
7. 18 Sizes and Dimensions. Slush pump pistons shall be bored to fit the st . dard taper of piston rods as given in Fig. 7 .1 and Table 7 .1. Piston outside di ameters shall be suitable for use in liners or cylinders having increments of di ameter change noted in Fig. 7 .10. 7. 19 Marking. Pistons conforming to this specification shall be marked with th manufacturer's name or mark, the API monogram, the corresponding API number, and standard bore. Markings shall be stamped in letters ~-in. high on t end face of the piston core at the large end of the piston-rod hole.
7.1
203
Slush Pump Liners

7.20 Uner Bares. Bores of slush pump liners shall be gven in one-fourth inch increments and with tolerance as noted in Fig. 7 .10 and as specified on the purchase order.
7.21
The inside edge of the piston be chamfered as shown in Fig. 7.10.
end of slush pump liners
Marking. Slush pump liners confonning to this specification shall be marked with the manufacturer's name or mark, the API monogram, and the size (standard bore) of the liner. Markings shall be stamped in letters ~ in. high on the retainer end (outer end) of the liner.
Slush Pump Gear Ratings

Provisions. Gear ratings as given herein are derived from AGMA Std 424.0l Standard Practice for the of Helical and Gearing far Oilfield Mud Pumps. Ratings are based on surface durability (which is mn'""''n" of ptch). However, the gear manufacturer shall as sume responsibility for selecting a pitch sufficiently coarse to provide adequate tooth strength. 7.24 Design. Gears shall be single reduction, either helical or herringbone. Gear materials to be in accordance with AGMA Std 241.01: Gear Materials-Steel. While field experience in the use of nodular iron as a gear material in slush pumps
PIS TON ENTERING
~:W4-1
__\_A
/
/.
END
!'
1/8" MIN
A= Noml1111I Diameter in one-fourth ind1 incremenh, toleruc:e plus O.O 1O inchas, minus 0.000 iru:luu.
Figure 7.10. Slush pump Hner.
204
EXPENDABLE PARTS
is limited, it does, to indicate this matelial can be used. Tentative use nodular iron is permissible for gears only (not pinion), providing it is in accordanc~ with AGMA Std 244.01: Nodular !ron Gear Materials. Use the steel hardne curves of Fig. 7 .12 to obtain Kr values. Any practica! combination of tooth height; pressure angle, or helix angle may be used. However, American Gear Manufac: turers Association standards are recommended. The slush pump manufacturer shaU be responsible for adequate shafting and support to maintain proper alignment derload. 7. 25 Rating Formulas. The horsepower rating for surface durability shall determined from the following formula:
P=-where
F;KrDs
.65F. Combined factor for face width and inbuilt factor (where F = face width in inches.) F, = rating factor, see Fig. 7 .11. Kr = combined factor for materials, tooth form, and ratio, see Fig. 7 .12. Ds = combined factor for pinion rpm, pitch diameter, and velocity factor, using Fig. 3 of AGMA Std 211.01: Surface Durability of Helical and Herringbone Gears, or the following formula:
=
F;
D =--s 126,000
v;cvn
1. 7
l-----+---+---f--__,l-----'----1---1----l
._
t;
~ z
r,= 16 1
5000
HP
"-.i.6 le:-'-'!---+--_,, USE RATING FACTOR OF 1.4 ON ~ 1 PUMPS 1000 HP a HIGHER
e;: 1.5
i
>----+----+-,--1---J--~.....-......_....._....
Si 1.4
a:: 1. 3
1---~-L_,__,___
1
1
_,__--+-----+----<
4 6 8 10 12. 14 16 INPUT HORSEPOWER RATING OF PUMP, IN HUNDREDS
Figure 7.11. Gear rating chart for mud pumps. See Par. 7.25.
7.1
205
600
500
,.
400
"' .... ...

o
u
300
STANDARD HARDNESS COMBINATIONI AS SHOWN ARE llU:COMMENDED. WHEN NONSTANDARD HAADNEll COMllNATIONS .U:E USED 1 THAT CURVE SATISFVING IOTH GEAR a PINION HARDNESIES SHALL APPLV
NO INTERPOLATION IS PERNITTED.
10 11
RATIO OF GEAR TO PINION
IEiiJ
Figure 7.12. Variation of K, factor with gear ratio. See Par. 7.25.
DP
= pinion pitch diameter, inches. With enlarged pinions, a value equal to

outside diameter minus two standard addendums, may be used.
Cv 78/(78 + ./V) v = pitch line velocity in fpm (do not use enlarged value of Dp). n = pinion rpm.
7.26 Name Plate Ra.ting. The name plate rating of a slush pump shall not exceed the API rating of the gear.
205
EXPENDABLE PARTS
7.2
PUMP LINERS
In the 1920s, the cylinders of reciprocating pumps were either an integral part of
the liquid end or employed a pressed-in bronze or cast-iron sleeve that requirecf time-consuming and usually difficult rernoval using hammer and chisel to split the sleeve. The use of double-acting reciprocating steam pumps and then power pumps for ~ circulating drilling mud (and later slurries), usually a severely abrasive service requiring frequent replacement, led to the adoption of a "quick-change" renewable cylinder or ''liner.'' The loose-fitting liner was equipped with a shoulder that engaged with a short rubber sleeve to serve as a slug packing, being forced against the packing in its recess by mechanical means such as set screws in an internal . cage or through the cylinder head. Such an arrangement did not necessarily lend itself to easy removal of liners. Corrosion and packed sand and mud between the loose-fitting Iiner and the liquid-end bore often made necessary the use of mechanical or hydraulic jack arrangements either with a puller head that gripped the inside of the liner by expanding serrated jaws or with a toggled head that engaged the rear end ofthe liner. Such a puller required two jacks working against a "strong back'' spanning the two jacks. As a matter of historical interest, the jenny jack (so. named after the female jackass) was developed with an open center hole that could be slipped over the single puller rod. Another objection to this liner-retention arrangement was the lateral movement or "working" of the liner against the relatively compressible packing rubber, caused by the pulsating pressure on the exposed end areas of the metallic liner. The relative motion between liner and liquid-end bore in the presence of abrasive sands resulted in rather rapid destructive wear of the liner bores in the liquid end. This was overcome by the use of an additional shoulder on the liner to enable it to make metal-to-metal contact with the liquid end. Opposed lip-type packing rings were placed in the original packing space with the lips facing each other and with a metal lantern ring between them to provide a small amount of compression for an initial seal, the final seal being provided by the pump pressure. An improved liner packing arrangement was developed in 1970 whereby the opposed pressureactivated lip-type packing rings were installed in a packing space that extended throughout the length of the liner, this space being filled with pressurized oil. This resulted in complete. protection against corrosion and packed sand and also provided the desirable pack-o:ff against clean oil rather than abrasive mud or slurry. With the .introduction of the single-acting piston-type pump in drilling and slurry service, the means of packing and clamping the renewable liner required a di:fferent approach. The usual practice was to install the liner through the cradle opening and force the liner end against a rather hard, fabric-reinforced packing ring in a recess provided in the liquid end. The bolted or screwed clamp sometimes works against a shoulder or fiange as an integral part of the liner. At other times the clamp may work against the outside end of a straght cylinder liner. Ease of installation and simplification of the clamping arrangement can be had
7.3
PISTONS
207
designing the liquid end to receive a flanged liner through the cylinder head. This precludes the need for clamping against the high hydraulic ram effect working on any since the hydraulic forces tend to hold the liner against its shoulder.
7.2.1
Liner Development
The value of any liner is the wear resistance of the inside diameter against which the piston runs. Ths surface must be compatible with the chemical constituents of the pumped liquid and the abrasivity of the solids that may be deliberately added as in the case of drilling mud and slurry. The first typical "quick-removable" mud-pump linern were of single-metal construction-cast iron, hardened carbon steel, and chrome-plated steeL Bimetal liners with centrifugally castor spun hard metals were introduced later. However, about 1950, a trend to 27% chrome iron was recognized by all pump liner manufacturers. Sometimes this hard metal is centrifugally cast into a liner shell, but other liners consist of a sleeve of the hard metal centrifugally cast and machined and shrunk into a mild steel or carbon steel shell. This construction results in a liner with greater hoop strength because of the prestressed liner and shell. On the other hand, the sleeve construction limits the maximum size of liner to a diameter considerably less than a spun liner because of the loss of thickness of the supporting shell. A spun-in hard facing is usually much thinner than a shrunk-in sleeve and contributes little to the strength of the unit. Of significance is the "rebirth" of the chrome-plated liner. Tests show that a properly plated liner will surpass one of 27% chrome iron. The reason for the demise of the early chrome-plated liner was the poor plating technique and application of a minimal thickness of chromium. Old liners (and piston rods) hada limit of about 0.010-0.015-in thickness of plate. As this relatively thin coating wore away, the base metal would become exposed, and the edge of the wom chrome plate acted as a knife to quickly decimate a piston rubber (or rod packing). The improved plating technique and the thicker plating (which allows the acceptable maximum w.ear off, in in diameter) results in a superior product.
7.3
PISTONS
The following discourse on the introduction of an "improved" piston for drilling mud service will provide information on the physical action of a piston and reveal sorne of the pitfalls that should be avoided. Examples of current piston designare shown in Figures 7 .13 and 7 .14. A piston with a solid steel back-up plate bonded to the fabric heel was marketed with the contention that it offered the ability to use several sizes of rubbers on a single size piston body (a dubious advantage) and it al so provided a clearancerenewable feature in that with each new rubber installation the liner clearance was
208
EXPENDABLE PARTS
Figure 7.13. Mud and slurry pistons. (Courtesy Fluid King.)
brought back to the "new" piston condition (Fig. 7 .15). Sorne detrimental effe of having a "floating" back-up plate were observed. (Even though it was bond to the rubber, it was rather free to float radially.) The first evidence of trouble w the galling that appeared in 27% chrome-iron liners. No thought was given at t time to the possibility of excessive plate "shifting" (Fig. 7 .16), but there w concem for the damage to the liner. lt was determined that the galling produced "fish-scale" surface on the liner that was extremely hard on rubber pistons. T
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.14. Typical pistons. (a) Double-acting. (b) Single-acting. (Courtesy Fluid Kin
7.3
PISTONS
209
Pistan body
Figure 7.15. Piston with "back-up" plate.
fact that any steel piston Figures 7 .17 and 7 .18, without plates could still result in the same injury with the steel body galling on the liner tended to dispel any worry about back-up plate shift. during the development of a large piston ( 12-in diameter) for coal slun-y pumping service, it was dramatically shown that the back-up plate shift was undesirable. Figure 7.16 shows how the shifng of the back-up plate generates liner and piston wear on the opposite side from the clearance gap due to the high unit loading of the back-up plate against the liner. The suggestion that the back-up plate be split into segments and unbonded so that it would expand equally with the rubber is not practical, because the rule
-EPressure Fabric extrusion into clearance results in rapid failure o! heel, and wedging efect produces force on back-up plate
This generates wear on back-up plate, and the failure mode regene~ra.,.,te~s~.-;-1,
11 :
11111
1
Hydraulic pressure bulges rubber to help center piston but provides no centering
to ring.
Figure 7.16. Piston with "back-up" plate. Reaction to pressure.
210
EXPENDABLE PARTS
111,111
111111
'ii
Figure 7.17. Typical piston.
applying to any packing system is that the packing ring next to the clearance gap performs all of the packing effects-the remaining multiple rings become pressure :: balanced and perform no work except to wear out from the initial interference buil{ into the ring. The argument that any piston (Fig. 7 .17) can be ''kicked'' over by the wedging action of the fabric into the clearance gap (Fig. 7 .18) is true, but the ability of solid piston to resist this force is so great that there is hardly any regeneration. , The solid piston takes this force on both rubbers and a much wider metal face (body fiange). The hydraulic pressure on the working rubber tends to "bulge" it out to liner size for the entire circumference, thereby acting as a centering forc.'
Fabric extrusion into clearance produces force
But force is counteracted by "rigid" rubbers and steel flange in contact with liner. Otters greater bearing area with reduced wear rate.
~
Hydraulic pressure bulges rubber, provides additional force to "center" piston.
Figure 7 .18. Typical piston reaction to pressure.
7.4
PLUNGERS
211
11111!1ll1
51
1 l l l 1!11111
Figure 7 .19. Improved piston (patented). Controlled expansion (by bonding or vulcanizing to fabric section), high-modulus, gap-closing, compatible-with-liner, anti-extrusion ring. (Courtesy Chromium Corporation.)
for the entire piston, overcoming the side force produced by extrusion. Such a centering force is lacking in intensity in the "back-up plate" piston. Accordingly, it appears that the use of any one-piece metal or high-modulus back-up plate is of doubtful value. lt is surprising to observe that in the mid- l 950s, drilling mud pump piston construction including the calandered 18 X 18 cotton-duck fabric plied into about 20 plies (later improved by stacking the plies with the warp and woof at random angles) is practically the same as its original design. This is great testimony to the sanctity of the fabric with its special properties-probably due to the ability of the fibers to absorb liquid and provide lubrication against the liner on the high pressure stroke, not an attribute of most synthetic fabrics. Of interest is a new concept in piston design, Figure 7 .19, whereby the clearance gap is kept at zero by the controlled expansion of a high-modulus segmenta}, step-cut anti-extrusion ring. Because failure of a piston begins with the deterioration of the fabric heel at the clearance gap, this means of reducing the gap will extend the life ofthe piston. See Chapter 10, Sec. 10.1.5.
7.4
PLUNGERS
Plungers are made in a wide variety of materials, the most common being solid ceramic, sprayed ceramic, and spray-welded Colmonoy 6. For clean water service, solid ceramic offers the best performance, lasting many years with no discernible wear. However, it is subject to damage from abrasive liquids, rough handling, and thermal shock. Spray-welded Colmonoy 6 is probably the most popular plunger
212
EXPENDABLE PARTS
Figure 7 .20. Plungers, val ves, and packing for typical multicylinder pump. (Courtesy Fluid King.)
material, resisting corrosion and abrasion fairly weH, and having none of the ceramic disadvantages. Refer to Figure 7 .20. There are many other plunger materials, including sprayed ceramic, stainless steel, and even hardened carbon steel. Plunger construction varies with size. For plungers up to about 3 in in diameter, solid base metals are usually used. Those of larger diameter are usually of hollow or sleeve construction, which reduces weight and cost. In horizontal pumps, most plungers have short, quick-connect ends to allow plunger change without opening the power end for access to the crosshead. An extension rod working through the diaphragrn packing has sorne sort of grooved clamping arrangement to allow the plunger to be fastened by working through the cradle opening, using a clamp of sorne sort. In order to ensure plunger alignment, the stub end should use a pilot-fit pin and socket. Early attempts to use a so-called self-aligning connection without a pilot fit resulted in disaster because of the care needed to assure that the plunger was aligned before clamping. Sorne clamps actually forced the plunger out of alignment during the tightening process. The outside crossheads used on most vertical pumps contribute to good plunger alignment because of their freedom of movement.
7.4.1
Metal-to Metal Plungers

0
With clean oil or with water and soluble oils, metal-to-metal close-fting plungers running in an appropriate sleeve, both parts being honed and lapped to extremely close clearance, are rather popular in smaller high-pressure pumps. Plungers can
7.4
PLUNGERS
213
be of hardened (nitrided) steel or chome An 0-ring is sometimes placed in a groove in the sleeve near the atmospheric end. This prolongs the useful life of the plunger by the additional seal afforded as clearance develops from wear. For an estmate of the leakage rate to be expected with such a close-fitting plunger, use the formula below. Of course, the leakage into the cradle would have to be disposed of by drainage ora scavenger pump.
where
Q Dp Pd
leakage rate per plunger, GPM = plunger diameter, in = discharge pressure, PSI e = diametric clearance, in = absolute viscosity, cP L = length of plunger, sleeve contact, in
=
Example For a triplex single-acting pump with
DP
= l in = 5000 PSI e= 0.001 in

=
3 cP 6 in
29,308
5000
0.001 3
3* = 0.024 GPM
7.4.2
Ceramic Plunger Construction (See Fig. 7.21)
The original supplier of solid ceramic plungers utilized the typical constru... : 'Jn of a solid ceramic body with a reduced diameter neck or shank epoAy-c.:.:nepted into a metal adapter for fastening to the extension rod (Fig. 7.21a). After 's 1arge numthe cemer.tL.: connection ber of "pullouts" or bond failures, an effort to by deepening the socket of the adapter to provide greater bonding area was tried (Fig. 7.2lb). Loss of adapter strength 'rmn such removal of metal resulted in numerous cases of adapter failure from fatigue. Another manufacturer obtained better results by following the same design except that the adapter was heat-shrunk onto the ceramic shank. A superior ceramic plunger construction is the hollow "thimble" of solid ce-
*For three cylinders.
214
EXPENDABLE PARTS
"Pullout" due to failure of cement
cjfl:"' &,
1
Breakage of cerarnic due to mishandling or misalignment of pump Heat - shrink adapter _<_c_em-en_t>__ )
Breakage of ceramic due to thermal shock. Craze-cracking usually evident
---+-
Adapter fails by fatigue at either location
Ceramic failure same as above
c[J(
---~
/= '" (~) ~
.
()
T\./O BOL T CLA/"\P

.
PLUNGER
..
)
1
Plunger clamp connection
Figure 7.21. Ceramic plunger construction. (a) "Old" design. (b) "New" design. ( "Improved" design. Adapter with integral stinger provides strength of bond and reduc. stresses. (d) Typical Groove-and-Clamp Connection.
ramic cemented toan all-metal adapter with an extended "stinger" that provid strength and reduction of stresses (Fig. 7.21c). Aside from the screwed method of attaching the plunger to the extension r another popular method is the 'groove-and-clamp' scheme shown in Figure 21~ Note that a pilot-fit boss assures absolute axial alignment.
7.5
Pl\CKING
215
7.5 7.5. 1
PACKING lntroduction and History
The terms "packing" or "seals" are sometimes used to describe two distinctly different applications; namely, "dynamic" packing that usually refers to tha! used on a moving piston or plunger and to a stuffing box through which a plunger or piston-rod reciprocates (or rotates in the case of a centrifuga! or rotary pump). Then there is the term "static" packing, generally called "gaskets", that are used to sea! the gap between two fixed or stationary parts, typically pipe flanges, pump cylinder heads and valve pot covers or any other opening that must be permanently or temporarily sealed. Many packing types or shapes (lip-type rings, homogeneous or braided, flat, 0-rings, metal-segmenta!, etc.) are used in either application with al! types in both applications being subject to extrusion into the gap between the two parts but it will be seen that the mechanics of sealing are entirely different in the two applications-the dynamic packing being subjected to the additional friction forces and wear not encountered in static application and the greater ''gap'' necessary between moving parts. A discussion of plunger pumps and packing must be preceded by an explanation of why they differ from piston-type pumps, particularly in the matter of stuffing boxes and packing. With the common duplex double-acting piston pump, typical design requires an increase in piston rod strength, in both tension and compression, in sorne proportion to the increase in pump discharge pressure. Therefore, a point is reached where the piston rod diameter theoretically becomes so large that the pump, in eftect, approaches a single-acting duplex, the discharge characte1istics of which are extremely ''rough. '' Accordingly, single-acting pump design dictates three, five, or more cylinders, and multiplex single-acting pumps inherently have smoother discharge characteristics, even over a small-piston-rod duplex doubleacting pump. Of extreme importance is the often overlooked fact that the packing action of an outside packed plunger pump is completely opposite to that of any piston type, including a multiplex single-acting piston pump. In a plunger pump (Fig. 9.3), the plunger, during the pressure stroke, is traveling to the right out of the pressure-loaded packing into the liquid, and during the suction stroke the plunger is traveling to the left out of the dirty liquid into the relaxed packing. Conversely, in a piston-type pump (Fig. 9.4) (with both the piston and the piston rod packing), on the pressure stroke the piston is traveling to the left into_the pressure, and on the suction stroke it is tmveling to the right away from the liquid. With the piston rod packing, the same action is seen: on the pressure stroke the rod is traveling into the packing, which is loaded by hydraulic pressure. The purpose of packing is simply to close up the clearance gap between the moving plunger and it associated parts, particularly the gland bushing, in the
216
EXPENDABLE PARTS
stuffing box or the piston and its cylinder, and the pistan rod and its stuffing box' parts. With ordinary packing this is accomplished by the use of material with con~ siderable resiliency. The mechanics of ali packing are such that regardless of the general shape the sealng member, the hydraulic pressure tends to force the member through the, clearance gap. Accordingly, practically ali of the sealing and subsequent wear extrusion take place at the "heel" (Figs. 9.3 and 9.4). It can be seen that the action in a plunger pump (Fig. 9 .3) is such that on the pressure stroke the heel is being "dragged" away from the clearance gap, thereb greatly overcoming the force produced by the hydraulic pressure that causes trusion through the clearance gap, a benefit in high-pressure service. With piston-rod packing (Fig. 9.4), the heel is being dragged into the clearance gap both the motion and the hydraulic pressure, accelerating wear of the packing. Lubrication of packing is extremely important in high-pressure service. It be seen that only with the plunger pump can a lubricant be applied to the plung as it is entering the hydraulically loaded packing, when it is most needed. This i another benefit in high-pressure service. Any attempt to lubricate a piston or piston rod is not as effective, since th. lubricated moving parts enter the packing only on the unloaded or suction strok when lubrication is not required. The l 940s saw an intensive search for an improved packing. Early styles of ing went through a period of popularity due to a false impression that one packi was better than another, when in reality a "different" unworn packing would seal for a while in a "different" location in the stuffing box, away from the wash'-~ boarded area caused by the previous packing. is justas important for a packi to sea! on the inside surface of the stuffing box as for it to seal on the rod plunger.) ... All of the packings at that time were more or less adjustable in that gland ening caused the packing to squeeze with great force against the rod. An excepti was packing with altemate metal spacer rings with pins extending through hol in the packing rings, the gland force being transmitted through these pins. Thi was a fairly successful packing, but trouble was encountered in high pressure the pins would crush and distort under the high load. At that time a development program was carried on, and as a result the fsf truly "nonadjustable" packing was made available. This is a lip-type packing wit~ a fairly hard, fl.at center section that will withstand considerable gland load withou.t affei:-~ing the lip load on the rod (Fig. 7 .22).
7 .5.2
Packing Types
The type of service in which a pump operates determines the type of packing t be used. The choice is not always simple, but in order to have a guide to t selection of packing, a discussion of each type follows.
General Servce. A nonadjustable packing set composed of rather hard phenoH bottom and top adapters in combination with nonadjustable seal rings, The
7.5
PACKING
217
Figure 7.22. Nonadjustable packing style 0740. (Courtesy Utex Industries, Inc.)
ring has a phenolic core, and the sealing lipis composed of Buna-N and fabric or bther materials. It is recommended for general service on water, oils, hydrocarbons, alcohols, glycols, and amines. Depending on local service conditions and maintenance, it will perform satisfactorily at pressures up to 5000 PSI and temperatures to 200F. See Figure 7.22.
Acid Service. Same design and configuration as general service except that the sealing lipis homogeneous Buna-N. TJ:iis packing must be lubricated to give satisfactory service in well service pumps. Again rock drill or steam cylinder oil is recommended. Since most well service applications are intermittent, the packing. will perform up to 15,000 PSI and will give satisfactory service in the fluids commonly used in well service operations. Occasionally it is necessary to use this packing in services that are highly abrasive due to slurries or sand content. Organic Service. Same design and configuration as general service. The sealing lipis Buna-N, nylon, and Teflon. Organic service packing is recommended when problems are encountered dueto corrosion or organic action on the composition. The addition of Teflon offers sorne resistance to corrosive and organic action in such services as lean oil, sulfur concentrations in water and oil, and sorne amines. This is recommended only in isolated instances.
A molded duck and synthetic oil- and water-resistant composition packing, recommended for fluid rods on pumps handling oil and water-base muds. The packing is designed with noncrushable features, and thus excessive gland or fluid pressure will not cause the usual crushing action of the packing with resultant undue wear on packing and rods. However, the packing may be adjusted to adopt to rods that are undersize.
High-Pressure Service. An adjustable packing composed of die-formed lead, die-formed flax, and molded phenolic bearing rings. This is recommended as an alternative to general service packing in local areas where combinations of pressures, temperatures, and maintenance practices dictate a change in styles. It will
218
EXPENDABLE PARTS
be serviceable up to 8000 PSI and at temperatures up to 240F. Since it is adjus able, it is subject to human error. lt is recommended for the same broad classi cation as general service packing and can be used as an altemative in applicatio where the customer cannot use lubrication.
Power Oil Service. This is a die-formed Tefton filament packing with bro end rings. The classification is misleading, since the packing can be used on myriad of services. The Tefton is very susceptible to adjustment due to the expansion, and it has not been too successful due to this. Continua! and judi gland adjustment is required.
7.5.3
Split Packing Rings
An age-old practice is the use of cut-ring packing that can be installed in a pu without removing the rod or plunger. Whenever possible, pumps should be .. signed with readily removable rods or plungers. The use of solid or uncut pac . .. rings will repay the user in extended life. Split rings present a leakage path t. sometimes requires excessive gland tightening to stop the leakage.
7.5.4
Spring-Loaded Packing
The use of springs to load or activate packing rings is not new. However, advent of new materials coupled with a better understanding of the mechanical hydraulic functions of the stuffing box have regenerated considerable interes this concept. ... Sorne of the advantages are: There is no need for additional adjustment; des and assemblies are possible to accommodate corrosive, hot, and extreme p applications. The main disadvantage is that the packing cannot be adjusted to a small leak for a short time until repacking can be accomplished. However, ing failure is not catastrophic, so this is not too severe a problem. lt is the opi in sorne circles that eventually the federal OHSA regulations will not allow ing to be adjusted while the pump is moving. In this eventuality, the spring-loa concept will be very practica!. See Figure 7.23.
7.5.5
Segmenta! Metal Packing
In an environment of hot or cold and surgically clean liquids and steam, seg tal metal packing, Figure 7. IA, has performed with outstanding service. The piston-ring principie is utilized to allow the liquid to force the segm activated by a gentle garter spring, against the piston rod. The tangential-cut (A) performs the sealing, the tangential cut allowing the segments to mov wards the rod to compensate for rod and packing wear. The leakage gap a segmental-cuts are sealed by a radial-cut segmental ring (B) positioned ove above gap. Typical arrangements used for example, three pairs of rings, a a enclosed in solid cages ali stacked on each other. lt can be seen that precl machining is required to produce this packing and obviously adds to its cost
7.5
PACKING
219
Spring-loaded packing style 0805-4. (Courtesy Utex Industries, Inc.)
THREE
RADIAL CUTS
~
~;::Y
//c2...__,___ __,____,9
GAIHER SPRlNG
9..._~_ ___,___,(;
B /
R!NG A B B STACKED
A 91-~B'-'-----==9-'---l
??,,
Figure 7.1A. Segmenta! Metallic Packing
Multiple Material Assemblies

ea! assemblies using real rings of different materials is a common practice. me reasons for this practice are abrasive conditions, corrosive materials, exreme temperature environments, and local requirements on ieakage or emissions. One of the most common assemblies is that of alternating rings of homogeous and fabric reinforced rings. These are generally used for abrasive condins or low pressure leakage; however, multiple materials and designs can be sembled for myriads of service conditions. They combine the strengths and of various materials and designs into a synergy that improves perforon the whole. For instance, the use of an ali TFE set can be enhanced with the addition of itable homogeneous or fabric reinforced rings. Obviousiy, the additional ma-
220
EXPENDABLE PARTS
terial needs to be generally compatible with the pumpage, but it can be plac in the set so as to perform without exposure to the ful! extent of the strea The addition of this ring will keep the TFE pressure rings from reforming/ molding or "slugging" up and allow the rings to perform as individual rings. The same type of situation can be used for high temperature, low t perature, and other applications that require additional engineering to prov assemblies for satisfactory service.
7.5.7
Double Stack Height Seal Rings
Sea! rings and/or pressure rings in vee packing sets do not have standard heig that are common between manufacturers in the sea! industry. There is sorne fort into this with a ne standard for homogeneous and fabric reinforced ri for hydraulic cylinders and the hydraulic industry. These rings and JIC dim sions are generally very thin or short so as to provide a short assembly for t hydraulic cylinder market. The high pressure, industrial pump service market requires sea! rings and ; semblies of a different design and/or dimensions. The generally accepted m of failure is a wearing or fretting away of the pressure ring material until m of it is gone, and the pressure ring cannot deform and ''heal'' itself. When t happens, failure occurs; therefore, the design of a "double stack" height or "t stack" height rings adds material bulk to the sea! ring. This additional material must be added in such a manner as to enhance t performance rather than hinder. Also, additional attention should be given lubrication since the thicker or taller rings have more material rubbing on t rod shaft and this must be compensated for by more lubrication. Generally rings are recommended; however, one double stack or tall stack ring will suf in most cases.
7.5.8
Spiral Packings
The use of braided materials cut into rings and formed around the shaft of pump or the stem of a valve is a common practice. The features of this pract are the ease of repacking and less inventory since the bulk material is on a s or in a coi!. It can be used in an emergency. The disadvantages of cut rings incorrect size due to inaccurate measurements or stretching, ragged and matched joints, and in general dirty or poor housekeeping associated with ins lation. Also, each joint provides a leak path for fluid or gas to escape. The use of dieformed rings of braided materials will remedy sorne of problems associated with cut rings. Measurements can be made correctly. Joi. can be cut cleanly and the packing kept clean; however, the joint problem the leakage problem through the joint still remains. For instance, in four sets there are four joints or potential leak paths for fluid to escape. The spiral combines the features of the ease of manufacture from brai stock with the dieformed features and goes further in that it eliminates the j problem. The spiral is made from one continuous length of braided material s
7.5 PACKING
221
ed around a plug the proper ID, then cut and dieformed. The ends are properly riented so as to provide a spiral with no excess or slight of material. It provides n endless packing ring with no joints or Ieak paths and can be installed much e same as one ring of packing. Cut rings can be installed either spring Ioaded or hand adjusted. In either case e joints must be staggered. When spring loading cut rings, it is necessary to e the spring in a compressed manner so the cut rings can be installed into the x. lf not, it is very difficult due to the cut rings not holding shape. The spiral liminates this problem since it is endless and can be installed as a simple one ng packing set. lt can be used with either a metal coil spring or with the new astomer spring concept.
FEATURES OF THE SPIRAL l . Endless construction-no leak path. 2. Ease of installation. PROBLEMS OF THE SPIRAL l. Must be made in the factory.
3. Precision height and length.
2. Un-spirals at times unless special packing design. 3. Customer resistance due to appearance.
STYLE 242 SPIRAL UNITIZED PACKING SET

Figure 7.2A
CONVENTIONAL MULTIPLE RING SET

Figure 7.3A
222
EXPENDABLE PARTS
7.5.9
FLAT-BAK Vee Ring
Vee ring technology, with the exception of material improvements, has remai unchanged for years. One manufacturer has now significantly changed the seali capabilities of the vee ring with the creation of the FLAT-BAK vee ring. T FLAT-BAK vee ring is applicable to any area where vees are used especially~ reciprocating sealing applications. The ordinary vee ring design with its vee shape on the face and heel side the ring has to have sorne type of adapter that is vee shaped on one side and on the other. The FLAT-BAK vee ring replaces this adapter with the additio capability of sealing pressure. Another significant improvement which results in increased seal life is t heavy duty construction as well as the optimum anti-extrusion capability. Flat-Bak Vee Ring is molded to twice the height of the standard vee ring. T along with the flat backed feature allows for a significant increase in the volu of material available for wear and extrusion resistance. The standard vee r with its shallow height, has a much shorter distance for an extrusion or w zone to travel before a completed Jeak path occurs (See Fig. 1). The FLAT-B vee ring increases this distance over two times (>2X), resulting in significan increased sea! set life. The flat back feature now permits the full utilization of fabric reinforcem capabilities. The standard vee forces a flat fabric into the vee shape quite oft causing interna! or external folds in the ring. With the FLAT-BAK vee, t fabric plies are now in the optimum wear and extrusion resistant position in t heel of the ring. An additional feature built into the FLAT-BAK vee as well many other Utex vee rings is horizontal bias fabric construction (See Fig. 7.5 This creates a vee ring that has ali fabric reinforcement plies with equal fi Jengths, allowing uniform wear performance. The horizontal bias elimina short and long fiber zones in the vee ring. With the FLAT-BAK vee, a single sea! can be used with greater effectiven than multi-vee ring sets, providing Jower cost sealing and higher pressure seali capabilities.
7.5.10
Knitted Wire Mesh
Knitted Wire Mesh has many uses such as back-up rings, scrapers, filters, a high temperature seals. A patented process ( #4219204) whereby knitted wi mesh is molded in conjunction with homogeneous rubber or other materials act as an anti-extrusion device is available. Knitted Wire Mesh is also available with fillers such as graphite, PTFE, a aramid yarns. Standard materials for the mesh itself include stainless steel, co per, inconel, and phosphor bronze. Other special alloys are available, and no standard densities can be produced from ali materials.
7.5
PACKING
223
s
;t;
X
/ /,
11
1
11 11
l 11
111 i 11
! '
1 : : ' ' 1
_J
.
!
1
PATH LENGTH
Figure 7 .4A.
>c:::x l<:J----"';c__-c:>!
1
k.i-
LEAK PATH LENGTH
SHORT & LONG FIBERS

(usual construction)
Figure 7 .5A.
HORIZONTAL
BIAS FABRIC
7.5.11
Packing "Dos"
l. "Drip-lubrication" of the plunger on the atmospheric or "outside" side
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
of the gland is highly recommended. A high volume flush of lubrication oil tends to cool and wash the plunger. A screwed gland provides uniform loading of the packing. See the rcommended stuffing box trim ciearances shown. Limit number of packing rings to three or four. Refer to packing manufacturer for oil type for the service involved.
224
EXPENDABLE PARTS
o o o o o
"
o" 00 o o
1 1
n o o o o o
UJ
. . . ..
~
UJ
o o o o o
"
o::
o
o:: ~ o
Figure 7 .6A.
Figure 7.7A.
7.5.12
Packing Don'ts
1. Excessive trim clearance contributes to short packing life. 2. Long stacks of many rings of packing are not requird for long life. 3. Bolted glands can result in "cocking" and plunger scoring. Excessiv packing compression by inexperienced operators is sometimes dangerous. 4. Lantern rings, with drain boles on the bottom of the stuffing box, invite, channelling of oil around the circumference of bore or rings by capillar attraction. Oil may never reach bottom of plunger. 5. A seal ring on the atmospheric side of a lantern ring is not desirable be cause it carries the entire sealing load without benefit of lubrication. (Be cause of the distinct mechanics of plunger packing, the lubricated plunger would be travelling away from the packing ring.) 6. So-called "force-feed" lubrication always requires an undesirable lantern ring.
7.7
CONTROllED-COMPRESSION GASKETS
225
Metal-to-metal
(a)
( D
.,
Figure 7.24. (a) Conventional gasket. (b) 0-ring seal.
0-RINGS
The concept of an 0-ring seal carne from the realization that in any packing or gasket set, only a small portion of one resilient part of that set-an extremely small theoretical ''bead'' nex.t to the clearance gap or leakage path-is effective in bridgthat gap. See Fig. 7.24(a). By replacing the bulk of a conventional sealing ring with a small ring of resilient material as in Figure 7.24(b), an effective seal could be obtained. Thus the 0ring becomes an effective bridge. Probably the shape of the cross section need not be circular. There are O rings on the rnarket that are somewhat square with rounded comers. 0-rings are inherently most satisfactory as static seals in close-clearance fs (metal-to-metal) such as flange faces where the clearance gap can be reduced to almost zero. Close-fitting static plug-in-cylinder applications are a little less reliable because of the rather large clearance required for assembly. 0-rings do not serve well in dynamic conditions such as on pistons or in pistonrod packing on high-pressure, fast-moving devices (unless well lubricated as when handling clean oil). Multiple rings in the same groove or space on a piston, for instance, tend to pressure-lock and result in excessive ring wear. They also do not serve well in static cases where there are pulsating pressures or minute mechanical motion from vibration. They tend to ''work'' or move in the groove, causing wear on ring and metal parts. Double seals in such applications tend to pressure-lock if the space between them is not vented. As with any dynamic packing sets, two or more 0-rings or packing rings stacked in the same space in a stuffing box serve no purpose in extending the total life. It has been contended that in such an arrangement the rings are sharing the packo:ff. They are not; the ring next to the atmosphere perfonns the complete seal, and the others are redundant.
7. 7
CONTROLLED-COMPRESSION GASKETS
Controlled-compression gaskets are superior to 0-rings in applications where pulsating pressure or mechanical vibration is encountered. A controlled-compression
226
EXPENDABLE PARTS
Controlled
Metal-to-metal
(a)
..
(b)
Figure 7 .25. Controlled compression gasket.
gasket is a square elastomeric gasket with dimensions such that it must be deformed (but not necessarily confined) at assembly of the parts, as shown in Figure 7.25(a) before tightening and 7.25(b) after tightening. There must be space provided into which the elastomeric deformation can move, allowing complete metal-to-metal contact of the parts. The "clamping" effect on the elastomer provides an initial seal and minimizes movement from pulsations. Any discussion on packing should stress the importance of designing all device~ with the least clearance gap practica!, in either static or dynamic applications.
7.8
BASIC ELASTOMERS
;:t
Following is a list of the most popular elastomers along with their recommended usage.
NITRILE OR BUNA N (NBR). Can be used for ethylene glycol-base liquids, general purpose, petroleum ol and grease, water, silicone greases and oils, and dieste base lubricants. Cannot be used for carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, nit benzene, aniline, phosphate ester hydraulic liquids, MEK, acetone, ozone, autoi motive brake fluid. SBR RUBBER (BUNA SOR GRS). Can be used for water, alcohols, automotive brak!. fluid. Cannot be used for sunlight, petroleum oils, ozone. BUTADIENE RUBBER (BR). BUTYL RUBBER (llR)
Used for tires. Similar to natural rubber.
Can be used for phosphate ester-type hydraulic liquids, ME acetone, silicone liquids and greases. Cannot be used for petroleum oils, dieste base lubricants.
NEOPRENE RUBBER (CHLOROPRENE, CR) Can be used for freon, ammonia, hi aniline point petroleum oils, mild acid resistance, silicate ester lubricants. Cami be used for phosphate ester liquids, MEK, acetone. CHLOROSULFONATED POLYETHYLENE (CSM). ETHYLENE PROPYLENE RUBBER (EPM, EPDM).
Can be used in acid. Can be used for phosphate este
7.9
ELASTOMERS IN CARBON DIOXIDE
227
base hydraulic liquids, steam (400F), water, silicone oil and greases, dilute acids, dilute alkalies, MEK, acetone, alcohols, automotive break fluid. Cannot be used for petroleum oils, diester-base lubricants.
FLUOROCARBON RUBBER (VITON, FPM). Can b used for petroleum oils, diesterbase lubricants, silicate ester-base lubricants, silicone liquids and greases, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, selected phosphate ester liquids, acids. Cannot be used for MEK, acetone, amines, anhydrous ammonia, low molecular weight esters and ethers, hot hydrofluoric or chlorosulfonic acids. ISOPRENE RUBBER, SYNTHETIC (IR).
Uses same as natural rubber.

Can be used for automotive
NATURA!:- RUBBER, NATURAL POLYISOPRENE (NR).
brake fluid. Cannot be used for petroleum products.

POLYACRYLATE RUBBER (ACM). Can be used for petroleum fuel and oil, oxidation, ozone, sunshine, hot oil to 350F, type A fluid. Cannot be used for hot water. POL YSULFIDE RUBBER (T).
Can be used for specific applications only.
POLYURETHANE RUBBER (AU, EU). Can be used for petroleum oils, hydrocarbon fuels, oxygen, ozone. Cannot be used for acids, ketones, chlorinated hydrocarbons, water, humidity. SILICONE RUBBER (SI). Can be used for low-temperature ( -175F) and high-temperature ( 400F), high aniline point oils, dry heat, chlorinated biphenyls. Cannot be used for most petroleum liquids, MEK, acetone. FLUOROSILICONE RUBBER (FSI).
Can be used for fuel systems up to 350F. Can be used for hydrocarbon oils, fuels,
EPICHLOROHYDRIN RUBBER (CO, ECO).
ozone, low-temperature properties.

LEATHER. Leather, probably being one of the first packing materials, should still be on the list. It possesses very good characteristics for sorne applications. Its resistance to extrusion must be recognized, because leather antiextrusion or ''backup'' rings for use with 0-rings in high pressure have been available for many years. Leather <loes not swell after subjection to high-pressure gas, but the possibility of chemical damage should be considered. VITON, KAZRAZ ANO ZALAK. AU
DuPont products, offer superior high temperature performance along with other characteristics.
7 .9
ELASTOMERS IN CARBON DIO XI DE
Most elastomers tend to absorb carbon dioxide when exposed to high pressure for a period of time, sorne more than others. Then upon exposure to lower pressure the absorbed gas causes the elastomer to momentarily swell up to as much as 200 % in volume, gradually returning to almost its original volume after the gas has been deleted. Sorne elastomers will have been physically damaged by "blistering" and
228
EXPENDABLE PARTS
"splitting" during this process. lf. an elastomer is confined in a static seal, an resistance to such damage will result in its retum to its original integrity. However, in dynamic sealing (piston and piston-rod packing), the swell due gas absorption will tend to destroy the packing in a catastrophic manner by chanical failure dueto the extreme friction generated by such swelling. In that c it matters not what damage, if any, is done to the elastomer by escape of the g alone. In sorne dynamic applications, if sorne space is provided into which the ela tomer can expand, mechanical damage will be minimized. Then if the material resistant to damage by gas, it may provide fair service. Little published data seems to be available describing the resistance of elast mers to the nonchemical reaction of gas absorption. Certainly, experience sho that most elastomers do not react in this manner in the air, hydrogen, or nitro that is frequently used with them. In the selection of an elastomer for a particular application, a simple gas-bo test of severa! elastomer samples will show which material will perform best. T selection then would rest on a compromise with minimum swell and minimu damage.
7.10
STUFFING BOX BRASS OR TRIM
1t is important to use stuffing box bushings, lantem rings, followers, etc., m of a material that is compatible both with the plunger or rod material and with fluid being pumped. For water service, bronze has been found to be the rn. compatible with all plunger and rod materials. For liquids other than water bro may also be considered. Bushing material of Ni-Resist, used in sorne special applications, is incom ible with dry rods or plungers, resulting in extreme galling to both with sli . contact, especially when a pump runs dry due to loss of prime. After severa! swings ofthe pendulum from "loose" to "tight" trim-to-plun clearance, the closer clearance of0.005-0.008 in for all trim is now recommend Such close fits are very important, particularly in high-pressure, high-speed pu (see Fig. 7 .26).
7.10.1
Stuffing Box Wear
Any resilient packing material-and that includes the great majority-will move the stuffing box when subjected to pressure. Sorne types, of course, move less th" others. The repeated movement, even of infinitely small magnitude, produced. the pump pressure pulsation in the cylinder (from suction to discharge) will t to wear out any metal stuffing box bore with which it is in contact. The so-cal nonadjustable packing (pressure rings) is held rigidly in the stuffing box by hard center, but both the inner and outer lips are free. There is also a tendency.
7.10
STUFFING BOX BRASS OR TRIM

!
229
BoreF
~:gg~;;~1
-'- 00011
Turn E .'._:002"
Bore D _ .OOO,, Turn C
+.002"~
=:002 ,,
' 000"
--=1
Concer.tricity toleran ce .002" TIR
e
Nominal
Basic Diameters
D
F
Nom.
Nom. + .005
Nom. - .002
IJ
~__..____..
Clearance, in
A
Minimum Maximum .005 .009
B
.002 .007
Figure 7.26. Recommended stuffing box cleamnces.
accelerate wear of a stuffing box if it is not kept properly tightened. This type of wear, exhibiting rings of wear corresponding to the of the packi.ng, is called ''washboarding.'' There is a misunderstanding as to how tight the nonadjustable packi.ng should be maintained. This packi.ng tolerates and requires much more gland pressure than any other packing. In seeki.ng a solution to stuffing box wear, this would be the first thing to look into. Another approach to the problem of stuffing box wear is the use of a reduced number of packi.ng rings. Even though the nonadjustable packing is faidy hard, it does respond to increased gland pressure, and the fewer the rings the greater the "clamping" load for each ring, resulting in reduced movement. With "filler" or "junk" rings in a reduced stack height packing, one would be able to extend stuffing box life by altemating the position of the rings so as to present an unwom portion of the bore. Corrosion always more or less accelerates stuffing box wear, even in supposedly corrosion-resistant metals. The products of corrosion usually tend to protect the exposed metal surface, but in the case of the stuffing box the packing movement continually removes the products of corrosion to keep a fresh surface exposed. Then, too, the products of corrosion can be held ih the packi.ng to actas a lapping compound for further wear.
230
EXPENDABLE PARTS
Gland, adjustable Throat bushing Follower

i---~
Plunger or piston rod
Gland, metal-to-metal
Figure 7.27. Screwed stuffing box gland.
7 .10.2
Stuffi ng Box Design Criteria
The following criteria should apply to new stuffing box designs for all pumps: Glands: Stuffing box glands should provide uniform tightening to the entire circumference of the packing set. The undesirable bolted-gland design (the gland being tightened by the use of two or three bolts or studs), with its propensity to "cocking" by uneven tightening ofthe bolts, has been almost completely replaced by the more desirable ' 'screwed'' gland with internal threads engaging the threaded outer surface of the stuffing box (see Fig. 7.27). Such gland design allows absolutely uniform tightening, but it should be recognized that these glands require greater tightening torque than bolted glands to provide the same packing load. Packing Cross-Section. ceed 3/4 in.
3/8-1/2 in. is desirable for all diameters. Do not ex-
Packng Arrangement. The complete set of packing rings should be placed in the bottom (liquid end) of the stuffing box, with the lubricating lantem ring and/ or follower on the atmospheric side. Better still, use no lubricating lantern ring but drip ol on the plunger or rod on the outside. Avoid placing the lubricating lantern ring between rings of packing; the contention that it will confine and distribute the lubricant evenly is questionable. Stuffing Box Trim and P!unger Dimensions. As shown in Figure 7 .26.
Throat Bushing. There is no need for a ''top hat'' or ftanged throat bushing unless it is decided to use one to obtain "long" plunger or rod contact for flushed
7.1 O STUFFING BOX BRASS OR TRIM
231
packing or to "move" ptting of solid-ceramic plungers forward to prevent the damaged area from entering the packing or to improve the dearance volume. Chrome-Plated Stuffing Box Bore. Will extend the life of packing and box.
Al! Trim Parts. Should be at least as long as one-fourth plunger or rod diameter to mi nimize "cocking" tendency.
10.3
Gland Tightening (Screwed Gland)
The following torque values should be followed in tightening all so-called nonadjustable packing, one man on a wrench length indicated: Packing Size (Diameter), in Length of Wrench, in
18
Approx. Torque,
ft-lb 225
300
3i-4~ 4i-6~
2!-3!
l~
24
36 48
450
600
Nonadjustable packing should be tightened at installation, then retightened after 24 h, and then retightened at weekly intervals. Even daily tightening is highly recommended. With the introduction of strict safety laws, it is no longer recommended that packing be tightened while the pump is nmning so that advantage can be taken of the pulsating pressure to help seat the packing. Die-formed packing should be tightened very lightly, and then after the pump has run severa! minutes the gland should be tightened to reduce the amount of leakage. With this type of packing, if a small amount of leakage can be tolerated, there will be better lubrication of the packing and less chance of buming up packing. Tefion packing has a tendency to expand with heat. It is quite common for it to start off satisfactorily, but with only a slight amount of overtightening a build-up of temperature can take place if it is not watched and the gland backed off some, if necessary, until it ''takes a set.''
10.4
Packing Lubrication
It stands to reason that any packing wm perform better if it is lubricated. Even "nonlubricated" packings will show improved performance with lubrication. These die-formed, compression-type packings are not usually used with lantem rings, because of their "soft" nature, but lubrication, drip or force-fed (metered), can be applied to the atmospheric side just in front of the gland. In fact, this method is now considered by sorne to be superior to the lantem-ring introduction of lubricant.
232
EXPENDABLE PARTS
For water service, rock drill ol is recommended. For hot water, steam cylin oil is recommended. A detailed discussion of "flushed" stuffing box packing for slurry service w be found in Chapter 9, Section 9.2.3.
7 .10.5
Lubrication by Lantern Ring
Lubricating lantem rings located at the atmospheric end or in the center of t stuffing box with a bottom drain hole can rob the plunger of ol since capill action causes the ol to cling to the stuffing box wall or the lantem ring recess ftow to the bottom without any oil actually reaching the plunger. The most positi lubrication method is to drip the oil directly on the plunger on the atmosphe side of the stuffing box.
7.11
JACOBY LEAKAGE
Jacoby leakage is described as that characteristic tendency of resilient packings leak slightly at the reversa! of stroke on a reciprocating pump or static seals wh. there is any slight movement between the sealed elements generated by change pressure in the system. A pressure-seal, lip, or 0-ring packing or piston mus~ involved. (There is sorne evidence of such leakage even with "slug" or ho geneous packing.) Such a packing ring seals by virtue of the resilience or compliance of the el tomer or material allowing it to be forced (extruded) into the clearance gap exis between the parts in question, for instance, the extrusion gap between the pist and the liner. This action drastically deforms the original shape of the ring or s Once a seal is affected, the only useful part of the packing is that small seg damming the gap against the escape of liquid. The entire remaining parts of packing set, including a major portion of the actual sealing ring and success multiple rings or lips, become hydraulically balanced, and liquid will appe the space around the piston rubber or packing rings up to the point of seal at, "heel" damming the gap. Upon reversa! of the piston or plunger or rod (or upon a lowering of syst pressure), the clearance-gap seal is momentarily broken by the action of the duction in friction and/or the relaxaton of the deformed packing to its orig~. shape. The action permits momentary leakage of the liquid trapped around 1 packing ring to be followed shortly by a resealing action from the hydraulic p sure until another reversa! or pressure change is encountered. Figure 7 .28 shows the sequence of events at the reversa! of a piston stroke, Figure 7 .29 a piston rod stroke. At A, the relaxed piston rubber maintains original shape. At B, the piston and the rod packing are distorted by the H pressure. When the end of the stroke is reached at C, the distorted piston or p ing retums to its normal relaxed shape but the liquid trapped around the rub .displaced to the atmosphere end.
7.11
JACOBY LEAKAGE
233
e
Figure 7 .28. Jacoby leakage in pistons.
LJmir
EQUIVALENT POSITION TO B , FIG. 7.28
111111
EQUIVALENT POSITON TO
t?11
C , FIG. 7.28 \
)11111
Figure 7.29. Jacoby leakage in piston rod packing.
A clue to the early recognition of Jacoby leakage is found in an old 0-ring manual, which st11tes: "A single 0-ring in a groove is used for both single- and double-acting pumps. Two or more of 0-rings in the same groove (or in separate grooves on the same piston) are not recommended. There is danger of locked pressure between the 0-rings unless the space between them is vented." This statement implies that there must be sorne leakage past the first ring in order for the described phenomenon to exist (see Fig. 7.30c). 1t is evident that the amount of leakage involved is dependent upon several factors such as seal resiliency and the effect of local temperature on that resiliency. Three early experiments, (Fig. 7.30a, b; ande), clearly demonstrated the existence of the Jacoby leakage effect. Figure 7 .30a shows a test setup designed to apply a high pressure to experimental test pistons. A standard off-the-shelfpiston was used on the bottom. During the test, making use of an available steam-heated rubber molding press, the pres-
234
EXPENDABLE PARTS
Press ram Gauge
Gauge
Plunger
Opposed packing rings

/ /'. Steam-heated
press platen
a. PISTON SEAL TEST
b. EXPERIMENTAL PACKING
Figure 7 .30. Jacoby leakage examples. (a) Piston sea! test. (b) Experimental packing. Cylinder head.
sure was raised in !000-PSI increments to I0,000 PSI, where it held at eac11. incremenL Upon releasing the pressure slightly, a puff of steam would appear as shown, indicating liquid leakage past the piston. At each pressure lowering, the puff of steam would appear for an instant and then the system would set for any length of time at an absolutely perfect sea!. After checking ali parts for integrity;, it was possible to repeat this at will. Not much thought was given to the unusual, action until sorne time later when an experimental packing was tested (Fig. 7.30b). The opposed packing rings were supposed to expend ali of their extende life sealing off clean lubricated liquid instead of dirty unlubricated liquids. The; test was supposed to be run at 2500 PSI, so the oil was pressured to 3000 PSI. The packing held the pressure perfectiy. But when the pump was started the oiL pressure immediately fell to the pump pressure. Repeated efforts to make it worl( met with failure-even when a continuous supply of high-pressure oil was used:. The results were valuable in a study of an extraordinary problem related to the' original piston test In the third experiment, Figure 7 .24c, a two-0-ring cylinder head seal that was. found to be difficult to remove because of "stored" pump peak pressure betwee!l> the rings tumed out to be crowning proof of the existence of Jacoby leakage. . ..
7.12
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
SPRA YWELDING.
Application of a hard facing layer to steel to increase resistance to wear and corrosion. In the spraywelding process, a special type of alloy in extremely fine powdet
7.12
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
235
torro is sprayed through an oxyacetylene flame, impinging on a clean work pi.ece sticking by a mechanical interlocking of the semiplastic metal particles. to point, it is exactly like wire metallizing. In a second step, the sprayed deposit together with another torch-heating operation to form a solid wear-resistant coating that is bonded rrietallurgically to the base material. These special materials have a happy combination of properties. They have wear and corrosion resistance because of the alloys and rnicrostmctures xm~s(;'ll They have a matrix of soft nickel containing a variety of very hard par(up to 80 R) including chromium bmides, chromium carbides, anda mixture complex cross-combinations. The result is a very low coefficient of friction and vA\NUVU corrosion resistance. The soft matrix allows sorne ' for the hard u"'""'v~ to fioat on a microscopic scale. Because of the low temperature about 1900F), a variety ofthese base materials can be used. The macro hardness the deposit is uniform throughout. , One of the spraywelding materials contains particles of tungsten carbide in the soft matrix, imparting an effective extreme hardness. This material should be ;'avoided for plunger coating for the reason that the "scrubbing" action of an elas~Jomeric packing will remove sorne of the soft matrix, leaving a sandpaper finish :.that is in tum extremely damaging to subsequent packing. While the surface just described may appear smooth, a simple test will reveal such microscopic "sandpaper" surfaces. Just stroke the edge of a copper coin (penny) along the surface; .the "rough" surface will generate a visible streak of bright copper color.
CQUENCHING.
Obtaining higher strength in steel by heating above the transfonnarange (above 1450F) and cooling rapidly in a liquid bath. (Exception: ~Quenching an austenitic stainless steel results in annealing or sofiening.) Heating hardened steel to an ntennediate temperature ( 800 to 1200F) to decrease hardness and increase toughness. Increasing the strength of a group of special alloys heating at intem1ediate temperatures (800-llOOF) and allowing a microcontuent to precipitate from a metallic solid solution.
c.TEMPERING.
PRECIPITATION HARDENING.
FLAME HARDENING. Increasing the hardness and wear resistance of a medium to high carbon steel (with or without alloy) in a localized area by applying flame 'heating to the steel smface and quenching. INDUCTION HAFIDENING.
Increasing the hardness and wear resistance of a medium carbon steel (with or without alloy) in a locaiized area by generating heat electrical induction in the steel surface and quenching.
CARBURIZING.
Making low-carbon steel more wear-resistant by increasing the surface carbon content through di:lfusion from a carbonaceous medium and subsequenching.
CHROME PLATING.
Increasing resistance to wear and coITosion by depositing hard chromium on a surface in an electroplate bath. Hardnesses up to 70 R (750BHN) can be obtained.
236
EXPENDABLE PARTS
NORMALIZING. Strengthening steel by heating above the transformation range
(above 1450F) and then air cooling.

PLASMA COATING. Increasing resistance to wear and corrosion by applying a sur-'
face layer of hard facing materials, utilizng the plasma are principle. A plasmaforming gas is passed through a de are in a small nozi:le and is superheated, its. molecules breaking down into ionized atoms with a high energy content. Working temperatures of 10,000-40,000F are obtained, and gases such as argon, helium, or nitrogen-hydrogen or argon-hydrogen mixtures. Materials to be deposited are< in powder form and are introduced into the are, heated, and blown onto the work piece, where they melt on the surface and form a solid bond. Since the are not contact the work piece, it remains relatively cool.
7 .13
GUIDELINES FOR MATERIAL SELECTION

Piston Pump Part
Material
Quenched and tempered 4150 alloy steel, induction hardened. Same, with 0.020-0.030-in hard ehromium plate on surfaee. Carbon steel with spraywelded hard nickel alloy on surface. Forged, quenched and tempered 4140 alloy steel. Shot-peened spring steel. Medium earbon steel. Medium carbon steel. Natural rubber. Chrome-plated. 27 % chrome-iron lining in carbon or low allow steel jacket. Flame-hardened medium carbon or lowalloy 8620 steel. Quenched and tempered 4150 alloy steel forging, flame hardened on wear surfaces. Same as valve. Normalized and shot-peened medium carbon steel forging. Urethane (Buna Nin sorne sizes). Oil-tempered spring steel or titanium.
Piston Rods
Pisto ns
Body Snap ring Retainer ring Support rings Rubber
Liners
Valves and Seats Valve
Seat Nut Insert Spring
7.13 GUIDELINES FOR MATERIAL SELECTION
237
Plunger Pump Parts

Plungers
Material
Spraywelded nickel-base alloy on lowcarbon steel. (Special-same alloy on 304 stainless steel.) Solid 85 % alumina with 304 stainless steel shank. Sprayed ceramic coating on low carbon or 304 stainless steel, all with 304 stainless steel shank'. Seat-cast 316 stainless steel. Guard-same. Disc-Delrin, titanium, 316 stainless steel. Guide bushing-316 stainless steel, nickel aluminum bronze, 316 stainless steel with delrin sleeves. Spring-Titanium, 17-7 precipitation hardened stainless steel Inconel. Capscrew-K-Monel. Valve-17-4 precipitation hardened stainless steel wing-guarded. Seat-17-4 precipitation hardened stainless steel. Spring-17-7 precipitation hardened stainless steel. Valve-410 stainless steel, n1ckel-aluminum bronze casting. Seat-410 stainless steel, nickel-aluminum bronze casting. Spring-17-7 precipitation hardened stainless steel. Valve-410 stainless steel, carburized 8620 alloy steel. Seat-410 stainless steel, carburized 8620 alloy steel. Nut-medium carbon steel. Insert-Urethane.
Valves and Seats Disc-type
Externally mounted
Wing-guided
Wing-guided slush type
Table 7 .6 gives the chemical analysis of many of the popular metals used in pump construction.
TABLE 7.6
c.>
N
Nominal Chemic:al Analyses, percent by welght"
Material Low carbon steel Medium carbon steel 8620 alloy steel 4140 aHoy steel 4150 alloy steel Sp1ing steel 27% Cr-iron 410 stainless steel 304 stainless steel 316 stainless steel 17-4 precipitation hardened stainless steel 17-7 precipitation hardened stainless steel Sprayweld Ni-Al bronze Ni-Al bronze casting Titanium Inconel K-Monel
e
0.20 0.45 0.20 0.40 0.50 0.65
2.30 0.10
Mn
Si
Cr
Ni
ti>
0.06 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.65
0.45 0.75 0.80 0.88 0.88 LOO 0.60 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.30 0.30
---0.20 0.20 0.20
Mo
Cu
Other
0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.20 0.50 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.50 4
0.50 0.95 0.95
0.55
27
12.5 19 19.5
16 17 15
10
10.5 4
2.5 2.7
Al Fe
B
7
13
1 4
1.0
5 5
81 79
0.08 0.15 0.15

1.0 0.60
0.5
16
72
65
0.5 29.5
gD Aluminum Bronze
Other common materials: Urethane-polyurethane elastomer.
80
Al Fe Al Fe Ti Fe Fe Fe Al Ti Al Fe
3.5 10 5 10 5 99 0.25
8
1.0
2.8
0.5
ll
'1
7.14 TITANIUM AS A PUMP MATERIAL
239
7.14
TITANIUM AS A PUMP MATERIAL
Titanium possesses the most desirable characteristics for use in pump liquid-ends and parts handling waters of ali sorts, including sea water and oil-field brine. Commercially Pure Titanium (RMI-70) has excellent corrosion resistance and has been used for severa! years giving excellent service. This extreme resistance to corrosion results in reduced liquid-end failures caused by corrosion-fatigue at the highly stressed region at the intersection of bores where a stress-concentration of 2. 75 may be had. In recent years, titanium has become more plentiful and it is well within the acceptable cost-range for pumps in special service. Titanium must not be used in strong reducing acids or chlorine.
8
VALVES
8.1
VALVE TYPE CLASSIFICATION*
Valve and seat configurations can be classified as to type as shown in Figure 8 .1. It is obvious that there can be numerous combinations of most of these features. Probably the main division of greatest difference is between the self-contained ( Q, R) and the in situ (H-P). Configurations of the self-contained type have the advantage of dimensional and assembled accuracy, but they are confined to the smaller pump sizes, about 100 BHP and smaller. Large ph)'.sical size of valves limits the ability to use the self-contained principie. In situ valves require guiding and spring support to be a part of the liquid end. Self-contained valves can be reclassified into center-guided ( Q) versus cageguided ( R). Center-guided valves seem to be preferred because of their simplicity and ease of assembly. Caged valves are not recommended for abrasive liquids. The next logical division would be the metal-to-metal (A) versus the rubber seal or "slush" type (B). As the name implies, the rubber seal valve is mandatory for most liquids containing even small amounts of solid materials and slurry. The matter of valve-guiding methods is very broad in that all five (S, T, U, V, W) and their combinations are widely used. Wing-guided valves (U) are not usually accepted for slurry service because there is rapid wear between the ribs and seat and there is a tendency for solid particles to interfere with the guide motion. The most popular method of mounting the valve in the deck is the taper fit, but the sandwich or ftange method is widely used. The screwed method is no longer used in high-pressure pumps.
*Letters in parentheses refer to keyed drawings in Figure 8.1.
240
8.2
PUMP VALVES
241
Valve Types
Seat Types
\
(
Metal Bevel Rubber seal
Metal Slush
2i ria
C 1 METAL
! !PLASTIC 1
J
Three-rib
Four-rib
Discorflat
Double-port
Full-flow
Suspended-guida
Bonded Disc Valve for "Dirty" Liquids
'
L
Ball
1--rr-
1 1 1 I 11 11 l 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 \ 1 1 1 'l...,) 1
Bevel-rib
Flat-rib
/
' 't:==~:;::;=,.:---1
1 1 1I 1 1 11 11
1 1
1
1
t----1 : : r--1
1 l_J 1 1 I ~ /
Bevel recessed-rib Spherical
Flat recessed-rib
GW?
_._
Durable disc
\'--------}
Full-flow
Figure 8.1. Valve classification.
8.2
PUMP VALVES
A liquid valve is a rather simple device in that it is a freely movable plug that is forced open when there is liquid pressure under it and is forced to close and seal when there is pressure on top of it. The simplest valve is the leather ftapper used in the pitcher pump and in air bellows for centuries. But with the advent of highpressure, high-speed pumps and the presence of abrasive solids, even in small amounts, simplicity has given way to extreme sophistication.
242
VALVES
Self-Contained Valves
Q
Center-hole guided Valve Guiding Methods
Caged
~
Top stem Bottom stem
J~L
GAUGE-LINE LIMITS SHCULDER
CPTI CNAL " " ' ..,:
rn
Wing-guided Center-hole Cage-guided
t
;
, Ef"FECTIVE THRDUGH ,
....,..,.,;~AR__;;E..... A _--+i,D;:..;;l.;.;;.AM;::.ETc::;ER"-i.~..,
1. ~
1
. -
TAPER
1
1
.
1 1
1
STRAIGHT
1
THREADED
e : :
w
Figure 8.1. (Continued)
Figure 8.lA. Valve Seat Retention Methods
Two types of high-pressure valve-sealing methods are used (see Fig. 8.1): (A) metal-to-metal seals for clear liquids and (B) elastomeric seals for dirty liquids. (For lack of better terminology, the latter is referred to as the "slush"-type.) The elastomeric seal performs the function of providing a '' dam' ' between the metal parts of the valve and seat even though these parts never come into intimate contact, being held apart by the solid particles in the liquid. The elastomer must be resilient enough to deform over a solid particle so that the valve will not be held open by that particle. However, it must not be so resilient as to allow excessive
8.2
PUMP VALVES
243
extrusion into the gap at the valve and seat contact or to allow "puncturing" by the solid particles. Unfortunately, most elastomers have low strength at maximum resilience and vice versa. Many val ves incorporate the rib-supportd design ( H, l) for the following obvious reasons. Consider the use in abrasive liquid service of a non-rib-supported slush type (K) seat with a bevel sealing face where both the valve metal and seal contact the seat bevel. Since the guidance of such a valve, either stem or wing ( S, T, U), rnust have sorne clearance, the valve can close on each stroke in a slightly "cocked" position. When the full hydraulic load is imposed on top of the valve, the valve tends to seek its true center, and a small amount of movement on each stroke grinds solids between the metal faces, resulting in rapid wear. If flat ribs are sed in the valve seat upon which the valve rests, it always lands on a flat surface and cannot shift when the hydraulic load is imposed. A sharp bevel angle ((J) of 55 induces better centering as the valve doses and also reduces ftow turbulence since the flow path is closer to a straight line. All rib-supported valves should use the superior three-rib design (H). Since the entire hydraulic load must be supported by the ribs, the three-rib concept absolutely allows equal loading on eac;h rib. Since the three equally spaced ribs always carry equal shares of the load, regardless of solids trapped on the ribs or dimensional discrepancies due to machining and wear, no one rib is ever overloaded. This also means that the valve body is always uniformly loaded between the 120 segments. Now in the case of four ribs, solids on one or more of the ribs or dimensional discrepancies in the parts could cause support on only two ribs, thereby overloading both the ribs and the val ve body. With a wing-guided valve (U) or with a non-rib-supported stem-guided seat ( K), flow-restricting metal is placed in the through-area path and serves no other purpose than to guide the valve. When the same amount of metal is used in ribs that support the valve, a stronger and longer-lasting valve results without sacrifice of through area. Several types of mud or slurry valves are shown in Fig. 8.2. The failure mode of any elastomeric seal valve follows the pattern of pinch-off of the elastomeric seal at the thin circumferential area between the seal and the metal. Since the elastomer is in effect a liquid, the pressure above is transmitted through the seal to the point where it "wants" to be extruded or squeezed past the gap, if any, between the metal valve and seat. The minute pinching off progresses until a rather large void in the elastomer occurs. Fluid trapped in this void is then subjected to high pressure from above and low pressure from below. The liquid is suddenly squirted out through the relatively close metal-to-metal contact, resulting in "hair-line" or "wonn-eating" washing of metal parts. Corrosive drilling fluid (salt mud, etc.) accelerates the advancement of "worm eating" and reduces valve life due to the more rapid loss of metal. This failure mechanism is regenerating in that rapid failure and complete washout of the val ve and seat soon follow. Therefore, the longer one can delay the above-described pinch-off by replacing the seal, the longer valve life can be expected. Rapid pinch-off results from:
244
VALVES
Figure 8.2. Mud and slurry type valves. (Courtesy Fluid King.)
1. Use of a low tensile strength elastomer. 2. Reduced tensile strength of any elastomer in hot liquids. 3. Presence of large particles or lost circulation material, the material lodging under the elastomer seal, allowing trapped liquid to be squirted out in much the same manner as a pinched-o:ff seaL 4. Use of a new seal on a wom valve, which allows excessive seal overhang and results in the seal bending upward, again allowing trapped fluid to be squirted out. Not only does this cause hairline washing, but it also results in rapid seal wear because the elastomer at the sealing point is placed in extremely high tensile stress even before the full hydraulic load is imposed. 5. Chemical reaction to the seal, which causes it to swell, resulting in excessive overhang anda reduction in tensile strength. These points are discussed in tum below. 1. The inherent high tensile strength of polyurethane (about two times that of Buna N) and its chemcial resistance, particularly in oil, make it the most desirable seal available. 2. High temperature is an enemy of all elastomers, particularly of polyurethanes. The effect of temperature on any elastomer is such that it is misleading to apply a fixed limitation to them. For instance, a generally accepted temperature limitation for polyurethane has been placed at 140F by the industry, but since elastomers undergo a gradual reduction in physical characteristics, particularly tensile strength, as temperature is increased above room temperature, it is reasonable
8.3
VALVE SEATS
245
to assume that even polyurethane can work ata temperature above 140F if other factors such as lower pressure are favorable. There are many cases where polyurethane seals perform satisfactorily above this temperature. Buna N has the desirable characteristic that it retains its physical strength over a higher temperature range--to such an extent that Buna N seals may better at high temperatures. Remember that all elastomers are subject to deterioration, and shorter life must be expected at higher temperatures. 3. Solid abrasive particles are a necessary evil in slurry pumping. 4. The obvious remedy is not to try to use a badly worn valve. 5. Chemical reaction becomes a problem. No doubt certain muds and slurries contain chemicals that are detrimental to either polyurethane or Buna N, and these are sometimes difficult or impossible to track down. It behooves one to try one or the other seal when a chemcal reaction is suspected. As previously stated, polyurethane seals will stand up in most slurries," and are particularly suited for oil or ol-base muds. Buna N, although called "oil resistant," is not completely so. AH seals of Buna N swell and deteriorate in any oil and are not recommended for oils with an analine lower th.:.n 150F. (The lower the analine point, the greater the content of aromatics, which are hard on Buna N). Experience and extensive testing have shown that the desirable amount of lift of a valve should be such as to provide a lift area equal to the through area of the valve. Lift in excess of this is not normally harmtul, since the valve stiil will only lift the required amount. However, a stop is desirable at this point since erratic pump operation due to air, gas, or hot mud causes abnormal valve action with pounding and bouncing. It should be stated that in normal operation a valve does not slam shut; it follows a smooth, gradual opening related to the displacement of the piston, which is inherently a slightly distorted sine wave. The velocity of the abrasive liquid through a valve should be limited to avoid erosional effects on the valve parts. For most abrasive materials, including drilling mud, a limit of 12 FPS for uncharged suctions and 16 FPS for charged suctions is generally recommended. Slurry valves should be limited to a maximum of 12 FPS. In investigation of a pump valve lift and liquid velocity, keep in mind that the recommended limits are based on maximum liner or plunger diameter and maximum operating speed. In order to minimize excessive "dash-pot" effect in retarding the valve motion, resulting in delay of closing, the pot area should be at least 1.5 times the valve disc area to provide ample "escape" area.
8.3
VALVE SEATS
Table 8. l shows recommended valve seat taper diameter or straight-bore diameter (gauge-line) for an extended number of valve sizes the present API Range (Table 8.1).

TABLE 8.1 Valve Seat Taper Dimensions (See Chapter 7, API Standards) (Proposed expansion)
Size -15 -14 -13 -12

-11
Gauge Line Depth, in 0.45 0.5 0.57 0.64 0.72 0.81 0.92 1.03 1.16 1.3 1.47 1.66 1.87 2.1 2.37 2.75 2.875 3.375 3.875 4.375 5 5.625
Approx. Taper Depth, IN. 0.27 0.29 0.32 0.35 0.38 0.41 0.45 0.49 0.53 0.58 0.63 0.69 0.75 0.81 0.88 0.96 1 1.125 1.25 1.375 1.5 1.625
GPM/Valve At IO FPS 1.4 1.7 2.2 2.8 3.6 4.4 5.5 6.9 8.6 I0.7 13.4 17 21.2 26.5 33.2 41.6 51 65 81 I03 128 160
Approx. Through Area, sq. in. 0.09 O.JI 0.14 0.18 0.23 0.28 0.35 0.44 0.55 0.69 0.86 1.09 1.36 1.7 2.13 2.67 3.3 4.2 5.2 6.6 8.2 I0.3
"Size" Number Proposed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
-IO -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2
-1
o
API API API API API 1 2 3 4 5
API API API API API API
6 7 8 9 10 11
12
13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
6.25 7 7.75 8.5 9.5 11 12.5 14.125 15.875 17.875 20.125 22.75 25.5 28.75
1.75 2 2.25 2.5 2.875 3.25 3.75 4.25 4.75 5.25 5.875 6.5 7.25 8.25
202 249 312 389 467 623 779 935 1246 1558 1869 2336 2960 3583
13 16 20 25 30 40 50
60
80 100 120 150 190 230
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
- - -,-~,= .
a.
"2&$,,L,,~,,.,"iiiii
__
~w-
248
VALVES
Aside from clamping a "ftanged" valve seat into the deck with a washer or gasket under the ftange (for pressure), there have been three other fairly popular methods of securing the seats into the deck: Taper fit (L), ftanged or "sandwich" fit (X), and screwed fit (Y) (Fig. 8. IA). Table 8.1 shows taper dimensions and Figure 8.3 shows the terminology applied the valve and seat dimension. Figure 8.4 gives details of the design of taper fits for valve seats. Tapered valve seats should be provided with a shoulder to help prevent complete pump-through, which would result in damage to the pump valve deck bore if the pump were overpressured by accident. The installation of new valve seats should be preceded by a thorough cleaning of the deck bore with emery cloth and wiping dry and free of oil or grease. The seat should have any protective coating removed with solvent and wiped clean and dry. A preliminary check can be made by dropping the seat into the deck bore with a slight ''thunk. '' If the fit is proper and clean, the seat should be difficult to break loose by hand. With the seat in place, install a valve. Then place a pipe over the stem of the valve and give one or two solid blows with a sledgehammer. With a firmly seated seat, the pipe should ring with the characteristic sound. The widely used taper-fit valve seat seems to be the most practica! for highpressure service. However, such seats are sometimes difficult to pull. A hydraulic valve seat puller using a jack of 150 tons capacity and 2i-in diameter puller bolt is required. In stubbom cases it is sometimes helpful to break a seat loose by sledgehammering the top of the puller bolt (a driving face is provided) or by even sledgehammering the side of the valve pot after the jack has been pressurized. Should it ever become necessary to remove a seat with an acetylene torch, follow this procedure: Cut two or three of the ribs completely free. Heat one spot ofthe seat to a dull red (do not flame cut) while frequently playing the torch around the entire seat to heat it. Then quench the heated seat rapidly with a stream of cold water. This procedure reduces the danger of pump damage from cutting. Heating one spot dull red places the metal in a plastic state. Heating the rest of the metal forces it to expand, and since it is confined in the deck bore the expansion is forced into the plastic region. Upon cooling, the seat diameter becomes smaller than the original, and it can usually be bumped out with a hook or pipe wrench.
8.4
VALVE SPRINGS
A generally accepted rule for approximate valve spring load is: 2 POSIVA for ''poor'' suction conditions such as lift from a dug pit and for low speed. 4 POSIVA for "normal" suction conditions, such as from an elevated tank. 6 POSIVA for ''charged'' suction conditions of 20 to 40 PSI.
'-----Da----Aa----
i.E----j v-----.1 i.E----Av-----+i i.E----D.-----.i

1
\ TPF on diameter
~-----Dg
/
Ag _ _ _ ___.
Valve dimensions
Figure 8.3. Valve dimensions. Symbols are as follows:

ex = angle of taper, one side, deg
(:J = angle of coefficient of friction, deg Aa = disc or valve area, in2
FL = force on valve, maximum lift, lb
P = pressure on valve, PSI L = valve lift, in

LL = spring space, maximum lift, in
Ag = deck-bore area at gauge line, in2

AL = valve lift area, in2 AL = Area of "belt": AL = 1Dv (or D.) X L
Av = valve through area, in2 Apo1 = valve pot area at Dpoo in2 Da = disc or valve diameter, in De = seat opening, effective diameter, in Dg = gauge-line diameter at bre, in D, = spring mean diameter, in Dv. = seat opening diameter, in d = spring wire diameter, in F = force on valve, lb F; = force on valve, installed spring, lb A,,., = 1.5 X Ad
L = spring length, installed, in L = spring, free length, in Na = spring, number of active coils N, = spring, total number of coils
(=Na + 2), closed end Q = force on deck bore due to seat
.drive, lb
s
= spring, installed stress, PSI
sL = spring, lift stress, PSI TPF = taper per foot on diameter, in/ ft W= Wahl factor x = valve seat depth, in (} = bevel angle, deg
249
Figure 8.4. Taper valve seat bore fit.
f = coefficient of friction TPF = taper per foot, on diameter, in/ft D 8 = gauge-line diameter, in D,, = effective through diameter, in F = force on seat, lb P = pressure on seat, PSI s = allowable stress, PSI Q = force on seat bore, lb
Qc = force per circumferential inch, lb
X= seat depth, in a = angle of taper, one side, deg (3 = angle of coefficient of friction, deg
Rule: For seat to be self-locking in bore, a < (3. Sample Calculation: For D 8 = 7 in, P = 2000 PSI, f = 2 in.
a=
0.1, s
75,000 PSI, and TPF
arctan TPF/24 = arctan 2/24 = 4.76
(8.1)
(3 = arctanf= arctan0.1=5.71
(8.2)
(8.3) (8.4) ( 8.5) (8.6)
F = 0.7854D~P = 0.7854 X 72 X 2000 = 77,000 lb
Q = (F/2) tan (a+ (3) = (77,000/2) tan 10.47 = 208,000 lb

Qc = 2Q/ 7r = 2
X
208,000 /3.1416 = 132,600 PSI

X
X= Qc/Zs = 132,600/2
75,000 = 0.9 in
Note: API Standard TPF is 2 in/ft; API Standard for X when Dg = 7 in is 1.25 in. [Formulas do not include requirement for set strength to support the forces to which it is subjected.]
250
8.5 VALVE SPRING DESIGN
251
The greater the pump speed, the heavier the spring required for maximum efficiency and smooth operation. Accordingly, a higher suction pressure is required.
8.5
VALVE SPRING DESIGN

POSIV A
De
Formulas
= F;/ Av =
.JAv/0.1854
(8.7) (8.8)
AL (See valve dimensions, Fig. 8.3)
d f
= = = =
;8kD;Na/G 8FD;Na/Gd 4
(8.9)
(8.10) (8.11)
( 8.12) ( 8.13) (8.14)
Kc
+ (0.615d/D,)
s = (2.55FD,/d 3 )Kc
k Na Gd 4 /8D;N
= fGd 4 /8FD;
where
Av AL d De D,
= valve through area, = valve lift area, in2 = =
in2
= spring wire diameter, in
effective valve seat diameter, in mean diameter spring, in f = spring deftection, in F = force, lb F; = installed force, lb FL = force at full lift, lb G = spring torsion modulus, lb /in2 k = spring rate, lb/ in Kc = Wahl factor (Figure 8.5) L = free length, in L; = installed length, in LL = spring space length, in Na = number of active coils N 1 = Total coils = N + 2 (closed & ground) s = stress, PSI
252
VALVES
2.0
1.8
::.:: ...
t
LL
1.6
"'
1.4
\ \
2
1.2
~ -..,..._
--._
4
6
12
1.0
10
Ratio: Mean diameter Wire diameter
Figure 8.5. Total valve spring stress according to Wahl formula. K x S = total stress.
See Figure 8. 6 for required val ve lift to pro vide lift area of 100 % of through area.
Example * (iterative solution)

Av Ds
= area, through valve = 1.3 in2 = mean spring diameter = 1.9 in

=
spring rate = Try 30 lb/ in LL = length, spring space = 1.0 in N = number of active coils-Try 4 G = torsional modulus, spring wire = 11,500,000 lb/in2
POSIV A (pounds per square inch valve area) = 4
l. Determine F;, installed force, lb:
F; = POSIVA
Av
=4
1.3 = 5.2 lb
(8.18)
2. Determine De, effective diameter from valve through area(Av):
De= ,JAv/0.7854
*See Figure 8.6.
,Jl.3/0.7854
1.3 in
(8.8)
8.5
VALVE SPRING DESIGN
253
r-:nd---i
- - r------L
f-- Dd__,,..,
,..-,1
\
\
"....__ - - -
-t11
~Dv~
~ ILJ
__!:_
,_.,,, -~
~Dv-1
- - L _ _ _ _ _ _J
r------,
~Dd----4
-'-OIID
f--nu-j
(e)
(a)
~ @ @
BEVEL SEAL WING OR STEM
(b)
BALL SPHERICAL
DISC OR PLATE
8.6. Required valve lift for 100% of valve through area (shaded area). (a) Bevel seal, wing, or stem
L, in = A,,/1r cose
(ni + cos f) sin IJ)
15)
(b) Ball or spherical
L, in
(e) Disc or plate
A,,/0.707 1Dv
(8.16)
L, in= A,,/1D,,
where L = lift, in; Dv = seat opening diameter, in; = valve through area, in2 ; e = seat bevel angle, deg.
(8.17)
= seat effective diameter, in; A,,
3. Determine lift
to provide lift area (AL) of 100% of Av:
L=Av/r.De
1.3/1.31!' = 0.32in
(8.19)
4. Determine d, spring wire diameter, in:
d = :;/8kD;Na/G =0.155in
*Or D ..
= :;/g
4~---~------~
30
l.9 3
4/11,500,000
(8.9)
254
VALVES
5. Determine L1 , free length of spring, in:

L
= L + L +
(F;/k)
= 1 + 0.32 + (5.2/30) = 1.49 in (8.20)
6. Check for spring space:

4 active coils
+ 2 (closed end)
6 x d
=6
0.155
= 0.93
[OK, less than LL (1.0 in)]
7. Check stress at F;:

S;
= 2.55KJ;D./d 3
= 2.55
X
l*
5.2
1.9/0.155 3 = 6765 PSI
(8.21)
8. Check stress at FL:

F
S
(L - L) k
X
= ( 1.49 - 1.0) 30 = 14.7 lb

14.7
X
= 2.55
l*
1.9/0.1553
= 16,106 PSI
(8.22)
Val ve spring life can be improved by taking advantage of the Goodman effect by designing within the stress ranges shown in Figure 8. 7
8.6 THE EFFECT OF VALVE DESIGN ON SUCTION REQUIREMENTS

Section 8.6 reports on an extensive investigation of the valve performance in a six-inch stroke Triplex Plunger Pump. The choice of liquid valves for a plunger pump is dependent upon many factors, the most important of which are Pressure Liquid temperature Suction pressure Liquid corrosion Pump speed The ideal valve would be weightless, springless, corrosion and temperature resistant, andas large as possible (to provide maximum through area). A brief look into these requirements will immediately show the tug-of-war that exists in valve design. One cannot have lightness with strength or large size.
*Shot-peen spring and use Wahl factor of l.
8.6 THE EFFECT OF VALVE DESIGN ON SUCTION REQUIREMENTS
255
1201--~--J.--~--+~~-+-~~-+~..........,,...r::--,r-
Anea of additional stress possible dueto shotpeening
..;:
~ 601---~~+--~~+--~-r-+--~~+-~~+-~--!
"' ro ::> "' o

~
soi--.c..~r--~~r--~~r--~.,,._+--~~+-~--1
1i o;
~
e:
40,..._~~i--~-----~~+--~~--~~+--~--<
ASTM A230 ASTM A232 Wire 0.207 in or smaller
20
40
60
80
100
120
lnitial stress, thousands of PSI
Figure 8. 7. Goodman diagram for factor.
stresses. Spring stress range corrected by Wahl
Strength and temperature requirements dictate a metallic valve, which introduces corrosion problems. Heavier springs are required for high suction pressures and higher speed, and this in turn demands a higher TCP requirement.
8.6.1
Determining Valve Efficiency
Before one can begin the search for the "best" valve, a method of determining the "best" valve must be adopted. It is logical to assume that a pump operating at a high volumetric efficiency with a low NPSH has the "best" valve from the point of view of hydraulics as well as endurance. Therefore, since valve design affects the pump's NPSH requirement, it was decided that NPSH tests would be the basis for studying a variety ofvalve designs, through areas, spring loads, valve lifts, and valve weights. The standard for establishing a reciprocating pump' s TCP Figure 3. 7 and a curve Figure 3.8 relating volumetric efficiency wit.h decreasing suction head should be the best way to present the data. By using such a curve, one can select the volumetric efficiency that is satisfactory and then compare all tests at this same figure.
256
VALVES
Throughout this discussion, certain terms will be used: NPSHR. Net positive suction head required at the pump suction flange, in PSI of liquid being pumped Velocity ( V). Average velocity through val ve (based on plunger displacement and val ve through area), FPS Through area (Av). Net area through valve (ribs and wings deducted), in2 Lift ( L). Lift of val ve, such that the circumferential area is a percentage of the through area, in Spring loads. Installed spring load divided by valve through asea, pounds per square in of valve area (POSIVA) Volumetric efficiency (VE)
actual oallons e. x 100 theoretical gallons
8.6.2
Valve Tests
Figure 3.8 in Chapter 3 shows a schematic ofthe test setup, along with the formula used to cakulate and construct a family of curves of TCPA versus VE for different pumps.
8.6.3
Valve Combinations
Table 8.2 lists all the valve combinations used in the investigation. Note that for each combination of valve type, through area, weight, and lift, there is a number assigned for easy cross-reference. The first and simplest analysis was to list valve combinations in increasing order of TCP requirement for a selected VE. This is shown in Table 8.3. At 250 and 350 RPM, it is evident that valve combination 28 is the "best" This is a singleport plate valve with maximum through area, maximum lift, minimum weight, and 4 POSIVA load. Valve 18 appears to be the "worst" in this series. This is the same val ve but with a through area of 2 in2 At 625 RPM, valve types or combinations surprisingly reverse their relative positions in that the ''best'' valve at 350 RPM becomes one of the ''worst'' val ves at 625 RPM. This leads to the conclusion that speed has more effect on valve performance, and consequently on TCP requirements, than was first thought. At one time, it was assumed that if velocity through the valve could be kept down, high e:fficiency could be maintained.
8.6.4
Velocity Through Valve
To continue this analysis, the next step was to compare pump speed with valve velocity, as tabulated in Table 8.4. lt is evident that for equal valve velocity, greater TCP is required for higher speeds.
TABLE 8.2. Valve Combination Numbers
Valve Type Double-port, plate, metal
Comb. No.
Through Area, in2
Weight, oz
Spring Load, POSIVA
Lift, %
1 2 3 3-1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11
13.5
2 4
125 100 50 138 100 50 125 100 50 125 100 50 125 100 50 125 100 50 125 125 100 50 125 100 100 125 100 125 100 125 100 50 125 100 50 125 100 50 125 100 50 100 100
6.8
2 4
Double-port, plate, Delrin
12
13
2 4 7
14 15 16 17 18
Single-pon, plate, Delrin
19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 29
2.75
2 4 6
3.3
2.75
2 4
Wing-guided
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
3.3
17.3
2 4
3.3
8.5
2 4
11
2 4
TABLE 8.3. Valve Peormance at Various Speeds with 3-in Plungers

N
75% VE Valve
80% VE Valve
85% VE Valve
90% VE Valve
95% VE Valve
UI
co
TCP
Comb No.
TCP
Comb No.
TCP
Comb No.
TCP
Comb No.
TCP
Comb No.
250RPM
9.8 10.4 10.9 11.5 11.8 13.8
28 22 29 15 23 18
10.5 11.5 11.7 12.4 13.1 15.0
28 29 22 15 23 18
11.3 12.4 13.1 13.8 14.9 16.5
28 29 22 15 23 18
12.3 13.8 14.9 15.8 16.9 18.3
28 29 22 15 23 18
14.0 17.1 17.5 19.2 19.7 20.5
28 22 29 15 23 18
350RPM
15.1 16.1 17.8 18.6 19.0

X
28 29 22 15 18 23
16.2 17.2 19.7 20.0 20.5 21.7
28 29 22 15 18 23
17.7 19.4 22.7 22.7 23.3 24.9
28 29 22 15 18 23
20.5 22.5 28.3 28.1 28.8

X
28 29 22 15 18 23
25.5 28.0
X X X X
28 29 22 15 18 23
625RPM
35 47 49
?
54
?
29 15 22 18 23 28
39 50 55 55
60 ?
29 15 22 18 23 28
45 50 55
60
65 67
29 28 15 18 22 23
58
64
68 80 82 95
29 15 18 23 22 28
83 89
X X X X
18 15 23 22 28 29
8.6
THE EFFECT OF VALVE DESIGN ON SUCTION REQUIREMENTS
259
TABLE 8.4. TCP as Function of Velocity, Velocity Obtained by Plunger Size, Speed, and Valve Through Area
Velocity, FPS 7.3 8.3 16.0 14.7 20.6 21.4
Plunger Diameter, in
Valve Through Area, in2 3.3 2 3.3 2 2 3.3
RPM 625 250 450 250 350 625
TCP at 85% VE 21.0 9.1 29.0 13.1 28.3 95.0
1~ 2! 3 3 3 3
TABLE 8.5 Effect of Through Area on TCP with Valves of Same Type. Through Area lncreased 65% (TCP at 350 RPM, 3-in Plungers, 90% VE)
Valve Type Wing-guided Single-port, plate
Spring Load, lb 2 2 4 2 4
Lift, % 100 100 100 125 125
TCP with Valves of: 2 in2 26.0 30.0 31.0 30.8 28.3 3.3 in2 20.2 25.0 22.5 22.8 20.5 Average
Percent lmprovement 22% 17% 27% 26% 28% 24%
Rather than a direct relationship between velocity and speed, it can be seen that speed has a greater effect than valve velocity. It should be noted that these data are based on a 6-in-stroke triplex plunger pump, where various velocities through the valve were obtained by varying either plunger size or valve through area.
8.6.5
Valve Through Area
As previously stated, val ve through area heretofore has been considered one of the most important features of a pump valve. It is a generally held belief among pump users as well as manufacturers that the greater the through area the lower the TCP required. The tabulated data show that this is not necessarily true, because larger valve through areas necessitate larger, heavier, and stronger valves. This, in turn, may increase TCP requirements if carried to the extreme. Table 8.5 Iists the effect of increase in valve through area on TCP requirements. An increase of 65 % in through area results in an improvement of only 24 % in TCP requirement for all types and combinations of valves. It is rather obvious that the increase is beneficia! but that it will have to be weighed with other factors to be discussed later, such as weight.
260
VALVES
TABLE IUi Effect of Lift on TCP with Valves of Same Type (TCP at 350 RPM, 3-in Plungers, 85"/o VE)
Valve Type Wing-guided Sngle-port, plate Double-port Single-port, plateb
Through Area, in2
Spring -Load, lb 2 2 2 4
TCP at Lift of:
50%
30.0
100% 30.0 19.2

21.0 45.0
125%
17 .8
3.3 3.3
2
19.0
20.8 50.0
29.0
3.3
At 80% VE (could not obtain 85% VE with 50% lift). bAt625 RPM.
TABLE 8.7. Effect of Valve Weight on TCP with Same Type of Vaive
(NPSH at 85"/o VE)
Valve Type Wingguided Doubleport
Through Area, in2
Spring Load, lb 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 4
Lift, %
125
RPM
Weight, oz 17.3 8.5 13.5
TCP
19.6
17.8 27.8 24.0 29.5 23.6 55.0 50.0
3.3 3.3
2 2 2 2 3.3
125
350 350
100
100 100 100
350
350 350 350 625
6.8
6.8
3.0 12.2
Wingguided Single-port
68
125
3.3
625
2.8
8.6.6 Required Valve lift

The question of required valve lift has been mentioned in the literature, and an old rule of thumb was to provide lift sufficient to equal at least 50% of the through area. A bevel-seal valve (wing-guided) naturally requires a greater lift than a platetype valve in order to provide equal "escape" area. The evidence shown in Table 8.6 indicates that 50% lift is undesirable even at slow speed and cannot be tolerated at high speed. ("Slow speed" in this case is 250 RPM.) The effect of excessive lift on valve life was not evaluated. While the tests indicate that unlimited lift is desirable for best pump performance, it is known that this would result in shorter valve life due to the greater impact on closing. The tests show that for all operating conditions a lift of l 00 % is satisfactory.
8.6. 7
The Effect of Valve Weight
Valve weight, surprisngly, has little to do with TCP requirements, even at high speed. Table 8.7 shows that at 625 RPM a 12.2-oz valve required 23 PSI TCP
8.6
THE EFFECT OF VALVE DESIGN ON SUCTION REQUIREMENTS
261
while a 2.75-oz valve required 21 PSI TCP, a loss of only 10% in TCP for a gain of 350% in weight ..
Va/ve Lift Formulas
(8.23)
Q for pow_er pumps

Q for simplex steam pumps Q for duplex steam pumps
total GPM
X ?!" /
nn 1
(8.24) (8.25) (8.26)
= total GPM/0.75n
= total GPM / n
L for bevel-face values
(F;
+ W - 0.3Fu/k)
(8.27)
{JM[l + (2M/IOO)] + 1 - 1)
L for disc-type valves = '(F;
W - l.3Fu/k)
( v'M[l + (2M/IOO)] + 1 - 1) (8.28).

where
M for wing valves
M for disc valves
= kQ../S/40.5(F; + = kQ..fS/58.5(F; +
W - 0.3Fu) 312
W - 1.3Fu) 3 12
2
(8.29) (8.30) ( 8.31) (8.32)
.1Pforwingvalves .1Pfordiscvalves Nomenclature:
= S[Q/72(D - L)L] 2 = S[Q/lOl(D - 2.4L)L]
= valve through area, in2 D = diameter of seat opening, in F; = installed spring load, lb L = Iift of valve, in (at maximum flow) .1P = pressure loss through valve, PSI Q = maximum flow rate, U.S. GPM
Av
k
= spring rate, lb/in
= specific gravity of Iiquid = weight of valve, lb n = number of single-acting plungers or total number of working sides of a double-acting piston (for triplex single-acting, n = 3)
n 1 = number of valves per section (normally 1) Fu = upward force on valve in deflecting flow, lb
262
VALVES
TABLE 8.8 Effect of Spring Load on TCP with Same Type of Valve (TCPA at 90%)
Valve Type Wing-guided Double-port
Through Area, in2 3.3 2
TCP at Spring Load of: 2 lb 25.5 28.3

4 lb
Lift, % 100 125
Weight, oz 17.3 3.0
29.4 28.1
Conversion of Flow Rates
GPMave
= 2GPM10131 /
(8.33) (8.34)
GPMmax = ?rGPM1018i/ n
8.6.8
Effect of Spring Load
In general, the spring load can be added to the TCP requirement; in other words, the heavier the spring load, the greater the TCP requirement. Previous tests indicated that a general rule for spring load would be 2, 4, a,nd 8 PSI (POSIV A) of valve through area: the 2 POSIVA for low-speed, low-suction heads; the 4 POSIVA for "good" suction conditions and high speed; and the 8 POSIVA for high suction pressure (charged suction) and high speed. See Table 8.8. These tests indicate that the need for a 2 POSIVA spring is doubtful, except on marginal, low-speed applications where an absolute mnimum TCP is required. However, there is something subtle about valve spring selection that is not brought out in these tests. In many cases of "noisy" pumps, particularly those operating in multiple units with a common suction header, a trial of different spring loads will often produce a satisfactory spring that does not necessarily conform to laboratory findings as determined on a single pump.
8.6.9
Summary
To summarize, these tests show that: 1. Pump speed has the greatest effect on valve performance. 2. Velocities through the valve of up to 35 FPS can be used if sufficient TCP is provided.
8.7
DERIVATION OF VALVE VELOCITY
263
3. Improvement in TCP requirement is not proportional to the increase in valve through area; therefore, a compromise through area must be adopted based on operating pressure. 4. Valve lift should be sufficient to provide a circumferential Iift area to the through area of the valve. 5. Valve spring load is still subject to question, but for general operation a load of at least 4 POSIV A is desirable. 6. Valve weight has only a slight effect on valve performance. Generally, it should not be a factor in valve design, except as it affects impact on closing and opening and contributes to rapid wear.
8. 7
DERIVATION OF VAL VE VELOCITY
Valve velocity in a reciprocating pump is liquid velocity through the individual pump valves and is based on the average pump ftow rate during that half-cycle of a revolution for which the valve should be open.
Suction
Discharge
Hall
revolution
One revolution
= 2 ( for half rev) *

v
60 s/min
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
X ]2
x 231 in 3/gal x GPM in/ft X nAv
or
Vv
= 0.642
GPM/nAv
(8.35)
where
Vv A,, n
= liquid velocity through valve, ft/s = valve area, in2 = number of discharge valves active during a revolution. for triplex single-acting pump, n = 3
For example,
*Beware of formulas that use the entire revolution for the calculation, resulting in an unrealistic velocity of half of the velocity obtained by the formula.
264
VALVES
1~~~~~D2~~~~
1
1 1
'
r----D1----l
1
1
(a)
(b)
..,;-~~-D2-~~-.,.
(d)
Figure 8.8. Unbalanced valve area.
Experience indicates that valve velocity should be limited to about 16 FPS for dean liquid and about 12 FPS for slurries. Note: AH GPM and gallons are in U.S. gallons, where 1 gal = 231 in 3 .
8.8
UNBALANCED VAL VE AREA
For many years a theory has been held that a liquid valve in a reciprocating pump has an "unbalanced area" that results in requiring a much greater pressure in the cylinder to open the valve, which is held closed by the discharge pressure above it, creating a "high" pressure at the start of the stroke. For example, with a practical valve (Fig. 8.8(a)) the area at D 2 could be two times that at D 1 In a 2000PSI pump, this could amount to a 4000-PSI opening pressure. Magnitudes as high as seven times the discharge pressure have been reported. However, an excess of about 10% overpressure in a pump cylinder that is operating normally has never been seen. In order to investigate the unbalanced val ve area theory, a "visible" valve chamber was constructed to observe and measure valve action. Among other findings it was discovered that a valve made with a large amount of unbalanced area showed little, if any, difference in pressure required to open the valve in excess of the pressure holding the valve shut. The theory of "unbalanced valve area" is convincing, but if practical cases are examined.it will be seen that it does not apply. For instance, considera plate- or disc-type valve (Fig. 8.8(a)). Any material has a modulus of elasticity, which means that it will defiect under load. In this case, the disc defiects so that the seal
8.9
POWER-OPERATED VALVES
265
is a "line contact" at point A (Fig. 8.8(b)). The so-called unbalanced area at Bis actually balanced by hydraulic communication to the discharge pressure, even though the communication path is extremely small. The same deflection takes place a bevel wing-guided and with any type of valve, as shown in Figure the same explanation applies. A val ve with an elastomeric seal is sometimes accused of having a large ''unbalanced area'' because the outside diameter of the seal is used to calculate the "topside" area versus the diameter of the seat, usually resulting in a excessively large difference. Figure 8.8(d) shows that here too there is line contact. The elastomer itself is a high-viscosity fluid, and it transmlts the pressure to the usual point of seal at B. If point A did seal (if there were r.o solids in the liquid), the entire unbalanced area to point A would become balanced and the trapped liquid from B to A would become
8.9
POWERmOPERATED VALVES
It is possible that the use of reciprocating pumps for handling "coarse" coal or other soft materials will require the use of positively driven or power-operated liquid-end valves in order to actually crnsh the that become trapped between the valve and seat upon closure. There are three basic methods of driving the valves: (1) mechanical, pneumatic, and hydraulic.
Mechanical. The intemal combustion engine type of cam-dliven valves could be considered, allowing cam opening and spring closure. This would limit the closing force to the spring load. But would the fixed spring load always be sufficient to crush the particle? "Heavy" springs would tend to increase cam and tappet wear and would affect mechanical Positive mechanical closure would be ruled out because of possible damage from metal or hard objects caught in the valve. Cam operation also dictates the type of valve motion available. Hydraulic. Hydraulically operated valves (power cylinder) would possess a computer-controlled advantage of any desirable and closely controlled valve motion The crushing force required for for example (and limited by supply pressure), would build upas necessary. Pneumatic. Pneumatically operated valves might be considered because of their "softness." They have the same force as the hydraulic but have the desirable feature of opening and closing more rapidly.
Both pneumatic and hydraulic valves are less complicated and less costly than mechanically operated valves. However, the complexity and delay of valve action associated with any of these methods of operation may introduce insum1ountable problems.
266
VALVES
8.10
VALVES IN SERIES
Sorne reciprocating pumps employ multiple suction and discharge valves in series (one or more above the other), and sometimes hydraulic systems are designed with two or more spring-loaded check valves in series, always in an attempt to obtan maximum assurance of preventing back-flow. Statistically, the degree of assurance is in direct proportion to the number of valves. However, in both applications the magnitude of the pressure required to open all the valves is equal to the sum of the POSIV As (spring pounds per square inch of valve area) of each of the valves. This should be realized in any discussion of TCP, since the total valve opening pressure (POS IVA) is directly related to TCP.
8.11
VALVES IN PARAllEl
Sorne years ago several pumps appeared on the market whose design took the desire for low valve liquid velocity to the extreme by using double, side-by-side (in parallel) suction and discharge valves in the liquid end on the theory that flow velocity is a val ve' s worst enemy. Elsewhere in this book it is explained that the worst moment in a valve's life is that at the instant of closure. High velocity does result in a greater pressure drop through the valve, adding slightly to the TCP requirement but not nearly as much as the relatively heavy valve spring POSIVA required for efficient pump operation. Experience has shown that valves in parallel do not perform as one would expect-they do not open simultaneously and equally as required. Manufacturing tolerances, particularly in valve springs, do not offer the precision necessary to obtain exactly equal installed loads. The valve with the least POSIVA will open first, and once it is opened a pressure equilibrium will be established which destroys any opening differential for the second valve (until by possible opening at maximum flow rate later in the stroke). Single-valve opening is especially apparent in such pumps being operated, as is usual, ata slower speed or with smaller pistan diameter than the design maximum. Therefore, it is generally noted in such pumps that one valve of the pair always shows more wear. It has been found that largecapacity pumps perform well with seemingly large single valves scaled up in size to suit the pump.
8.12
VAL VE FLUTTER
Free-falling valves (usually with the absence of springs or little or no installed spring load), both ball and disc types, have a tendency to flutter at the moment of closure, which contributes to lower volumetric efficiency and noise. Such flutter is a sort of planetary oscillation best described as similar to the motion resulting from dropping a coin flat on a hard surface: usually it will roll in an oscillatory motion until it comes to rest, whereas at other times it will "plunk" to rest im-
8.13
STEADY-STATE FLOW THROUGH VALVES
2o7
mediately. This motion in a val ve is set in operation when the free-falli.ng ball strikes an edge of its seat in a slightly off-center position or when the disc strikes the flat seat in a slightly camed position. Many times when ball valves are used without springs, the reason is to allow the ball to seat in an infinite number of positions in order to distribute wear over the entire surface of the balL Even though in sorne cases it may appear advantageous to have a val ve ''rotate'' in order to distribute wear, experience has shown that normal spring loads will not allow the ball or disc to rotate, in spite of attempts to force them to do so by means of skewed ribs or roller-bearing spring seats. Subsurface or bottom-hole pumps used in pumping crude oil wells employ freefalling ball valves, and it is quite common to hear the nose of flutter at the of the well. Sorne proponents of light installed-valve-spring load on disc valves often go so far as to provide zero load, which would not only invite valve fl.utter but, more important, would also fail to provide the high spring load on closing required to reduce the delay as much as possible. Conventional vertical pumps with a horizontal valve axis cannot accept springless val ves because of lack of any closing force from gravity. Such pumps must be equipped with 90 suction and discharge elbows, with the springless verticalaxis valves at the manifold ends of the elbows. This design greatly increases the volumetric clearance and consequently contributes to lower volumetric e:fficiency and possibly greater noise. There is no known method of preventing such valve flutter, and if pumps must be run without valve springs, they should be operated at reduced speeds.
8.13
STEADY-STATE FLOW THROUGH VALVES
Steady-state flow of liquid through a valve does not duplicate the dynamics of the varying nature of fiow in a reciprocating pump. However, an experiment with steady-state fiow in a test setup, whereby a "free" disc-type valve was installed in a chamber with pressure taps above and below the valve, led to sorne interesting results. Figure 8.9 shows that without the disc, the pressure drop through the openings (1-, 2-, and 3-in2 seats) followed the expected orifice laws of flow with low pressure drops. However, with a "free" disc placed on top ofthe seat, sorne surprising results were noted. First, the Bemoulli effect that restricts the free lift of valves (where the high velocity of flow under the disc generates a low pressure that tends to force the disc against the valve) was well demonstrated. It is obvious that the Bemoulli efl:ect is greatly exaggerated when the area of the disc is large compared to the seat opening area. A critica! point was discovered with the two square inch area seat; at a particular fl.ow rate, a change of equilibrium took place and a constant-pressure flow condition was established. One should find this chart of extreme interest.
268
VALVES
Loose !itting pin to keep

0
1 in 2 with disc
disc in place over seat. No

contact with pin during te.st.
3"Dia.
Delrin disc
~ 301-.~~-l-~--iJ-1..~~~+-~4---f-~~-
2 3 in with disc encouraged to hug seat by temporarily _._ _......_ _ _ lorcing against seat
~ 201--~~-l----,!~-l-~~-!-~--'\.-l\---~---;
~
3 in 2 seat only
and with disc 2 in 2 only
'
10
20
30
40 50 Flow rate, GPM
60
70
80
Figure 8.9. Steady-state flow through valve.
8.14
VALVE DELAY
The term valve delay specifically refers to the finite time delay encountered from that instant of the mechanical end of the delivery stroke until the actual full closure of the discharge valve. Just prior to full closure, the liquid trapped between the val ve and the seat must have work done on it to displace part of it into the discharge manifold space and part back into the cylinder. This will involve an infinitely small time period but the ratio of that time to the stroke time becomes significant at higher pump speed. Viscous liquids and the presence of solid or semi-solid particles hinder rapid valve closure. An addition to this delay is another contributed by the high pressure liquid remaining in the space between the discharge and suction valve (Clearance Volume) that requires sorne "useless" movement of the piston in order to reduce the pressure of the trapped liquid to a value somewhat below the suction pressure before the suction valve can open. Delay as discussed exists in all reciprocating pumps and it is impossible to predict the degree. Delay does contribute to lower volumetric efficiency and noise and it can be determined after the fact from pressure waveforms as described in Chapter 12, Instrumentation. A signal picked up from any moving part ofthe pump by the use of a proximity switch can serve as a marker for the absolute end-of-
8.14
VALVE DELAY
269
stroke on a dual-trace A simultaneous trace of the cylinder pressure will enable one to determine the degree of delay. Valve delay can be minimized by the use of valve springs with a greater on the shape of the pressure POSIVA. See figure 8. IO for the effect of valve waveform. For further discussion of Valve Delay, see Chapter 3, SUCTION REQUIREMENTS.
NOTE
In the preceeding Chapter 8 the !erms NPSH or NPIP have heen changcd to the new terminology, "TCP."
9
SLURRY PUMPING
9.1
SLURRY PROPERTIES
A slurry is a mixture of solid particles in water or other liquid, the mixture being of such a consistency that it can be pumped like a liquid. The most ancient slurry pumping system in existence is the animal blood-circulating system, where a positive displacement pump (the heart) circulates a slurry of particles (blood corpuscles) in a liquid (the serum) through a complex pipeline (the viens). The rules for fiow of slurries differ from the Darcy notion of "clean" liquids because the rheology differs. In all fiow problems the viscosity of the liquid has a greater effect than any other property. However, while most liquids behave like water or oil, with the viscosity-fiow relation being Newtonian, slurries represent a new phase, Bingham plastic, where the relation of shear stress to shear rate takes on new meaning due to the Fanning friction factor f, the ratio of frictional forces to inertial forces:
f =
144Dg i1.P /2pLV2
(9.1)
Figure 9. 1 shows the various types of fiow behavior (shear rate vs. shear stress) encountered in slurry service. Each type has its own friction factors. lt is beyond the scope of this book to describe the technology involved in slurry pumping. For those interested in the subject a good reference is Solid-Liquid Flow, by Wasp, Kenny, and Gandhi. *
*E. J. Wasp, J. P. Kenny, and R. L. Gandhi, "Solid-Liquid Flow, Slurry Pipeline Transportation," Trans Tech Publications, Clausthal, Germany, 1977.
270
9.2
PUMPS FOR SLURRY SERVICE
271
Rate ol shear
Figure 9.L Viscosity, shear rate vs. shear stress. A, Bingham plastic; B, yield pseudoplastic; C, dilatant; D, Newtonian; E, pseudoplastic.
9.2 9.2.1
PUMPS FOR SLURRV SERVICE lntroduction
The abrasivity of a slurry is mainly a function of the hardness and shape (sharpness) of the particles. However, there are several modes of abrasivity, one of which is the action on metal or elastomer caused by erosion resulting from velocity of fl.ow and another the reaction of the metal or elastomer caused by mechanical abrasion. In the first instance, particle size and density are additional characteristics that must be considered. In the second case, density probability has no effect on wear rate. Mechanical abrasion as opposed to erosion is unpredictable, and few data have been heretofore available. It stands to reason that there is sorne general relation between the wear generated by both modes and others. Considerable work has been done in this area, and as a result a standard method of measurement of abrasivity of slurries has been developed; this is ASTM Standard G75.82, known as the Miller number (see Section 9.7). The movement of liquids in pipelines requires the use of pumps. Those who have had experience with the petroleum industry, where the movement of slurries is an everyday matter, are familiar with the transport of solids with mud pumps and cementing and fracturing pumps. Over the years, mud pumps have been improved so that rather long life can be obtained from liquid-end parts subject to the effects of abrasive liquids. Reciprocating-type slurry pumps are one result.
272
SLURRY PUMPING
Centrifugal pumps have also been used to transport solids, but they have been used where low heads are required, typically up to 100 PSI or so, for short pipelines. R~aders may recall that a centrifugal pump is a hydrokinetic device where the velocity of a liquid stream is converted to pressure, and to achieve high pressures a large change in velocity is necessary. Abrasive liquids have a deteriorating effect on the impellers and casings through which they flow, as a result of the erosion caused by the liquid and the suspended particles. Therefore, these pumps can be used only where the intemal velociry of flow i.s relatively low. Traditionally, the advantage of centrifuga! pumps is that they have a high capacity for a relatively low capital cost and usually require relatively little space. One of their disadvantages when they are used in sluny pipelining can be seen in the typical pressure-volume performance relationship, which tends to work against the application (Fig. 9.2). If an increase in pressure (head) is occasioned by flow restriction in the pipeline, say by the dropping out of solids, a desirable characteristic of a sluny pump would be an ability to develop increased pressure to overcome the restriction. The centrifugal pump provides the increased pressure only at the expense of considerably reduced volume, which then results in a lower flow velocity. With the reduced flow rate, the velocity might not be adequate to hold the material in suspension and keep it fiowing in the line. On the other hand, reciprocating pumps maintain a constant flow rate regardless of pressure, thereby tending to "purge" any plugging effect. Electrical power must be transmitted to each pumping station of a long sluny pipeline systern, such stations at most times being many miles from the main transmission lines, and this adds to the already rather high cost of power. Any savings resulting from the more efficient conversion of energy during the life of the project
AH
Performance limit or abrasive service
Capacity, U.S. GPM
Figure 9.2. Centrifugal pump characteristics.
9.2
273
is desirable, and the greater mechanical efficiency of reciprocating pumps, on the order of 85 to 90%, should certainly be considered in the design of such projects. Reciprocating pumps have the desirable characteristic of maintaining a high volumetric efficiency at any desired flow rate. This allows greater flexibility in system design. Becuase of the positive displacement and high-efficiency features, these pumps can be used for metering station throughput. Reciprocating slurry pumps are so designed that liquid-end parts that are subject to the deteriorating effects of slurries can be easily and quickly replaced. Other pump designs usually require complete dismantling and overhaul. Figures 1.1 and 1. 7 in Chapter 1 show a typical duplex double-acting piston pump and single-acting plunger pump, respectively. Because of their inherently larger capacity at lower speeds, duplex double-acting piston pumps may appear to be a "natural" for ali abrasive pumping applications. When high pressures are considered (above 2000-3000 PSI), sorne are quick to point out that such pumps have been used for years in the oil-well drilling industry for pressures up to 4000 PSI or more, so why not apply them in abrasive slurry service?
A. Practically all pumps in the higher horsepower range sold to the drilling industry in recent years have been of the triplex single-acting type, regardless of anticipated pressure. B. Triplex (plunger) pumps were considered for drilling service because: 1. They have an inherently a high pressure pump. 2. They are light in weight per horsepower (important in a transportable rig of any type). 3. A flushed stuffing box can prolong parts life. C. When single-acting pumps were introduced to the drilling industry, they were of the plunger type. Sorne attempts were made to flush the stuffing box, but it was found impractical because (1) dilution of drilling mud is usually undesirable, and (2) there is no source of clean flushing water on a drilling rig. (So point 3 above is no longer valid, and all pumps now use pistons.) D. Drilling mud per se is not an abrasive liquid in the sense of present-day slurry concepts. Typical drilling mud has an abrasivity of about Miller number 10. (The reputation of drilling mud for being "abrasive" comes from the fact that it picks up sand from the drilled formation.) It is ironic that the drilling industry goes to great pains to reduce the sand content of the drilling mud to less than 2 % in order to obtain greater pump parts life while in the slurry pipeline industry the battle to increase the percentage of solids to the ideal 99.9% goes on. E. It is improper to directly compare drilling mud pumping to the pumping of most slurries. Many muds contain oil and special chemicals that are corrosive and detrimental to elastomers. Muds run at relatively high temperature, 130F being common. Chemistry, corrosion, high temperature, and high pressure combine to overshadow abrasivity.
274
SLURRY PUMPING
9.2.2
Packing
A discussion of plunger pump packing must be preceded by an explanation of why plunger purnps are sometimes used for abrasive slurry service and how they differ from piston-type pumps, particularly in the matter of stuffing boxes and packing. With the common duplex double-acting piston pump, typical design requires an increase in piston rod strength, in both tension and compression, in sorne proportion to the increase in pump discharge pressure. Therefore, a point is reached where the piston rod diameter theoretically becomes so large that the pump, in effect, approaches a single-acting duplex, the discharge characteristics of which are extremely "rough." Accordingly, single-acting pump design dictates three, five, or more cylinders, and multiplex single-acting pumps inherently have smoother discharge characteristics, even over a small-piston-rod duplex doubleacting pump. Of extreme importance is the often overlooked fact that the packing action of an outside packed plunger pump is completely opposite to that of any piston type, including a multiplex single-acting pistan pump. In a plunger pump (Fig. 9.3), the plunger, during the pressure stroke, is traveling to the right out of the pressure-loaded packing into the liquid, and during the suction stroke the plunger is traveling to the left out of the dirty liquid into the relaxed packing. Conversely, in a piston-type pump (Fig. 9 .4) (with both the piston and the piston rod packing), on the pressure stroke the piston is traveling to the left into the pressure, and on the suction stroke it is traveling to the light away from the liquid. With the piston rod packing, the same action is seen: on the pressure stroke the rod is traveling into the packing, which is loaded by hydraulic pressure.
Lubrication
"' " "' s

pressure
;t
Plunger travel
Figure 9.3. Single-acting plunger pump on pressure stroke-packing action. Note that travel-of-plunger drag is counteracting tendency for pressure to extrude packing into clearance (clearance exaggerated).
9.2
PUMPS FOR SLURRY SERVlCE
275
Lubrication
~:Frj
Piston~
\ 1
Hyd-ra-u,.,-lic----, pressure ~
Heei (extruded) Heei (extruded)
Figure 9.4. Double-acting piston type pump on pressure stroke-packing action. Note travel of piston and rod drag are reinforcing tendency for pressure to extrude packing into clearance.
The purpose of packing is simmply to close up the clearance gap between the moving plunger and its associated parts, particularly the gland bushing, in the stuffing box or the piston and its cylinder, and the piston rod and its stuffing box parts. With ordinary packing this is accomplished by the use of material with considerable resiliency. The mechanics of all packing are such that regardless of the general shape of the sealing member, the hydraulic pressure tends to force the member through the clearance gap. Accordingly, practically all of the sealing and subsequent wear or extrusion take place at the "heel" (Figs. 9. 3 and 9 .4). It can be seen that the action in a plunger pump (Fig. 9.3) is such that on the pressure stroke the heel is being "dragged" away from the clearance gap, thereby greatly overcoming the force produced by the hydraulic pressure that causes extrusion through the clearance gap, a benefit in high-pressure service. With the piston-rod packing (Fig. 9.4), the heel is being dragged into the clearance gap by both the motion and the hydraulic pressure, accelerating wear of the packing. Lubrication of pacldng is extremely important in high-pressure service. It can be seen that only with the plunger pump can a lubricant be applied to the plunger as it is entering the hydraulically loaded packing, when it is most needed. This is another benefit in high-pressure service. Any attempt to lubricate a piston or piston rod is not as effective, since the lubricated moving parts enter the packing only on the unloaded or suction stroke when lubrication is not required. Of extreme importance, because of the opposite packing mechanics, a plunger pump in itself is not as satisfactory as a piston-type pump for pumping abrasive material. Because the packing is relaxed on the suction stroke of a plunger pump, the "dirty" plunger can readily load up the packing with abrasive particles and subsequently act as an efficient lapping tool. But this objection can be overcome by fiushing the packing internally with clean liquid-even to the extent that a
276
SLURRY PUMPING
plunger pump is more desirable for pumping abrasives if the dilution from ftushing can be tolerated.
9.2.3
Plunger Flushing Methods
There are two fundamentally different methods of ftushing packing for slurry service: synchronized and nonsynchronized ftushing. Synchronized flushing is the positive injection of an exact volume of clean ftush Iiquid, preferably during the suction stroke of the main pump plunger. This is accomplished by directly coupling a reciprocating pump with individual cylinders to the main pump crankshaft (Fig. 9.5). Nonsynchronized flushing is the continuous injection of a certain amount of clean ftushing liquid by an independently driven reciprocating pump (Fig. 9.6).
Main pump
Flush pump directly driven by main pump
Figure 9.5. Synchronlzed flushing, typical hookup.
Main pump
~-~11
-Btt
11
Flush pump separately driven Gas-bladder dampener (Accumulator)
Manifold
Figure 9.6. Nonsynchronized flushing, typical hookup.
9.2
2n
TABLE 9.1 Flushing Methods for Slurry Pumps

Method A Synchronized Nonsynchronized High-pressure Low-pressureb Orifice used Check valve used Flush on suction stroke Flush on discharge stroke
B
e
X
D X
G
X X
X X
X
X
X X
X X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X X
X X
Variations in timing-Usually timed to ful! suction or discharge stroke of main pump.
There are several versions of both of these methods as shown in Table 9. 1. Of these, the most popular are A and H. Method A has been most popular in the past, but experience has shown that it has many shortcomings. Inadequate flushing fluid is injected at the end of each plunger stroke due to the sinusoidal shape of the ftow pattem of a reciprocating pump. See Figure 9.7. At the present state of the art, it is evident that method high-pressure nonsynchronized, is the most practical and efficient if properly designed flushing bushings are used and if a sufficient supply pressure is available to produce the presently acceptable mnimum of 3 % of main pump displacement. In any method, the cleanliness of the fl.ushing liquid is paramount. A pressure of about 500 PSI is required to provide a ftow of 3 % through the ftush system of a triplex pump. Accordingly, in H, a pressure of 500 PSI above the main pump operating pressure would be required. The advantages of method H are: 1. With continuous flushing the chance of any lack of fl.ushing due to phasing is minimized. There is assurance that positive flushing is always achieved well befare the start and well after the end of the main pump plunger suction stroke.
2. Sorne flushing during the pressure stroke is desirable to compensate for any slight packing leakage which, if not flushed, would allow slurry to enter the packing space. 3. It allows prestart and post-stop flushing for sorne time before and after the main pump is started and stopped. This provides added assurance that abrasives are well fl.ushed out of the packing space before the plunger makes a stroke. 4. A single standard flush pump can be used to flush one or several main pumps. 5. A change in flushing rate can be more readily implemented by a simple change of flush pump speed.
278
SLURRY PUMPING
Main pump suction
-/ 1
----.1..... ----~
Flush flow rate
Flush pump discharge stroke
r----
Main pump valve lag
----------- -t
Flush pressure 2500 PSI
' 1
3GPM
l'tttt'b'~wt--1'\l~"""'H+
Figure 9. 7. Flushing analysis. (a) Synchronized flushing on suction stroke of main pump. Flush pressure is not important, as flow is positive as shown. Note that at beginning and end of main-pump suction stroke, flush flow rate has diminished to zero. Dueto variations such as valve lag, there could be periods of zero flush during sorne part of the main-pump plunger stroke. (b) Nonsynchronized high-pressure flushing. Admits a constant flow-maximum during the main-pump suction stroke-with overlap at each end and even slight flushing during the discharge stroke. There can be no period of starved flushing.
9.2.4
Flushing Details
A rate of about 3 % of the total main pump displacement is required to guarantee sufficient flushing. The actual requirement should be determined by test, and the rule that ''the more the better'' applies up to a reasonable limit. lt bears repeating that the flushing liquid should be as "clean" as possible.
9.2
279
The following features are desirable in a fl.ushed slurry stuffing box:

l. Spring-loaded main and auxiliary packing.
2. Water-cooled stuffing box. 3. Dimensions such that "wetted" portian af plunger never enters main packing. 4. Clase-fitting stuffing box trim (cast iran or ductile iron preferred). Figure 9. 8 shows the appraximate dimensions and general design af a caal conversion type stuffing box. See Figure 7 .6, Chapter 7, for recommended stuffing box trim clearance for ali applications. Flushing liquid velocity should depend upon the flushing rate and the plungerflush bushing dametric clearance. The following formula can be used to approximate the carrect velacity: percent flush
X
V= 0.4085
GPM
D2
D2
p
number af cylinders
(9.2)
where
Db DP
= stuffing box diameter, in = plunger diameter, in
The "flush" bushing should be of the design shown in Figure 9.9. This design provides uniform fiush by directing the fl.ush liquid to the bottom of the plunger.
--------2.5S------
Tell tale
Coo!
Flush
.5S
-----r-1
.._________,______. . __ _____ l_J

,, ,,
JI
1
- - - - - + - - - _ .n_I_
.o---------------4.5S-------------____,.,
~s
:1
Figure 9.8. Generalized coa! conversion stuffing box.
280
SLURRY PUMPING
ji
Y."-;;.j11...__
11
11
See Fig, 7 ,26 lor recommended diameters,
,..._____ ,, stroke----Figure 9.9. Typical flush bushing for horizontal pumps. R 1 and R 2 offset as shown so as to result in feathering out of grooves at the 90 limits, as indicated at A = A.
9.2.5
Pistons
The piston is so constructed as to have three basic elements, as shown in Chapter
7. Under hydraulic loading, the ''rubber'' is pushed back against the fabric section
and out against the liner to form a seal. The fabric section provides extrusion clearance control, and the metal back-up plate or piston body provides the structural capacity to hold the piston load.
9.2.6
liners
The liners are made of abrasion- and corrosion-resistant metals that have been found in extensive service to resist wear for specific slurries. Piston rods and plungers are usually coated with similarly suited materials for the same objectives while retaining base-metal characteristics for the required mechanical loads.
9.2.7
Piston Membrane Pumps
There is increasing interest in pis ton membrane pumps (described in Chapter 1) for the pumping of abrasive slurries, particularly with slurries of abrasivity above Miller number 50. There have been many improvement in engineering concepts, metals, and elastomers, and perhaps sorne of the old ideas may flourish. The membrane pumps deseribed in Chapter 1 are in service in many applications with extreme success. While membrane pumps will protect the pistons, liners, or plungers against
9.2
281
Leg 1 filling
Clean liquid
Main pump
Leg 2 displacing
Figure 9.10. Switch-loop pumping.
abrasive slurry, no design has ever offered protection for the liquid-end valves of a pump.
9.2.8
Switch-Loop Pumping
Switch-loop pumping is a method of isolating pipeline pumps from the destruction of abrasion, allowing "standard" reciprocating pumps to operate at ali times in an environment of "clean" liquid, thus prolonging the life of parts, including valves. One version of the system is shown in Figure 9 .10. Legs 1 and 2 are reasonable lengths of pipe, either "legs" or "loops," of sufficient volumetric capacity between the directional valves A and C or B and D to allow a decent slurry pumping period of several minutes before switching to the other leg. In operation, Figure 9.10 shows that the slurry previously introduced into leg 2 is being forced into the pipeline with "clean" high-pressure liquid through directional valves B and D. While this event is occurring, leg 1 is being filled with low-pressure slurry, displacing the clean liquid remaining from the last high-pressure cycle through valves A and C. Timing devices can cause the directional valves to operate on a predetermined cycle, and such timing can allow the liquid to continue through the valve for a short interval of time after the slurry passes, permitting the valve to close in clean liquid. The slight amount of slurry dilution caused by this operation could probably be compensated by an original higher concentration of solids. The cost of maintaining at least four large high-pressure, high-cost directional valves must be weighed against the saving in pump parts life.
9.2.9
Other Methods
Aside from the present 50% by weight coal/water slurry pumping with reciprocating pumps directly into the pipeline, other versions are mentioned;
282
SLURRY PUMPING
l. Lock-Hopper. A system similar to the Switch Loop method, alternate hoppers are arranged at the inlet of the pump whereby one hopper is being filled with slurry while the other is being pumped. 2. Capsules. Is a method of sealing water or liquid sensitive materials, (grain for instance) in a plastic capsule and pumping through the pipeline with a water vehicle. 3. For pipelining, there has been a proposal that grain be coated with and protected by sorne material stable in water until time for removal. 4. Sewage of course, can usually be handed by one of the lock-hopper methods. 5. Pneumatic air or gas as the carrying medium has been considered. 6. Liquid C0 2 has been successfully used to transport coal in a pipeline. 7. Proposals have been made to withdraw sorne of the pipeline coal and water to generate steam for station pumping power. 8. Sulphur-oil slurries have been considered. 9. Slack-flow energy recovery methods have been considered. Slack-flow is typical in hilly country where there are substantial down-hill runs to the station or destination. 10. In areas of scarce water supply, double pipelines have been consideredOne to pump slurry and the Qther to return the separated water. l l. Coal "logs"-coal molded into logs and pumped through the pipeline like a pig. High concentration coal (80% by weight) systems are being considered, even to the extent of burning the slurry as received without water separation. There is extreme interest in pumping course coal (run of the mine) but little success has been had. Present high pressure reciprocating pumps will not tolerate large particles. Pumps with power driven valves may be developed for such service.
9.3 HORIZONTAL VS. VERTICAL PUMPS FOR SLURRY SERVICE

Any claim that a vertical plunger pump requires less plunger flushing than a horizontal pump is based on the conjecture that gravity aids in keeping solid particles away from the packing. However, only large particles can be kept from the packing by gravity. It is an axiom that large particles do not affect packing and plunger wear as muchas small particles; it is much easier for the packing to exclude large particles than small ones. The smaller particles can be readily carried into the packing, become embedded, and actas a lap on the plunger. The turbulence that exists inside a fluid cylinder of a high-speed plunger pump is so severe that it is impossible to rely on the force of gravity to keep particles from the packing of any typical pump. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to create "permanent" bar-
9.4
SUCTION PRESSURE FOR SLURRY PUMPS
283
riers by the use of grease, oil, etc. Sorne highly specialized pumps successfully maintain an oil barrier between the fluid and the plunger but run at very low speed. It has been stated that plungers or pistons in horizontal units in such service tend to undergo greater wear than in vertical untis. There is no evidence that wear is concentrated on the bottom of any plunger or piston in a propedy designed horizontal pump. (Remember Henry Ford's critics who said the pistons of a Vtype engine would wear out rapidly because they were lying down?) The wear pattem of all plungers is the expected hourglass shape, with uniform wear around pumps the center portion of the plunger, and the typical liner and rod in exhibit the familiar wear at each end of the stroke. The mechanics of packing are such that the effect of piunger weight is trivial. As the hydraulic pressure works on the packing, it forces the resilient members against the plunger for its entire circumference, thereby centering the plunger in the stuffing box with a greater force by far than the opposing force of gravity. It is during that part of the stroke that the plunger is experiencing its greatest rate of wear due to abrasion. The horizontal design has the distinct advantage of having a lower fluid end with a gain of several feet of actual suction head. Sorne think the horizontal design is more accessible for servicing. Because valves should operate in a vertical motion, vertical pumps must be equipped with surge legs or elbows of considerable length to which the valve pots can be attached, thus adding extensively to the volumetric clearance of the pump. Horizontal pumps allow vertical motion of the valves, a mandatory requirement.
9.4
SUCTION PRESSURE FOR SlURRY PUMPS
It is an axiom that slurry pumps must have a "charged" suction, usually provided by the use of a centrifugal pump or by the controlled pipeline pressure at the
downstream stations. Other methods of fumishing high suction pressure can be used. For instance, where conditions will permit, elevated conical-bottom supply tanks have been used with success. One objection to this system is the drastic drop in suction head as the tank liquid leve! is lowered with vv ithdrawaL Slurry-pump suction pressure requirements are affected by the viscosity of the liquid, greater viscosity resulting in greater pressure drop between the source and the pump inlet. The greater density of rnost slurries also affects the losses due to liquid acceleration. These losses, exacerbated by unusually long and tortuous suction systems associated with slurry-pumping installations, demand that such pumps have their suctions charged, usually with centrifugal pumps. (With very high viscosity slurries, such as sorne coal-oil mixtures, it may be necessary to consider limiting the maximum pump speed.) Slurry pumps require heavier than normal (greater POSIV A) valve springs for severa! reasons. A closing val ve cannot take advantage of the applied (discharge) pressure to effect a seal until the valve is almost completely closed against its seat. If the apparent high viscosity of the slurry and the presence of rather large solid particles delay the final valve closure, poor volumetric efficiency and a roughrunning pump are the result. The use of heavier springs helps to overcome these
284
SLURRY PUMPING
deficiencies. Installed valve spring loads as high as 8 POSIVA are used. Of course, the penalty of heavy valve springs is the required higher suction pressure or NPSHR. Single-acting piston-type pumps usually require high suction pressure to allow proper filling of the cylinders on each suction stroke because the piston design is such that a "suction" cannot be created with the "one-way" piston. Efforts to supply a piston seal on the suction stroke by the use of a "double-acting" piston have not been successful because of the early failure of the back-seal owing to lack of lubrication in a partiaily dry liner. (It should be realized that with a doubleacting piston, the seal generated by the pressurized rubber also provides the "suction" required on the back side.) Rather than the need for calculating or testing for the NPSHR for each slurrypumping application, experience has shown that a suction pressure of at least 50 PSI should be provided, either with an appropriate centrifugal pump or by regulating the upstream pressure on in-line station pumps to that value.
9.5
COAL SLURRIES
Currently, the most widely used liquid phases for coal slunies are water, oil, toluene (or other solvents), and liquid carbon dioxide.
9.5.1
Concentration of Solids
Frequently, the question is asked, ''What is the maximum concentration of coal solids that can be pumped?" Confining the answer to the pump only, a general statement can be made: The rheology of the slurry is dictated by the pipeline requirements, and the pump can usually handle anything that can be transported through a pipeline. In the case of a coal-water slurry, Figure 9 .11, the chart of a typical coal slurry, indicates that the apparent viscosity increases with concentration. In a reciprocating pump, no unusual operating conditions are encountered with viscosities up to 8000 SSU for true Newtonian liquids. It will be seen that in this "coal B" slurry the equivalent value of 8000 SSU was reached at about 70% by weight solids. Note also that at 73% the mixture had no fluidity (was pasty). So again, as far as the pump is concemed and with that particular coal, there is good reason to believe that a concentration of 60% by weight could be readily pumped. Coal-oil slurries are more critical in that they increase in viscosity at a more rapid rate and are highly affected by temperature and the viscosity of the mixing oiL Figure 9.12 shows that for the particular case illustrated, concentrations above 55 % result in very high viscosity. This phenomenon must be taken into account in arriving at a concentration for such slurries. From this, it is evident that the limiting concentration could be determined only by actual test. Coal-toluene mixtures would probably follow coal-water characteristics, but little information is available on this.
8
::
IJ'l IJ'l
.....
;
vi ;;;
;:
u
.,_,
...
<
Q)
e:
~ c.
O_!.-~-,,!~~~~~-,,,~~~i,,,.........,,,,~
30
40
50
60
70
-So
Concentration, percent by weight
Figure 9.11. Coal-water slurry viscosity. A, fine coa! ( 80% pass 200 mesh); curve B, coarse coal ( 80 % pass 100 mesh).
8
IJ'l VJ
:::::>
.....
;
5.
o u
(/)
:;;
f:'.
e: 4
<
c. "' a.
Concentration, percent by weight
Figure 9.12. Coal-oil slurr)1 viscosity. Oil is No. 6 fuel oil. A, 200F, B, 160F.
285
286
SLURRY PUMPING
9.5.2
Particle Size
Again, there is sorne relation to particle size vs. pipeline requirements, and it can be generally stated from experience to date in actual slurry projects that the pump has not been the limiting factor on particle size. In a reciprocating pump, the particle size only affects the operation ofthe valves. In pumps of larger capacity (larger valves), no trouble is encountered with particles up to 8 mesh. (Fortunately, crushed coal has a good distribution of smaller particles below this maximum size.) Statements appear in the literature that l-in diameter particles of coal have been pumped. These were cases where the percentage of l-in particles was very small, and there is no doubt that the pump will tolerate a few large particles. Types of valves vary in their ability to handle large particles. The elastomeric seal slurry-type valve is far superior for normal coal-water slurries at low temperature. But dueto the wide metal-to-metal and elastomer-to-metal contact surfaces, large particles have more of a tendency to hold the valve open. Such valves have no difficulty in handling coal with 8 mesh maximum particle size. Tests show that particles of coal up to !-in in diameter can be handled with properly designed spherical valves. The high loading of a line bearing contact easily crushes those particles caught between the edges when the valve closes. Particles on each side of the sealing line are readily displaced away from the sealing line by the rapidly diverging shape of the spherical portion of the valve, which minimizes the tendency of large particles to hold the valve open. Spherical valves are also valuable for hot or chemically active liquids and slurries that are detrimental to elastomeric seals. Spherical valves should be considered only in the applications listed above. They lack the advantage of a renewable elastomeric seal. This, combined with the inherently high metal-to-metal bearing loads, results in shorter life than a slurrytype valve. Spherical valves will not tolerate highly abrasive slurries, of a Miller number of above 50. A slight reduction in volumetric efficiency may be expected dueto lack of the more efficient elastomeric seal.
9.5.3
Concentration and Particle Size
In the milling process, coal and other minerals appear to follow a rather consistent pattem of particle size distribution. In other words, a coal reduced to the extent that the largest particles have a dimension smaller than another milled coal will have a larger percentage of "fines." These fines tend to control the apparent viscosity of a water mixture, and a slurry with a large percentage of fines will have a higher viscosity than another slurry of equal concentration of solids by weight but with a smaller percentage of fines. In view of this, it is difficult to predict the pumpability of coal slurries of a given concentration without knowing the approximate apparent viscosity at that concentration.
'V SLURRY EROSION
287
9.6
VALVE SERVICE FOR SLURRY PUMPING
Valve service for slurry pumping is covered in Chapter 8, but this statement serves as a waming that limited valve lift caused by reduced fiow through the valve opening when a lower than rated pump speed (RPM) is maintained may create a restriction to the passage of solid particles. Extended pump operation at sign:ficantly reduced speed may result in an accumulation of solids in the pump cylinder with drastic results.
9.7
SLURRY EROSION
9.7.1
lntroduction
For the purpose of this discussion, a "slurry" is described as a mixture of solid particles in a liqud (usually water), of such a consistency that it can be pumped like a true liquid. The term "slurry erosion" is strictly defined as that type of wear or loss of mass of material when exposed to a high velocity stream of slurry, whether the material is moving at a certain velocity through the slurry or whether the slurry is moving past the material at a certain velocity. However, one should include other forms of wear encountered in handling slurries-a process seeing increasing interest in industry, especially with the rather new method of transporting minerals, principally coa!, and other solids (even with the possible indusion of grain), for long distances through pipelines at pressure in the order of 2,000 PSI (13,790 kPa). Dry Abrasive Wear, another mode of wear, is mentioned in this discussion but it is a type of wear seldom if ever encountered in slurry handling. The combination of Abrasion-Corrosion of a typical slurry system is responsible for the most severe form of wear and it leads the list of severa! other important modes.
9. 7 .2
Slurry Wear Modes
Sorne of the most common wear modes are listed below and described in Figure 9. IA. Note that a few of these basic modes can be extended into sub-modes, according to whether they are responding to the following motions; reciprocating, oscillating, circular or continuous; oi! or liquids other than water; and ratio of areas of mating parts as shown in Figure 9. lA. Mode A. Abrasion-Corrosion wear is the result of any metal-to-metal rubbing in the presence of abrasive solids in a liquid. Aside from high-velocity erosion, this is the most destructive and most misunderstood mode encountered in handling slurry. Typical parts of reciprocating pumps involved are; metal-to-metal valves and seats (upon each closure), metal piston parts rubbing on metal liners and plungers, or piston-rods rubbing against metal stuffing box parts or trim. In the case of parts of different metals exposed to the slurry, it is obvious that electro-chemical {electrolysis) effects are included in this mode.
288
SLURRY
PUMPING
ABRASIDN-CORRDSIDN
t.
PIPE 11~
' 'f
-~""""'~ 7 LARGE TUMBLING ROCKS

1
--
"~~'
'Jb : , ~,'.;D,
q> ,...
HIGH VELOCITY ERDSIDN
SALTATIDN ERDSIDN
Bl
B2
B3
llEAR AREAS ECUAL
SCDURING llEAR llEAR AREAS UNECUAL
SCOURING llEAR llEAR AREAS UNEQUAL
~ ':"o "::.-/o:c:_;)_":_.
/ -c:aLLArsrn'u VAPOR
PIPE \IALL CRUSHING

~
GRIND
LO\/ VELOCITY ERDSIDN
BUBBLES. CAVITATION
Figure 9.lA. Slurry Erosion Wear Modes
Mode B. Scouring Wear is encountered with elastomer-to-metal rubbing with abrasive so lid particles becoming embedded in the softer elastomer or rubber, Le. pistons, packing and valve inserts. Mode C. Crushing and Grinding in abrasive metal-to-metal contact. For example, a valve repeatedly closing with great force against solid particles trapped between the valve and seat at closure. Mode D. High-velocity Erosion, while not a usual mode of wear in reciprocating pumps handling slurry, it can become a very destructive one. For example, when a valve seat or piston wears to the extent that a slight leak develops, the extremely high velocity of slurry leakage through that small gap can result in catostrophic and rapid failure of the parts and even the costly liquid-end of the pump. See Figures 2 and 3. Also slurry-throttling valves and parts downstream experience this type of rapid wear. The impellers and cut-water of centrifuga! pumps are subject to this type of wear. "High" velocity is usually considered as that greater than 20-30 ft/s (65100 mis). Mode E, Low-Velocity Erosion is usualiy a low rate wear mode that takes place where there is flow of slurry at regular low velocities. In a pipeline with laminar flow, the velocity profile (in the shape of a parabola) is such that the velocity near the wall of the pipe is nearly zero, and minimum wear takes place. Also the impellers and cut-water of centrifuga! pumps are sometimes subjected to this mode.
9.7
SLURRY EROSION
289
Mode F. Saltation Wear comes about in pipelines handling a great number of larger than usual particle size-actually "chunks"-which tend to tumble along the bottom of the pipe, resulting in rapid wear. An example is the transportation of phosphate rock from slurry-pit to the processing plant. The pipe requires frequent turning to distribute the wear. Mode G. Cavitation can result in damage to the metal in the liquid-end of the pump or to the parts of a reciprocating pump through the microscopic but intense liquid pressure blasts against the metal near the cavitation area following the repeated collapse of the vapor bubbles.
9. 7.3
Effects of Wear
The effect of solids concentration on abrasivity should be recognized. Figure 10.6 shows how the abrasivity increases very rapidly from zero to about 10 percent concentration, then begins to ftatten. lt is an interesting fact that in the oil well drilling industry the well known slurry called "drilling mud" in itself is not abrasive-the abrasivity comes from the solid particles of crushed and broken rock or "cuttings" generated in the drilling process. Contaminated mud is usually "cleaned" by; settling, screening or centrifuging. Curve 10.6 is supported by the fact that the sand content of drilling mud must be reduced to less than 2 percent before effective improvement in pump parts life can be realized.
9. 7.4
Dry Abrasivity
As a result of further work it was decided that ali Miller or SAR Number Tests
would be run in duplication, one with the "as received" material and another with an inhibited slurry obtained by adding a <lose of strong NaOH solution to raise the pH to the order of about 13. Thus a "number" approaching the dry abrasivity could be obtained by the reduction of corrosion effects. See Table 9. lA. Note that the increase in pH of the slurry by the addition of NaOH (as is sometimes done in actual systems) in most cases reduces the Miller or SAR Number.
9.7.5
Conclusions
Typical pumpable slurries possess inherent "~pparent abrasivity" which must be determined by test to enable one to predict the cost of pump replacement parts or equipment run in those slurries. The "apparent abrasivity", without inhibition, is the synergistic reaction of many factors as shown in Figure 9.2A, such reaction or effects being described as The Morrison-Miller effect(2): Due to the complex synergism involved, the wear response of a material (A) in a certain
(2) A Modified G-75 Abrasion Test for Corrosive Environments, Morrison and Corbett-Corrosion Testing Laboratories, Inc. Wilmington, DE 19804 and Jenkins, Savannah River Laboratory, Aiken, se 29802
co
TABLE 9.1A. Slurry Abrasivity Reduction BT PH lncrease
A TEST NO
B SLURRY FLY ASH FLY ASH TAILINGS A B MINE WAT
e
PH PH AS REC
D MILLER NO MN AS REC
E PH PH AS INI-:1
F MILLER NO MN AS INH
G PCT REDUCE
H MN/PCT
651 648 647 602 603

600
596 599
595
e
D CRYSTALS COMPOSITE COMPOSITE COMPOSITE LIME E F G BASALT DOLERITE REFACTORY COMPOSITE
593 592 594 563 589 548 549 561 560 543 541
9.6 12.4 9 6.5 6.1 6 7.4 7 7.2 7.8 7.7 8.3 11.4 8.3 5.7 4.1 7.3 7.6
85 18 34 776 825 122

17
60 0.2 53 48 47 0.9 69
5.5 20
249 215 68 113
13 12.5 12.4 13.2 13.3 12 12.5 11 12.1 12.7 12.6 12.5 13.1 12.5 12.l 12.9 13.2 12.8 12.2
54 14 26 477 576 85 15 50 0.1 40 39 39 4.8 42 3.1 12 131 182 53 49
36 22 24 39 30 30 12 17 50 25 19 17 -433 39
44
40 47 15 22 57
2.33 0.81 1.45 20.14 27.33 4.02 1.45 3.60 0.00 2.16 2.56 2.76 0.00 1.76 0.13 0.50 5.25 14.01 3.08 2.00
539 540 537 502 525 523 517 518 519 516
506
TILL TILL PHOSPHATE PHOSPHATE
6.8 11.8 7.5

6.8 6
8! 42
81
12 11.8 12.9
12.9
75
100
REFACTORY
PHOS. TAIL H I J GROUT MUO SAND MARBLE FLY ASH
13
12 12 12
67 48 21 30 46
17 - 14
4.69 -2.94
2.09
74
60
1.25
1.85
54
16
7.9 7.9 6.5 7.6

6.1 8.6
12.1
80 86 94
89 61
67 62
82 63
28
13
4.92 3.08 7.36

3.05 3.!0
12 12
12
29
20
49
51
4.2 13
55
5.5
11
502 503
13 12.2
7 24
- 18
7.56
0.23
--0.61
Ali the above were inhibited with a strong dose of The following were inhibited with CaOH.
601
601
COPPER TAL COPPER TAL
I0.4 8.2
162
,,, " lLoL

12.1
50
560
55
69 90
2.34
6.21
.:1 t:I
,.............................., ,................................................................., ......................................... l 1. CORROSIVE l 2. RESISTANCE OF PROTECTIVE l l3. DISSOLVED AIR j LIQ ID 1 FILM OF CORROS ION PRODUCTS 1 l COXYGEN OR l " " l ENVIRONMENT 1 l " .......................... ......................
~
4:E:t."E:c=rRai.:vs1s;1;::
j TIJO METALS INVOLVED j
:- 5. TRUE ABRASIVITY OF SOLIDS:

CPARTICAL HARDNESS. SIZE. SHAPE AND CONCENTRATION. 1
~.Z
,....................................................... r., l::7. RELEASED CORROSIVE j !6. SOLUBLE ELEMENTS IN SOLIDS j CONNATE IJATER FROM f"""""1 FDRMING CORROSIVE SOLUTION j ORE PARTICLES. i. ... .i
i. ...................................................
Figure 9.2A. Synergistic effects of seven factors in slurry abrasivity
MATERIAL
MATERIAL
pH y
OF THE FDUR CDMBINATIDNS CAND MANY MDREI INDICATED ABDVE NDNE OF THE RESPONSES DR EFFECTS ARE PREDICTABLE AND THERE USUALLY IS Na NUMERICAL RELATIDNSHIP DF MILLER DR SAR NUMBER BETVEEN ANY PAIR. INDIVIDUAL TESTS MUST BE RUN.
Figure 9.3A. Morrison-Miller effect in slurry abrasivity
292
9.B
SLURRY ABRASION TESTING
293
THE GOLD NUMBER

FOR LOW ABRASIVITY
JOOO ........... "' ......... .
2500 ..................... .
2000 ....................... .
0000000,.oO>
~
1500 .................... ..
iOoooooO <
1000 ........... .
500
' ' ~ o
0+--''--~~~~-1-~~~~~~..........~~~~~-+-~~~~~--1
10
20 STANDARD MILLER NUMBER
30
40
l''igure 9.4A.
slurry (C) gives no clue as to how material (A) would respond to another Slurry (D) and, vice versa, the effects of Slurry {C) on material (A) gives no clue as to the effects of Slurry (C) on material (B). Figure 9.3A. The elusive combination of erosion-corrosion was actually recognized as early as 1967 as shown in Figure 10.7 where the mass-loss rate is the reverse of what would be expected.
9.8
9.8.1

Miller Number*
AH solid minerals possess a degree of hardness, from soft tale used in face powder to aluminum oxide with a hardness next to that of diamond. Such hardness imparts abrasivity to the slurry, and if one is concemed about the type of pump and the life of both the parts and the pipeline, the degree of abrasivity must be known. The greater the abrasivity, the shorter the life of pump parts and pipeline. The Miller number describes the relative degree of abrasivity of slurries as based on the mass loss of a "standard" 27% chrome iron wear block when run in a particular slurry for a period of time.
*See ASTM G75-89, "Determinalion of Slurry Abrasivity by Miller Number," Standard of ASTM, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19!03.
294
SLURRY PUMPING
Figure 9.13. Miller number machine.
9.8.2
SAR Number (Slurry Abrasion Resistance)
To relate the effects of any slurry abrasivity and corrosivity on materials other than the standard wear block, the SAR number was developed, using the same test equipment and procedure as for the Miller number. The SAR number of a material is based on the mass-loss rate (converted to volume-loss rate) of a wear block of the material in question when ron in any particular slurry for a period of time. Therefore, the following procedure will apply to both tests, the difference being applied in the final part of the computations, where an additional step is required to convert the final results into a number representing the volume loss.
9.8.3
Test Equipment
The device used to measure the relative abrasivity of various slurries (Miller number) or to determine the abrasion resistance of materials to various slurries (SAR number) consists in general of a standard 1.27 mm X 2.54 mm<! in X 1 in) metal wear block, driven at a rate of 48 strokes per minute, with a 200-mm ( 8 in) stroke, riding in the bottom of a tray containing a 50 % by mass slurry of the solids mixed in distilled water. A dead weight of 22.24 N (5 lb) is applied to the block. For each test, the tray is fitted with a new piece of neoprene rubber sheet to act as a lap. The interior of the tray is of a ftat-bottomed V shape so as to confine the path taken by the wear block through the actual solids. At the end of the stroke, the wear block is lifted 1 mm (.Ji in) off the lap to allow fresh slurry to ftow under the block. The block holder is made of plastic, as are the trays, so that electrolysis in certain slurries is eliminated. Figure 9 .13 illustrates machine principies.
9.8
295
TABLE 9.2. Sample of Recorded Test Data
Weights, g Block 1 Initial After 4 h After 8 h After 12 h After 16 h 16.4746 16.4478 16.4274 16.4085 16.3924 Block 2 16.4069 16.3809 16.3613 16.3427 16.3266
Loss, mg Block 1 Block 2
Loss, mg Cum. Ave.
o.o
26.8 20.4 18.9 16.1
o.o
26.0 19.6 18.6 16.1
o.o
26.4 46.4 65.2 81.3
9.8.4
Procedure
The wear block is weighed to 0.1 mg, after being scrubbed in detergent and dried. The block is aligned in the holder placed in the slurry tray, and the reciprocating motion is started. At the end of the 2 h, the block is removed, washed, and weighed, and the loss of metal recorded. This is repeated three times for a total of 6 h. Duplicate samples are run simultaneously so as to provide a verification and averaging.
9.8.5
Calculation of Results
The mass loss of the wear block or specimen, the average of two runs in a typical slurry, is recorded. Por example, see Table 9.2. The basic mathematical equation for a curve of the data listed in Table 9.1 is Mass loss, mg
=A
hours8
(9.3)
Using the least-squares method, the values of A and B are calculated for a best-fit curve of the test data. In this case, the values were determined to be
A = 8.65 and B = 0.81
The equation for the example becomes Mass loss, mg
= 8.65
hours0 81
= 15.17 mg
The Miller and SAR numbers are described as being related to the rate at which the wear block loses mass at 2 h into the test, which can be calculated by using the first derivative of equation (9.3) at 2 h. (This is the slope of the line tangent to the curve at 2 h.) Por example, for MLR = Mass loss rate, mg/h, MLR, mg/h =A
X
X 2B-t
(9.4)
296
SLURRY PUMPING
So MLR
= 8.65
X 0.81 X 2 81 -
= 6.14 mgfh
9.8.6
Miller Number
It is desirable to have a meaningful whole number for the expression of abrasioncorrosion effects. It was decided that the range of the whole number would range
from 1 for powdered sulfur to 1000 for 220 mesh alundum, and this is accomplished by the use of a scaling factor C determined to be 18.18. Using the mass loss rate of 6.14 mg/h previously determined, the equation for the Miller number can thus be written as Miller number Then Miller number
MLR
where
e=
111
18.18
(9.5)
18.18
6.14
A computer program listing (digital basic plus) for calculating results is published as part of ASTM G-75-89, "Determination of Slurry Abrasivity by Miller Number," available from ASTM, 1916 Race St. Philadelphia, PA 19103.
9.8. 7
SAR Number
Because the SAR number is described as an index related to the rate at which the specimen loses volume at 2 h into the test, the volume loss rate (VLR) can be calculated by dividing the mass loss rate (MLR) by the specific gravity of the specimen material. For example, VLR, ml/h
= M~R
where S = specific gravity of the specimen material. For the example, again using the specific gravity of 27 % chrome iron and the mass loss rate of 6.14 mg/h previously determined, VLR /h = 6.14 7_ 74 = 0.793 m1
lt is desirable to have a meaningful whole number for the expression of the abrasion-corrosion effect of the slurry on the specimen. The range of these numbers is arbitrarily selected to be 1-1000, the same range as for the Miller number for slurry abrasivity. The equation for SAR number therefore includes the same constant C (18.18) to force the SAR number for standard 27% chrome iron in standard sand
9.6
297
sluny to .be equal to the Miller number of a standard sand sluny as in the example used here. It is also necessary to always multiply by a constant of 7. 74, the specific gravity of standard 27 % chrome iron. The equation for SAR number can then be written: SAR number = Cs
X
VLR
18.18 X 7.74 = 140.7. where In the example, the SAR number for 27 % chrome iron in standard sluny is SAR number = 140.7 x 0.793 = 111
9.8.8
A Miller Number System Overview
Even though the Miller number system uses a mbbing type of abrasion, experience has shown that the results can be used to evaluate wear from impingement. The abrasivity of a sluny is a function of the following characteristics of the solid particles:
l. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Hardness Size Shape Size distribution Friability 6. Concentration
probably in that order. Now all of these factors also contribute to metal attrition by impingement as well as by rubbing. The only missing character not revealed in the Miller number test is the effect of specific gravity or density. However, since the force of impact is proportional to mv, it can be seen that the effect of mass is rather small, particularly in most pumpable slurries where the particles are relatively small. The Miller number is of value in predicting pipe erosion in pipelines as demonstrated from reported experience in a large coal (Miller number 10-20) pipeline in Arizona as compared to a magnetite ( Miller number 67) pipeline in Tasmania. The Miller number sysiem is usefl in predicting the life in a reciprocating pump by correlating Miller numbers and parts life in existing sluny service to the Miller number of a proposed sluny application. The variation in Miller numbers in certain generic minerals such as coal can be considerable. Coal, for instance, can have from 5 to 25% ash (the most abrasive constituent), and even the type of ash can vary from soft calcareous to hard and sharp quartz and pyrite. The same holds true for other numerals such as bauxite. Table 9.3 lists the Miller numbers for a few generic materials.
TABLE 9.3. Typlcal Mlller Numbers
Alundum 400 mesh Alundum 200 mesh Aragonite Ash Ash, fly Bauxite Calcium carbonate Carbon Carborundum 220 mesh Clay Coal Copper concentrate Detergent Dust, blast furnace Gilsonite Gypsum Iron ore (or concentrate) Kaolin Lignite Limestone Limonite Magnesium hydrate Magnetite Microsphorite Mud, drilling Nickel Phosphate Potash Pyrite Quartzite Rutile Salt brine Sand and sand fill Sea bottom Shale Serpentine Sewage, digested Sewage, raw Sodium sulfate Soda ash tailings Sulfur Tailings (all types) Tarsand Waste, nickel Waste, coal
as coal or iron ore.
241 1058 7 127 83, 14 9, 33, 50, 76, 134 14 14, 16 1284 34, 36 6, 10, 21, 28, 47, 57 19, 37, 58, 68, 111, 128 6, 8 57 10 41 28, 37, 64, 79, 122, 157, 234 7,30 14 22,30, 39,43,46 113 4 64, 71, 134 76 10 31 68, 74, 84, 134 1, 2 194 99 10 11 51, 68, 85, 116, 138, 149, 246 11 53, 59 134 15 25 4 27 1 24,61, 91, 159,217, 480, 644 70 53 22,28
Note the wide range of abrasivity of sorne types of materials, such
298
9.8
299
120
110
1
100
~~
-e-
90
~ 80
;;;
"'
:: 70
~ ~ 60
;;
<(
50 40 30 20
10
V-
.o
12.5
25
50
Solids concentration, percent by mass
Figure 9.14. Solids coilcentration vs. abrnsivity of 70 mesh um sand. Curve shows the abrupt change in the reiationship of solids concentration to in the below about 10-12 % solids.
9.8.9
Slurry Ccmcentration, Particle Size, and Particle Shape
The Miller number is meant to be used to compare the relative abrasivity of slurries as caused by the solids that make up those slurries. Since that is the object, it can be seen that certain standards had to be adopted so that the comparison would be realistic. For this reason, an arbitrary concentration of 50% by weight for the Miller nurnber test sample was chosen-partly because most slurries deal with concentrations of that order and partly because the higher concentration reduces the error of measurement. Early in the development of the test, the question of concentration was considered and preliminary tests were run with variations. Figure 9 .14 shows that above a certain value the concentration ofthe solids has little effect on the Miller number. This can be readily understood when it is realized that one is looking at the effect of particle size, shape, hardness, and distribution. These are factors that affect the relative abrasivity of the solids in a slu:rry, and it is generally accepted that above a certain low minimum concentration of solids, reciprocating pump parts life is related not so much to concentration as to the other physical characteristics mentioned. For instance, the sand content of drilling rnud must be reduced to less than 2 % before an appreciable savings in pump parts life can be realized. The Miller number test is inherently a ''high-abrasivity'' test as indicated Figure 9.14. Note that the relative loss of abrasivity from the standard 50% test concentration to 12 % test concentration is only about 32 %. However, the abrasivity then abruptly drops to zero at zero concentration. Therefore, it is logical to
300
SLURRY PUMPING
assume that a more realistic estimation of the erosional effects of concentrations from zero to about 12 % should be based on the relation Concentration percent (decimal)
X
Miller number
( 9. 7)
For example, a 6 % concentration of Miller number 110 material would have a relative erosional effect of 0.06
X
110 = 46
Accordingly, it is useless to ron Miller number tests with low concentrations. In the case of such slurries as mine water or mill water, it is desirable to ron a 50% concentration of the dry solids and then apply the above correction.
9.8.1 O Oil-!Vlixed Slurries

OH-mixed slurries ron on the Miller number system exhibit a lower abrasivity than the same solids in a water-mixed slurry. For example, 70 mesh sand run for l h with 25 % chrome iron wear blocks showed the following results: With watermixed slurry, 13.4 mg loss; with oil-mixed (No. 6 fuel), 0.8 mg loss. In another case, a ''spent'' industrial waste containing diatomaceous earth mixed with oil showed no wear-block loss at the end of 4 h, but the same material washed in solvent and remixed to the same concentration in water showed 4.2 mg loss. Most slurries are water-mixed, and there is no doubt that the relative abrasivity of other water-mixed slurries as determined by the Miller number system are valid. However, there is sorne question as to how oil-mixed slurries would react in actual pumping situations. Does the higher viscosity, ''lubricity,'' and corrosion protection of the oil actually contribute to a lower abrasivity with respect to pump parts and pipeline wear? Until such a relationship can be further determined, all materials should be run in water-mixed slurries.
9.8.11
Corrosion
The effects of corrosion abrasion must be considered in the selection of materials for pumps and other equipment for slurry pumping. There is no doubt that the combination of corrosion and abrasion is much more severe in terms of metal loss than either alone. The insidious cycle is that the products of corrosion, usually protective, are rapidly removed by abrasion. This presents a "clean" surface to further corrosion, thereby exaggerating the situation. The 27 % chrome iron used for the Miller test wear block is in itself somewhat corrosion-resistant, but in certain ores, particularly those containing copper, a great deal of metal loss can be attributed to pitting corrosion, no doubt due to dissolved air from agitation. However, such conditions can be expected in actual slurry pumping, for the process of slurry mixing invites the absorption of air.
9.8
301
From one standpoint, the Miller test could be run without regard for corrosion, but for practica! reasons it is thought best to try to separate the effects if possible. Accordingly, it has been found that the effects of corrosion can be greatly inhibited by a strong dose of NaOH, to a pH of about 13. If corrosion is suspected, it is best to run two different samples, one as mixed and the other as inhibited. The results will.give a clue as to the true abrasivity. For example, the Miller number for different samples of a particular ore were as follows:
Sample pH Miller Number
No. No. No. No.
1 2 3 3 NaOH inh.
6.3 1.3
5.9
13.+
92 553 117 33
It is evident that the high weight losses in the first three cases are due to the classic
combination of corrosion and abrasion.
9.8.12
Corrosive Effect of Slurrles
Because of the synergistic interactions it is almost impossible to separate the individual effects or to predict the "apparent abrasivity" of a slurry. Thus it is imperative that laboratory testing be involved in order to evaluate any slurry handling equipment or material for use in such slurry. Figure 9.3A. The predictability of the "apparent abrasivity" of a slurry is further complicated by an unexplainable phenomenon shown in Figure 10. 7 whereby the rate of metal loss during undisturbed immersion or agitated erosion is completely reversed.
l . The ''true abrasivity'' of the solid particles is a dry and purely mechanical function of the particle hardness, size shape and distribution-each' contribution to purely "abrasive" wear. 2. Corrosive effects of the mixing liquid, many times being the result of dissolved air-the usual slurry-mixing methods are notorious air mixers. 3. The effects of the product resulting from the solution of soluble elements in the solid particles reacting with the mixing liquid as a solvent to form a corrosive liquid. 4. The physical and chemical properties of the metal or material specimens, combined with the slurry properties, that determine the characteristics of the protective film of corrosion products that may form. Such film characteristics can affect the abrasive wear-rate of the metal or material. 5. Electrolytic corrosion if dissimilar metals are involved.
302
SLURRY PUMPING
9.9
THE GOLD NUMBER FOR LOW ABRASIVITY
The original Miller Number concept was conceived as a method of comparing the relative abrasivity of various pumpable slurries such as limestone, coa!, bauxite and various iron ore concentrates. The nature of minerals is such that they may contain variations of "tramp" material of greater abrasivity-like silica ash in coa!. In order to compare the relative abrasivity of such a great range of materials, it was necessary to select a "standard" metal wear-block that would exhibit reasonable rate-of-mass loss for the duration of the test. Research determined that 27% chrome iron would provide the desirable mass losses in materials of the range of about 1 or 2 on Moh's scale, with a Miller Number of 1, to 1000 for 220 mesh alundum with a Moh's scale of 9. However, in dealing with materials in the range of Moh's scale of 2, or less. (tale, for instance) the-rate-ofmass-loss of the 27% chrome iron blocks was not sufficient to give consistent and reliable results. There has always been a need to measure the relative abrasivity of less aggressive materials such as polishes, cleaners, baby powder, tooth paste, hand cleaners, etc. While the Miller Number, ASTM F75-89, has served the slurry industry very well with Numbers above about 10 (and 50 or below at which degree materials are considered "non-abrasive") for slurry pipelining, the test is not sufficiently sensitive to revea! accurate differences in materials below about Miller Number 10. Severa! years of research work in the matter of a "standard" block material that would enable one to detect differences and extend the Miller Number range into the decimal values has been somewhat frustrating. With many wear-block materials in low abrasivity slurries, the corrosive effects, even in water, can greatly overwhelm the abrasivity, giving misleading information. Passing years of experience with the Miller Number has revealed that because of so many factors affecting the Miller or SAR Number measurements (The Morrison-Miller effect*), it could not be used to determine the reaction of other metals in different slurries, or, different metals in the same slurry. After running the gamut of seores of different "soft" metals or plastics, we arrived at the conclusion that the perfect metal would be pure gold and many tests have shown it to be ideal for the purpose. See Table 9.2A for results in comparison with 27% chrome iron. Note the drastic non-relationship of 27 chrome iron to gold. Because the purity of gold affects it's specific gravity, the standard source of gold is the Swiss Credit, an oblong block of metal from which three wear-blocks can be cut. This is a .999 pure material with a specific gravity of 18.4, which is used to calculate the Gold Miller Number on a mass loss basis.
*Note; The Morrison-Miller Effect( 1): Because of synergistic effects, the Abrasion-Corrosion response of one metal in a specific slurry cannot be reliably used to predict the response of another metal in that slurry or of the same metal in a different slurry. Accordingly, a specific test must be run for the candidate metal and slurry. (1) Paper WSRC-Rl>-89-511, William S. Morrison, Richard A Corbett: Corrosion Testing Laboratories, lnc. Wilmingron, DE 19804. Charles F. Jenkind: Westinghouse Savannah River Laboratory, Aiken, SC 29802.
9.10 A METHOD FOR LOCATING A 'PLUG' IN A SLURRY PIPELINE
303
TABLE 9.2A. MILLER NUMBER I .4 !.6 2.2 4.l GOLD NUMBER

---RATIO G/M*
SO UDS
J. Tale S. Tale CaCo3 Gun Cleaner
MOHS SCALE
U QUID
water water water water oi! water condensate
19 i 14 116 394
479 751
!4
71 53
96
96
Fine coa! Fine coa! Fine coa!

Fly ash Pum ice
5 17 2.6 28 34
44
356
926 1328 2806
water water
47
83
*Note wide difference in Ratio.
9.10 A METHOD FOR lOCATING A 'PlUG' IN A SLURRY PIPELINE

It is almost inevitable that an accumulation of solids wil! sometime occur at a certain point on a long slurry pipeline, such an accumulation turning into a "plug" of such an extent as to cause permanent stoppage of ftow with further pressuring in an attempt to move the plug, resulting in an increase of the tenacity of the plug due to frther pressure "wringing-out", through the plug's inherent permeability, what little liquid was left in the plug. The following method for precicely locating such a plug is offered; Experience with operation of the pipeline will have revealed the fact that a pressure wave generated at the station by a rather sudden build-up of pressure following a sudden shut-down, will generate a pressure surge or wave that will be reflected back to the station from any change in pipeline impedence resulting from such parameters as an abrupt change in pipe diameter, open end or restriction at the end of the pipeline, sharp-bend elbows, valve c!osure or a solids plug, From observation of this recorded pressure wave on a time basis, the speed of wave travel in that particular slurry would have been established. See Section 4.13, Surge Control in Water Systems. By the use of such wave velocity study, the approximate location of the plug can be determined from the relation
L t/2a
18)
Where;
L
ft (m) time, s a - speed of pressure wave, ft/s (mis) Once the approximate location is determined, the exact location of the plug can be determined in the following manner: Select a location in the region of the
304
SLURRY PUMPING
Figure 9.15. Black Mesa pipeline pumps.
plug and, rather than making severa! time-consuming hot-taps for a pressuresensing device, simply apply a quick-cement strain gauge to the pipe or, better still, clamp a special extensiometer (a clamp-band with a strain gauge attached) and cabled up to a battery-operated bridge amplifier and strip-chart recorder. A radio message to the station operator would ask him to generate a pressure buildup by starting a pump. If the strain gauge is located beyond the plug, no pressure rise will be detected-if on the pump side, the pressure rise will naturally be detected. By repeating that procedure the exact location of the plug can be bracketed. A suit-case sized kit, containing the strain gauge equipment or extensiometer, a bridge amplifier and recorder and necessary cables can be assembled or purchased.
9.11
BLACK MESA PIPELINE
The Black Mesa pipeline (Fig. 9 .15), one of the world' s longest and largest coal pipelines, has been in operation for over 12 years. The capacity is about 4.5 million tons per year of solids. Four pump stations on the lineare used to pump the coal-water slurry through an 18-in line from a mine located at Black Mesa in northeastem Arizona for a distance of 275 mi to a power-generating station on the Colorado River west of Kingman. All main pumps are 18-in stroke, double-acting piston-type rated at 1700 BHP. A total of 13 pumps are used. The pumps are assigned to four stations, with three pumps at each of three stations and four at the other. Each pump is driven by an ac induction motor through a variable-speed fluid
9.13 SLURRY TABLES
305
Figure 9.16. Savage River Mines pipeline pumps.
drive anda reduction gear directly coupled to the pinion shaft ofthe pump. Normal operation is 65 RPM, with one pump at each station on standby. Complete automation of the line through microwave radio is used.
9.12
SAVAGE RIVER MINES
The long-distance pumping of heavier materials such as iron ore concentrates is admittedly more difficult than that of coal and similar light materials. However, a 54-mi pipeline was placed in service in Tasmania, Australia, in October 1967, pumping iron ore concentrate, and it has proveo highly successful. This line has a capacity of 2.5 million tons per year. The actual installation is a single pumping station comprising four triplex plunger pumps (Fig. 9.16), pumping iron ore sluny of 1.92 specific gravity through a 9-in pipeline 54 mi long. The sluny is 60% magnetite by weight with 85% minus 200 mesh particle size. The four pumps are electrically driven, two at 175 RPM fixed speed and two with variable-speed liquid coupling drive at 173 RPM maximum speed. All pumps have 5!-in diameter boron-alloy-coated sleeve-type plungers and are rated 560 BHP input.
9.13
SLURRY TABLES
Tables 9 .4 through 9 .12 list the important properties of solids and slurries and how to calculate the specific gravity of slurries. A set of precalculated data is also included.
TABLE 9.4. Specific Gravity and Hardness of Minerals
Spec. Gr.
Hardness
Albite Anhydrite Apatite Aragonite Asbestos Azurite Barite Bauxite Becyl Calcite Chalcopyrite Coal Corundum Cyanite Dolomite Feldspar Fluorite Galena Gamet Gypsum Hematite Ilmenite Kaolin Lignite Limes tone Limonite Magnetite Olivine Phosphate Potash Pyrite Quartz Rutile Sulfur
2.6 2.9 3.2
2.9
2.5 3.8 4.5 2.5 2.7 2.7 4.2 1.3 4.0 3.6 2.9 2.7 3.1 7.5 4.0 2.3 5.1 4.7 2.6 1.3 2.7 3.8 5.2 3.3 3.2 2.7 5.0 2.7 4.2 2.0
6-6.5 3-3.5 2-3 3.5-4 1-2.5 3.5-4 2.5-3 1-3 7.5-8 3 3.5-4 2-2.5 7-9 5-7.3 3.5-4 6-6.5 4 2.5 6.5-7.5 1.5-2 5.5-6.5 5-6 1-2.5 2-2.5 3 5-5.5 5.5-6.5 6.5-7 2-3 3.5-4 6-6.5 7 6-7 1.5-2.5
TABLE 9.5. Screen Size
U.S. No. 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 100 120 140 170 200 230 270 325 400
Mesh 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 20 24 28 32 35 42 48 60 65 80 100 115 150 170 200 250 270 325 400
Opening, in .187 .157 .132 .111 .0937 .0787 .0661 .0555 .0469 .0394 .0331 .0278 .0234 .0197 .0165 .0139 .0117 .0098 .0083 .0070 .0059 .0049 .0041 .0035 .0029 .0025 .0021 .0017 .0015
Opening, 1-tm 4760 4000 3360 2830 2380 2000 1680 1410 1190 1000 841 707 595 500 420 354 297 250 210 177 149 125 105 88 74 63 53
44
38
TABLE 9.6. Relatlve Size of Mlcronic Particles
Relative Sizes
Lower limit of visibility (naked eye) White blood cells Red blood cells Bacteria (cocci)
Linear Equivalents
40 microns 25 microns 8 microns 2 microns
1 micron = 1 micrometer (1-tm) 1 inch (in.) = 25.4 mm = 25,400 1-tm 1 millimeter (mm) = 0.0394 in = 1000 1-tm 1 micrometer (1-tm) = 1 /25,400 in = 0.001 mm 1 micrometer (1-tm) = 3.94 X 10- 5 in = 0.000039 in. 307
Rhombohedron stacking of spherical particles
Figure 9.17 Bulk properties of Mineral solids. A-Principie solid particle material. (i.e. Coal) B-Porosity, as percent of volume of particle (may be occluded air, gas or connate water). C-Voids, between particles as percent of bulk volume as function of size, shape, size distribution and stacking mode. O-Water-soluble material. E-"Tramp" material such as ash in coal and silica in limestone. BULK VOLUME-Volume of container, ft3. BULK DENSITY-Weight (mass) of Bulk Volume, lb/ft3. BULK SPECIFIC GRAVITY-Bulk Density/62.3. APPARENT SPECIFIC GRAVITY-Density of solids, including A, B, D and E, compared to Water. TRUE SPECIFIC GRAVITY-Density of Solids A compared to Water. Void percentage is independent of particle diameter. One cubic foot of baseballs or marbles has the same void percentage; 47.6% for cubic stacking and 25.9% for rhombohedrol stacking. Random particle size solids result in much lower void percentage simply because the smaller particles tend to fill the voids between larger particles.
308
TABLE 9.8. Calculation of Specif: Gravity of a Slurry of one Solid
l. Water-Mixed
ll. Other Liquids
Sm
1 - Cw(: - 1/Ss)
( 9 .S)
S = ____ S_1- - m l - Cw(l - S/Ss)
(9.11) (9.12)
C = CvSs
w
sm
( 9 .9 ) ( 9 .10)
C
"
=
C = Sm - l " SS - 1
where
Sm - S1
S,, - S1
(9.13)
Cv = volume fraction of solids Cw = weight fraction of solids sm = specific gravity of mixture (sluny) Ss = specific gravity of solids S1 = specific gravity of Hquid
TABLE 9.9. Calculaf:m of Specif: Gravity of a Slurry of a Mixture of Solids
l.
lf Given in
wt. frac. A SA
Weight Fraction
wt. frac. B SB
sm
EXAMPLE
= -----------
(9.15)
0.4 wt. frac. A 0.3 wt. frac. B 0.3 wt. frac. C
SA = 5.0 SB = 3.0
Se = 4.0 (9.16)
sm
ll.
-+-+5.0 3.0 4.0
0.4
0.3
0.3
3.92
lf Given in
X SA
Volume Fraction
Sm = vol. frac. A
EXAMPLE
+ vol. frac. B
X SB
17)
0.4 vol. frac. A 0.3 vol. frac. B 0.3 vol. frac. e
SA = 5.0
SB = 3.0
= 4.0
3.0
Sm
= 0.4
5.0
+ 0.3
+ 0.3
4.0
= 4.1
309
w .... o
TABLE 9.10. Pipeline GPM per Mllllon Short Tons per Year of Sollds
Solids Sp. Gr.
Solids Percent Concentration by Weight with Water
30 1,482 1,447 1,418 1,393 1,371 1,352 1,335 1,320 1,307 1,295 1,284 1,274 1,265 1,257 1,249 1,242 1,236 1,230 1,224 1,219 1,214 1,209 1,205 1,201 1,197
35 1,264 1,230 1,200 1,175 1,153 1,134 1, 118 1,103 1,089 1,077 1,066 1,056 1,047 1,039 1,032 1,024 1,018 1,012 1,006 1,001 996 992 987 983 979
40 1,101 1,066 1,037 1,012 990 971 954 939 926 914 903 893 884 876 868 861 855 849 843 838 833 828 824 820 816
45 974 939 910 885 863 844 827 812 799 787 776 766 757 749 741 734 728 722 716 711 706 701 697 693 689
50 872 838 809 783 762 743 726 711 698 686 675 665 656 647 640 633 626 620 615 609 604 600 595 591 588
55 789 755 725 700 679 660 643 628 614 602 592 582 573 564 557 550 543 537 531 526 521 517 512 508 504
60 720 686 656 631 609 590 573 559 545 533 522 512 503 495 487 480 474 468 462 457 452 447 443 439 435
65 662 627 598 573 551 532 515 500 487 475 464 454 445 436 429 422 415 409 404 398 393 389 385 380 377
70 611 577 547 522 501 481 465 450 436 424 413 404 395 386 379 372 365 359 353 348 343 339 334 330 326
75 568 533 504 479 457 438 421 406 393 381 370 360 351 343 335 328 322 316 310 305 300 295 291 287 283
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 507 5.8 5.9 6.0
1,193 1,190 1,187 1,184 l, 181 1,178 1,175 l,173 1,170 1,168 1,166 1,164 1,162 1,160 1,158 1,156 1,154 l, 153 1, 151 1,149 1,148 l ,147 l,145
1,144
1,143
976 972 969 966 963 960 958 955 953 950 948 946 944 942 940 938 937 935 933 932 930 929 928 926 925
812 809 806 803 800 797 794 792 789 787 785 783 781 779 777 775 773 772 770 769 767 766 764 763
762
686 682 679 676 673 670 667 665 662 660 658 656 654 652 650 648 646 645 643 642 640 639 637
636
635
584 581 577 574 571 568 566 563 561 559 556 554 552 550 548 547 545 543 542 540 539 537 536 534 533
501 497 494 491 488 485 483 480 478 475 473 471 469 467 465 464 462 460 459 457 456 454 453 451 450
432 428 425 422 419 416 413 411 409 406 404 402 400 398 396 394 393 391 389 388 386 385 383 382
381
373 370 366 363 360 358 355 352 350 348 345 343 341 339 337 336 334 332 331 329 328 326 325 324 322
323 319 316 313 310 307 305 302 300 297 295 293 291 289 287 285 284 282 280 279 277 276 275 273 272
279 276 273 270 267 264 261 259 256 254 252 250 248 246
244
242 240 239 237 235 234 233 231 230 229
For water-mixed slurries only: 457 GPM* = - - , = U .S. GPM of slun-y for each million short tons per year of solids
CwSm
... ...
w
Use pump volumetric efficiency to calculate pump size.
w ....
NI
TABLE 9.11. Fraction Volume of Solids in Slurry Mixture,
c.
50 55 0.526 0.505 0.485 0.466 0.449 0.433 0.418 0.404 0.391 0.379 0.368 0.357 0.347 0.337 0.328 0.320 0.312 0.304 0.296 0.289 0.283 0.276 0.270 60 0.577 0.556 0.536 0.517 0.500 0.484 0.469 0.455 0.441 0.429 0.411 0.405 0.395 0.385 0.375 0.366 0.357 0.349 0.341 0.333 0.326 0.319 0.313 65 0.628 0.607 0.588 0.570 0.553 0.537 0.522 0.508 0.494 0.481 0.469 0.458 0.447 0.436 0.426 0.417 0.408 0.399 0.390 0.382 0.375 0.367 0.360 70 0.680 0.660 0.642 0.625 0.609 0.593 0.579 0.565 0.55J 0.538 0.526 0.515 0.504 0.493 0.483 0.473 0.464 0.455 0.446 0.438 0.429 0.422 0.414 75 0.732 0.714 0.698 0.682 0.667 0.652 0.638 0.625 0.612 0.600 0.588 0.577 0.566 0.556 0.545 0.536 0.526 0.517 0.508 0.50 0.492 0.484 0.476
Solids Sp. Gr.
Solids Percent Concentration by Weight with Water
30 0.280 0.263 0.248 0.234 0.222 0.211 0.201 0.192 0.184 0.176 0.169 0.163 0.157 0.152 0.146 0.142 0.137 0.133 0.129 0.125 0.121 0.118 0.115
35 0.329 0.310 0.293 0.278 0.264 0.252 0.241 0.230 0.221 0.212 0.204 0.197 0.190 0.183 0.177 0.172 0.166 0.161 0.157 0.152 0.148 0.144 0.140
40 0.377 0.357 0.339 0.323 0.308 0.294 0.282 0.270 0.260 0.250 0.241 0.233 0.225 0.217 0.211 0.204 0.198 0.192 0.187 0.182 0.177 0.172 0.168
45 0.427 0.405 0.386 0.369 0.353 0.338 0.325 0.313 0.301 0.290 0.280 0.271 0.262 0.254 0.247 0.239 0.233 0.226 0.220 0.214 0.209 0.204 0.199
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3
0.476 0.455 0.435 0.417 0.400 0.385 0.370 0.357 0.345 0.333 0.323 0.313 0.303 0.294 0.286 0.278 0.270 0.263 0.256 0.250 0.244 0.238 0.233
3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0
0.112 0.109 0.106 0.104 0.101 0.099 0.097 0.095 0.093 0.091 0.089 0.087 0.085 0.084 0.082 0.080 0.079 0.078 0.076 0.075 0.074 0.072 0.071 0.070 0.069 0.068 0.067
0.137 0.133 0.130 0.127 0.124 0.121 0.119 0.116 0.114 0.111 0.109 0.107 0.105 0.103 . 0.101 0.099 0.097 0.095 0.094 0.092 0.091 0.089 0.088 0.08( 0.085 0.084 0.082
0.164 0.160 0.156 0.153 0.149 0.146 0.143 0.140 0.137 0.134 0.132 0.129 0.127 0.124 0.122 0.120 0.118 0.116 0.114 0.112 0.110 0.108 0.106 0.105 0.103 0.102 0.100
0.194 0.189 0.185 0.181 0.177 0.173 0.170 0.166 0.163 0.160 0.157 0.154 0.151 0.148 0.146 0.143 0.141 0.138 0.136 0.134 0.132 0.129 0.127 0.126 0.124 0.122 0.120
0.227 0.222 0.217 0.213 0.208 0.204 0.200 0.196 0.192 0.189 0.185 0.182 0.179 0.175 0.172 0.169 0.167 0.164 0.161 0.159 0.156 0.154 0.152 0.149 0.147 0.145 0.143
0.264 0.259 0.253 0.248 0.243 0.239 0.234 0.230 0.225 0.221 0.217 0.214 0.210 0.206 0.203 0.200 0.196 0.193 0.190 0.187 0.185 0.182 0.179 0.177 0.174 0.172 0.169
0.306 0.300 0.294 0.288 0.283 0.278 0.273 0.268 0.263 0.259 0.254 0.250 0.246 0.242 0.238 0.234 0.231 0.227 0.224 0.221 0.217 0.214 0.211 0.208 0.205 0.203 0.200
0.353 0.347 0.340 0.334 0.328 0.323 0.317 0.312 0.307 0.302 0.297 0.292 0.288 0.283 0.279 0.275 0.271 0.267 0.263 0.259 0.256 0.252 0.249 0.246 0.243 0.239 0.236
0.407 0.400 0.393 0.387 0.380 0.374 0.368 0.363 0.357 0.352 0.347 0.341 0.337 0.332 0.327 0.323 0.318 0.314 0.310 0.306 0.302 0.298 0.294 0.290 0.287 0.283 0.280
0.469 0.462 0.455 0.448 0.441 0.435 0.429 0.423 0.417 0.411 0.405 0.400 0.395 0.390 0.385 0.380 0.375 0.370 0.366 0.361 0.357 0.353 0.349 0.345 0.341 0.337 0.333
w .... w
w .... ....
TABLE 9.12. Specific Gravity of Slurry Mixture, Sm
Solids Sp. Gr.
Solids Percent Concentration by Weight with Water 30 1.028 1.053 1.074 1.094 1.111 1.127 1.141 1.154 1.166 1.176 1.186 1.196 1.204 1.212 1.220 1.226 1.233 1.239 1.245 1.250 1.255 1.260 1.264 35 1.033 1.062 1.088 1.111 1.132 1.151 1.168 1.184 1.199 1.212 1.224 1.236 1.247 1.257 1.266 1.275 1.283 1.290 1.298 1.304 1.311 1.317 1.323 40 1.038 1.071 1.102 1.129 1.154 1.176 1.197 1.216 1.234 1.250 1.265 1.279 1.292 1.304 1.316 1.327 1.337 1.346 1.355 1.364 1.372 1.379 1.387 45 1.043 1.081 1.116 1.148 1.176 1.203 1.227 1.250 1.271 1.290 1.308 1.325 1.341 1.356 1.370 1.383 1.395 1.407 1.418 1.429 1.439 1.448 1.457 50 1.048 1.091 1.130 1.167 1.200 1.231 1.259 1.286 1.310 1.333 1.355 1.375 1.394 1.412 1.429 1.444 1.459 1.474 1.487 1.500 1.512 1.524 1.535
55
60 1.058 1.111 1.161 1.207 1.250 1.290 1.328 1.364 1.397 1.429 1.458 1.486 1.513 1.538 1.563 1.585 1.607 1.628 1.648 1.667 1.685 1.702 1.719
65 1.063 1.121 1.176 1.228 1.277 1.322 1.365 1.406 1.445 1.481 1.516 1.549 1.581 1.611 1.639 1.667 1.693 1.718 1.742 1.765 1.787 1.808 1.828
70 1.068 1.132 1.193 1.250 1.304 1.356 1.405 1.452 1.496 1.538 1.579 1.618 1.655 1.690 1.724 1.757 1.788 1.818 1.847 1.875 1.902 1.928 1.953
75 1.073 1.143 1.209 1.273 1.333 1.391 1.447 1.500 1.551 1.600 1.647 1.692 1.736 1.778 1.818 1.857 1.895 1.931 1.966 2.000 2.033 2.065 2.095
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3
1.053 1.101 1.145 1.186 1.224 1.260 1.293 1.324 1.352 1.379 1.405 1.429 1.451 1.472 1.493 1.512 1.530 1.547 1.563 1.579 1.594 1.608 1.622
3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0
1.269 1.273 1.277 1.280 1.284 1.287 1.290 1.293 1.296 1.299 1.302 1.304 1.307 1.309 1.311 1.314 1.316 1.318 1.320 1.322 1.324 1.325 1.327 1.329 1.330 1.332 1.333
1.328 1.333 1.338 1.343 1.348 1.352 1.356 1.360 1.364 1.367 1.371 1.374 1.377 1.380 1.383 1.386 1.389 1.392 1.394 1.397 1.399 1.401 1.404 1.406 1.408 1.410 1.412
1.393 1.400 1.406 1.412 1.418 1.423 1.429 1.434 1.438 1.443 1.447 1.452 1.456 1.460 1.463 1.467 1.471 1.474 1.477 1.480 1.484 1.486 1.489 1.492 1.495 1.497 1.500
1.466 1.474 1.481 1.489 1.496 1.503 1.509 1.516 1.522 1.528 1.533 1.538 1.544 1.549 1.553 1.558 1.563 1.567 1.571 1.575 1.579 1.583 1.586 1.590 1.593 1.597 1.600
1.545 1.556 1.565 1.574 1.583 1.592 1.600 1.608 1.615 1.623 1.630 1.636 1.643 1.649 1.655 1.661 1.667 1.672 1.677 1.683 1.688 1.692 1.697 1.701 1.706 1.710 1.714
1.635 1.647 1.659 1.670 1.681 1.692 1.702 1.712 1.721 1.730 1.739 1.748 1.756 1.764 1.771 1.779 1.786 1.793 1.799 1.806 1.812 1.818 1.824 1.830 1.835 1.841 1.846
1.735 1.750 1.765 1.779 1.792 1.806 1.818 1.830 1.842 1.853 1.864 1.875 1.885 1.895 1.905 1.914 1.923 1.932 1.940 1.949 1.957 1.964 1.972 1.979 1.986 1.993 2.000
1.848 1.867 1.885 1.902 1.919 1.935 1.951 1.966 1.981 1.995 2.009 2.022 2.035 2.048 2.060 2.072 2.083 2.094 2.105 2.116 2.126 2.136 2.146 2.155 2.164 2.173 2.182
1.977 2.000 2.022 2.044 2.065 2.086 2.105 2.124 2.143 2.161 2.178 2.195 2.212 2.227 2.243 2.258 2.273 2.287 2.301 2.314 2.328 2.340 2.353 2.365 2.377 2.389 2.400
2.125 2.154 2.182 2.209 2.235 2.261 2.286 2.310 2.333 2.356 2.378 2.400 2.421 2.442 2.462 2.481 2.500 2.519 2.537 2.554 2.571 2.588 2.605 2.621 2.636 2.652 2.667
w ...
UI
1
PARTS WEAR ANO LIFE
10.1
THE MECHANICS OF WEAR IN PUMPS
10.1.1
lntroducUon
The word wear has many connotations, but in the pumping industry it means the gradual deterioration of any part in the system to the point of danger or uselessness. The word has no quantitative meaning, and a value must be applied before it can be included in any discussion. The obvious approach is to apply a mass loss rate. Then the related term life can be derived from the time function. There are times when the point of uselessness or failure is reached without mass loss, as in the case of fatigue failure. Nevertheless, for the work at hand, the point of uselessness, reached by whatever means, determines the life of that part.
10.1.2
Wear Modes
An extraordinary number of wear modes may be encountered in the pumping of liquids, and a list and description of them would be of great interest. Twelve of the most common are listed below and shown in Figure 10. l. Note that most of these basic modes can be classified into submodes, according to whether they are affected by the following factors: reciprocating, oscillating, circular, or continuous motion; dry, oil-wet, or water-wet; and ratio of areas of mating parts.
Mode A. Adhesiva Wear. Usually metal-to-metal rubbing in any of the stated motions and with oil lubrication. For example, plain joumal bearings, crosshead pin bushings, crosshead shoes and guides.
316
10.1
317
Al
Applied load
"""'~~~~~~LL.LL.; - - - -
Adhesive wear Wear areas equal
- ~~1-~~
Adhesive wear Wear areas unequal Material posilion elected
A2
A3
Adhesive wear Wear areas unequal Material position reversed
Abrasive wear Wear areas equal
- .J.=
Abrasive wear Wear areas unequal Material position elected
~ ~
82
83
Motion: Reciprocating -oscillating -continuous
//'.
'77TT7:'7/"' /'""/.'.'.~'' 7 7 ? 7 )
///,:;,
Abrasive wear Wear areas unequal Material position reversed
Cl
rr~~"""~-'-k'f-4~~
Polyrner
Seo u ri ng wea r
Wear areas equal
with embedded
abrasive particles
Seo u ri ng wea r Wear areas unequal

Material position elected
Scouring wear Wear areas unequal Material position reversed
Figure 10.1. Wear modes.
Mode B. Abrasiva Wear. Same as mode A except in the presence of abrasive solids or particles. Figure 10.2 shows abrasive particles of various sizes and shapes. Mode C. Scouring Wear. Elastomer-to-metal rubbing with abrasive particles embedded in the elastomer. For example, rubber pistons, packing, and valve inserts. Mode D. Abrasion-Corrosion Wear. Any metal-to-metal in the presence of water-mixed slurries. Aside from high-velocity erosion, this is the most severe and -destructive mode encountered in slurry pumping. Parts involved are metal-to-metal valves and seats (upon each closure), metal piston parts rubbing on metal liners and plungers, or pistan rods rubbing against metal stuffing box parts or trim. Wear in this mode also accelerates scouring wear. Normal flow in pipelines also causes this type of wear. Mode E. Crushing and Grindng. In abmsive metal-to-metal contact. For example, a valve repeatedly ciosing with great force against solid partides trapped between the valve and seat at closure.
318
PARTS WEAR ANO LIFE
Abrasion-corrosion
Crushing and grinding H
High-velocity eros ion
~~~~~~ Pipewall
- --. -.::;; !~~~
.. _,_ - -.. -
~~~~~ Pipewall
~
-;:::;~
;~~ Sa ltation eros ion
--
Low-velocity erosion
Corros ion
L~lor
Fatigue and corrosion fatigue
~ _. _- , ;o_ ' _
roller beari
, O _'
-
1,
Collapsing vapor bubbles
Cavitation
Fretting wear
Figure 10.1. (Continued)
Mode F. High-Velocity Erosion. Forexample, when a valve seal orpiston rubber is worn to the extent that there is a slight leak, the extremely high velocity of the leaking slurry results in catastrophic failure of both mating parts. Such a condition existing for a matter of minutes and not attended to will result in washout of the liquid end of the pump, as shown in the photographs of Figures 10.3 and 10.4. Mode G. Low-Ve/ocity Erosion. This is a slow rate of erosion that takes place in the pipeline or in any passage where near-normal velocities are maintained. Mode H. Saltation Wear. Comes about in pipelines handling unstable slurries with larger than usual particles, which tumble along the bottom of the pipe. An example is in the transportation of phosphate rock from pit to processing plant, where the pipe wears rapidly on the bottom and requires frequent tuming to distribute wear.
(a)
(b)
(e)
(d)
Figure 10.2. Abrasive particles. Note 1 mm division. (a) Bunker Hill sand, Miller number 218. (b) Saskatchewan sand, Miller number 149. (e) Los Angeles sewage, Miller number 77. (d) 50-70 "standard" test sand, Miller number 136.
F - HIGH VELOCITY EROS ION B - ABRASIVE WEAR E - CRUSHING WEAR
I - CORROSION WEAR
Figure 10.3. Typical wom and washed out sluny valve.

319
320
PARTS WEAR AND LIFE
G - HIGH VELOCITY EROS ION C - SCOURING WEAR
E - CRUSHING WEAR B - ABRASIVE WEAR
Figure 10.4. Typical wom and washed-out sluny valve seat. (*Note washed-out liquid end.)
Mode /. Corrosion.
Listed as a mode of wear since it can still contribute to metal loss in the absence of abrasive materials.
Mode J. Cavitation. Can result in damage to the metal in the liquid end or other parts of a reciprocating pump through the microscopic but intense liquid blasts against the metal near the cavitation area following the collapse of the vapor bubbles. Mode K. Fatigue.
While not a true ''wear'' mode, fatigue does result in early failure of pump parts, particularly the liquid end.
Mode L. Fretting Wear.
A minor cause of failure, particularly in roller and ball bearings and other loose-fitting parts that tend to generate a form of chafing, as between the rollers and the mating cup or cone when the bearing is loaded but not rotating.
10.1.3
Effects of Wear
Sorne of the aspects of wear of pump parts have been briefly covered. Most important, the regular replacement of these wom parts over the life of a pipeline can often amount to a much greater cost than the first cost of the pumps and becomes a significant consideration in the economics of any project. See Figure 10.5. Of the modes of wear just listed, mode D, abrasion-corrosion, is most destructive. This type of wear can be encountered with many "clean" liquids. For example, most clean and even potable waters originating from rivers, lakes, canals,
10.1
321
c::::J
Incremental power cost
~ Partscost ~ Dampener cost
P:::'''''''''::':''i':J Pump cost
2.0
1.0
4
Number of pumps per station
Figure 10.5. Number of pumps far a given station. Costs based on 20-yr life of project. (Courtesy Worthington Pump Division-Dresser Industries)
aqueducts, and wells often accumulate and carry dissolved air, airbome dust, and minute amounts of particles of sedim~nt, usually silica sand, which have a tendency to become concentrated in the close clearances of parts and in the elastomeric (rubber, leather, etc.) parts of the pump. In this respect, the effect of solids concentration on abrasivity should be recognized. Figure 10.6 shows that abrasivity increases very rapidly from zero to about 10% with an increase in the concentration of abrasive particles. It is interesting to note that in the oil-well drilling industry, drilling mud is in itself not abrasive-it actually inherits its bad abrasivity reputation from the particles picked up from the geologic formation and recirculated through the mud pump. Various "desanding" methods are employed, such as screens, cyclones, centrifuges, and settling, and it is significant that the percentage of sand must be reduced to below 2 % befare effective life-of-parts improvement can be realized. Of course, in slurry pumping it is obvious that one is dealing with the insidious contribution of high concentration and corrosion. It is evident that the combination of abrasion and corrosion results in greater destruction than the sum of the individual effects. This phenomenon is shown in Figure 10. 7 where the introduction of agitation that continually removes the protective products of corrosion results in a fantastic increase in metal loss rate and reverses the effects of pH for sorne unexplained reason.
120 110 100

-;::CI)
90
80
l./"
..Q
:::J
/
/
-----
~ ~
f ;
<
....
e:
70
60
50
I I
1
E 40 ..Q
30 20
10
12.5
25
50
Solids concentration, percent by mass
Figure 10.6. Solids concentration vs. abrasivity for 70 mesh um sand. Showing the abrupt change in the relationship of solids concentration to abrasivity in the region below about 10 to 12% solids.
400
> D.
::;
e: o ;
(.)
~
e ....
o
300
200
7 pH of distilled water
Figure 10.7. Effect of pH of distilled water on erosion-corrosion of carbon steel at SOC (velocity, 39 FPS). A, erosion-corrosion disc. B, specimens immersed in tank, (From M. G. Fontana and N. D. Greene, "Corrosion Engineering," McGraw-Hill, New York 1967. Copyright 1967 McGraw-Hill.)
322
10. 1 THE MECHANICS OF WEAR IN PUMPS
323
\
Piston
. Sr1aded area-Liner wear _)Metal (piston body)
~-
! Piston
rod
6"
Figure 10.8. Wom liner profile (opposite sides) showing "end-of-stroke scmbbing wear." This typical liner wear pattern in a single-acting pump is explained: The stored energy of high-pressure compression of the elastomer parts of the piston rubber is suddenly reduced to near-zero pressure at the end of the pressure stroke. With abrasive material trnpped between the rubber and the liner wall, this sudden (explosive) change of shape of the to its natural shape generates a greater rate of wear for that instant than at any other position of the piston in the liner. Note that even at the midstroke of the piston, where maximum velocity is seen, there is no tendency for greater wear as one would expect. This bears out the contention that number of reversals is the greatest cause of wear.
10.1.4
EFFECT OF PUMP STROKE REVERSAl RATE
A reciprocating pump and piston rod follows a more or less distorted sine wave shape of instantaneous velocity by the crank mechanism, the maximum velocity occurring about mid-stroke but with zero velocity at each end-of-stroke. One would expect maximum liner and rod wear to take place at such mid-stroke. However, many years of observation shows that maximum wear takes place at each end of a pressure stroke. This can be explained from an analysis of the action of any sealing element, such as resilient pistons and rod packing or even metallic ring-type sea.Is. Sealing must rely on a pressure-generated distortion of the sealing elements in order to seal the gap between the moving parts and this distortion occurs in a rather short period of time (high energy) at each end of the stroke, with the sudden application of discharge pressure. The violent generation of such distortion at one end-of-stroke and return from such distortion at the other end-of-stroke, results in a concentrated wearing condition between the mating parts, being exacerbated the presence of abrasive material as in the case of drilling-mud and slurries. In an interna! combustion engine the effects are also shown in the "shoulder" on the cylinder wall of a worn engine at the top of the piston stroke where there is zero piston velocity but with explosive forces acting on the rings in an extremely short instant. See Figure 10.8 for a typical mud-pump liner wear profile.
324
PARTS WEAR AND LIFE
Figure 10.9. Wom slurry pistori.
at
"Relaxed" piston installation Piston motion _ .
High
pressure
Zero
pressure -+-- Piston

motion Liner
t::::=::===========~::::::::~::j wear
Figure 10.10. Liner wear at reversa!. (a) Liner. (b) Deformed piston, caused by pressure and friction. (e) Scouring of liner by violent retum to natural shape of piston.
Also a critical examination of the pump sequence of operation will revea! that the worst moment in the life of a valve in a pump cycle is that instant when the valve doses, again at the end-of-stroke of the piston or at the moment of reversa!. The valve at these moments is subject to every wear mode known: Abrasion, Crushing, Veiocity erosion, Scouring, etc. Once the valve is closed and sealed there is no effective wear for the entire remaining time of a stroke when the valve opens at end-of-stroke. An exception is the case of a rapid (a matter of
10,1
325
High pressure
,l.
c. ol
Zero pressure
Jlilll
11------'j
Rod wear
Jlllll
(b)
(a)
Figure 10.11. Piston rod wear at reversal. (a) Sealing ring deformed by pressure and friction. (b) The sudden retum to original shape tends to scour the metal rod.
minutes) complete deterioration of a valve and seat with the high velocity of a smaH leak rapidly cutting away nearby metal. Valve guiding requires considerable clearance for proper action and such clearance allows a valve to seat in a slightly 'cocked' or canted position in its seat. Then when the high discharge pressure applies a high load to the top of a beveled valve, it forces the closed valve to slide a short distance as it seeks its natural mating position with its seat-all a severe wearing mechanism at each closure and ali at the end-of-stroke instant. So again, valve wear occurs at the end-of-stroke, or at reversa!, exacerbated by the presence of abrasive materiel such as drilling mud and slurry. In view of these facts it is obvious that most rapid wear of expendable parts occurs at each end of the stroke, or at each stroke reversa!. Then the life of parts becomes a function not of speed, per se, but of the reversa[ rate, again a matter of stroke-length and RPM.
10.1.4.1 PUMP SPEED REPORTING
Because pump RPM is design-related to pump stroke length, the term Feet Per Minute (FPM) becomes a factor that includes stroke-length and speed, the use of FPM must be involved in the relation to pump reversal-rate and parts life:
FPM RPM R'PM
s x RPM/6 6 X FPM/s 2 X RPM
(lO.I)
(10.2) (10.3)
Where s
pump stroke, inches
R'PM
Reversals per minute
Now ali punips can be limited to a constant maximum speed by the term FPM. For example, Table lO. l will show;
326
PARTS WEAR ANO LIFE
TABLE 10.1
(R'PM)
Relaf:m of RPM, FPM and Reversa! Rate
Stroke
100 FPM R'PM RPM 100 75

60
59
200 FPM 300 FPM RPM R'PM RPM R'PM 200 150 120
100
6"
8" 10" 1211
14 16
11 11
IO"
20 22" 24
11
11
43 38 33 30 27 25
200 150 120 IOO 86 76 66

60
54
400 300 240 200

172
300
225 180 150 129
86 76 66 60
54
152 132
120
113 99
90
600 450 360 300 258 226

190 180 164
50
50
108 100
82 75
150
Thus it can be seen that the Rate of Reversa! is a function of both RPM and stroke length. Experience has shown that piston speeds below 200 FPM should provide trouble-free hydraulic performance. See Chapter 3. Apparently many drilling mud pump manufacturers failed to recognize this 'reversa!' mode of wear because recently introduced Triplex SA mud pumps appeared with short stroke (sorne 1700 BHP pumps with a 12 inch stroke compared to the 18 inch stroke in a Duplex DA pump of the same power). Note that 1211 falls in the worst part of the scheme in Figure 10.4A. Also over the years, smaller pumps saw an arbitrary increase in speed rating, resulting in increased power per pound and power per dollar. There are appropriate needs for such design where portability or space is at a premium, but for the greater number of stationary installations, long stroke and low speed should be the requisite. The argument that 'long stroke pumps cost money' is not conclusive as shown in Figure 10. lA where even a double capital cost would still remain well below the long-term expendable parts cost. Accordingly, the wearing process on pump 'expendabie parts' is responsive mainly to the 'reversal rate'. Simply stated, the following Cases will result in exponentially extended expendable parts life by putting these facts to work. CASE 1, Figure l0.2A. By slowing the main pump(s) down below rated speed and complimenting with the other or 'standby' pump(s) at the required reduced speed. Multiple pumps in such applications as pipelines, particularly abrasive slurry pipelines, tend to garner the most from the 'ali pumps rmming' application. Table 2 compares such multiple pump usage. This scheme should perform well on oil well drilling rigs that invariably make use of two pumps, one main pump and one stand-by, alternating the position to distribute the wear between both pumps over the long time period.
PARTS LIFE VS PISTON SPEED

AS FUNCTION OF STROKE LENOTH
40000
,..t:.
'
30000 -
....... ....... ....... ;-;"'
:::;:: .~:::::........
1 , 10000000 !0000000
1
~
20000
......... ........... / --:::.:::::: .......................................... 10000 --/- - ::: ,.,,..:. ::::::: ::::::: ,.,. ...! .:::::: ::::::: :;:::::
111 ....... ........

,,..11'"
~;.,
,,,,,,
,,
A~(J
,,,,~'
....
J ...
14
J. 1 (": 1 ' 1 1 ,...::. ~~--- '1 l:;:;:::.' :::.'

!,....
1
..........
... .. .. ::::: :::: - - ....... ;;; :::::: :::::.,

8 10
................ ..
o'P"-~+---t,.....-+~-+~-+~-+-~+-~-t-~t---t,.....-+~-t-~-+~-+-~+-~-t-~t---t~-t~-t-~-t
11
12
13
16
18
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
STROKE LENGTH - INCHES . . 100 fpm 200 fpm 300 fpn ... 400 lpm
Figure 10.lA
PUMP SPEED VS PARTS LIFE:: INCREASE
6.00
rrTr ........... r ........... ..........

1
5.00
l-rl1
.......... ........................................ 1 1 i
4.00
1 1 1 ......... 1........... 11 ; 1......1 ............................. .

!
i
~
w .,
:;\
IC
3.00
<;
-l 1l-1-l--l--1---1-i _J__
i 1 1 .....................1 ....................
~ :::;
2.00
J. . . . . l........... ..........
l
1
~~:::
,,.--: : : :
1.00
0.00-1-~--t~~-1-~~1--~-+~~-t-~--t~~-1-~~1--~-+~~-t-~--t
150
145
140
135
130
125
120 115 110 PUMP SPEEO - OECftEASE

ONE PUMP 2 PUMPS
105
100
......~-1-~~-1-~-+~~~
90
95
eo
76
Figure 10.2A
327
328
PARTS WEAR ANO LIFE
CASE 2, Figure lO. lA. By selecting a pump(s) with long stroke-length, resulting in a lower RPM and R'PM for the same delivery. Note that in either Case the stroke-reversal rate has been reduced. CASE 3, If there is an unusual application where both Case l and Case 2 can be applied, double extended life can be expected.
10.1.4.2 CALCULATIONS FOR PARTS LIFE EXTENSION
For individual pumps involved in the above Cases, note that with pump slowdown, another factor affecting wear comes into play, namely, pump power is reduced, also contributing to increased parts life. However, when another pump in the system is placed in service to compensate for the loss, substantial benefits are still to be gained in spite of a greater number of pumps operating. (The advantages become less as the number of pumps in a system extend beyond three or four). Case 2 can only be obtained by the original selection of (or replacement by) pumps with a longer stroke and equal power. The relation of parts wear to pump speed and reversal-rate, confining the effects to one pump, is given in the Equation: (l0.4)(1) For the Case l, where an additional pump is required to maintain a certain through-put, the Equation becomes;
(10.5)
Where Life l, Present, hrs L 2 = Life 2, Expected, hrs N 1 = RPM l, Piston speed, Present N 2 = RPM 2, Proposed L1
10.1.4.3 EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON WEAR
Although the effects of discharge pressure on the life of parts has nothing to do with this discussion, any discharge pressure affects a decrease in life according to the Equation. See Figure l0.3A.
(l0.6)m
Where P1
P2
Pressure, present, PSI
= Pressure, expected, PSI
"'Reference, The Economics of Positive Displacement Slurry Pumps. Holthuis and Simon. Holthuis, B. V. The Netherlands. Slurry Transport Assoc. 19_ _ , ' 21Reference. Pumps and Prime Movers. Huthnance. World Ol. April 1964.
10.1
329
.................................. ,.................................. ,......................................, ................................... ., ............... ---
_///
//
--;--+-~--~/'fi---~
_/V
t--:!;>111"'--tI-
~I
f'AESSURE, 1000 PSI
Figure 10.3A Mud pump pressure vs. parts cost
10.1.4.4 INCREASING PUMP HORSEPOWER AVAILABLE
On applications where multiple pumps are used, the demand for extra power allows one to run both pumps for a demand for more power than allowed with one pump. Even if this is carried to the extreme of using the ful! power of both pumps, the improved parts life would still be had over single pump of the required BHP. but when maintenance of one pump is required the "standby" is nil and the system would have to operate at half through-put, if permissible. For normal two-pump operation in a drilling rig see the following Section.
10.1.4.5 STANDBY PUMPS
The following discussion should dispel any idea that one is trying to operate without a standby pump and the idea is not as careless as it may seem. With two pumps (one running and one standby) the standby capital cost is two times that for a single pump to perform a certain function but with two pumps running, as described in CASE l, the capital investment pays a greater dividend in the form of greater parts life. With two pumps running, the need for standby is greatly reduced because of the ability to extend the operating life of both pumps. But there may be understandable objection to the apparent loss of 'standby'. However, it is not a complete loss for one of the two pumps can be speeded up to the rated RPM while the second one is being maintained. If the described method of obtaining more total power by combining two pumps, and
(,) Q
c.!
TABLE 10.2 Operating Data
COMB
TYPE PUMP DUPDA DUPDA TRIPSA TRIPSA DUPDA TRIPSA TRIPSA DUPDA DUPDA
NUMBER PUMPS
STROKE INCHES
18 18 12 12 18 12 18 18 18
SPEED FPM RPM 195 98 240 120 144 176 65 33 120 60 48 88 33 65 49
BHP PUMP 1706 855 1612 806 1009 1009 806 1706 1280
GPM PUMP 682 342 682 341 403 428 342 682 512
TOT BHP 1706 1706 1612 1612 20!9 2018 1706 5118 5118
PARTS COST COST POWER $2020 1129 1692 1065 2034 1819 499 23924 18371 $4743 4743 4480 4480 5611 5273 4480 14209 14209 %
COST TOT $6529 5872 6172 5545 7645 7092 4979 38133 32580
l 2 3
4
5 6 7 8 9
l 2 l 2 2 2 2 4 4
98
195 98
COMBINATIONS OF ABOYE DATA A One DUPDA full speed vs two DUPDA at half Speed; l 1700 BHP DUPDA, One, ful! speed 2 1700 BHP DUPDA, Two, half speed B One TRIPSA full speed vs two TRIPSA at half speed; 3 1700 BHP TRIPSA, One, full speed 4 1700 NHP TRIPSA, Two, half speed C One DUPDA ful! speed vs one TRIPSA at ful! speed; l 1700 BHP DUPDA, one at ful! speed 3 1700 BHP TRIPSA, one at full speed
PARTS COST
> REDUCTION
2020 1129 1692 !065 2020 1692
44%
37%
16%
D Greater than normal one-pump power output 5 1700 BHP DUPDA, (two) running above half speed 6 1700 BHP TRIPSA, (two) running, above half speedE 12" TRIPSA (NORMAL) vs 18" Theoretical long-stroke TRIPSA 3 1700 BHP TRIPSA, 12" stroke, two running 7 1700 BHP TRIPSa, 18" stroke, two mnning F Four-pump slurry station, slurry abrasivity Miller Number 80. 8 l 700 BHP DUPDA, Three running full speed 9 1700 BHP DUPDA, Four running, reduced speed
2034 1819
1692 499
11%
71%
23924 18371
23%
Ali COSTS are in $1000 for 20 years pump life. PUMP PARAMETERS EXCEPTAS NOTED; DUPDA-1700 BHP Duplex Doubie Actng Pump-18 inch Stroke. TRIPSA-1700 BHP Triplex Single Acting Pump-12 inch Stroke. Normal System Through-put-683 GPM, 3640 PSI, 1450 HHP. 2049 GPM for Slurry Station.
~~~~--~~~.~~~~~~~~
TABLE 2 reveals that; 1-Running both pumps 011 a drilling rigor al! pumps in a pipeline station, at reduced in a great saving in pump expendable parts. 2-A long-stroke pump offers superior parts saving over a short-slroke pump. 3-A TRIPSA pump is more Mechanically Efficient than a DUPDA purnp. for equal throughput, results
w ....
c.>
332
PARTS WEAR ANO LIFE
98 - ......
.........
t ...........................
1 1
97 -
f .......
98 - .....
96 - .
94.l..-~~~-l-~~~~+-~~~-+~~~~-+-~~~-+-+~~~ 200 260 300 160 100 400 PISTON SPEEO FEET PEA MINUTE
Figure 10.4A Pump speed (test data) vs. volumetric efficiency
if the power difference is great (up to the full power of both pumps) then one would have to consider a period of time of half power if the system would allow it. For example, with two 1700 BHP 120 RPM rated TRIPSA pumps running at 75 RPM each, the total BHP would be 1700. With both pumps running at, say, 90 RPM the output would then be 2040 BHP at which the system could probably be operated for a short period of time at 1700 BHP. This Standby reasoning discussion also applies to multi-pump systems such as long slurry pipelines where as many as seven or more large pumps are used, but with less advantage in parts life extension. However, if the slurry in question is highly abrasive, such as sorne iron ores, the extension of parts life takes on more importance. Table 2 shows such reasoning on a slurry application, for example, pumping 80 Miller Number phosphate slurry.
10.1.4.6 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
Any speed reduction below the pump's rated speed will usually result in improved Volumetric Efficiency as a result of improved hydraulic performance. See Figure l0.4A that shows actual test data for a Triplex Single Acting pump, typical of all pumps. With such manipulation of speed as above, piston diameter need not be considered.
10.2 PLUNGERS
333
1003 903 :!:: 803 .~ 703

Q)
--~ ~ :::..:~'~~
'''"""'""' ' ~
~ .,..
a> "'603
........ ,,,,~ ..... ~~~

'
'(A
,.
'
"'
"'i;':~
"'~:;!!!I .~.....
1500 PSI
1
.tl
~:~=~-t---+----t~+--t--+~+--t---+----t~+--+---+-~--1
203~-t---+----t~+--t--+~+--t---+----t~+--+---+-~--I
103~-t---+----t~+--t--+~+--t---+----t~+--+---+-~--I
503
3000 Ps1'X} ~
\.\. ' 2000 PSI
'U\ ':'
.010
.020
.030 .040 .050 .060 .070 Piston-liner diametrical clearance - inches
.080
Figure 10.12. Importance of piston-liner clearance. ( TRW Inc. 1957. Reprinted by permission of TRW Inc.)
10.1.5
PISTON-LINER CLEARANCE
Figure 10.12 shows the effect of piston-liner diametrical clearance, as the result of wear of the liner and piston body, on the life of piston rubbers. For example, if the service life of a piston operating at 2000 PSI is 300 hours when the initial clearance is 0.01 in, then the expected service life of the next rubber, when the clearance is 0.04 in, would be 80% r 240 hours.
10.2
PLUNGERS
Liner and piston rod wear modes and the fact that they wear more rapidly at the end of each pressure or delivery stroke have been discussed. However, because of the distinct difference in the mechanics of packing in a single-acting pump, at reversal ofthe pressure stroke the packing has already been ''dragged'' by friction forces away from the severe extrusiOn-gap seal to its "relaxed" condition, thereby minimizing the scrubbing wear at that point. Plungers invariably contradict the end-of-stroke type of wear and exhibit a typical ''hourglass'' or necking-down at midstroke where the velocity is greatest. As to the fear of greater wear on the plunger bottom due to its own weight in horizontal pumps, that fear can be dispelled, as no wom plunger has ever been observed without more or less uniform wear around its circumference. This can
334
PARTS WEAR AND LIFE
be explained by the fact that the forces of pressure on the packing circumference tend to force the plunger toward the center of the stuffing box and generate unifonn wear. A phenomenon exhibited by solid ceramic plungers is that under the ideal conditions of almost surgically clean liquids, with no abrasive materials or particles, they exhibit no reduction in diameter from wear as such. They take on a discolored, polished appearance and would probably run ''forever'' but for other factors. These factors are: (1) Abrasive material in the liquid, (2) drastic temperature changes that produce thermal shock and fracture (a typical case is where a pump runs without prime for sorne time and is suddenly subjected to a dose of cold water), (3) misalignment in the pump causing breakage of the rather fragile ceramic, pitting due to cavitation as described earlier, and (5) rough handling and striking with tools. Certain sprayweld coatings that consist of a rather soft matrix with the addition of extremely hard particles, such as tungsten carbide, should be avoided for plunger service. Scrubbing wear or selective chemical attack will remove sorne of the soft matrix, leaving a sandpaper surface that is extremely damaging to packing. This process is almost microscopic, and a used plunger may appear to be in excellent condition but a magnification will show the effect described. A simple test to determine if such a condition exists is to rub a copper coin (penny) along the plunger surface. A bright copper-colored streak will indicate a damaged surface. Sprayed ceramic coatings for plungers have performed satisfactorily in many applications, but certain corrosive liquids may tend to penetrate the porous coating and attack the base metal, resulting in spalling of the coating. It is reported that such plungers have been improved by the application of pressure-applied sealant. Because the bond between the ceramic particles and the sealant may be doubtful, the repeated application of high to low pressure (discharge to suction) could have a detrimental e:ffect by early fatigue of the bond with subsequent loss of seal.
10.3 CERAMIC PLUNGER PITTING

Ceramic (alumina) plungers have a propensity to pit and there are three distinct types of pitting: ring, local, and end. Type I or ring-type pitting occurs in a circumferential pattem usually completely around the plunger diameter in a single row of pits at a uniform distance back from the end of the plunger. Measurements show that this type of pitting usually occurs at the last ring of lip-type packing at the end of the forward or pressure stroke as shown in Figure 10 .13. Type II or local pitting occurs in a single patch or area from ~ in to as large as 1 in in diameter, always on top ofthe plunger and always in the regionjust forward of the stuffing box throat bushing on the end of the forward or pressure stroke. Type m or end-type pitting occurs on the very end of the plunger, usually at th.e top, and is an "eating out" of a large portion of the plunger, resulting in holes as Iarge as a walnut.
10.3
CERAMIC PLUNGER PITT!NG
335
Type 1 - Ring Pitting
Type 11 Local Pitting
Type 11! End Pitting
Area of Local Pitting

Longer throat bushing. moved to non-contributing location by use o! longer throat busr1ing.
Plunger at end o pressure stroke.
Figure 10.13. Ceramic plunger pitting.
Types I and II, ring and local pitting, <;ire extremely hard on packing, since the rough surfaces run through the packing on each stroke. End pitting does not affect packing as the pit does not enter the packing.
10.3.1
Causes
Ring pitting always occurs at the very tip of a 45 sealing lip on pressure-seal packing, ahead of which is an annular void created by the large inside diameter of a phenolic bottom adapter. It is possible that water (and no doubt mixed air) under pressure is suddenly released at the end of the stroke, creating extreme turbulence that mechanically works on the ceramic. Ring pitting has been cured by the use of a close aapter, removing cavities where liquid could accumulate. Local pitting was first reported when an operator told that he was able to move this type of rather rare pitting toward the fluid end of the plunger by the use of a longer throat bushing. The pitted area then would be in such a position that it would never enter the packing and would do no harm. This has been proved to be a facL Local pitting is associated with the increased operating speed of pumps as practiced in recent years. This has led to speculation that suction problems introduced by high-speed operation was responsible. There is evidence that heavy valve springs (required for high-speed operation), among other conditions, may cause an excessive pressure drop in the cylinder. Recent tests show that the valve springs of even medium load will result in an instantaneous pressure drop through the valve greater than the suction pressure without any measurable effect on the volumetric efficiency of the pump. Perhaps at the instant of low pressure in the cylinder, air or gas will break out, and since gases tend to break out of a fluid with rnuch more ease than they go back into
336
PARTS WEAR ANO LIFE
solution, their presence provides the pocket of air to ''explode'' on the end of the pressure stroke, giving the extreme turbulence and cavitation necessary to act on the plunger. "Soft" spots in the ceramic were at one time held responsible for local ptting but are now ruled out. This did lead to the idea that perhaps a denser aluminum oxide material would not pit, but tests have since shown that even 99 % aluminum oxide plungers pit. End pitting is probably caused by turbulence of the fluid either at the end of the pressure stroke or at the end of the suction stroke. Little concem has been given to this type of pitting since it usually causes no trouble. However, it should be warning that suction conditions may be inadequate and could result in reduced packing, plunger, and valve life. These pitting problems occur on both solid and sprayed ceramic plungers. They do not occur as such on metal plungers. Sometimes a pit does show up in the same location as ring or local pitting, but this is either typical random pitting or the coincidence of a defective spot susceptible to pitting occurring in the region of high turbulence. The extreme brittleness and the nature of the ceramic material can account for the fact that only ceramic plungers are subject to pitting.
10.3.2
Cures
It presently appears that nothing can be done to the ceramic plungers themselves
to prevent pitting. Since the occurrence of pitting is infrequent (considering the large number of ceramic plungers in service), local handling of the problem on an individual basis would be the best approach to the problem. Ring pitting may be eliminated by the use of one clase-fitting bottom adapter (the first adapter in the bottom of the stuffing box). This could be made of bronze and should have an inner diameter about 0.010-0.020 in larger than the nominal plunger diameter. Dimensions could be taken from the present phenolic bottom adapter, or the information could be obtained from the manufacturer. In the case of local pitting, the practice of installing a long throat bushing could be employed. Here again use could be made of bronze, using the old bushing for dimensional data. Before attempting to use a longer bushing, it would have to be determined if the pump in question will accept one. In sorne pumps the bore beyond the present bushing space is smaller than the stuffing box bore, which precludes the use of a long bushing. Then if pitting remains a serious problem, an altemative step would be to use a metal plunger.
10.4
THEORY OF CERAMIC PLUNGER FAILURE MODE
Solid ceramic (sintered alumina) plungers are paradoxaly useless in liquids containing abrasive solids, probably for the following reason; these plungers are extremely hard and brittle and are usually polished with diamond dust to an apparently smooth finish. However, such ceramic has a microscopic porosity which, when the plunger is polished, leave minute weak-walled cavities as shown exaggerated in Figure 10.14(a). If a grain of sand, for instance, is trapped under one
10.5 OTHER MEANS OF REDUCING WEAR RATE
337
Elastomeric packing ring

I
(a)
"Weak" shel
Trapped sand particle
(b)
Cavities
\ Progressive ailure of shelf
(e)
(d)
Figure 10.14. (a) Ceramic plunger failure mode. (b) Progressive recession of Niagara Falls.
of the elastomeric pressure rings, as shown in Fig. 10.14(a), and if high hydraulic pump pressure is applied to the ring at the instant when the grain of sand is located at the precarious edge of the cavity as shown in (a), failure dueto high force will fracture that minute shelf of ceramic. With millions of repeated strokes, the remaining edge of the lengthening cavity is continually being fractured as shown in Figure 10.14(b) and develops into a groove equal to the length of the stroke, thereby appearing as a score. The effect is much like the receding of Niagara Falls, where the hard (brittle) top layer of limestone loses its support of softer underlying shale in a progressive manner, thereby gradually moving the falls upstream [see 10.14(c) and (d)]. The hardness of alurninum oxide would certainly not allow a direct scoring of the material by a foreign particle or particles of normally encountered materials.
10.5
OTHER MEANS Of REDUCING WEAR RATE
Sorne means of reducing the abrasive-corrosive wear losses in a slurry system can be considered. AH of the following recommendations must be balanced by the savings of rate-of-wear improvement relative to the cost of the effort: 1. Decrease the corrosivity of the slurry by increasing the pH, or inhibit it by use of appropriate chemicals. 2. Decrease the maximum particle size of the solids. 3. Use a "ftushed stuffing box" plunger pump. (Such flushing can extend the life of plungers dramatically if the 3 % or so dilution with clean liquid can be tolerated.)
338
PARTS WEAR ANO LIFE
4. Reduce concentration of solids to gain sorne reduction. (Slight reduction in concentration is not too effective.) See Figure 10.3. The remaining items apply to any pumping system and should become mandatory rules. 5. Reduce the speed of pumps by using maximum piston-plunger diameter commensurate with the pump rating. 6. Replace parts as they wear. 7. Provide a "good" suction system with at least 50 PSI suction pressure. 8. Provide effective suction and discharge pulsation control on reciprocating pumps to reduce wear-generating high-pressure peaks.
10.6
SLURRY ABRASIVITY
Slurry abrasivity is covered in depth in Chapter 9. Accordingly, the reader is directed to Table 9.3 for typical Miller numbers for slurries.
10.7
EXAMPLES OF PARTS UFE IN HOURS
Table 10.1 is included to show the comparison of the approximate typical lives in hours of pump parts in various services.
10.8
REDUCING DRILLING PUMP PARTS COST
Because of the phenomena of Pump Stroke Reversa! Rate on the life of pump expendable parts (See Section 10. l .4) significant saving in parts cost can be had by:
l. Running both pumps on a drilling rig (or any multiple pump application
where non-operating standby pump(s) are used, by running both pumps (usually of the same size and type) at half speed. In this case the "standby" feature is still had by the simple expedient of running one pump at fuB speed while the other is being maintained for a relatively short period of time. 2. Use of pumps designed with maximum stroke (and with usually slower speed) offer the same saving in parts cost because of the lower reversa! rate. 3. A Triplex Single Acting pump of the same stroke length and equivalent displacement as a Duplex Double Acting pump will contribute to a lower parts cost and to better mechanical efficiency because of the non-wearing piston rod and its absence of friction. See Table 10.4.
______._.__._..............
--~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~
TABLE 10.3
Examples of Parts Life in Approximate Hours
Service Drilling Triplex mud pump Duplex mud pump
PSI 2000 2500 2000 3000 2000 2000 800 1000 1000
RPM 80 100 65 65
-
Valve 394 974 71 1202 1200 1000 2000 2000 4800
Seat 555 974 1072 1363 1200 1000 2000 2000 4800
Liner 48 1415 886 1109 400 500 4000 3600 8000
Rubber 14 523 303 889 300 300 600 600 1200
Rod
Packing
Plunger
Packing
Miller Number
1109 700 1300 1400 1200 400 1500 700 324
Duplex test mud pump Ohio coal duplex Black Mesa duplex Estimated Actual Savage River magnetite 560-hp plunger Cerro Paseo tailings Duplex Plunger pump Water ftood Plunger x Phosphate Tripsa y Ironore Failings (copper)
65 65 65 65
37 27 27
1500 970 970 3000 1400 1300 -
75 60 100 120
700 250 218 8000 1200 400 300
780 250 278 8000 420 400 300
1323 800
590 523
720
425
64
400
2900 8000 2000
448 448 4000 2000
o
80 160 400
See J. G. Montfort, "Operating Experience of the Black Mesa Pipeline," Proceedings of the Seventh Jnternational Technical Conference, Lake Tahoe, NV, 1982.
co
w w
340
PARTS WEAR ANO LIFE
TABLE 10.4.
Drilling Rig Mud Pump Combinations
Comb
Pump Make
Type
BHP RUN
PSI
RPM GPM
BHP Act.
Parts Power Cost Cost Cost Total
One 1700 BHP Duplex Double-Acting Pump Vs Two Running At Half Speed; A A DUPDA 1700 1 3640 65 683 1706 1877 4773 DITTO 2 3640 32 341 853 929 4773
6650 5702
Obtaining More Total BHP By Running Two Duplex Double-Acting Pumps At Greater Than Half Speed For Each B A DUPDA 1700 1 3640 65 683 1706 1877 4773 6650 DITTO 2 4000 38 400 1000 1460 6!05 7565 One 1700 BHP Triplex Single-Acting Pump Vs Two Running At Haif Speed; C OWS DUPDA 1700 1 3640 65 683 1706 1877 4773 DITTO 2 3640 60 342 806 1049 4480 Obtaining Greater Power From Two Low-Power Pumps D A TRIPSA 1700 1 3640 120 683 DITTO 2 4000 106 400
6650 5229 6092 8445 8076 7075 6650

6398
1612 1037
19!0 4480 2690 5766 2321 1309 5755 5755
One Pump Running Vs Two Running At Half Speed-Other Sizes E B TRIPSA 2000 1 4000 100 400 2000 DITTO 2 4000 50 200 1000
18" Stroke Duplex Double-Acting Vs 12" Stroke Tripiex Single-Acting Pump; F A DUPDA 1700 1 3640 65 683 1706 1877 4773 A TRIPSA 1700 3640 120 683 1612 1910 4480
18 11 Stroke Duplex Double-Acting Vs 18" Stroke Triplex Single-Acting Pump
A A
DUPDA TRIPSA
1700 1700
3648 3640
65 65
683 683
1706 1459
1877 1612
4773 743
6650 2355
10.9 DANGER OF "STRAINERS" OR "FllTERS" IN THE SUCTION LINE

The use of strainers or filters in the suction line of a reciprocating pump should be viewed with apprehension. If there is an excess of particulate matter of relatively large size in the supply liquid there could be danger of complete plugging or "strangulation" of the pump with complete loss of delivery with little or no chance of recovery.
10.1 O SlURRY PARTICLE SIZE

Single-stage centrifuga! purnps can handle a larger percentage of particles of large size but reciprocating pumps are limited by their inability to effectively seal over large particles as they pass through the valves, the size being closely related
10.10 SLURRY PARTICLE SIZE
341
to the pump and valve size-the larger the valve the larger the particles it can handle. A very general equation for particle size limitation is: Maximum Particle Dimension
Approximate Valve Through-area/80.
lt has been proposed that power-operated valves be used to handle large coal particles, the power-operated valves being forced to closure by crushing any large particles caught under the valve but this idea has not been given much chance of satisfactory performance. However, power-operated valves are common on most slow-speed direct-acting cement-aggregate slurry pumps. High valve spring POSIVA tends to allow a "straining" effect on the larger particles during the last moment before complete closure when the clearance between the valve and seat becomes less than the particle dimensions. At low pump speeds this may lead to complete clogging of the pump chamber accompanied with total failure of delivery. With pumps used in hydraulic high-pressure press operation in steel milis, very few pump problems of the sort described, from the return water containing the usual contamination of mili scale, dust, etc. are experienced. Reduced valve life is the usual result.
11
APPLICATI NS
11.1 EFFECT Of LIQUID COMPRESSIBILITY AND CLEARANCE VOlUME ON THE VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS
There are three main reasons why a pump falls short of delivering a volume of liquid equal to the displacement of the piston or plunger.
1. All liquids are more or less compressible in direct proportion to the pressure. 2. A reciprocating pump, because of practica! limitations, has a certain volume of liquid remaining in the cylinder between the suction and discharge valves, even when the piston or plunger has completed its delivery stroke. 3. Pump valves experience a small amount ofleakage (slip), particularly at the moment of closure. Since this is a function of valve condition, it is difficult to predict, and it is the usual practice to select an arbitrary decimal value of 0.02.
On each stroke the cylinder fills (almost) with liquid under suction pressure (1). On the delivery stroke the liquid is compressed to the discharge pressure, and then delivery is made through the discharge valve (2). The remaining liquid in the cylinder must reexpand to suction pressure and accept a small volume of slip liquid through the discharge valve before the suction valve can open (3). Therefore, sorne effective piston or plunger travel is "lost" on the suction stroke, resulting in a reduction in the amount ofliquid being taken into the cylinder.
342
11.1
EFFECT OF LIQUID COMPRESSIBILITY
343
Method of Measuring C/earance Volume V

D
= =
e=
volume of cylinder between the suction and discharge valves with the piston or plunger at the end of its suction stroke to right, in 3 displacement of piston or plunger, to left, in3 clearance volume, that liquid volume remaining in the cylinder between the suction and discharge valves with the piston or plunger at the end of its discharge stroke, in3
C=V-D
C(percent)
= DX
100
C (percent) is clyarance volume as percent of displacement. V, the volume of the cylinder, can be measured by first removing the valve cover; rotate the pump so that the piston or plunger is at the end of its suction stroke. Grease suction valve (to obtain a positive seal), and insert it into its seat. With the discharge valve removed, meter water into the void to fill the cylinder to the top of the discharge valve seat :and record the cubic inches. This method allows rapid calculation of clearance volume for any specific liquid end by subtraction of displacement for any size piston or plunger.
11.1.1
Pump Hook-up
The idealized pump installation depicted in Figure 11.1 is self-explanatory and includes details of all the desirable features that should be incorporated into the system for maximum efficiency, safety, and successful operation.
HJRIZONTAL PLUNGER PlW IUTH OUAl Sl.ETION ANl OISCtwtGE cotKCTICl"5 ti4S TI-E AO\IANTAGES OF: A. LOW SU:HOH CCIECTION MINIMIZES SU::TION PRESSURE CHEAO) REQUIROENTS. B. DUAL CfHECTICffi SI!if'LIFIES "tE CE:SIGN CF sutTION ANJ DISCHARGE PIPIN; ~ C. LCll CE:NTER f.F GRAVITV REm.ICES VIBRATICN.5. O. LOR PfU"ILE EASES MAINTEmNCE Atl1 REPAIR.
FOR ACCEPTABLE f"ERf'1 TIE PlW MJST BE PROVREJ wrrn AI'E TE SU::TION PRESSl.H:. A MINIW'i OF 4 TO 5 T Of WATER (00 HS EQUIVAlENT CF OTIER F UlD) AOOVE TlE PlW
~=~~=~~va
*00 001' ~ &Cl'ICE" PIPEr BY MENi5 OF A LOOP, ro IDl'H P'tMP su::.T!Clif aHm::!'.r!CfiS ..
SUCTION IS USUALLY FICXENT. HIGH TEMPERATlflE, AL TITWE, V PRESSOOE, LitE FRICTI~, PlW SPEED tD .l\CCELERAT!Of'l t-EAIJ lfl!IU.. Itt;REASE THIS MI DU4 REQUIREf.ENT .
\
\
FLUID SlPPLY TAf-.1<:
~\
PRESSLAE RELIEF VllJ...VE SET NO HIG&-ER 11iAN 1.25 Ht.ES TtE MAXIM..fl! FLtMGER LUBAICATICtJ OF PACKING IS RECCKE~D TO REDUCE FR!CTION At('l EXTEKl THE LIFE OF TI-E PLUNGEAS ANJ PUJNGER PACKil\G
WORK!NG PRESSlJi'E-,
\ f l l . L OPENING VALVE
LOCATED NEAR TAtf<.\
BY -PASS LINE Af'ID RELIEF
LI~'
RETURNING TO THE StPPLY TANK
CliARGil<l Pl>P - >IJTE 4
\~
,,,.-g~\
f'RESSIJiE GAUGE
AIDID STRAINER5
FLEXIBLE HJSE - t<ITE 2
FTIJl'ERS IN T!lE
su::noo
LINE
AS CLOSE AS POSSIBLE TO THE PlW STRAINS Am MINIMIZE VIBRA TIONS
BLOCK VALVE
NOTES
OISCHARGE UNE IN Tl.f'. SUCTION L!J'.E AS CLOSE AS POSS!BLE TO ThE PlM9
l. A SEPARATE Sl.CTION LINE IS RECGKNJEO FOO EACH PLM'. TtE: LINE SH:llLD BE A MINitJlM OF Of\E SIZE LARGER THAN HE FUf> SUCTION FLAN:;E OR IYEN!NG TO PROVIl:X:: A Mo\XIJl.U.I Of l TO 2 FEET /SECCHJ FLUID VELOCITY IF BEt{)S ARE tECESSARY USE CtL Y 45 LOM; RADIUS ELLS. A SLCPE CF 1/4" PER FOOT FROM TAf<I< TO PlM' IS RECo.M.tD. 2. A FLEXIBLE HJSE Af'il/00 EXF'ANSION .JJINT IN TI-E SUCTION L!NE (ALSO DISCHMGE LINE) PROVIDES FOFI TH:.RMAL EXPANSIIM ANJ TEMJS TO OA14'EN VIBRATIONS. 3. OIRECT HE OISCHARGE LIN::, USil'XJ 45" LONG RAOitlS ElLS, TO GRADE 0R BELOW GRADE LEVEL AS SO~ AS POSSIBLE TO RELIEVE STRAIN Afl4J REOLCE V!BAATIONS. HE UNE SilE SHJll.O BE SUFFICIENT NOT TO EXCEEO A ~XIMUM FLUID VELOCITY OF a TO 10 FEET /SECONO. 4. IF CHARGING PtW IS USED !T SHJl.A.0 BE LOCATED NEAR THE Slff'LY TAN<. IN ITS SELECTION GIVE CONSIOERATION TO THE FLUID Pl.WED, VELOCITY, Pll.N>GER PL.f.f> VAL VI~. LlhE FRICTION. ne .
GE~RAL RECC!f4\EMJATlONS I . PROVIOE SAfETY Sl-UT DOWN CDNTROLS FOR ALL "'AL FU!\CTIONS OF HE SYSlEM, PLW At-ll PRil"E M!JVl;R . If'K:LUOING: A. UJW SUCTION PRESSURE OR LO't'I TAJIK LEVEL 8 LOW OISCHARGE PRESSLRE
C . HIGH DISCHARGE PF!ESSURE O. LOl'I OIL PRESSU1E 00 LOO' OIL LEVEL
E. HXGH TEMPERATURE, EXCESS!vE VIORATXONS. OVERLOAOif<J3 GF PRIM:: 1-0VER, ETC. II. FOA SERVIC!NG AHJ SAFETY PROVIOE AOEQ'JATE WORK A.REA AROUN.) M Pt.J>IP UNIT. III. CARE AM:l Of'ERATIONS SHOUL!J INCLUOE CLEAJ'.i!...I/\'ESS. DAILY INSPECTIONS, PERIODIC INSPECTIONS. ROUT. INE MAINTEN~NCE AHJ PREVENTTVE M,.Ut"EN.4Ni:E
IDEALIZEO PUMP HOOK-UP
11.1
EFFECT OF LIQUID COMPRESSIBILITY
345
Sorne important precautions with respect to pump installation are: 1. Never retum the by-pass or relief-valve outlet back to the main pump suction. The turbulence created results in erratic pump operation. 2. Never use 90 elbows in the discharge system; long-sweep 45 elbows are desired. 3. Never use a suction header for multiple pump installations from the same supply tank. Use separate suction lines as shown. 4. Avoid high points in the suction line that form "pockets" for the accumulation of air or gas. Note the use of eccentric ftanges on the inlet.
11.1.2
Charging or "Booster" Pump
A suction charging pump (usually centrifugal) is recommended for the main pump if there is any doubt about NPSHA and to allow pump-down of the supply tank to a very low level. However, it should be kept in mind that the charging pump itself requires a certain NPSH. A simple rule for sizing the charging pump is to use a pump with a rated capacity of about 150% of the main pump displacement. It is most desirable to drive the charging pump with a separate prime mover. Those driven from a power takeoff from the main pump suffer extreme loss of capacity at low main pump speed.
11.1.3
Pump Valve Unloading System
Sorne pump manufacturers fumish pump unloaders that operate on the principie of selective disablement of the suction valves, thereby allowing the pump to run at full speed under no liquid delivery or pressure. The device consists in general of a rod, operating through a stuffing box in the suction manifold, that holds the suction valve open as long as a power device (hydraulic cylinder or electric solenoid) is energized and holds the rod against a suction valve (Fig. 11.2). To load the pump, the cylinder is deenergized to allow normal valve operation. All ofthese operations are controlled by a distributor on the crankshaft or by proxirnity switches located near any moving pump part. While such a system is rather complicated, it supplies the almost ideal means of loading and unloading a pump in such service as press and die operation.
11.1.4 Suction System Loops

Sometimes "loops" are intentionally introduced into the suction of a pump by 1. U sing both suction inlet connections on a pump equipped with a suction manifold that has optional connections on each end of the manifold, forming the loop by bringing the two suction lines back to a T or Y on the end of the main
346
APPLICATIONS
Solenoid or
hydraulic
cylinder
Figure 11.2. Pump valve unloading mechanism.
suction pipe. This in effect provides double inlets on the assumption that ''better'' suction conditons will result. 2. Pumps equipped with a suction charging pump, directing liquid through a system of piping that branches off to the main pump inlet but continues back to the tank with a submerged retum. This is sometimes used in slurry service where a higher velocity in a long suction line is desired, such velocity being much greater than that generated by the main pump. In both cases, the liquid in the loop is prone to "oscillate" at the same frequency excited by the pump RPM and the physical dimensions of the suction pip-
11.2 HYDRAULIC INSTITUTE STANDARDS OF APPLICATION
347
ing system. The amplitude of the oscillations will be multiplied if there frequency is resonant with the piping system, to the extent that the suction of the main pump will be greatly disturbed. Such loops should be avoided where possible.
11.2
HYDRAULIC INSTITUTE STANDARDS OF APPLICATION
Section 11.2 contains recommendations of the Hydraulic lnstitute in the matter of pump applications, covering such subjects as pump arrangement, hook-up, practices and precautions. The nomenclature and terminology may differ from that used in the main text and there may be sorne duplication of subject matter.
Type of Duty
Continuous duty-8 to 24 hours per <lay, fully loaded. Light duty-3 to 8 hours per <lay, fully loaded. Intermittent duty-Up to 3 hours per <lay, fully loaded. Cyclical operation-1 minute loaded out of every 3 minutes. Maintenance level-attended or unattended operation. Skill, training, and tools of operating and maintenance personnel.
Medium Speeds Power pump seeds at ornear the manufacturer's published "rated" or "normal" curve will include those applications when clean, cold liquids are involved, and will provide long life and economical operation, if all important application details are carefully handled and regular, skilled maintenance is provided. Medium speed selection requires excellent piping layout, good environment, adequate NPSHA, periodic preventive maintenance and lubrication, rigidly fixed piping, and solid pump and prime mover foundations (or bases). lt may require, in sorne cases, automatic safety shut-down devices, suction and discharge dampeners, and may also require plunger or piston rod packing lubrication. Medium speeds may be too fast for slurries, marginal NPSH situations, or unattended operation. SlowSpeeds Selection of an operating speed below the manufacturer's "rated" or "normal" speed curve is often desirable when any strongly adverse factor is present, such as the following:
Abrasive liquid (slurry) Hazardous liquid Extreme pressure Corrosive chemical High viscosity
Unattended operation Poor maintenance No spare parts, or no standby pump High liquid temperature High ambient temperatre
348
APPLICATIONS
Extremely long life desired High-cost down-time of related facilities Extreme isolation of site
Radioactive liquid Dissolved gas in liquid Borderline suction (NPSHA) situation
Operation at extremely slow speeds may require supplementary power end lubrication. Cooling of the power end oil may be necessary when hot liquids or ambients occur. Always consult the manufacturer when very hot or very cold liquids are involved. Revisions may be required in construction for these types of applications.
High Speeds Selection of speed above manufacturer's "rated" or "normal" curve and/or near bis "maximum" or "intermittent" curve (if any) is sometimes merited when intermittent, attended service is involved. High speed selection requires very close attention to all application details, skilled operators, and proper pump design. A suction booster pump may be required to obtain sufficient NPSHA. High speeds imply only optimum application factors are present, and that reduced life may occur. Sorne pumps are inherently designed for high-speed, short duration, and infrequent usage. All conditions of such service should be well understood by all parties prior to the sale. Oil well fracturing, acidizing, and cemented plunger pumps are examples of this type of high-speed, intermittent application.
Starting Power Pumps

Pump Torque Characteristics Selection of pump driver type can be infiuenced by the cyclical torque characteristic of a reciprocating power pump. This is especially true when slow-speed pumps are employed. Such equipment often lacks enough mechanical mass to smooth-out any torque variations imposed by the pump. Torque fluctuations imposed by reciprocating power pumps on driving equipment vary according to the kind or type of power pump, its number of cylinders, and on the inertia of the pump and driver rotating masses. Thus, sorne pumps are inherently ''smoother'' than others b.ecause less cyclical variations in driving torque occur. Peak torque requirements of power pumps can often be dampened by the use of large diameter drive pulleys, or sprockets with high torsional inertia. These act as "fiywheels." Reduction of peaks in power torque may be possible by reducing discharge pressure surge peaks, since torque and discharge pressure are closely related. Hence, pulsation dampeners which effectively <lampen liquid surging will also help smooth out torque variations. Single-acting simplex power pumps have the most uneven torque requirement of all the types of reciprocating power pumps. As the number of cylinders and
349
pumping strokes-per-revolution increase, the smoother is the torque. Thus, a quintuplex pump is said to be very "smooth." Objectionable amperage ftuctuations and heating in polyphase induction motors driving simplex or duplex power pumps can often be minimized by choosing NEMA Design "C," or Design "D" motors. These types of A.C. induction motors provide a "soft" driving torque which reduces line voltage disturbances which Design "B" motors would cause. Large double-acting duplex power pumps particularly tend to cause driver speed surging. This type can also cause heavy amperage surging in an induction type electric motor, unless a special motor type, or other preventive steps are taken.
Pump Torque Criteria Application of power pumps requires careful consideration of their starting and running torque demands. These affect the selection of driver rnotors, motor starters, engines, gear reducers, belts or chain drives, couplings, and universal joints. The effect of such loads on an electrical distribution system requires thought, especially if the pump is large. The starting torque required by a power pump, i.e. the twisting effort (moment) applied to pump shaft or reducer shaft, falls usually into one or two general applications, as follows. Starting With Liquid By-Pass Operating personnel manually opens by-pass valve. Or, a power-actuated dump valve (programmed to open automatically) by-passes the liquid during the start, and the stop function. A check valve is employed in the dump discharge line. lt remains shut as long as the by-pass (dump) valve remains fully or partly open. (See Fig. 11.3.) Thus, the liquid pressure exerted on the plungers (or pistons) is largely that caused by liquid mass and friction as it passes through the by-pass valve and piping. When correctly sized, the by-pass valve and piping cause low back-pressure. Only a relatively small torque is required while by-passing the liquid to tank. With liquid by-pass, the total starting torque requirement is mainly related to the mechanical inertia of the pump, couplings, gears and motor rotor. These items are heavy, and substantial starting torque may result. AH the liquid in the pump suction line and in the by-pass line must be accelerated from stand-still to full liquid velocities. The torque needed to accelerate the entire mechanical hydraulic inertia system depends on the inertia of all the moving parts (including liquid) and the rate of acceleration, plus total system friction. The rate of acceleration is very important. The starting torque is directly proportional to it. (Stated another way: Accelerating peak torque is inversely proportional to the time duration of acceleration.) A few pumps are provided with mechanical suction valve unloader devices. These devices reduce the total starting torque requirement to that needed to accelerate the mechanical items, such as pump crankshaft, gears, couplings,. etc. They
Figure 11.3. Schematics of liquid bypass systems.
350
11.2
HYDRAUUC INSTITUTE STANDARDS OF APPUCAT!ON
351
stop liquid pumping action by mechanically holding open the suction valves, allowing the liquid inducted into each liquid cylinder to be delivered back into the pump suction. Because no liquid pumping occurs, the driving machinery need provide no torque to accelerate liquid. Only the torque to overcome mechanical inertia and friction is needed during the start. After the pump and driver have reached ful! speed, the suction valve unloading devices are retracted and normal pumping action then commences. At this point, the driver must supply additional torque to accelerate the liquid system and also to meet the total running torque requirement caused by discharge pressure. Another design used to facilitate starting is the use of a hydraulic drive coupling or eddy-current drive coupling. These cause the pump to accelerate more slowly, while the driver quickly reaches fll speed. Such a drive coupling permits a reduced rate of pump and liquid acceleration, reducng the torque required. Reduced voltage staiting, with less shock to the pump, the gearing, and the electrical system may be used. Reduced voltage starters include the primary resistor, primary reactor, auto-transformer, part-winding, and wye-delta types. AH reduce the motor torque (and amperage) developed, since all reduce the starting voltage effectively applied to the motor. Hence, the pump always must be unloaded, or the motor may not accelerate to full-load speed. Reduced voltage starting causes the least disturbance to line voltage and avoids the high torsional stresses, and gear tooth loadings which accompany full-voltage, full-load starting. Experience indicates that a normal-starting-torque electric induction motor [see Table 11.1] provides adequate starting torque when a by-pass valve, or suction unloader device is used. (Locked-rotor torque is that developed at standstill by an induction motor, when full line voltage is applied.) Special conditions, such as starting against discharge pressure, may require a special dliver with high-starting-torque capability.
Starting Without Liquld By-Pass Starting a power pump against discharge pressure may reduce the life of power end bearings and other pump and drive components, and may prevent complete priming ofthe liquid end (resulting in rough operation and reduced capacity). This practice should therefore be avoided except in emergency situations. Starting without liquid by-pass may be divided into two categories: First, there are multiple-pump applications where the pump must start against full line pressure. This discharge pressure already exists, having been developed by the other pumps and the starting pump must accelerate against it. No liquid by-passing, or suction valve unloading is provided, and it may be termed "full-load" starting. With full-load starting, the torque requirement is high, since the driver must accelerate itself, couplings, gears, pump crankshaft, rods, crossheads, and plungers. Additionally, it must accelerate all the liquid in the pump's suction and discharge lines. It must also develop the torque required to move the plungers (or pistons) against the line pressure, already present.
352
APPLICATIONS
If the pump is engine-driven, a clutch or drive coupling of adequate torque and thermal capacity to meet these demands is chosen. Full-load across-the-line motor starting can cause a prolonged in-rush of high current. Serious motor over-heating (or damage) may result unless the motor and its starting equipment have been generously selected and sized to meet this. An A.C. induction motor provides a fixed starting torque, related to the applied voltage. Since the starting torque developed by an induction motor is related only to the applied voltage, and to the size and design of the motor, an across-the-line starter will provide the maximum starting torque. And, a given induction motor will develop the same locked-rotor (starting) torque and amperage at this voltage, regardless of the nature of the driven load. High inertia loads (within motor capability) will smply require longer accelerating time than will low inertia loads. No advantage is really provided by specifying an induction motor with an extremely high locked-rotor torque rating. Such motors do accelerate faster, but they draw more amperage, and cause more power system disturbance during the start. An A.C. induction motor with a locked-rotor torque rating of 150% of full-load torque is usually sufficient for full-load, across-the-line pump starting. Secondly, another full-load starting situation may occur when a single pump starts with no liquid by-passing provided. Then, pump discharge pressure will be related very largely to pump speed {discharge rate) and acceleration rate. Consider a single pump which forces fluid through a long piping system which is nearly level. Pump discharge pressure is zero at the instant of starting. Because resistance to flow is caused by liquid inertia and by pipe friction and fitting restrictions, pump pressure increases in relation to liquid velocity, often such that pump pressure is proportional to the square of ftow rate. Thus, it is proportional to the square of pump speed, and to the rate of acceleration. Analysis of the starting torque requirement is complex, and depends on the inertia of the accelerating liquid, the size and length of piping,.liquid viscosity and density, and on the elasticity of the piping. If the mass of liquid is very large, a discharge ~ampener and a check valve may be advantageous, since these permit the pump and its driver to accelerate faster by first delivering liquid into the dampener, rather than into the line. No general rules may be given as to the motor locked-rotor torque needed, since each liquid system is different. However, if a large liquid dampener is provided, pipeline pump induction motors with locked-rotor torques of 125% of rated fullload torque will usually be adequate. An alternate is the automatic by-pass valve and check valve arrangement, with dampener as shown in Fig. 11.3. The arrangement shown in Fig. 11.3 is suitable for both single and multiple pump applications. It largely relieves the motor of load from liquid inertia (except suction), and isolates the pump from the discharge system pressure and inertia. The arrangement affords a convenient means of expelling any air trapped in the pump cylinders before placing pressure load on the pump. This is desirable, especially for multicylinder pumps which sometimes become rough and "air bound" after servicing or prolonged idleness. Simply open the liquid by-pass valve to al-
11.2
353
TABLE 11.1. Minimum Locked-Rotor Torque Ratings

Rating (HP)
l!!OORPM
Motora
1200RPM Moton;
1 1-l/2
2
275% 250",4 2350/o
3
5
215%
1850/.> 175% 165% 160%
7-112 10 15
20
25 30
40 50
60
75 100 125
150"A. 150".4 1500/o 140'!/ 140"/o i40"/o 140"/o
170"/o 165% 160"/o 155% 150"/o 150"/o 150\'lo 1500/o 135%

135%
135%
135'%
135%
135"/o 135% 125"/ 125"/o 1200/o 120% lOO"Ai 100"/o HJOO/o
12.SOA
110".4
110"/o
150
200 250
100%
80";(, 80"/o 80"/o 80"/o 80".4. 80".4
300 350
400 450 500
Note: In the range from 1 through 75 horsepower, the 1800 RPM motors show higher locked-rotor torque ratings than do the 1200 RPM motors. However, from 125 through 350 horsepower, the 1200 RPM motors have larger NEMA ratings. Locked rotor torques ol large motors must be carefully evaluated befon.! final selection.
low the liquid to discharge back to the tank thereby expelling the air. When running smoothly, close by-pass valve and thus load the pump.
Electric Motor Locked~Rotor Torques Table 11.1 summarizes minimum locked rotor torque ratings for standard NEMA Design "B" 60 Hertz squirrel-cage induction motors expressed as percent of fuUload torque. lnlet System for Power Pumps An inlet system for a reciprocating power pump must provide a flow of liquid, at a relatively constant pressure, to the pump at a pressure sufficiently above vapor pressure to prevent flashing as the liquid enters the pump chambers. If gas bubbles are entrained in the liquid, or if flashing occurs in the pump, damaging vibrations may occur in both inlet and outlet lines, volumetric efficiency will drop, and various pump and system components may foil. Small amounts of gas or cavitation can reduce Hfe of packing, valve springs, valves, seats and gaskets. Larger quan-
354
APPLICATIONS
tities of gas, or more severe cavitation, can cause pitting of liquid end components and catastrophic failure ofthe liquid cylinder, crankshaft, bealings, and drive train components. It is recommended that the design of the inlet system for a power pump follow these guidelines:
1. The liquid source shown as a tank in Fig. 11.4, should be designed with the following features: a. Sufficient size to allow entrained gas bubbles to rise to the surface. b. Lines which feed liquid into tank below minimum liquid level. c. Completely submerged baffle plate separating incoming from outgoing liquid. d. Vortex breaker at outlet connection (to pump). 2. Each pump should be provided with a separate inlet line from liquid source to pump, rather than connecting two or more pumps to a common manifold. Mutually reinforcing pulsations are thus avoided. 3. Inlet pipe diameter should be at least equal to, and preferably larger than, pump inlet connection. 4. Inlet pipe should be as short and direct as possible with a minimum of tums, bends, and restrictions. All turns should be made with long-radius elbows or laterals. Pulsations resulting from a long inlet line {:an sometimes be partially reduced by a pulsation dampener and sometimes by raising the liquid level at the source, but these changes seldom provide results as satisfactory as a short, direct, large-diameter line. 5. The inlet system must provide NPSH that exceeds the sum of the NPSHR of the pump, all friction losses, and acceleration head. Additional head must be
BAO OES!GN
GOOD DESIGN
Figure 11.4, Suction tanks.
355
provided if the liquid contains dissolved gases. It is recommended that a margin of at least 7 feet be provided. 6. The inlet system should contain no high points that would conect gas. An "horizontal" runs should slope up toward the pump. The pipe reducer at the pump inlet should be of the eccentric type, instaned with the flat side up. 7. A strainer, if used, should have a free flow area at least three times the flow area of the inlet line. If there is doubt about its regular maintenance, a strainer should not be used. (A plugged strainer may cause more damage to a pump than solids.) 8. The inlet line valve should have a flow area equal to that of the inlet line. 9. If a foot val ve is used (for a source liquid level below the pump inlet opening), the net flow area should at least equal the flow area of the inlet line. 10. An inlet pressure gauge should be located adjacent to the pump.
If a system will not provide sufficient NPSH, and cannot be redesigned, it shan be necessary to do one or more of the fonowing:
1. Install pulsation dampener in inlet line adjacent to power pump liquid cylinder. A dampener, properly instaned and charged, may significantly reduce the length of pipe used in the acceleration head equation (see Pulsation Dampener, fonowing). 2. Reduce the power pump NPSHR by selecting a larger, lower-speed unit. The lower speed will also reduce acceleration head. 3. Instan a booster (charge) pump. A booster pump for a power pump is normany a centrifuga! pump, but may be a positive displacement pump under special conditions. Care must be exercised in the selection and installation of a booster pump, because improper selection and/ or instanation can result in increased pulsations and attendant problems. In addition to the recommendations contained in the appropriate section of these Standards, the fonowing are recommended: 1. Instan booster pump as close to inlet source as practica!. 2. The booster pump must add enough pressure to the system to provide sufficient NPSH to the power pump allowing for the acceleration head and friction losses. 3. Install pulsation dampener in inlet line adjacent to power pump liquid cylinder (or if of proper construction, on the opposite side of cylinder). The dampener is often omitted, though, between a centrifuga! booster pump and a low-speedpower pump under the fonowing conditions: a. Diameters of inlet and outlet connections of booster pump are equal to, or larger than, inlet connection on power pump.
356
APPLICATIONS
b. Diameters of all piping between liquid source and power pump are equal to, or larger than, inlet connection of power pump. c. The booster pump is sized for ffi<l;Ximum instantaneous capacity of the power pump. The following tabulation gives the percentage that the maximum instantaneous capacity exceeds the mean capacity for each type of power pump.
% Over
Type of Power Pump Simplex Duplex Duplex Triplex Quintuplex Septuplex Nonuplex
(1), (2), (2), (3), (5), (7), (9),
Mean Capacity Single-Acting Single-Acting Double-Acting Single or Double-Acting Single or Double-Acting Single or Double-Acting Single or Double-Acting
220% 60% 27% 7% 2% 1% 1%
d. Acceleration head is calculated, not only between booster and power pump, but also between liquid source and booster. 4. If the booster pump is a constant-speed positive-displacement pump (such as a motor-driven rotary), a self-regulating by-pass valve is required between pumps. The booster pump must be sufficiently over-sized to provide the minimum ftow required through the by-pass valve.
Suctlon Tarll< It is recommended that a suction tank, if used, be arranged as shown [in Fig. 11.4] for retum and make-up lines.
Pulsation Dampener A pulsation dampener is a device which reduces liquid pulsations in the suction or discharge piping. It is also sometimes called one of the following:
Suction Chamber Discharge Chamber Cushion Chamber Surge Chamber Suction Stabilizer Desurger Pulsation Suppressor Alleviator Damper Suction Bottle Inlet Bottle Stand Pipe Air Chamber Accumulator
11.2
357
Where the suction or discharge line, or both, are of considerable length, or if the suction is under a static head of poor design, or where the liquid handled is hot, a desurging device of suitable size for the suction or discharge lines, or both, may sometimes be necessacy to insure smooth, quiet operation of the system. The size of the pulsation dampener will depend upon the type, size, and speed the liquid, and the layout of the piping systems. Recommendations as to size and type of pulsation dampener should be obtained from the pulsation dampener manufacturer. Pulsation dampeners, if used, should be considered as a part of the piping system, rather than as a pump accessocy. In general, suction pulsation dampeners are more frequently required than are discharge pulsation dampeners. In the following list, pump types are arranged in order of their relative smoothness of fiow. Nonuplex Power Pump-Single Acting Septuplex Power Pump-Single Acting Quintuplex Power Pump-Single and Double Acting Triplex Power Pump-Single and Double Acting Duplex Steam Pump-Double Acting Duplex Power Pump-Single and Double Acting Sirnplex Power Pump-Double Acting Simplex Steam Pump-Double Acting Simplex Power Pump-Single Acting For pulsation dampeners which require a gas charge, provision should be made to keep them charged with nitrogen or a similar inert gas. A liquid level gauge is desirable to permit a check on the amount of air in a conventional air chamber. Pulsation dampeners, particularly on the suction, should be located as close as possible to the pump and in such position that they will absorb the impact of the moving liquid column and thus cushion the pulsations in the most efficient manner. On high speed power pumps, the chamber air volume can be at least 1 to l~ times the pump displacement per revolution.
Discharge Piplng The facilitate starting and eliminate air, a by-pass valve should be installed close to the pump. Also, to protect the pump, a stop valve and a check valve should be employed. If an increaser is used to increase the size of the piping, it should be placed between check valve and pump. The vibration in pipe lines must be minimized, with lines as short and as direct as practicable. When a change in direction is required, long radius elbows and trees ora 45 degree bend in the pipe itself should be utilized. "Dead ends" must be avoided. Hydraulic systems, using quick closing valves or similar mechanisms, must
358
APPLICATIONS
provide sorne means for absorbing the shock resulting from the sudden opening or closing of valves. Adequate provisions should be made for anchorage of high pressure piping.
Relief Va/ve
The insertion of a discharge relief valve of suitable size for the capacity of the pump, set to open ata pressure above the operating discharge pressure required of the pump, is mandatory because of the safety it affords. The relief valve should be placed in the discharge line close to the pump and ahead of any other valves. Full-opening, pilot-operated, or shear pin relief valves, or burst-discs, which require little or no over-pressure to develop fully-open ftow capacity are often preferable to spring-loaded relief valves. Spring types may require considerable over-pressure to compress the spring, before becoming fully open, creating pump overload. Pressure-relief valves have a "set" pressure, which may be described as the pressure at which the relief valve cracks and begins to open, allowing sorne ftow to pass through. As additional pressure is applied, above this "set" or "crack" pressure, the spring-loaded relief valve will gradually increase its port area until the valve is fully open. When fully open, the relief valve must have sufficient capacity so it will relieve the full capacity of the pump without excessive over-pressure. Available springloaded relief valves differ among manufacturers in the extent of over-pressure needed to open from the barely cracked to the fully open, fully relieved position. This range is generally 10 percent to 25 percent above the set pressure, depending on spring design. By choosing a larger valve, this increase may be reduced.
Calculating Vo/umetric Efficiency For Water
The volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating pump, based on capacity at suction conditions, using table of water compressibility, shall be calculated as follows: Vol. Eff. where
=------- 1 - Ptd.81
1 - [Ptd,81 (1
+ c/d)]
,81
e d
P1d
= = = = =
Compressibility factor at temperature t (degrees Fahrenheit or centigrade). (See Tables 11.2 and 11.3.) Liquid chamber volume in the passages of chamber between valves when plunger is at the end of discharge stroke in cu in [see Fig. 11.5] Volume displacement per plunger in cu in [see Fig. 11.5] Discharge pressure minus suction pressure in psi Slip, expressed in decimal value
TABLE 11.2. Water Compressibiiity Compressibility Factor p, x 1o- 6 :::: Contraction In f.!nit Vol u me per PSI Pressure Compressibility from 14. 7 PSIA, 32 to 212F and from Saturatlon Pressure above 212F
Tt1mp11rntur11
Pressu"' Na
oc
321'
l!OC lli3 I'
~c~cmc~c~c~c~c~c~c~c~c~c~c~c~c 40C 60C 104 F 140 F 176 F 212 f 248 F 284 F 320 F 356 F 3!12 F 428 F 464 F 500 F 536 F 572 f 6011 f 644 F 6110 F
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200 3400 3600 3800 4000 4200 4400 4600 4800 5000 5200 5400
(11
3.12 3.11 3.10 3.10 3.09 3.08 3.07 3.06 3.05 3.04 3.03 3.02 3.01 3.00 3.00 2.99 2.98 2.97 2.96 2.95 2.95 2.94 2.93 2.92 2.91 2.90 2.90
3.06 3.05 3.05 3.04 3.03 3.02 3.01 3.00 2.99 2.99 2.98 2.97 2.96 2.95 2.94 2.94 2.93 2.92 2.91 2.90 2.90 2.89 2.83 2.87 2.87 2085 2.85
3.06 3.05 3.05 3.04 3.03 3.02 3.01 3.00 3.00 2.99 2.98 2.97 2.96 2.96 2.95 2.94 2.93 2.93 2.92 2.91 2.90 2.90 2.89 2.88 2.87 2.87 2.86
3.12 3.11 3.10 3.09 3.09 3.08 3.07 3.06 3.05 3.04 3.04 3.03 3.02 3.01 3.00 3.00 2.99 2.98 2.97 2.97 2.96 2.95 2.94 2.94 2.93 2.92 2.91
3.23 3.22 3.21 3.21 3.20 3.19 3.18 3.17 3.16 3.15 3.14 3.14 3.13 3.12 3.11 3.10 3.09 3.09 3.08 3.07 3.06 3.05 3.05 3.04 3.03 3.02 3.01
3.40 3.66 4.00 3.39 3.64 3.99 3.39 3.63 3.97 3.38 3.62 3.96 3.37 3.61 3.95 3.36 3.60 3.94 3.35 3.59 3.92 3.34 3.58 3.91 3.33 3.57 3.90 3.32 3.56 3.88 3.31 3.55 3.87 3.30 3.54 3.85 3.29 3.53 3.85 3.28 3.52 3.83 3.28 3.51 3.82 3.27 3.50 3.81 3.26 3.49 3.80 3.25 3.48 3.79 3.24 3.47 3.78 3.23 3.46 3.76 3.22 3.45 3.75 3.21 3.44 3.74 3.20 3.43 3.73 3.20 3.42 3.72 3.10 3.41 3.71 3.18 3.40 3.69 3.17 3.39 3.68
4.47 4.45 4.44 4.42 4.40 4.39 4.37 4.35 4.34 4.32 4.31 4.29 4.28 4.26 4.25 4.23 4.22 4.20 4.19 4.17 4.16 4.14 4.13 4.12 4.10 4.09 4.07
5.11 5.09 5.07 5.04 5.02 5.00 4.98 4.96 4.94 4.91 4.89 4.87 4.85 4.83
4.81
4.79 4.78 4.76 4.'14 4.72 4.70 4.68 4.66 4.64 4.63 4.61 4.59
6.00 5.97 5.93 5.90 5.87 5.84 5.81 5.78 5.75 5.72 5.69 5.66 5.63 5.61 5.58 5.55 5.53 5.50 5.47 5.45 5.42 5.40 5.37 5.35 5.32 5.30 5.27
7.27 7.21 7.15 8.95 7.10 8.85 7.05 8.76 7.00 8.68 6.95 8.61 6.91 8.53 6.87 8.47 6.83 8.40 6.78 8.33 6.74 8.26 6.70 8.20 6.66 8.14 6.62 8.08 6.58 8.02 6.54 7.96 6.51 7.90 6.47 7.84 6.43 7.78 6.40 7.73 6.36 7.68 6.32 7.62 6.29 7.57 6.25 7.52 6.22 7.47 6.19 7.41
11.6 11.4 11.2 11.1 10.9 10.8 10. 7 10.6 10.5 10.4 10.3 10.2 10.l 9.98 9.89 9.79 90 70 9.62 9.53 9.44 9.36 9028 9.19 9.12
16.0 15.4 15. l

14.8
14.6 14.3 14.1 13.9 13.7 13.5 19.0 13.4 18.6 13.2 18.3 13.0 17.9 12.9 17.6 12.7 17.3 12.5 17. l 12.4 16.8 12.2 16.5 12.1 16.3 12.0 16.0 11.8 1508 11.7 15.6 11.6 15.3
23.0 21.9 21.2 20.7 20.2 19.8 19.4
36.9 34.7 32.9 86.4 31.6 69.1 30.5 61.7 29.6 57.2 238.2 28.7 53.8 193.4 27.9 51.0 161.0 27.1 48.6 138.1 26.4 45.4 122.4 25.8 44.5 110.8 25.2 42.8 101.5 ----"-----24.6 41.3 93.9 24.1 40.0 87.6 23.6 38.8 82.3 23.2 3706 77.7 22.7 36.6 73.9 22.3 35.6 70.3 21.9 34.6 66.9
fD
TABLE 11.3. Water Compressibility Compressibility Factor '3t x 10- 6 = Contraction in Unit Volume per PSI Pressure Compressibility from 14.7 PSIA at 68F
Temperalure Temperalore
Pre1111UR 20C PSIA .. 68F

6000" 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000 20000 21000 2.84 2.82 2.80 2.78 2.76 2.75 2.73 2.71 2.70 2.69 2.67 2.66 2.65 2.64 2.63 2.62
lOOC 212F 3.14 3.10

3.05
200C 392F S.20

5.09
3.01 2.96 2.92 2.87 2.83 2.78 2.74 2.69 2.6.5 2.60 2..56 2.51 2.47
4.97 4.87 4.76 4.66 4.57 4.47 4.38 4.29 4.21 4.13 4.05 3.97 3.89 3.82
Pressure PSIA 22000 23000 24000 25000 26000 27000 28000 29000 30000 31000 32000 33000 34000 35000 36000
20C 68F 2.61 2.59 2.S8 2.S7 2.56 2.6.5 2.SS 2..54 2.53 2.52 2.51 2.50 2.49 2.49 2.48
lOOC 212F 2.42 2.38 2.33 2.29 2.24 2.20 2.1.5 2.11 2.06 2.02 1.97 1.93 1.88 1.84 1.79
200C 392F 3.7S 3.68 3.61

3.SS
3.49 3.43 3.37 3.31 3.26 3.21 3.16 3.11 3.07 3.03 2.99
Figure 11.5. Plunger movement when calculating volumetric clearance.
360
361
Example. Find the volumetric effi.ciency of a reciprocating pump with the following conditions:
Type ofpump Liquid pumped Suction pressure Discharge pressure Pumping temperature e d
3 in diam plunger Water Zero psig 1785 psig 140 F 127.42 cu in 35.343 cu in .02
5 in stroke triplex .
Find (j1 from Table of Water Compressibility (Table 11.2).

(j1
= .00000305 at 140 F and 1800 psia
Calculate volumetric effi.ciency:
1 - [Ptd[:J,(1 + c/d))
Vol. Eff.
~~~~~~~~-
1 - Ptd(:Jt
- s
+ 127.42/35.343])
. 02
1 - [(1785 - 0)(.00000305)[1
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--
1 - (1785 - 0)(.00000305)
= .96026 = 96 per cent

Calculating Volumetric Efficiency For Hydrocarbons The volumetric effi.ciency of a reciprocating pump based on capacity at suction conditions, using compressibility factors for hydrocarbons, shall be calculated as follows:
Vol. Eff.
1 - [S -
~(1-
::)
where
e
= = = =
d P
Pe
fluid chamber volume in the passages of chamber between valves, when plunger is at the end of discharge stroke, in cubic inches volume displacement per plunger, in cubic inches pressure in psia (Ps = suction pressure in psia; Pd = discharge pressure in psia) critcal pressure of liquid in psia (See Table 11.4.)
362
APPLICATIONS
TABLE 11.4. Physical Properties of Hydrocarbons
Carboil
Atoms 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Na me 673 343 3.679 Metlia11e 717 550 4.429 E tila ne 642 666 4.BOJ Peo pan e 544 766 5.002 Bu ta ne 847 482 5.128 Pentane 915 433 5.216 He:urne 394 Heptlrne 972 5.285 362 1025 5.349 Octane 1073 332 5.3112 Nonane 9 308 1114 5.414 Decane 10 272 1185 5.459 Dodecane 12 244 1248 5.483 Tetradecane 14 221 1900 "5.48 Hexadecane 16 202 1345 "5.49 Octadeca11e 18 187 s.5 1380 E.lcosane 20 1465 156 "5.5 Pentacosane 25 133 1545 "!5.5 Triacont.ane 30 120 "5.5 Pentatrlacontane 1610 35 5_5 108 1675 Tetracontane 40 100 "5.4 Pentat.etracontane 1740 45 *Based on experimental density, questionable because near melting point.
rilo 1/ sigma 1 Degrees lb. per grams Ra11k111e 5q.ln. per ce

Te
Pe
Pr = reduced pressure P actual pressure in psia critical pressure in psia Pe p rs = reduced suction pressure = p s /pe P,d = reduced discharge pressure = Pd/ Pe S = slip expressed in decimal value t = temperature, in degrees Rankine = degrees F + 460 (ts = suction temperature in degrees Rankine; td = discharge temperature in degrees Rankine) Te = critica! temperature of liquid in degrees Rankine (see Table 11.4.) T, = reduced temperature = actual temp. in degrees Rank:ine = - (see Fig. 11.6) Te critical temp. in degrees Rankine T,s = reduced suction temperature = t5 /Te T,d = reduced discharge temperaturt: = td/Tc Vol. Eff. = volumetric efficiency expressed in decimal value. p = ( p 1 / w1 ) X w X 62.4 = density of liquid in lb per cu ft Ps = density in lb per cu ft at suction pressure
11.2
HYDRAULIC INSTITUTE STANDARDS OF APPUCATION
363
Pd
w
= density in lb per cu ft at discharge pressure
expansion factor of liquid (see Fig. 11 one liquid which is established by density measurements and the corresponding values of w (see Table 11.4)
p 1 / w = characteristic constant in grams per cubic centimeter for any
Example. Find volumetric e:fficiency of the ple with the following new conditions:
Type of Pump Liquid pumped Suction temperature Discharge temperature Suction pressure Discharge pressure
reciprocating pump exam-
3 inch dia. plunger x 5 inch stroke triplex Propane 70 F 80 F 242 psig 1911 psig
1.0
o tL
-'
F-
::: :;::
(.)
<( (.)
0.9
0,8
;..."
~
'-
.,
0.7
:.' ., c.
E
., u ., o::
u
::J
.l!!
0.6
'--~...1-.~.....;_~-'-~--'l...-~..__~......._~_,_~
.14
.13
.12
.11
.10
.09
.08
.07
.......~--'~--'0.4 .06 .05 .04
Expansion factor w
Figure 11.6. Thennal expansion and compressibility of liquids.
364
APPLICATIONS
Find density at suction pressure:

T
= -
t5
rs
Te
460 + 70 666 257

=
= .795
P,s
Ps
= -
= 642
.4
P1 =
W
4.803 {From Table 11.4, propane)
w = .1048 (From Fig. 11.6)

Ps = =
P1
X w X
62.4
X
4.803
.1048
62.4 = 31.4 lb per cu ft
Find density at discharge pressure: T

rd
td =
Te
460 + 80 666
1926
81
p rd =p -==30 642 .
e
pd
.1089 [from Fig. 11.6]

Pi
X w X
Pd = -
62.4
X
= 4.803
=
.1089
62.4
32.64 lb per cu ft
Therefore
Vol. Eff. = l - [ S -
~(1 -
::)
= =
l - [ .02 .8376
~~~~~~ ( 1 - 332~) J
83.76 per cent
Friction Head (h, ). Friction head is the hydraulic pressure required to overcome frictional resistance of a piping system to liquid flow.
365
Static Head (hs) Static suction head is the vertical distance from the centerline of the pump inlet port to the liquid level at the source of supply. Velocity Head (hv) Velocity head is the hydraulic pressure needed to move fluid from rest to the average velocity. Submerged Suction. A "submerged" suction exists when the centerline of the pump inlet port is below the level of the liquid in the supply tank. However, the absolute pressure of the liquid entering the centerline of the pump inlet port may be below atmospheric pressure when the pump is operating at the specified speed. This will occur whenever friction head exceeds the static suction head (submergence) of the pump. Flooded Suction. "Flooded" suction implies that the liquid will ftow from an atmospheric source to the pump without the average pressure at the intake port of the pump dropping below atmospheric pressure with the pump operating at specified capacity. Thus, the static suction head must always exceed friction head in a "flooded" suction situation. Static Suction Us ). Static suction lift is a hydraulic pressure below atmospheric at the intake port of the pump with the liquid at rest. It is usually expressed in inches of mercury vacuum (in Hg vac). To convert, use the formula, psi = 0.49 X inches Hg. Suction lift may be thought of as "negative" static suction head. Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA). Net positive suction head available is the total suction pressure, including allowance for acceleration head available from the system at the pump suction connection, minus the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature. NPSHA for a reciprocating pump is normally expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) or feet. Total Suction Lift. Total suction lift is the difference between the absolute operating inlet pressure at the pump inlet port centerline and atmosphere pressure. It is also the sum of suction system frictional losses and the static suction Hft.
Acceleratlon Head (h 2 )
Total suction lift, as defined in the preceding paragraph, represents the average without reference to the fluctuation above and below this average due to the inertia effect of the fluid mass in the suction line. With the higher rotative speed of present-day pumps or with relatively long suction lines, this pressure ftuctuation or acceleration head must be taken into account if the pump is to fill properly without separation and pounding or vibration of the suction line. With the slider-crank drive of a power pump, maximum plunger acceleration occurs at the start or the end of each individual stroke, and this is refl.ected in a
366
APPLICATIONS
similar discontinuity in the cyclical pattern of the combined ftow curve corresponding to each piston or plunger and crank arrangement. The head required to accelerate the fluid column is a function of the length of the suction line, the average velocity in this line, the rotative speed, the type of pump, and the relative elasticity of the fluid and the pipe and may be calculated as follows:
LVnC h =--
Kg
where
ha L V n
= Acceleration head in feet = Length of suction line in feet = Velocity in suction line in fps = Pump speed in rpm e = 0.200 for simplex double-acting = 0.200 for duplex single-acting
= 0.115 for duplex double-acting
= 0.066 for triplex single or double-acting = 0.040 for quintuplex single or double-acting = 0.028 for septuplex, single or double-acting = 0.022 for nonuplex, single or double-acting = A factor representing the relative compressibility 1.4 for hot water; K = 2.5 for hot oil)
of the liquid ( K
g = Gravitational constant (32.2 ft/sec 2 )

Note: The constant C will vary from these values for unusual ratios of connecting rod length to crank radius.
The pulsation dampener properly installed near the pump with a short, full-size connection to the pump or suction pipe can absorb the cyclical fiow variation and reduce the pressure ftuctuation in the suction pipe to that corresponding to a length of 5 to 15 pipe diameters, if kept properly charged. There is a similar pressure fl.uctuation on the discharge side of every power pump, but it cannot be analyzed as readily because of the great infiuence of liquid and piping elasticity and the smaller diameter and much greater length of the discharge line in most applications. However, a pulsation dampener can be just as effective in absorbing the flow variation on the discharge side of the pump, as on the suction side, and should be used if pressure-fluctuation or piping vibration is a problem.
Example.
Given a 2" x 5" triplex pump running at 360 rpm and displacing 73 gpm of water with a suction pipe made up of 4 feet of 4-inch pipe and 20 feet of 6-inch pipe:
11.3 THE DYNAMICS OF LIQUID PIPING SYSTEMS
367
Average velocity in 4-inch pipe
V4
.321 X 73 12.73
= 1.84 fps
Average veloclty in 6-lnch pipe

V6
.321 X 73 28 . 89
= 0.811
fps
Acceleration head in 4-inch pipe
h04
=4
1.84 X 360 X .066 1.4 X 32.2
3 .88 ft
Acceleration head in 6-inch pipe h
20 X .811 X 360 X .066 1.4 X 32.2
8 55 ft .
Total acceleration head

ha
= 3.88 + 8.55 = 12.43 ft
11.3
THE DYNAMICS OF LIQUID PIPING SYSTEMS*
Piping systems of ali kinds have exhibited vibration due to pulsation produced by compressors or pumps. The problems and the solutions are slightly different in liquid systems than in gas systems. Piping vibration in liquid systems has been traditionally associated with a sudden change in ftow and is usually called waterhammer. Although waterhammer does representa problem area, most piping vibration problems in liquid systems today are caused by excitation from reciprocating pumps. Reciprocating pumps are generally used when the pressure ratio is high. The high pressure on the discharge side of the pump makes safety a major factor in the design and operation of the system. This sensitivity to safety and reliability has caused the pump industry to increase its awareness of piping vibration problems. An understanding of three areas is essential to the proper design and operation of a reciprocating pump system: 1. Pulsation generation by the pump
*Section 11.3 is included here by courtesy of the authors, C. L. Bates and L. E. Blodgelt, Department of Applied Physics, Southwest Research lnstitute, December 1985.
368
APPLICATIONS
2. The acoustics of the piping system 3. The mechanical response of the piping system This section will discuss techniques that the piping engineer can incorporate in the design process to ensure that the installed system will not suffer excessive piping vibration due to pulsation excitation. In order to properly apply the mechanical techniques it is necessary to understand the nature of the problem and the mechanisms that cause excessive vibration.
11.3.1
Where Does Vibration Come From?
Excessive piping vibration in liquid systems is almost always due to the coincidence of pump-induced pulsation and mechanical resonance. In like manner, excessive pulsation problems usually occur due to the coincidence of acoustic resonance in the piping and the excitation of the pump plunger process. A reciprocating machine will produce a degree of pulsation by the vary nature of the process involved in moving the fluid. In plunger pump systems the pulsation frequency produced by the pump will be a multiple of the basic plunger frequency. The basic plunger frequency is ( RPM / 60) X number of plungers. If the acoustic resonances of the piping are coincident with the pump excitation, this pulsation can be magnified by 5-50 times the original pulse. This acoustic coincidence points out the need to have a knowledge of the acoustic response of the piping system. The most efficient technique for determining the acoustic response of the piping system is to use an electroacoustic analog such as that sponsored by the Southern Gas Association. If the mechanical resonances of the piping system are coincident with this same frequency, further magnification can occur in the 5-50 times range. It is easy to see how a normal pump can produce enough pulsation to lead to a serious problem if both mechanical and acoustical resonances coincide with a multiple of the pump plunger excitation. Experience has shown that when both of these coincidences occur, excessive vibration and excessive dynamic stress are certain to be a prob~ lem. Because the forcing function is coming from the pump through the acoustics, it is instructive to understand the coupling mechanism by which this process occurs.
11.3.2
How Does the Pulsation Couple into the Piping?
Dynamic pressure (pulsation) in a piping system can couple into the mechanical system in two ways. The first is through simple pressure-areaforce. \\'."hen a presSU!e acts against an area such as the end of a pipe section, a simple force is produced. When the pressure is dynamic (changing), the resultant force is also dynamic. The frequency of the dynamic force will be the same as the pulsation frequency. The second mechanism by which energy can transfer is through the
369
change in momentum that occurs due to change in direction. It is a common practice to pipe liquid systems with long sweeping elbows. This will lessen the effect of momentum coupling and reduce the dynamic shaking force coupled at the elbow. However, such elbows can be expensive and may not always be required. This type of coupling also occurs at tees and other devices where a change in direction of ftow occurs. It is important to realize that the point of coupling may not be the actual location of the maximum vibration. The vibrational mode shape (the vibration pattem at resonance) will usually control the location of maximum vibration points. The forces in a piping system enter through coupling and can transfer along the system by structural conduction. An area of piping that is very susceptible to structural condition is piping racks where there is very little stmctural rigidity to restrain the movement of forces in the system.
11.3.3
Calculatlng Mechanical Natural Frequency
In calculating the mechanical natural frequency of a piping system it is important to include all significant factors and realize that the calculated natural frequency is approximate at best. For example, it is possible to cakulate the natural frequency and forget that the weight of the fluid inside the pipe is significant. Designers are warned to beware of piping natural frequency calculations where the weight of the fluid has not been properly included. It is not uncommon to be off by 30% if the weight of the fluid is not considered. Restraint points in a piping system are difficult to estimate, and therefore the end conditions must be assumed and a possible range of the natural frequency is the best that can be achieved. With the proliferaton of programmable hand-held calcuiators and microcomputers, it is most convenient to give the basic mathematical equations and allow the engineer the choice of how to make the calculation. The basic relationship can be summarized as
f
where
= _,_
27rL2 ~~
r;EI
(11.1)
f = natural frequency, Hz
,
7f
= frequency factor = 3.14159
L = length of span, in I
g
E
w
= moment of inertia, in4 = 386.088, ins2 = pipe material modulus of elasticity, lb/ in2 = weight of pipe per unit length, lb in
370
APPLICATIONS
The weight of the pipe is determined from [1r(OD2

-
ID 2 )
Ps]
w=
where
+ [1r
ID2
PL]
( 11.2)
OD = outer pipe diameter, in ID = inside pipe diameter, in p s = density of pipe material, lb/ in3 PL = density of liquid, lb/ in 3 The basic expression has been derived from simple beam theory, and the frequency factors have been derived from either a theoretical end condition or from finite element calculations. Frequency factors for idealized pipe span and bends are included in Figure 11. 7. The ftequency factors reflect the accuracy generally required for design calculations.
Frequency Factor Beam Type Cantilever Simply supported Fixed-supported Fixed-fixed Free-free
.
P.2
3.52 9.87 15.8 22.4
22.0 39.5 50.0 61.7 61.7

In Plane
22.4
Out of Plane
L-bend, equal legs U-bend, equal legs Z-bend, equal legs
3.74 2.00 2.26
15.4 3.1 2.8
Figure 11. 7. Natural frequency factors and coefficients for idealized pipe spans and bends.
11.3 THE DYNAMICS OF LIOU!D PIPING SYSTEMS
371
10 1---91--+8
,__..,__-+-+---+--+-
;. ~dlh
6 >--t---l--4--l--->-51--1---+-+-+--+--+"""~-+-+-.._j~I--+--+---~
41--t---f-+-+--+--+--'~~~'+-'--+-+-+- - + - - - + - - - - - - t
31--+--1--1-~---+---t-~--''"""
"....
2 l--+--1--1--1--+---+--~
:
u..
(;'
l 1--t---t---+--+---t---t---+--+.81--+--+--+--+---t--t---+-+---11~~..--'k---+-t----~
"'
.41--t--t--t---+---t---+---+-+--+-+--flr\ct-T---.
Out-of-plane vibration
.31--+--+--+--+---t---t----+-+--+-+-+-'<-+"<---+-~.-''---~
.l ........._._...__.__.___.~___,~-~-'-........-'-_...__,__.._~......._._.......~ 108 6 5 4 3 1 .8 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1
RatioL/h
Figure 11.8. Frequency factor ( ) vs. ratio L / h for uniform U-bend.
Piping bends raise another unique problem in the calculation of natural frequencies. To compensate for the added fiexibility of elbows in piping systems, a plot of frequency factor versus configurational parameters has been included in Figure 11.8. The information given on the plot can be used to calcula.te the mechanical natural frequencies of L-bends and U-bends with variable dimensions. The effect of concentrated masses in a system can be obtained through the use of Rayleigh's method. Applying this method, it can be shown that it is first necessary to determine the natural frequency of a beam without the mass, and then apply a correction factor to obtain the approximate solution. The equations and correction factors are contained in Figure 11. 9.
11.3.4
Making the Application to Actual Piping
In making the calculation of mechanical response it is first necessary to define the assurnptions that cause the natural frequency to deviate from the ideal.
372
APPLICATIONS
Correction Factor C for Natural Frequency Equation Beam Type Cantilever, load at end Simply supported, load at center Fixed supported, load at center Fixed-fixed, load at center L-bend, load at center of leg, equal legs (L) U-bend, load at center, equal legs (L) Z-bend, load at center, equal legs (L)
fp
=fj~I + C~ (11.3)
3.9 2.0 2.3
F===O
2.7
0.28
O. 7 Out of plane 0.61 In plane
0.68 Out of plane 0.66 In plane
Figure 11.9. Concentrated weight-correction factors for ideal piping spans.
1. The restraint stiffness of a clamp may not be fixed or simply supported but may be somewhere in between. 2. The beam will probably be continuous beyond the restraint points. 3. The pip may not be uniform in the span. 4. The configuration may be more complex than allowed for in the simple calculations. 5. Added masses are usually not ideally concentrated but are distributed over sorne finite length of the pipe.
11.3.5
What about Generalized Finite-Element Analysis?
There are many finite-element computer programs available to make calculations of complex three-dimensional systems. Such programs as STARDYNE, ANSYS, NASTRAN, MARC, and ADINA are available through most computer systems. In many cases these programs can be overkill from the standpoint of efficient design. If all simple spans were calculated as if they were complex, the cost to dynamically design piping systems would more than triple. And no matter how complex and rigorous the piping model, the same questions of end condition and restraint effectiveness limit the accuracy of the calculations. lt is important to keep
373
in mind that a simple calculation with the proper assumptions is far superior to a rigorous calculation with poor assumptions.
11.3.6
Design Philosophy
In designing a pump piping system to avoid or minimize vibration problems, the desired goal is to avoid having any piping spans or piping components that are mechanically resonant to any of the major excitation frequencies in the system. lf this is accomplished, then the vibrations should be within acceptable criteria, assuming the basic supporting mechanisms are adequately designed. Safe vibration limits in piping systems are a function of the dynamic stresses introduced by the particular vibratory mode shape. However, experience with numerous piping vibration and failure problems at existing installations and design experiences with over 5000 pump and compressor installations have developed the criteria presented in Figure 11.10. These simplified criteria are intended to provide rough guidelines
200
100 80 60
.><
~ '
.. "'
40 30 20
-......
'
.... -,;
-.....
'~ S /,o
I'
,r--....~
.....~ ........
~a,,
c.
.$ .><
c.
~
~r--....
.........
...
r-....
""i-..
al
.E
.!!!
'O :::1
~ 10
8 6
4 3 2
~
ai
,r-.....
.... ~
~~ ........
4'a,,. ll111a
C'o,.,,
r-.......,
""~
~
1'-
......
Des
- ...
.............
:!:
a.
E e:
... ,
-......;!1111
>
.a
"' o
~"e~.,,
,r-......
...,~~efq
........
lfoe,,
'
!'.,.
....
r-....
~
""~
i"' ....
""'
~
""
~e
1 .8 .6 .4 .3
1
~.Ot,
~~
'
r--......
....
.!Ot
...
...
i"'
. ... ....
200 300
.......
...............
2 34 6810
20 30 40 60 80 100 Vibration frequency, Hz
Figure 11.10. Standardized piping vibration criteria. Note: Indicated vibration limits are for average piping system constructed in accordance with good engineering practices. Make additional allowances for critica! applications, unreinforced branch connections, etc.
374
APPLICATIONS
for evaluating piping vibrations to help determine if additional analysis or modifications should be considered. The design philosophy that has been successfully utilized for controlling piping vibrations for reciprocating pump and compressor installations is to make the mechanical natural frequencies of the piping spans and components at least two times the highest excitation frequency of concern. Thus, based on a knowledge of the pulsation energy in the piping from an electroacoustic analog analysis or other techniques, mechanical resonant frequency calculations can be made to determine the spacing, location, and sizing of piping supports or restraints to minimize vibration problems. From a dynamic standpoint, the primary function ofpiping supports should not be to hold the piping by "brote force" but to detune and dampen the mechanical natural frequencies of concern. One of the most important design considerations that can be used to help prevent vibration problems is simply to eliminate all unnecessary piping bends, since they provide a strong coupling point between pulsation excitation forces and the mechanical system. All bends that are necessary should be designed and located so that they can be effectively supported. Another guideline is that supports should be located at all large concentrated masses and discontinuities in the piping system. This includes in-line valves such as block valves, regulator valves, and check valves, and other components such as flanges. Another area of particular concern is the design of small auxiliary piping connections such as vents, drains, and pressure test connections. These are the most common locations where vibration-induced piping failures are experienced in industrial plant systems. The typical design is such that relatively large valve and flange masses are cantilevered out from the main piping on small piping niP.ples. This results in a high-Q (amplification factor) mechanical system with a natural frequency in the range of typical excitation forces and with a high stress concentration factor in the connection area. In order to prevent this type of problem, the number of small auxiliary branch connections should be minimized and the necessary connections should be designed and supported to effectively eliminate relative vibration between the branch connectio~ mass and the main piping. Design guidelines for controlling piping vibrations and failures for reciprocating pump and compressor installations are summarized as follows:
Piping Dynamic Design Guidelines 1. The excitation forces in the system should be determined utilizing the best suitable techniques available. For reciprocating pump and compressor installations, the use of the electroacoustical analog has been the most effective method for designing satisfactory pulsation control. 2. For reciprocating pump and compressor piping, it is desirable to have the mechanical natural frequencies of all piping spans and components at least two times the highest pulsation excitation frequency of concern. 3. Eliminate as many piping bends as possible.
11.4 HIGH SUCTION PRESSURE
375
4. Add effective pipe supports at all necessary bends. 5. Add pipe supports at all large concentrated masses and piping discontinuities (block valves, regulator valves, flanges, etc.). 6. Design and support small auxiliary piping components (vents, drains, instrument connections, etc.) to eliminate relative vibrations between the branch connection masses (valves and flanges) and the main piping. 7. Do not use unreinforced branch connections. 8. Do not use piping fittings or reinforcements that are characterized by highstress intensification factors. 9. Do not use threaded connections. 10. Do not restrain the piping by directly welding to it.
11.4
HIGH SUCTION PRESSURE
With double-acting pumps, a high suction pressure actually helps to "unload" the power end because the suction pressure is at all times reacting to the force on the piston dueto the discharge pressure. This results, as far as the power end is concemed, is a net hydraulic horsepower based on the difference between the discharge and suction pressures, and the power end is "unloaded" with respect to stress in proportion to the applied suction pressure. Accordingly, the horsepower requirement can be calculated on the pressure difference and with a basic mechanical efficiency of 85%, using formula (11.4). In a single-acting pump, an entirely different condition exists. In such a pump the configuration is such that a high suction pressure acting on the piston or plunger is added to that imposed by the discharge pressure, this total load being transmitted to the crankshaft and associated bearings, etc. In a triplex pump (one with three cylinders), two plungers or pistons always have either suction or discharge pressure at the same time while the third has discharge or suction pressure, respectively. A quintuplex pump (five cylinders) can have discharge pressure on three plungers or pistons and suction pressure on the other two, or vice versa. In view of these facts, when the suction pressure exceeds about 5 % of the discharge pressure, it becomes necessary to take this into account so that the power end of the pump will not be overloaded. On this basis, formulas (11.5)-(11. 9) are used to arrive at an artificial discharge pressure for determining a reduced plunger or piston diameter. For Double-Acting Pumps: BHP
= (Pd
- Ps)
GPM
1714
.85
( 11.4)
376
APPLICATIONS
For Single-Acting Pumps: BHP = (Pd - P,)

X -- X
GPM 1714
ME*
( 11.5)
Triplex pumps: Quintuplex pumps: Septuplex pumps: Nonuplex pumps: where
(11.6)
(11.7)
(11.8)
(11.9)
P = artificial discharge pressure upon which plunger/piston is selected
when suction pressure is in excess of 5 % of discharge pressure

Pd = actual discharge pressure
Ps = actual suction pressure BHP = input brake horsepower GPM =actual U.S. GPM *ME = mechanical efficiency from Figure 11.11
Example
A certain triplex pump rated at 1000 PSI with 3-in plungers ( PRL 7200 lb) would have to be equipped with 2~-in plungers ( 1250 PSI at PRL 7200 lb) to pump at actual 1000 PSI with 500 PSI suction pressure.
1000
500 /2
1250 PSI
11.5
SIZING PUMPS FOR PIPELINES"
In designing a proposed pipeline that involves a large number of pumps and stations, several factors are influential in determining the optimum relationship between station capacity and reciprocating pump size. Total cost, including pump
*This section is an excerpt from a paper entitled "Sizing Pumps for Long Slurry Pipelines" prepared
by J. E. Miller and Will Smith, Worthington Group, Dresser Industries. The paper was presented by
J. E. Miller at the English lnternational Conference on Slurry Transportation, March 15-18, 1983 in San Francisco, CA, and .is excerpted by permission of Worthington.
115 SIZING PUMPS FOR PIPELINES
377
0.8
r:i..."'
'Q, ~
:;::;
0.6
l.':
~
c..
"' ~
V>
::i
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.6 0.4 Mechanical etticiency ME
0.8
0.9
1.0
Figure 11.11. Plunger pump mechanical effi.ciency vs. suction pressure/discharge pressure. To determine BHP: Calculate pressure ratio. Detennine mechanical effi.ciency from curve. Substitute in: BHP = (Pd - P,) where Pd
=
X
GPM/1714
=
ME*
( 11.5)
discharge pressure, PSI, and P,
suction pressure, PSI.
first cost, installation costs, and cost of operation and m.ntenance, is obviously an important consideration. Certainly the number of operating pumps in a station related to pump size) must permit practical operation over the full range of flow rates expected for the pipeline. Thus, a relatively clear-cut solution can be developed to establish the appropriate pump size for a given pipeline.
11 .5.1
Pump Cost
To construct a pump-cost model, it is first necessary to have or assign viable values for the original cost of new pumps, dampeners, and expendable parts, as well as power costs. It is desirable to include the cost of dampeners in a study of this kind because the pulsation-control equipment required for reciprocating pumps represents a considerable portion of the first cost of an installation. To study the fundamental effect of purnp sizing, models for such a study can be selected from an existing family of pumps or they can be of odd sizes and types, or, if the project warrants, newly designed sizes and types can be considered.
378
APPLICATIONS
To apply weighing factors to the costing of pumps, it is assumed that the cost is closely related to the pump BHP regardless of type. (See Section 11.5.3.) The cost of a larger pump is based on the generally accepted formula where the scaleup factor is raised toan exponent of O. 75: Cost
= s0 75
basic pump cost
(11.10)
where Sis the scale-up factor. For example, if our model is an 800-BHP pump that costs $160,000, a 1600BHP pump should cost ( 1600/800)"75
X
$160,000
= $269,000
There may be a departure from the constant dollar-per-horsepower with pumps of different type, but, without supporting data and in the interest of simplicity, this possibility has not been considered.
11.5.2
Expendable Parts Cost
The estimated expendable parts cost for larger pumps is based on a projection from presently available catalog prices for similar pump parts. Parts usage is directly related to pressure, and this is included in the equation and is based on available data from existing usage. (See Section 11.5.3.) The parts cost over the life of the pipeline is probably the second most important factor. The study reveals sorne differences in the long-term parts and power costs with different types of pumps. These differences must also be considered.
11.5.3
Methods of Cost Projection
Pump cost Dampener cost
(BHP /800)75 gallons

0.75
$160,000
(11.10)
= ( --::o- )
x
(
X $22,000
. station pressure )0.75 1500
(11.11)
Parts cost
(~) hfe
X (
number per pump
number of operating pumps
size base size
)n x base cost x (station pressure) x PV 1000

(11.12)
11.5
SIZ!NG PUMPS FOR PIPELINES
379
For 20 years and 10% interest PV ( Present Value) where
[1 -- (1 + .1)- 2]/o.1
8.5
(11.13)
n = exponent dedved from Published Prices.

Parts Cost Factors:
Part Pisto ns Liners Valves and seats Dampener bladders Piston rods Packing Life Base Size 1 in 7 in API#9 40 gal 3.5 in D 3.5 in D Base Cost Exponent ( n)
1.0
zb
2b
1 2
1
24
1003 310
0.85
2575
798 64
2.0 0.5
1.0
0.5
1.0
Life, in years, selected for comparison uses at l 000 PSI.

bFor doub!e-acting pumps, use half value.
Power cost -
/KWH
(11.14)
Usage based on mechanical efficiency of pump type: Single-acting O. 90 Double-acting 0.85 All costs in 1983 dollars.
11.5.4
Standby Pumps
It is logical to proceed with the general assumption that a minimum number of pumps is desirable, since the fewer the pumps the fewer the parts and the less maintenance required. Carried to the extreme, this assumption would lead to using two pumps, one with sufficient power for the station requirement and another of equal size-an expensive l 00 % of standby power. It would result in a loss of ability to maintain continuous pipeline operation with the breakdown of an additional pump. In the other extreme, a large number of smaller pumps would result in lower standby cost and would contribute to less upset in flow with the breakdown of one of the pumps, but would involve a higher parts and maintenance cost. Somewhere between these extremes should lie an optimum number of pumps per station. Accordingly, this study is based on the assumption that the station equipment
380
APPLICATIONS
OPTIMIZATION OF PUMPS/STATION
t o
u
> .;:;;
<I>
-.;;
o::
"'
1 'I
1.5
1.4
1(Minirnum at 3 pumps)
1
1 1
1 1 1
1.1
Relative first cost of pumps oniy
1.0
1(Minimum at 4 pumps)
1 1 1
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3
Relative cost of expenda ble parts only (Present value of 20 yr requirements at 103 interest)
Number ol pumps in a station (including one spare)
Figure 11.12. Optimization ofpumps per station. (Courtesy Worthington Pump DivisionDresser Industries)
would consist of a certain number of pumps that would supply the total displacement requirements, with the addition of one pump of the same size for standby. Figure 11.12 shows the optimum number of total pumps per station as four, on the basis of the previously mentioned exponent of O. 75 for pump cost alone. The effect of parts cost tends to shift the optimum cost toward a smaller number of pumps, in this case three. But due to "windows of nonutilization," size of pumps available, and the diversity of station requirements, this ideal can seldom be realized.
11.5.5
Procedure for Pump Selecfm *
l. List available pumps with specifications: Type, piston range, RPM, BHP,
pump cost, number of parts per pump, and parts cost. 2. List number of stations and requirements: Station number, GPM, pressure, pumping BHP.
*AH costs in thousands of dollars. Parts include val ves and seats; liners and rubbers; piston rods and packing.
11.5 SIZING PUMPS FOR PIPELINES
381
For each station and for each pump type: 3. Determine total number of pumps per station, Ns
N
s
= (. station pumping BHP ') * + 1 ( standby)

,
pump BHP
(11.15)
4. Calculate excess BHP, E percent:
E=
N, x pump BHP - station pumping BHP . X 100 station pumping BHP
(11.16)
5. Calculate station pump cost, CP:
CP = N,
cost of 1 pump
(11.17)
6. Cakulate station expendable pump parts cost, CP 1 :
CP 1
= (Ns -
l ) X parts cost per pump t
(11.18)
For entire pipeline system: 7. Calculate and combine totals and arrange in ascending order of total cost (see Table 11 Pump, total number of pumps, percent excess, pump cost, parts cost, total cost, parts per changeout, power cost
11.5.6
Stations
In order to show the fundamental relationship between horsepower and number of pumps, a hypothetical station of 3290 GPM at 1500 PSI (2880 BHP) is selected. The pumps listed in Table 11.5, Group l (single-acting) and Group 2 (doubleacting) are specially designed pumps with HHP ratings exactly divisible into the station HHP, resulting in maximum utilization of the pump's capability. From the practical standpoint and to show the effects from available and randomly selected pumps, Groups 3 and 4 indude a probable family of geometrically sized pumps.
*With this fraction increased to next whole number. tFor any period of time, 20 years in the example.
TABLE 11.5 Costs for all Permutations
Oll N
Pump BHP
Number of Pumps
Pump Cost
Dampener Cost
Total
Parts Cost
Total
Power Cost
Total
Piston Diam, in
Group l. Single-Acting Triplex, Divisibleb
3200 1600 1067 800 640 3387 1694 1129 847 678 3400 2200 1750 850 560 3400 2200 1750 850 560
2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6 2 3 3 5 7 2 3 3 5 8
905 807 794 800 812 944 843 829 835 848 947 1025 863 837 857 947 1025 863 837 980
199 177 174 176 178 209 187 184 185 188 208 225 190 184 188 210 227 191 185 217
1104 985 969 976 990 1154 1029 1012 1020 1036 1155 1250 1053 1021 1045 1157 1252 1055 1023 1196
154 192 223 248 271 297 400 482 552 614 161 238 204 258 300 297 463 408 553 779
1258 1177 1191 1224 1261 1450 1430 1494 1571 1650 1316 1488 1257 1279 1346 1454 1715 1462 1575 1975
8892 8892 8892 8892 8892 9415 9415 9415 9415 9415 8892 8892 8892 8892 8892 9415 9415 9415 9415 9415
10150 10069 10084 10116 10154 10866 10845 10909 10987 11065 10208 10380 10149 10171 10238 10870 11131 10878 10990 11390
16.4 11.6 9.5 8.2 7.3 12.0 8.5 6.9 6.0 5.4 16.9 13.0 12.1 8.5 6.9 12.0 9.7 8.6 6.0 4.9
Group 2. Double-Acting Triplex, Divisible
Group 3. Single-Acting Triplex, Randomc
Group 4. Double-Acting Duplo:, Random
Station: 3290 GPM, 1500 PSI, 2880 HHP Ali values in thousands of 1983 dollars. "Number of pumps includes one standby. b}ivi.sible: station. HHP divisible by whole number of p~mps from 2 to 6 (Pumps designed to exact station requirements)
1i .5
SIZING PUMPS FOR PIPELINES
383
11.5. 7
Calculations
With the above data on hand, the calculations are carried out in the order shown in Section 11.5.5. In order to dramatize these results, Figure 11.13 is provided. There is only a slight difference in total pump cost vs. the number of groups, but the diferences in parts cost and power cost (incremental) between the single-acting and the double-acting pumps are pronounced. Once the combining mechanics have been completed, selection logic can be applied using the data at hand. First, let's assume that five pumps per station will be desirable. As shown in Table 11.5, Group l and 2, the least costly would be the 800-BHP, special divisible, single-acting triplex. On the other hand, if available or random pumps are considered, Group 2 and 3, then the 850-BHP single-acting triplex would be the next choice. The absolutely least-cost random pump would be the Group 3, three-per-station 1750-BHP pump. There are other subtle factors that could temper t.he choice. A parameter that is difficult to evaluate is the sanctity of the proven unit, particularly physical size scale-up. For example, the lowest-cost triplex single-acting pump might require the use of uncommonly large diameter pistons and a high piston rod load.
C::::J Incremental power cost

~Partscost
~ Dampener cost
c::::::J Pump cost

2.0
1.0
4
Number of pumps per station
Figure 11.13. Number of pumps per station. Based on 20-year life of project. Shows the long-term cost in constant dollars of pump operation, stressing cost of parts. Note differences in cost for pump type and number of pumps per station. (Courtesy Worthington Pump Division-Dresser Industries)
384
APPLICATIONS
Another factor difficult to evaluate is the requirement for a wide variety of different piston sizes (and associated liners and valves) for each pipeline. To obtain the advantage of a lower inventory of parts and possible cost reduction on a quantity basis, one could choose the option of more pumps with one fixed piston diameter. A redeeming feature of this choice is the fact that the parts cost, even with more pumps, would remain about the same as with fewer pumps because of the direct relationship of parts life to actual horsepower. A compromise of, say, only two different piston diameters could be considered.
11.5.8
Study Results
Perhaps the most startling revelation of this study is the fact that the pump cost alone for a diverse pipeline system may have little relation to any particular pump type or size (see Table 11.5). Long-term operating costs are greatly affected by the type of pump because of the variation in liquid-end parts requirements and incremental power costs. lt is impossible to design an individual pump of a size that would provide absolute optimization for all pipelines. In general, the optimum pump size or horsepower can be directly related to the station horsepower on the basis of four, five, or six pumps per station (including standby). Reiterating, maximum optimization could be gained by designing a specially sized pump to best fit the proposed system. This approach is not necessarily out of the question for long pipelines because of the long lead time from system conception to completion. The magnitude of sorne projects would certainly warrant this approach.
11.6
BOLT TIGHTENING SPECIFICATIONS
All bolted assemblies require proper torqueing in order to obtain maximum efficiency and to prevent eventual failure dueto uneven tightening. Table 11.6 gives the torque specifications for most bolt sizes and materials.
TABLE 11.6 Bolt Torque Specificatlons
Tensile Stress Area
Size* !(20)
Area, in2 .0318 .0524 .0775 .1063 .1419 .2260
Size* iCIO)
~ (9)
Area, in2 .3340 .4620 .6060 .7630 .9690 1.1550
-fu (18)
iC16)
~(14)
!(13)
i(l l)
1 (8) 1!(7) 1!(7) Ii(6)
*Bolt diameter, in; threads per inch given in parentheses.
TABLE 11.6 (Continued)
Tightening Torquefor ASTM A-307 OR SAE Grade l; low-carbon bolts, heads not marked
Bolt Diam. in
5
Dry Threads Torque, lb-ft 2.6 5.4 9.6 15.3 23.5 46.5 82.7 133 200 282 Force, lb 5.2 10.8 9.6 15.3 23.5 31.0 41.3 53 67 71 Arm, ft
2 2
1 1
Lubricated Threads Torque, lb-ft. 1.95 4.05 7.2 11.5 17.6 34.9 62.0 100 150 211 Force, lb 3.8 8.1 7.2 11.5 17.6 23.3 31.0 40 50 53 Arm, ft
2 2
1 1
Bolt Clamp Load, lb 630 1,040 1,535 2,100 2,810 4,470 6,620 9,410 12,000 15,100
4
3
7
T6 8 T6
2
5
3
7
1
1 1 1! 2 2! 3 4
1 1 1! 2 2! 3 4
4
8
lk
Based on tensile stress
= 60%
yield strength.
T
= 0.2DL/12
= EYA
lb; E
where T = torque, ft-lb; D = nominal diameter, in; L and A = stress area of bolt, in 2
= clamp load,
= 0.6;
= yield,
PSI;
Tightening Torquefor ASTM B-7 or SAE Grade 7 Alloy steel studs, head marked letter H
Bolt Diam. in
5
Dry Threads Torque, lb-ft 8.3 17.2 30.5 48.8 74.5 148 262 425 635 900 1270 1660 Force, lb 16.6 17.2 30.5 48.8 37.2 48 87 106 159 180 254 276 Arm, ft
2
1
Lubricated Threads Torque, lb-ft. 6.2 12.9 23.9 36.6 55.8 111 196 318 477 675 955 1245 Force, lb 12.4 12.9 23.9 36.6 28 37 66 79 119 135 191 207 Arm, ft
2
1
Bolt Clamp Load, lb 2000 3,300 4,880 6,700 8,930 14,200 21,000 29,100 38,200 48,000 61,000 72,500
385
T6 3 T6
7
1
2
5
i7
lk
1!
li
2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6
1 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6
386
APPLICATIONS
TABLE 11.6 (Continued)
Tightening Torque for ASTM A-325 OR SAE Grade 5 or A325 Heat-treated bolts; capscrews, head marked with ticks at each of si.x points and!sometimes ''A325 ''.
Dry Threads Torque, lb-ft 6.7 13.9 24.7 39.4 60.3 120 212 315 472 633 900 1170 Force, lb 13.5 13.9 24.7 26.3 30.2 60 71 79 118 127 180 195 Arm, ft
2
l
QoRe
Arm, ft
2
l
Bolt Diam. in
Lubricated Threads Torque, lb-ft. 5.06 10.4 16.5 29.6 45.2 90 159 236 354 475 675 877 Force, lb 10.1 10.4 16.5 19.7 24.6 45 53 59 88 95 135 146 Bolt Clamp Load, lb 1,620 2,670 3,950 5,400 7,240 11,500 17,000 21,600 28,400 33,800 43,000 51,000
~
8
7
1 1! 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 6
1 1! 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 6
IT l 'i: 8
4
3
7
lk
1!
li
12
INSTRUMENTATION
12.1
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS METHODS
1. To obtain uniformity of data collections, standard transducer locations and identification (A, B, C, D, E) have been adopted as shown in Figure 12.1, which also illustrates the use of the terms "upstream" and "downstream." 2. The pressure taps should be on the horizontal centerline of the pipe so as to eliminate air entrapment if on the top and sediment entrapment if on the bottom, and to provide a zero datum point. 3. The transducers should be located as close to the pump inlet and outlet as possible (within 1 or 2 in). 4. All taps should be !-in NPT. In preference to using a welded-in coupling or other fitting, it is best to drill and tap the pipe, when possible, so as to make a ''close-to-the-liquid'' connection. 5. Whenever possible, a cylinder pressure waveform (location C) should be taken simultaneously (through a tapped cylinder head) to obtain a "marker" that will help in the analysis as shown in most of the oscillographs included in this text. 6. A strain-gauge type of transducer (of 'flush" construction that places the sensing element or diaphragm directly into the liquid stream) is recommended, since there would be no cavity to introduce resonance and frequency response problems. It is recommended that the transducers be left installed for the duration of the test only because most transducers have a finite life when subjected to pulsating pressure. 7. No nipples, valves, or other fittings should be interposed to create resonant cavities.
387
388
INSTRUMENTATION
Transduc:er locations
Upstream - . - Downstream
Figure 12.1. Pressure-measuring points.
READ IN THIS DIRECTJON---
SCOPE VERTICAL GAIN FROM WHICH PRESSURE IS CALCULATED

TRANSDUCER LOCATION
AND f1EASURED (Z)
GAUGE PRESSURE AT LlMITS MARKED CALCULATED FROM TRANSDUCER SPECS.
MINIMUM TO MAXIMUM
PRESSURE
(Af')
O, 2 E
20082 HIGH
2,oos LOW
ONE CYLINDER
AS "MARKER"
PRESSURE IN
0.2
C3
44 SUCT ION
2.r270
REVOLUT!ON BETWEEN MARKSMEASURE (Y) SCOPE SWEEP

80016-S
ONE
o.oso
% THEORET!CAL DISCHARGE CYC.
235 RPM
:
99.3~IME
RECIP.
PUMP PP-49,
READINGS
~T
PUMP
CALCULATED FROM SCOPE SWEEF FOR ONE REVOLUTION (Y)
1
RATIO OF DISCHARGE LENGTH ()() TO
LENGTH OF STROKE (Y) (RELATED TO V. E. l
TEST NUMBER
PUMP DESCR l PTI ON
SPECIAL
TATEMENTS
Figure 12.2. How toread oscillographs.
8. In making a survey it is wise to always use the same transducer before and after any changes are made to the system. 9. The use of an oscilloscope for pressure waveform readout is considered the rnost reliable method, since it removes the problems of frequency response, inertia, resonance, and other mechanical doubts associated with recording chart devices. Figure 12.2 shows the method of interpreting a typical oscillograph.
12.3 TYPICAL WAVEFORMS
389
Pump No. 4 Natural frequency of suction pipe
9-8-79
11:28 AM Pump shut down
Calculation of frequency 20 cycles/125 mm Chart speed - 100 mm/s 20/(125/100) = 16 Hz Amplitude - 50 mV /div
Figure 12.3. Oscillograph-pipe vibration.
12.2.
VIBRATION MEASUREMENT
Complete instrumentation of a pump for the purpose of analyzing problems should include (in addition to pressure transducers) vibration transducers (accelerometers) placed on the piping system in order to determine the degree and frequency of vibration of the particular section of piping that may be subject to excessive vibration. The frequency can be related to the pump-generated pulse or rotational frequency to determine if a critica! resonance is present. In all of these measurements it is assumed that the recording device (oscilloscope or oscillograph) has an accurate time-base trace. One can determine the natural frequency of a section of pipe by striking the pipe with a wooden ball bat, for example, while the accelerometer is mounted in the proper location and with the pump stopped but with the piping filled with liquid. (See Figure 12.3.) Figure 12.4 offers a good example of how the vibration of pipe spans can be measured and related to the pump rotation by the second simultaneous trace of the pump cylinder pressure. lt will be seen that the pipe vibration is related to the second harmonic of the pump pulsations. Figure 12.5 is handy to convert acceleration to velocity or displacement.
12.3
TVPICAL WAVEFORMS
The series of 35 oscillographs shown in Figures 12.6 and 12.7, obtained during NPSH tests, show the typical shapes generated under a myriad of conditions. (An apology for the poor quality of this series of oscillographs is in order. They are part of a series of hundreds of oscillographs taken during an extensive test that would be most difficult and expensive to rerun and record. They all show the important shape of the suction waveform.) Note the variation of the suction pressure waveform shapes, particularly the "rounded-bottom, sharp upward spikes" at 360 RPM (and others) indicating cavitation.
390
INSTRUMENTATION
Discharge pipe vibration
=Ft=J~~r=icF'cF'c ~ ~ st~oke 1
Cylinder pressure / 100 mm
1
One
Figure 12.4. Pipe vibration vs. pump pulsations. Chart data: Chart speed, 100 mm/s; upper trace, discharge pipe vibration; lower trace, center cylinder pressure, PSI. This cha1t is an actual trace taken on a 7 X 10 in triplex single-acting pump pumpng water at 1000 PSI. The lower trace is the cylinder pressure obtained from a transducer located in the center cylinder head. The upper trace is the output of an accelerometer attached to the discharge pipe at the point of maximum vibration. From this chart it was determined that the basic speed of the pump was 133 RPM, generating the following numerical and pressure frequencies: Basic pump speed, 133 RPM (2.2 Hz). Discharge pipe vbration frequency, 25 Hz. Pulse frequency of triplex single-acting pump, 13.3 Hz (Almost second harmonic of pump pulsation frequency. Slight difference provides phasing as shown in the periodic nature of the pipe vibration frequency.)
The test involved a 3 X 6 in triplex single-acting pump with a valve spring POSIVA of 4 anda discharge pressure of 1400 PSI. The controlled suction pressure was measured by a damped Bourdon tube pressure gauge, and the suction pressure was controlled by a throttling valve. In order for these oscillographs to be presented in a form that will allow direct comparison, they have been rather congested, and sorne further explanation may be needed. The graphs are arranged vertically by decreasing suction pressure and horizontally by increasing speed as shown at the top of each column. Each graph is labeled with its associated volumetric efficiency. Figure 12.6 is for a 90-ft long suction pipe and Figure 12.7 is for a 10-ft suction.
12.4
MISCEllANEOUS WAVEFORMS (OSCILLOGRAPHS)
The typical self-described oscillographs included here as Figures 12. 8-12 .17 show the variations of pressure waveform shapes generated by different operating conditions. It should be noted that in many of these waveforms the suction and dis-
12.4 MISCELLANEOUS WAVEFORMS (OSCILLOGRAPHS)
391
Frequency, Hz
Figure 12.5. Vibration nomograph. Arrows indicate direction of lines.
charge traces are aligned with the cylinder trace, which is usually shown. In other words, any disturbance in the suction or discharge can be related to a particular position of the crank rotation by reference to the cylinder trace. For example, in Figure 12.8 the marked disturbances (pressure spikes) in the suction can be related either to a flow or acceleration peak as shown. Without a suction stabilizer and with a "good" suction head (upper left), an acceleration spike is identified as such because it occurs immediately at the start of a suction stroke in the cylinder trace immediately above. To show how the disturbances can change when the suction head is reduced to 2 ft (lower left), the acceleration spike has disappeared and a flow variation spike has replaced it as a major disturbance occurring at a point of maximum flow.
100 RPM
200 RPM
300 RPM
360 RPM
1 1 1 1
98% VE
1 ,. ! . i
1
, , .
r u
1
1>.
1 1 1 1 ; 1 1 1
;
~ ~ .. '
'i
91.2%V - - -"--. 97% VE,
;1.
1 1
1 l , L.1. 1 1 1
YI
1
I~
:S7I ~.. !J f
.
.f1tv-I;
1
j,. .
i. ! /.i 1 iJ i.J7!'H'l
1 1 '
F -t--=:d
:
~: 96% VE
:
. .
\: _..,. n
' ;
1
.; :
1 1 '
,, ; ' ' '! . lllt. . -,- i ~-~
' . ,_j
lJ.,,J
i ;
tttff.~
f"tl_Jfi- _f iJitn
vr..
1 ,;
1 .
: ~97.5% VE1-,1~~;:::t.' 97.5%
! I'
1 ,
frr
1 ! :
: 1 ; 1 t 1 .
1 1
!- :
1
.. I ~ 1 1 1
vE.
:-~ 97.5% ! ' ! I~ . ., . ,

!
93.BXV,
1 ;
1 .
i 1 ;. 1 i ' il..1 1ll: i 1~ 1O PSI
1 1 ,1
ni:
1 1 1 1 11.~ ~ .1f., 1
---1. . 1. 1.....1_.... 1 .... --i..... 1J_1.

v __ : ~...:....'
.;
WlJ trrr ~r-r.1 rJti

-
1 1 11 1 1 i . ! 1 ..1 1111-
! : 1" , 1: 1 1 1 1 1 h 1'"' l.
1:
l:.
. i
l L..:..J
l==~,==-;~:~-:......,.._r:::::.::=: l=d!~-.t.J.L-~i....:.._,_...:...::=I==-;_.;__. _;..._~:;;_:~;"--,___/\,.___./._;_ :-t 1 -~-.:...~t--""11'! 1 i 1 -,- ~ 1 ~ ;-1:
,~.. .r. "T ~-' 1: ((.._ -'- .-. ,_._ - - . -~ - -
99.6%
98.1% VE __: "'......!. 97 '. 4% vt ~~' 80% VE
-r-- '
1- - -~ . ! . - .___j_ =-
----==11
,,,.._1__,
-5 PSI
- - -L9f.5X VE -- - :.. 95% VE;-:,.--;- ;
-_
_c1
:
~-
.--~~- - L--
--- - '.- ......:.
COMPLETE CAVITATION
Figure 12.6 Long Suction Pipe. Oscillographs at various RPMs and suction pressures. Typical cylinder and inlet (suction) pressure waveforms for 3 x 6 in triplex single-acting plunger pump. 4 POSIVA valve spring load. Vertical scale (suction): JO PSI per division. Suction system: 90 ft of 4-in pipe. RPM, suction pressure, and volumetric efficiency noted.
392
100 RPM
200 RPM
300 RPM
SPACE COMPLETE CAVITATION
N - NOISE
TOP TRACE CYLINDER PRESSURE
- - 7 5 PSI
N : : /
:f 11 tf)l
Figure 12. 7 Short Suction Pipe. Oscillographs at various RPMs and suction pressures. Typical cylinder and inlet (suction) pressure waveforms for 3 X 6 in triplex single-acting plunger pump. 4 POSIVA valve spring load. Vertical scale: IO PSI per division. Suction system: 8 ft of 4-in pipe. RPM, suction pressure, and vo!umetric efficiency noted.
393
Figure 12.8. Oscillographs of pressure waveforms. Left: No suctioh stabilization. Right: with 30-gal suction stabilizer. Top: Suction head, 14 ft. Bottom: Suction head, 2 ft. This series of oscillographs show how maximum disturbance (arrow A) is caused by "acceleration" at start of suction stroke as marked by cy linder trace above that trace and at "valley" in the theoretical fiow pattem plotted below each card. After lowering the suction head to 2 ft, lower left, the arrow B shows the predorninant spike is now a "flow" -induced disturbance because it occurs at a peak in the plotted ftow. Upper-right card (arrow C) shows how the "acceleration" spike has been drastically reduced by the use of a suction stabilizer. The "flow" spike at lower right (arrow D) showed that the stabilizer reduces the "flow" disturbances somewhat also.
394
(a)
(b)
Figure 12.9. Oscillographs of pressure waveforms. (a) Unrealistic "butterfty" type of trace produced by natural frequency of vibration or cavity resonance of the particular transducer, havihg a small cavity between the connection and the sensing element. lt can be recognized by the symmetrical shape above and below the average and the fuzziness produced by the extremely high frequency (in this case about 3000 Hz). (b) Actual suction pressure waveform in the same pump, operating under the same conditons, but obtained with another (nonresonant) transducer with the sensing element flush with the liquid.
395
(a)
(b)
Figure 12.10. Oscillographs of pressure wavefonns. Suction pressure trace of 5 X 8-in quintuplex plunger pump. (a) Pump not equipped with suction stabilizer. Note typical "cavitation" wavefonn with sharp upward spikes and rounded bottoms. Also note extreme pressure excursion in an upward or positive direction while the bottom of the trace is prevented from extending into the negative region by the fonnation of vapor. 63 PSI peak-topeak. (b) Same pump with suction stabilizer, same operating conditions. Note the "clean" sine wave and high frequency typical of "good" suction. The low-frequency cycles, over which the high frequency is imposed, is the remnant of pump rotation-generated cycles. While this flow-induced pulsation is not serious, it could have been reduced by the use of a properly gas-charged bladder in the stabilizer. 13 PSI peak-to-peak.
396
AT PLW INLET WITl-OUT STABlllZER
"BEFORE"
(GA!N 57 PSI/IN)
UPSTREN1 OF STABIL!ZER
11AFTER"
AT PLW INLET WITH STABIL!ZER
(GAJN - 126 PSI/IN) 1
Figure 12.11. Oscillographs of pressure waveforms. "Before" and "after" test results ali flow and acceleration showing the effects of a suction stabilizer that is almost disturbances in the suction system of a reciprocating pump. This particular test was made with a 60-gallon stabilizer of the type shown in Fig. 4.9, Chapter 4 on a 6 X 8-in triplex pump at 3000 PSI discharge and 30 PSI suction.
3"
:X
6"
28% PULSATION
TRIPLEX
800 PSI
NOTE SIX FLOW
DISTURBAN~ES
PER REVOLUTION
ONE PUMP REVOLUTION
3n X 5t~ QUINTUPLEX
10% PULSATION
NOTE 15 FLOW DISTURBANCES PER REVOLIJTION
Figure 12.12. Oscillographs of pressure waveforms. Nondampened discharge pressure waveforms. Not shown is the duplex double-acting pump with four flow-disturbances per revolution.
397
DISCHARGE PRESSURE,PSI CYLINDER PRESSURE,PSI
---,,..,..,..?-psr 2828 PSI

264 PSI
PSI
PSI 2828 PSI
SUCTION PRESSURE, PSI.

(a)
t.P = 38 PSI) 94 PSI ~ SUCTION PRESSURE AT INLET, PSI

(b)
80 PSI 66 PSI
Figure 12.13. Oscillographs of pressure waveforms, showing the presence of high-frequency pressure waves in the suction, cylinder, and discharge of a quintuplex plunger pump. (a) Cylinder and discharge pressure waveforms. Only remnants of flow-induced, low-frequency pulsations appear in the discharge. Major pressure excursions in both suction and discharge are high-frequency, acceleration-induced. ( b) Cylinder and suction pressure waveforms. He re the predominant pulsations are of the high-frequency, acceleration-induced type.
PUMP DATA:
4! x 9-in quintuplex 184 RPM 2800 PSI discharge 80 PSI suction
FREQUENCIES PRESENT:
Rotational, 3.1 Hz Cylinder, 15.3 Hz Flow pulse, 31 Hz Acceleration, discharge, 138 Hz Acceleration, suction, 77 Hz
398
~ ! _, r.6"
Figure 12.14. Oscillographs of pressure wavefonns. Typical pressure wavefonn of highvapor-pressure liquid (ethylene). Pressure wavefonn of cylinder and suction pressure. Of extreme interest is the shape of the cylinder wavefonn. The effect of vaporization of the liquid in the cylinder due to heat transmitted through uninsulated cylinder drain fittings, being manifested by the low volumetric efficiency indicated by the length of the delivery portion of the wavefonn being considerably shorter than the suction portion. Note the plateau at the critica! pressure of 700 PSI, which prevails until the cylinder pressure builds up to the discharge pressure of 1000 PSI. This demonstrates how a pressure wavefonn can be used to estimate the volumetric efficiency of a pump. Determine the full-stroke length by scaling from one obvious point on the wavefonn to another, in this case, 2 in. Accordingly, a full delivery stroke would theoretically be 1 in, but the actual delivery is measured as 0.6 in. Therefore, the volumetric efficiency is about 60 percent.
399
DISCHARGE PRESSURE
llP
PULSATION PERCENT
114 PSI
3.8
68 PSI
2.3 %
46 PSI
1.5 %
Figure 12.15. Oscillographs of pressure waveforms. Oscillographs taken at intervals to

show the "phasing" or in-and-out of step of multiple pump pulsations, whereby the pulses tend to "add" for a short period of time and then tend to "subtract" for another period of time. It is impossible to prevent pumps from such phasing. Regardless of the pump drive ratios, there will be repeated periods of phasing.
400
294 PSI
94 PSI or 47% Overshoot

,----0
Rise time; .0052 sec, .109 sec/rev

(a)
PSI PSI 106 PSI or 4,5% Overshoot
_ _ _ _ __._..3~4...,3 sec/rev
(b)
Figure 12.16. Oscillographs ofpressure waveforms. (a) Triplex single-acting pump, .708 X .945 in, 550 RPM. (b) Triplex single acting pump, 6 X 8 in, 175 RPM. These show actual typical cylinder pressure "overshoot" amplitude and rise time of two triplex pumps differing greatly in size and speed. The overshoot is related to time rise (pump speed) but can also be present at slow speed with low NPSHA.
401
402
INSTRUMENTATION
1/2
DELIVERY 81% OF
HALF STROKE_. . .
t I!!!~ -~~ 111111111 :1111- r l

STROKE ONE STROKEJ
:1
~~il6~R~ALF
92% VE CYLINDER
STROKE
----
.llJl'rllli---22_so_p_sr_A_vE_.
(a)
ONE STROKE
HALF STROKE
~~
1111.iM.
(b)
----CY-LI-ND_ER_ 1000 PSI AVE.
-~L~
~-llliiiiiiilll--.-
Figure 12.17. Oscillographs of pressure waveforms. (a) Typical cylinder pressure waveform of liquid containing little dissolved gas. Note approximate square wave with abrupt rise in pressure at beginning of delivery stroke. Single-acting quintuplex pump pumping water (boronated with hydrogen blanket), 105 F, 226 RPM. ( b) Typical cylinder pressure containing a large amount of "free" gas. Note compression type of pressure rise at beginning of delivery stroke. Free gas in cylinder must be compressed to. discharge pressure befare liquid can be delivered. Note low VE caused by dissolved gas. 2ft X 10-in doubleacting duplex pumping crude oil with gas. Ambient temperature; 82 RPM. Suction-charged with centrifuga! pump, 30 PSI.
12.5
OPTICAL PHASER
A useful device to be used in conjunction with oscillograph displays of waveforms generated by a reciprocating pump is a simple light-sensitive pickup or phaser positioned to view a white sticker placed on any visible reciprocating part of the pump. The end-of-stroke blip can be related to any secondary trace recorded on a dual-trace oscilloscope as shown in Figure 12. IA.
12.6 POSITIONING STRAIN GAGES TO MONITOR TORSIONAL LOADS
403
: One pump revolution
....... . P~~~ ;t~~k!e-: -s1

1 1
1 CCE-)
...
Pump
1- 1
Harker blip, end-o'-st;oke 1 l . 1; : 1 De ay, suct1on ' Delay, discharge -1,..._,,.valve closing 1 valvs closing
1 1 1 1 1
ir
kt1
Delay,
co~pressior.
;
1
__ ~
.....
JI
Dela y ,1 decompress1on
...L l . . . . '.
1
r---- -.. -- --.
1 1 1 1
1
1
,. _. r -
1 1
- ......... I
1
1
_J ________ l ... _,
.:......
:
~ 1
l
f
Figure 12.IA. Use of Optical Phaser to Mark End of Mechanical Stroke.
12.6 POSITIONING STRAIN GAGES TO MONITOR TORSIONAL LOADS

To measure minute strains one must be capable of measuring minute resistance changes. The Wheatstone Bridge configuration as shown in Figure 12.2A is capable of measuring these small resistance changes. Note the signs associated with each gage numbered 1 through 4. The total strain is always the algebraic sum of the four strains. The total strain is represented by a change in "V" out. If each gage had the same positive strain, the total would be zero and "V" out would remain unchanged. Bending, Axial, and Shear strain make up the most common types of
404
INSTRUMENTATION
V In
Reguloted
DC
V out
Figure 12.2A. Wheatstone bridge
strain measurements. The actual arrangement of the strain gages will determine the type of strain measured and the output voltage change. TORSIONAL STRAIN (y) equals torsional stress (T) divided by torsional modulus of elasticity (G). See Figure i 2.3A and Equations (12.1) and (12.3). Where torsional stress (r) equals the torque (M,) multiplied by the distance from the center of section to outer fiber (d/2) divided by (J) the polar moment of inertia. The polar moment of inertia is a function of the cross sectional area. For solid circular shafts only see Equation (12.7). The modulus of shear strain (G) has been defined in the preceding discussion on shear stress. Strain gages can be used to determine torsional moment (M,), from which can be calculated in Equation (l 2.6).
"'=2Xe = ' ' G
Where e, = e 1
1'
E~
+ e, -
E4
( 12.2)
(12.3)
MT r(J)
(~)/J
'}'G(J)
MT
(l>) =
(~)
yG( 1TD 3 / ! 6)
(12.4)
<P = MT BHP
G(J)
(12.5)
(12.6)
2nNMT/33,000
J = 7T(d) 4 /64
( 12.7)
12.8 MEASURING PRESSURE DROP BY OSCILLOSCOPE
405
180 DEGREE ROSETTE STRA!N GAGES
11
4 3
(
2 MT L
=-~--- z .---~4--~li\_-. ~Jb-~=-~)

7
L
\~
y
Figure 12.3A. Torsional strain
y-Torsional strain, uinch/inch E-Normal strain, uinch/inch r-Torsiona! Stress, lbf/inch 2 G-Modulus of Elasticity, Shear, lb/inch 2 M-Moment, Torque, lb.ft D-Diameter shaft, inches J-Polar Moment of Inertia, inches 4 <f>-Angle, radians L-Length of shaft 1.mder stress, inches BHP-Brake Horsepower
N-RPM
12.7
DAMPED PRESSURE GAUGE
The series of oscillographs in Figure l2.4A serve to show that a properly "damped" pressure gauge of the bourdon tube type wil! show the approximate "average" pressure of a complex pressure wave. This aspect is important in the measurement of suction pressures with the presence of standing waves generated by acceleration, where the "average" only of that pressure, is indicated.
12.8
MEASURING PRESSURE DROP BY OSCILLOSCOPE
The ability of sorne dual-trace oscilloscopes to invert one of the pressure traces allows one to display the pressure drop of two complex pressure waves as shown in Figure 125A
------.-----MAXIMUM
--------
------;
M!:Al<
M'.NIMIJM
STATIC OR: INLE'T GAUGE :
_JER!J.......
. PS_IG
,
~
- - - - - - ; - - - - - - - - - - - - : - O. 7 PS -;.- O. 75 PS IG
L,__ _ _ __;__ _ _ _ _ _ _
l SUCTI!JN
SCOPE - 5 PSI P':':F
J:.:s:mi
-'--------'--------
0.7 PSi-:- O PS!G
- - - - - - -------.:..- - - - - - - - - - - 2 SUCTION
200 PSIG
O PSI
3 DISCHARGE
SCOPE -
16~
"'S: PER
::~ISIDN
'
1
5.6 PSI
'3.0 "'SIG
---------'- - - - - - - - -----~ - - -----;!

4 SUCTHJN
SCCPE
7.7 PSI
.4 PSi PER ClVISIDN

SEE 7
BELD~'
1 1
3.0 PSIG
O PSI
--'---
5 :SUCTIIJN
SCDPE - 1.4 PSI PER DIV!S!DN
---'--------'
!
1
1 1
2.0 PSI
6 :SUCTIDN
SCDPE l .4 PSI PER DIV!SIDN
~~---=J
!NTEGRAT
2..0 PSIG
_r_N~-. A_MP~l F!ER ...

3.0 PSIG
3. 4 P S I - - - - - - - - - - - - -
'7 SUCTHJN
SCDPE - 1.4 PSI PER DIV!SION
Figure l2.4A. Accuracy of Damped Pressure Gauge Readings
406
----------....---B
LDV
DUAL TRACE SCOPE
.....
e
6 4 2
1------'A ....+ .... 8 ............~~~~1
:,-Rfs.SRE .. riR.i:if=>
3
ADD A
+
A - Bl
......................... A..................................... .
t------C. ......
~--
..
8 6
._._._._._.__ ._._._.____-_._._._._._._._._._._E:::::::::.: ..:"""""""-""""."""""""""".
-e .........
7" ...
-----t
4
2
o
-2 -4
-6
t-----<:.:B-,_,.. .. - - - - -
RECORD A AND B AS POSITIVE
-8 PRESSURE
INVERT B
Figure 12.SA. To Measure Pressure-Drop of Complex Waveforms
407
1
THEORY OF FLOW IN PIPE
AH of the material in Chapter 13 is from Flow of Fluids, 1985, by courtesy of Crane Company. Because the nomenclature in this section may not agree with that used by the author in the rest of the text, a nomenclature list for this chapter is included as Table 13.10.
13.1
INTRODUCTION
Many so-called pump problems are not associated with the pump itself but with the system connected to it from both the supply and the delivery. Accordingly, it behooves the system designer to employ the best engineering practices in the piping system. This chapter provides up-to-date information on the theory of fiow in pipe. The most commonly employed method of transporting fluid from one point to another is to force the fluid to fl.ow through a piping system. Pipe of circular section is most frequently used because that shape offers not only greater structural strength but also greater cross-sectional area per unit of wall surface than any other shape. Unless otherwise stated, the word pipe in this book will always refer to a closed conduit of circular cross section and constant intemal diameter. Only a few special problems in fluid mechanics-laminar fiow in pipe, for example-can be entirely solved by rational mathematical means; all other problems require methods of solution which rest, at least in part, on experimentally deterrnined coefficients. Many empirical formulas have been proposed for the problem of flow in pipe, buhese are often extremely limited and can be applied only when
408
13.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
409
the conditions of the problem closely approach the conditions of the experiments from which the formulas were derived. Because of the great variety of fluids being handled in modem industrial processes, a single equation which can be used for the flow of any fluid in pipe offers obvious advantages. Such an equation is the Darcy* formula. The Darcy formula can be derived rationally by means of dimensional analysis; however, one variable in the formula, the friction factor, must be determined experimentally. This formula has a wide application in the field of fluid mechanics and is used extensively throughout this chapter.
13.2
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
The solution of any flow problem requires a knowledge of the physical properties of the fluid being handled. Accurate values for the properties affecting the flow of fluids ... namely, viscosity and weight density ... have been established by many authorities for all commonly used fluids and many of these data are presented in the various tables and charts.
Viscosity
Viscosity expresses the readiness with which a fluid flows when it is acted upon by an extemal force. The coefficient of absolute viscosity or, simply, the absolute viscosity of a fluid, is a measure of its resistance to intemal deformation or shear. Molasses is a highly viscous fluid; water is comparatively rimch less viscous; and the viscosity of gases is quite small compared to that of water. Although most fluids are predictable in their viscosity, in sorne, the viscosity depends upon the previous working of the fluid. Printer's ink, wood pulp slurries, and catsup are examples of fluids possessing such thixotropic properties of viscosity. Considerable confusion exists conceming the units used to express viscosity; therefore, proper units must be employed whenever substituting values of viscosity into formulas. In the C.G.S. (centimeter, gram, second) or metric system, the unit of absolute viscosity is the poise which is equal to 100 centipoise. The poise has the dimensions of dyne seconds per square centimeter or of grams per centimeter second. It is believed that less confusion conceming units will prevail if the centipoise is used exclusively as the unit of viscosity. For this reason, and since most handbooks and tables follow the same procedure, all viscosity data in this paper are expressed in centipoise. The English units commonly employed are "slugs per foot second" or "pound force seconds per square foot"; however, "pound mass per foot second" or
*The Darcy formula is also known as the Weisbach formula or the Darcy-Weisbach formula. lt is also known as the Fanning formula, sometimes modified so that the friction factor is one-fourth the Darcy friction factor.
410
"poundal seconds per square foot" may also be encountered. The viscosity o water ata temperature of 68 F is:
0.01 poise
ll = 1 centipoise* = [ 0.01 gram per cm second
0.01 dyne second per sq cm _ [0.000 672 pound mass per foot second
lle -
0.000 672 poundal second per square foot [0.000 0209 slug per foot second second per square ft
,
lle
= 0.000 0209 pound force
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the absolute viscosity to the mass density. In. the metric system, the unit of kinematic viscosity is the stoke. The stoke has di mensions of square centimeters per second and is equivalent to 100 centistokes.
v ( centistokes)
= p , (grams per cub"1c cm ) = 8
ll ( centipoise)
ll
By definition, the specific gravity, S, in the foregoing formula is based upon watef at a temperature of 4 C (38.2 F), whereas specific gravity used throughout thi~ paper is based upon water at 60 F. In the English system, kinematic viscosity fa1$ dimensions of square feet per second. Factors for conversion between metric and English system units of absolute al\'~ kinematic viscosity are given in Tables 13.1 and 13.2. The measurement of the absolute viscosity of fluids (especially gases and va~' pors) requires elaborate equipment and considerable experimental skill. On the other hand, a rather simple instrument can be used for measuring the kinemati~* viscosity of oils and other viscous liquids. The instrument adopt~d as a standW-et; in this country is the Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter. In measuring kinematic vis~' cosity with this instrument, the time required for a small volume of liquid to flow. through an orifice is determined; consequently, the "Saybolt viscosity" of tli~i liquid is given in seconds. For very viscous liquids, the Saybolt Furol instrumenr is used. ' . Other viscosimeters, somewhat similar to the Saybolt but not used to any extent' in this country, are the Engler, the Redwood Admiralty, and the Redwood. Thei relationship between Saybolt viscosity and kinematic viscosity is shown in Tables:. 13.3 and 13.4; equivalents of kinematic, Saybolt Universal, Saybolt Furol, rid' absolute viscosity can be obtained from the chart of Figure 13.8. The viscosities of sorne of the most common fluids are given in Figures 13.9 .. lt will be noted that, with a rise in temperature, the viscosity of liquids decreases; whereas the viscosity of gases increases. The effect of pressure on the viscosity of
1 .,,
*Actually the viscosity of water at 68 F is 1.005 centipoise.
13.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
411
liquids and perfect gases is so small that it is of no practica! interest in most ftow problems.
Weight Density, Specific Volume, and Specific Gravity

The weight density or specific weight of a substance is its weight per unit volume. In the English system of units, this is expressed in pounds per cubic foot and the symbol designation used in this paper is p (Rho). In the metric system, the unit is grams per cubic centimeter and the symbol designation used is p' (Rho prime). The specific volume V, being the reciproca! of the weight density, is expressed in the English system as the number of cubic feet of space occupied by one pound of the substance, thus:
V=p
Computations in the metric system are not commonly referred to in terms of specific volume; however, the number of cubic centimeters per gram of a substance can readily be expressed as the reciproca! of the weight density, that is:
1 p'
The variations in weight density as well as other properties of water with changes in temperature are shown in Table 13.5. The weight densities of other common liquids are shown in Table 13.6. Unless very high pressures are being considered, the effect of pressure on the weight of liquids is of no practica! importance in ftow problems. Specific gravity is a relative measure of weight density. Since pressure has an insignificant effect upon the weight density of liquids, temperature is the only condition that must be considered in designating the basis for specific gravity. The specific gravity of a liquid is its weight density at 60 F (unless otherwise specified) to that of water at standard temperature, 60 F.
= =-P_{,._an---=-y_I_iq=-u_id_at_6_0_F_,_unl_e_ss_o_t_he_rw_is_e_s....:.p_e_ci_fi_ed__._}
p
(water at 60 F)
A hydrometer can be used to measure the specific gravity of liquids directly. Three hydrometer scales are common in this country-the API scale which is used for oils-and the two Baum scales, one for liquids heavier than water. and one for liquids lighter than water. The relationship between the hydrometer scales and specific gravity are: For oils,
) ( 60 / 6 F F
= 131.5 + deg.
141.5
API
412
For liquids lighter than water, S( 60 F/ 6 F) For liquids heavier than water,
140
130
+ deg: Baum
S ( 6 F / 60 F)
145 145 - deg. Baum
For convenience in converting hydrometer readings to more useful units, refer to Table 13.7.
13.3 NATURE OF FLOW IN PIPE-LAMINAR ANO TURBULENT

A simple experiment [illustrated in Figs. 13.1 to 13.3] will readily show there are two entirely different types of flow in pipe. The experiment consists of injecting small streams of a colored fluid into a liquid flowing in a glass pipe and observing the behavior of these colored streams at different sections downstream from their points of injection. If the discharge or average velocity is small, the streaks of colored fluid flow in straight lines, as shown in Figure 13.1. As the flow rate is gradually increased, these streaks will continue to flow in straight lines until a velocity is reached when the streaks will waver and suddenly break into diffused pattems, as shown in Figure 13.2. The velocity at which this occurs is called the "critica! velocity." At velocities higher than ''critica!,' ' the filaments are dispersed at random throughout the main body of the fluid, as shown in Figure 13.3. The type of flow which exists at velocities lower than "critica!" is known as
Figure 13.1. Laminar flow. Actual photograph of colored filaments being carried along undisturbed by a stream of water.
Figure 13.2. Flow in critica! zone between laminar and transition zones. At the critical velocity, the filaments begin to break up, indicating flow is becoming turbulent.
13.3 NATURE OF FLOW IN PIPE-LAMINAR AND TURBULENT
413
Figure 13 .3. Turbulent ftow. This illustration shows the turbulence in the stream completely dispersing the colored filaments a short distance dowhstream from the point of injection.
laminar fl.ow and, sometimes, as viscous or streamline flow. Flow of this nature is characterized by the gliding of concentric cylindrical layers past one another in orderly fashion. Velocity of the fluid is at its maximum at the pipe axis and decreases sharply to zero at the wall. At velocities greater than "critica!," the flow is turbulent. In turbulent fl.ow, there is an irregular random motion of fluid particles in directions transverse to the direction of the main flow. The velocity distribution in turbulent flow is more uniform across the pipe diameter than in laminar fl.ow. Even though a turbulent motion exists throughout the greater portion of the pipe diameter, there is always a thin layer of fluid at the pipe wall, known as the "boundary layer" or "laminar sub-layer," which is moving in laminar flow.
Mean Velocity of Flow

The term "velocity," unless otherwise stated, refers to the mean, or average, velocity at a given cross section, as determined by the continuity equation for steady state flow:
q w wV v=-=-=A Ap A
( 13.1)
Reynolds Number
The work of Osbome Reynolds has shown that the nature of flow in pipe-that is, whether it is laminar or turbulent-depends on the pipe diameter, the density and viscosity of the fl.owing fluid, and the velocity of fl.ow. The numerical value of a dimensionless combination of these four variables, lrnown as the Reynolds number, may be considered to be the ratio of the dynamic forces of mass fl.ow to the shear stress due to viscosity. Reynolds number is: R
= Dvp
(13.2)
For engineering purposes, flow in pipes is usually considered to be laminar if the Reynolds number is less than 2000, and turbulent if the Reynolds number is greater than 4000. Between these two values lies the "critica! zone" where the fl.ow-being laminar, turbulent, or in the process of change, depending upon many
414
possible varying conditions-is unpredictable. Careful experimentation has shown that the laminar zone may be made to termnate at a Reynolds number as low as 1200 or extenqed as high as 40,000, but these conditions are not expected to be realized in ordinary practice.
Hydraulic Radius
Occasionally a conduit of noncircular cross section is encountered. In calculating the Reynolds number for this condition, the equivalen!: diameter (four times the hydraulic radius) is substituted for the circular diameter. Use friction fractors given in Figures 13.11and13.12. cross sectional flow area R = -~~~~~~~8
wetted perimeter
This applies to any ordinary conduit (circular conduit not flowing full, oval, square or rectangular) but not to extremely narrow shapes such as annular or elongated openings, where width is small relative to length. In such cases, the hydraulic radius is approximately equal to one-half the width of the passage. To determine quantity of ftow in following formula:
= 00438d .
2ffLD
-fL
The value of d 2 is based upon an equivalent diameter of actual flow area and.4R8 is substituted for D.
13.4 GENERAL ENERGY EQUATION-BERNOULLl'S THEOREM

The Bemoulli theorem is a means of expressing the application of the law of conservation of energy to the flow of fluids in a conduit. The total energy at any particular point, above sorne arbitrary horizontal datum plane, is equal to the sum of the elevation head, the p~ssure head, and the velocity head, as follows:
v2 144P Z+--+-=H
p 2g
If friction losses are neglected and no energy is added to, or taken from, a piping system (i.e., pumps or turbines), the total head, H, in the above equation will be a constant for any point in the fluid. However, in actual practice, losses or energy increases or decreases are encountered and must be included in the Bemoulli equa-
13.5
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
415
id_
2ut- I
1
~~Energy Grade 1-;~lic Grade

HYdra
~
1
-r
L
-~
2~
'i,';
Arbitrary Horizontal Datum Plane --------'-
Figure 13.4. Energy balance for two points in a fluid. (From R. A. Dodge and M. J. Thompson, "Fluid Mechanics," McGraw-Hill, New York, 1937. Copyright 1937 McGraw-Hill.)
tion. Thus, an energy balance may be written for two points in a fluid, as shown in the example in Figure 13.4. Note the pipe friction loss from point 1 to point 2 is hL foot pounds per pound of fiowing fluid; this is sometimes referred to as the head loss in feet of fluid. The equation may be written as follows:
Z1
+ - - + - = 2i + - - +
Pi 2g
144P1
vi
144P2
P2
2g
+ h,
(13.3)
All practica! formulas for the flow of fluids are derived from Bemoulli's theorem, with modifications to account for losses due to friction.
13.5
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
Figure 13.5 graphically illustrates the relationship between gauge and absolute pressures. Perfect vacuum cannot exist on the surface of the earth, but it nevertheless makes a convenient datum for the measurement of pressure.
Barometric pressure is the leve! of the atmospheric pressure above perfect vacuum
"Standard" atmospheric pressure is 14.696 pounds per square inch, or 760 millimeters of mercury.
416
Any Pressure Above Atmospheric

~
1;
~~~~1--~~A~t~A~tm~o~sp~h~er~ic~P~re~ss~ur~e~Le~v~el_-~Va~r~iab~I~-~~_._
ro
..,
u
~ o':
:;;
"'
:!l e: O.."' ~ 0
E
"'
11
"' ~>
Any Pressure Below Atmospheric
" o: "' O s
~
"' ~
Absolute Zero o! Pressure-Perfect Vacuum
Figure 13.5. Relationship between gauge and absolute pressures.
Gauge pressure is measured above atmospheric pressure, while absolute pressure always refers to perfect vacuum as a base. Vacuum, usually expressed in inches of mercury, is the depression of pressure below the atmospheric level. Reference to vacuum conditions is often made by expressing the absolute pressure in inches of mercury; also millimeters of mercury and microns of mercury.
13.6 DARCY'S FORMULA-GENERAL EQUATION FOR FLOW OF FlUIDS

Flow in pipe is always accompanied by friction of fluid partides rubbing against one another, and consequently, by loss of energy available for work; in other words, there must be a pressure drop in the direction of flow. If ordinary Bourdon tube pressure gauges were connected to a pipe containing a flowing fluid, as shown in Figure 13.6, gauge P 1 would indicate a higher static pressure than gauge P2 The general equation for pressure drop, known as Darcy's formula and expressed in feet offluid, is hL = fLv 2 / D2g. This equation may be written to express pressure drop in pounds per square inch, by substitution of proper units, as fol-
~h_______-,.-___,9
Figure 13.6.
13.6 DARCY'S FORMULA-GENERAL EQUATION FOR FLOW OF FLUIDS
417
lows:
tlP
pfLv2 144D2g
( 13.4)
The Darcy equation is valid for laminar or turbulent flow of any liquid in a pipe. However, when extreme velbcities occurring in a pipe cause the downstream pressure to fall to the vapor pressure of the liquid, cavitation occurs and calculated flow rates will be inaccurate. Equation (13.4) gives the loss in pressure dueto friction and applies to pipe of constant diameter carrying fluids of reasonably constant weight density in straight pipe, whether horizontal, vertical, or sloping. For inclined pipe, vertical pipe, or pipe of varying diameter, the change in pressure dueto changes in elevation, velocity, and weight density of the fluid must be made in accordance with Bernoulli' s theorem. For an example using this theorem, see (Sections 13.2-13.5).
Friction Factor
The Darcy formula can be rationally derived by dimensional analysis, with the exception of the friction factor, f, which must be determined experimentally. The friction factor for laminar flow conditions (Re < 2000) is a function of Reynolds number only; whereas, for turbulent flow (Re > 4000), it is also a function of the character of the pipe wall. A region known as the "critica! zone" occurs between Reynolds numbers of approximately 2000 and 4000. In this region, the flow may be either laminar or turbulent depending upon severa! factors; these include changes in section or direction of flow and obstructions, such as valves, in the upstream piping. The friction factor in this region is indeterminate and has lower limits based on laminar flow and upper limits based on turbulent flow conditions. At Reynolds numbers above approximately 4000, flow conditions again become more stable and definite friction factors can be established. This is important because it enables the engineer to determine the flow characteristics of any fluid flowing in a pipe, providing the viscosity and weight density at flowing conditions are known. Forthis reason, Equation (13.4) is recommended in preference to sorne of the commonly known empirical equations for the flow of water, oil, and other liquids, as well as for the flow of compressible fluids when restrictions previously mentioned are observed. If the flow is laminar (Re < 2000), the friction factor may be determined from the equation:
J=
64 = 64 e = 64 Re Dvp 124dvp
Ifthis quantity is substituted into Equation (13.4), the pressure drop in pounds per
418
square inch is:
iP
= 0.000 668 -j2
Lv
(13.5)
which is Poiseuille's law for laminar flow. When the flow is turbulent (Re > 4000), the friction factor depends not only upon the Reynolds number but also upon the relative roughness, e/ D, the roughness of the pipe walls (e), as compared to the diameter of the pipe ( D). For very smooth pipes such as drawn brass tubing and glass, the friction factor decreases more rapidly with increasing Reynolds number than for pipe with comparatively rough walls. Since the character of the interna! surface of commercial pipe is practically independent of the diameter, the roughness of the walls has a greater effect on the friction factor in the small sizes. Consequently, pipe of small diameter will approach the very rough condition and, in general, will have higher friction factors than large pipe of the same material. The most useful and widely accepted data of friction factors for use with the Darcy formula have been presented by L. F. Moody* and are reproduced in Figures 13.11-13.13. Professor Moody improved upon the well-established Pigott and Kemlert friction factor diagram, incorporating more recent investigations and developments of many outstanding scientists. The friction factor ,J, is plotted in Figure 13 .12 on the basis of relative roughness obtained from the chartjn Figure 13.13 and the Reynolds number. The value off is determined by horizontal projection from the intersection of the e/ D curve under consideration with the calculated Reynolds number to the left hand vertical scale of the chart in Figure 13 .13. Since most calculations involve commercial steel or wrought iron pipe, the chart in Figure 13.12 is furnished for a more direction solution. It should be kept in mind that these figures apply to clean new pipe.
Effect of Age and Use on Pipe Friction

Friction loss in pipe is sensitive to changes in diameter and roughness of pipe. For a given rate of flow anda fixed friction factor, the pressure drop per foot of pipe vares inversely witli the fifth power of the diameter. Therefore, a 2 % reduction of diameter causes a 10% increase in pressure drop; a 5% reduction of diameter increases pressure drop 23 %. In many services, the interior of pipe becomes en*L. F. Moody, ''Friction Factors for Pipe Flow,'' Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Volume 66, pages 671-678, November 1944. tR. J. S. Pigott, "The Flow of Fluids in Closed Conduits," Mechanical Engineering, Volume 55, No. 8, page 497, August 1933; E. Kemler, "A Study of Data on the Flow of Fluids in Pipes," Transactions ofthe American Society of Mechanical Engineers,.Volume 55, page HYD-55-2, 1933.
13.7
FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES AND ORIFICES
419
crusted with scale, dirt, tubercules or other matter; thus, it is often prudent to make allowance for expected diameter changes. Authorities point out that roughness may be expected to increase with use (due the pipe material and nature to corrosion or incrustation) at a rate determined of the fluid.
13. 7
FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES AND ORIFICES
The discharge of fluids through nozzles and orifices has been subject to continued investigation and, as a result, well-established data are still being supplemented. A portion of the subject is covered on these facing pages but more complete references will be found from the data supplied by meter manufacturers. The rate of flow of any fluid through an orifice or nozzle, neglecting the velocity of approach, may be expressed by: ( 13.6) Velocity of approach may have considerable effect on the quantity discharged through a nozzle or orifice. The factor correcting for velocity of approach,
may be incorporated in Equation (13.6) as follows:
(13.7)
The quantity
is defined as the flow coefficient C. Values of C for nozzles and orifices are shown in Figure 13 .14 and 13 .15. U se of the ftow coefficient C eliminates the necessity for calculating the velocity of approach, and Equation (13.7) may now be written:
r;;:-;-
CA v2ghL
CA~ -"'-~P~-
[2;( 144) L:i. p
(13.8)
420
Orfices and nozzles are normally used in piping systems as metering devices and are installed wth fiange taps or pipe_ taps in accordance with ASME specifications. The values of h and ll.P in Equation (13.8) are the measured differential static head or pressure across flange taps when values of C. The fl.ow coefficient C is plotted for Reynolds numbers based on the intemal diameter of the upstream pipe.
Flow of liquids
For nozzles and orifices discharging incompressible fl.uids to atmosphere, C values may be taken from Figure 13.14 if hL or !lP in Equation (13.8) is taken as the upstream head or gauge pressure. For most conditions of flow of fl.uids having a low viscosity, i.e., water, gasoline, etc., the Reynolds number need not be calculated since it will fall in the range of the values in Figure 13 .14, where the flow coefficient C is a constant.
13.8
PRESSURE DROP ANO VELOCITY IN PIPING SYSTEM
Example 13.1 Bemoulll's Theorem-Water

Given: Water at 60 F is fl.owing through the piping system, shown in [Fig. 13.7], at a rate of 400 gallons per minute. Find: The velocity in both the 4 and 5-inch pipe sizes and the pressure differential between gauges P 1 and P2
Solution:
1. Use Bemoulli's theorem: Z
1 + -+ - = Z2 + --- + - +
144P
Pi
vf
144P?
P2
v~
2g
2g
5" Welding Elbow
5" Schedule 40 Pipe
P,
4" Schedule 40 Pipe

P,
FLOW
5" Schedule 40 Pipe
-!-,....__;;;_,;11.-..ll..,..<:..:1C..-- _ _ _ _ _ _
Eltva.!i2!Jl::1.:. O
5" x 4" Reducing Welding Elbow
Figure 13. 7,
13.8
PRESSURE DROP ANO VELOCITY IN PIPING SYSTEM
421
Since,
p1
= p2
2.
h _ 0.00259KQ 2 L d4
Re
50.6Qp
d,
L
K=fD
K= JL
K
K
D{34
l4fr
JT
= 141" + (1 -
(32)2 (34
Note: In the absence of test data for increasing elbows, the resistance is conservatively estimated to be equal to the summation of the resistance due to a straight size elbow and a sudden enlargement.
3.
,
d1
= 62.371 (Table 13.5) = 1.1 (Fig. 13.10)
d2
fr
= 4.026 = 5.047
= 0.016
( 4" Sched. 40 pipe, Table 13.8) (5" Sched. 40 pipe, Table 13.8)
4.
Z2
-
(3
= 4.026 = o 80
5.047 .
Z1
= 75 - O = 75 feet v 1 = 10.08 ( 4" pipe, Table 13.9) (5" pipe, Table 13.9) v2 = 6.42
422
V~
2g
vi
= 6.422
2
10.082 32.2
= -0.94 feet
5. For Schedule 40 pipe,
R. Re
= 50.6 = 50.6
X 400 X 62.371 4.026 X 1.1 X 400 X 62.371 5.047 X 1.1
= 2 .85 = 2_ 27
X l05
(4"
pipe) pipe)
X l05
( 5"
f = 0.018
6 K
K
(4 or 5" pipe) or or
K 9.6
= =
0.018 X 225 X 12 5.047 0.018 X 110 X 12 4.026
for 225' of 5" Sched. 40 pipe for 110' of 4" Sched. 40 pipe
K 5.9
With reference to velocity in 5" pipe,

K2 K K
= 5.9 + 0.84 = 14.4
= 14
0.016
= 0.22
(5" 90 elbow) (5 x 4" 90 elbow)
= 0.22 + 0 _ 84 = 0.54
0.362
7. Then, in terms of 5-inch pipe,
KTOTAL
= 9.6 + 14.4 + 0.22 + 0.54 = 24.8 = 0.00259

X 24.8 5.0414 X
8. 9.
P1
-
h
L
4002
= 15 8
P2
62.371 =----(75
- 0.94
+ 15.8)
= 39.0
13.9 PIPE LINE FLOW PROBLEMS

Example 13.2 Sizing of Pump for 011 Pipe Lines Given: Crude oil 30 degree API at 15.6 C with a viscosity of 75 Universal Saybolt seconds is flowing through a 12-inch Schedule 30 steel pipe at a rate of 1900
3.9
PIPELINE FLOW PROBLEMS
423
barrels per hour. The pipe line is 50 miles long with discharge at an elevation of 2000 feet above the pump inlet. Assume the pump has an efficiency of 67 per cent.
Find: The brake horsepower of the pump.
Solution:
l.
!:.P
t
= =
0.000 1058 l.8tc
~
d
fL B2
+ 32
R = 35 4Bp e . d
144LiP
p
brake horsepower 2.
3.
QHp 247 OOOeP
t = (1.8 X 15.6)
p = 54.64
+ 32 = 60F
(Table 13.6) (Table 13.6) (Table 13.8)
S
4.
d
0.8762 12.09
d 5 = 258 304
5.
6. 7.
8.
75 USS = 12.5 centipoise

R e -
Fig. 13.8 - 24 100
35.4 X 1900 X 54.64
12.09
12.5
f = 0.025
!:.P
(Fig. 13.11)
258 304
= =
0.000 1058 X 0.025 X 50 X 5280 X 54.64 X 19002 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
b..P 9.
533
HL
= 144 X 533
1405
54.64
1O. The total discharge head at the pump is:
1405
2000
3405
424
11.
= ( 1900 bbl)
hr
(42 gal) bbl
(~) =
60 mm
1330
12. Then, the brake horsepower is: 1330 X 3405 X 54.64 = 1496 247 000 X 0.67 ' or say 1500
13.1 O FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE METERS

Example 13.3 Liquid Service Given: A square edged orifice of 2. 0-inch diameter is installed in a 4-inch Schedule
40 pipe having a mercury manometer connected between the ftange taps.

Find: (a) The theoretical calibration constant for the meter when used on 60 F water and for the ftow range where the orifice ftow coefficient C is constant and (b), the ftow rate of 60 F water when the mercury deftection is 4.4 inches. Solution (a)
l.
Re=
50.6Qp d
(Fig. 13.15)
2. To determine differential pressure across the ftange tips,

iP = ihmP 12 X 144
where: ihm = differential head in inches of mercury 3. The weight _density of mercury under water equals Pw(SHg - Sw), where (at 60 F):
pw
Sg Sw
= density of water = 62.371 = specific gravity of mercury = = specific gravity of water = = 62.371
(Table 13.5) 13.57 (Table 13.6) (Table 13.5)
100
4: And
of Hg under H 20
(13.57 - 1.00)
= 784 lb/ft3
13.10
FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE METERS
425
5. 6.
7.
AP
Ahm ( 784 )
12
144
= 0.454Ah
m
d1
d0 d
= 4.026 =
2.00 4.026 o.625 236
X
(Table 13.8)
= 0.497
(Fig. 13.15) (2.0)
2
8.
9.
e=
Q
0.625
0.454Ahm
62.34
Q = 50 .4 .JA hm
( calibration constant)
Solution (b):
10. 11. 12.
Q
,
= 50.4 .JAhm = 50.4 J4A = = 1.1 = 50.6

(Fig. 13.10)
X 106 X 62.371 4.026 X 1.1
106
R
e
Re
= 75 500
or
7.55
104
13. C = 0.625 is correct for Re = 7 .55 X 104 ; therefore, the flow rate through the pipe is 106 gallons per minute. 14. When the C factor on Figure 13.15 is incorrect, for the Reynolds number based on calculated flow, it must be adjusted until reasonable agreement is reached by repeating Steps 9, 10, and 12.
Example 13.4 Laminar Flow In ftow problems where the viscosity is high, calculate the Reynolds number to determine the type of ftow.
Given: SAE 10 Lube Oil t 90 F is ftowing through a 3-inch Schedule 40 pipe and produces 0.4 psi pressure differential between the ftange taps of a 2.15-inch l. D. square edged orifice. Find: The flow rate in gallons per minute. Solution:
l.
426
R = _50_._6Q_p
e
2.
3.
4.
=
=
38
( suspect laminar flow; Fig. 13.16)
d
d0
3.068
= =
=
2.15
3.068
0_ 70
d
C
5. 6.
0.8
(Fig. 13.15)
0.876 at 60 F
S = 0.87 at 90 F
7.
8.
p
= =
62.4 X 0.87 = 54.3
236
2 l'i 2
.-
0 8 / 0. 4 = 75 . '\J 54.3
r;:;
9.
10.
50.6 X 75 X 54.3 Re= ~68 X 3S--
1768
e= o.n
for Re= 1768
(Fig. 13.15)
Since the assumed C value of 0.8 is not correct, it must be adjusted by repeating Steps 5, 8, 9, and 1O. 11. 12.
e=
Q
R
=
o.91 236 50.6 o.91

X X
(Fig. 13.15)
2.15 2
X
0.91 /-- = 85.3 '\J 54.3
lo4
13.
14.
85.3 X 54.3 3.068 X 38 for Re
= 2010
(Fig. 13.15)
e=
= 2010
Since C = O. 91 is correct for the flow, the flow through the meter is 85. 3 gallons per minute.
13.11
REFERENCE FIGURES ANO TABLES
427
13.11
REFERENCE FIGURES ANO TABLES
1000 700 600

50~
e
soo
1000
.
2000
.05
.04
The empirical relation between Saybolt Universal Viscosity and Saybolt Furo! Viscosity at 100 F and 122 F, respectively. and Kinematic Vi'scosity is taken from A.S.T.M, D2161-63T. At other temperatures, the 3aybolt Viscosities va1y only slightly. Saybolt Viscosities above those shown are given by the relationships:
g
~
800
300 700
.03
= .
600 500 400 300
.01
>
1000 90~ -80 700 600
Saybolt Universa! Seconds Centistokes x 4.6347 Sayboit Furo! Seconds = Centistokes x 0.4717
100
10--~-
.01 .009 .008 .007 .006 .005

200 35
60---.
(_)
10
20 20
o: <C
-;j'. .0004
.0003 .0002
10
30
1
;; !?
50
liO
lO
"'
9 8 7
0.7
.00009
00008
70
.0001
4
3
Problem 1: Determine the absoiute viscosity of an oil which has a kinematic viscosity of 82 centistokes and a specific gravity of 0.83 . Solution. 1: Connect 82 on the kinematic viscosity scale with. 0.83 on the .specific gravity sea.le; read 6i centipoise at the intersection on the absolute viscosity scaie .
80
.00006 .00005 .00004 .00003
0.6
00 100
.00001
""'I
Problem 2: Determine the absolute viscosity of an oil having a speciflc gravity of 0.83 and a Saybolt Furo! viscosity of 40 seconds . Solution 2: Connect 0.83 on the specific gra.vity scale with 40 seconds on the Sayboll Furo! sca1e; read 67 centipoise at the intersection on the abso!ute viscosity scaie.
0.5-
Figure 13.8. Equivalents of kinematic, Saybolt Universal, Saybolt Furo!, and absolute viscosity.
6.0 5.0
4.0
10
~
1,
3.0
2.0
~
11~ ~\
16
\\ \' ~\
' ~ ~\
12
1 ~
'\
1.0 ......... 9
.8
~
g_
5l .7
.6
e:
\.' "'<''4
~"~' "'5"~ '"

'
\ I\'\ "~
' ....
\'
i"\ ~ ~
.........
8 .5
.5
""
. .4
l \.
" "" '..."

.......
' 1\..
......
"'"
' '\. '''"'\."lo. ' '
-~
~ .3
1
.......
::t.
.2
~-
""
1\
"""" -'\.
\
_...;:
~ ......_
"' " r'::

'"'
.........
"~
"'"
.............
...........
'
..............
'\...
...........
............. r-....._
["-... ~~ ~
.............
~
~
~
~~
- r-"'t'-....
"""
280 320 360
0.1 .09 .08 .07 .06 .05

.04
'\
\
~ "-
'"
\
o
.03 -40
1. Car bon Dioxlde. , CO,
2. Ammonia . , NHa
'
40
80 120 160 240 200 t - Temperature, in Degrees Fahrenheit

16. 17. 18. 19.
Methyl Chlorlde. , CHaCI Sulphur Dloxlde so, Freon 12 ........ F-12 Freon 114 ....... F-114 7. Freon 11 ........ F-l 1 8, Freon 113 ....... F-113
3. 4. S. 6.
9. Ethyl Alcohol 1O. lsopropyl Alcohol 11. 203 Sulphuric Acid . 203 H,so,
12. Dowtherm E
103 Sodium Chlorlde Brine 103 203 Sodium Chlorlde Brine 203 103 Calcium Chlorlde Brlne 103 203 Caldum Chloride Brlne 203
NaCI NaCI CaClt CaClt
13. Dowtherm A 14. 203 Sodium Hydroxide 203 Na OH

15. Mercury
Example: The viscosity of ammonia at 40 F is 0.14 centipoise.
Figure 13.9. Viscosity of various liquids (data from "The Dowthenn Handbook," Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI, 1954; R. F. Steams, R. M. Jackson, R. R. Johnson, and C. A. Larson, "Flow Measurement with Orifice Meters," D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1951; and "Air Conditioning Refrigerating Data Book-Design," 9th edition, American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, New York, 1955).
428
21
1 1 9
\
1
1S
]
\ -1
\
--1
1
1\
\
\
\
\ \
+ffffi
L--~
1
'
\ \
4. Naturc;l Gaso/ine
'
\ \
\ \ \
\
\
\ \
l6r--.
\
13
\\ \
\
\
\
6. Water
1
i\
'
\ \
''
'
e.
Disti!!ot
9. 48 Deg. API Crudlij

l O. 40 Oeg. API Crude
11. 35.6 Dog. API Crndo l 2. 32.6 Dog. API Crud

l 3. Soif Creek Crucle
14. ruel 3 IMo.)

15.
~uel
5 (MinJ
SAE 1O lubo 1100 V.I.)

!7. SAE 30 lube (100 V.I.) 18. Fue! 5 (Mox.J or Fuol 6 (Min.I
6 -....._
""'
:-.~' ~,, \
\ \ \ \
19. SAE 70 Lub (100 V.I.)

20. Bunktir C Fue! {Mali:.) and
M.C. Residuum
~l.
Aphcl!
''
1 1 " '
1
Data extractcd in part by pcrmission from thc Oil and Gas Journal.
30 40
60 80 100
'
200
300 400
600 800 1000
-Temperalure, in Degrees Fahrenheit

Ex11mple: The viscosity of water at 125 F is 0.52 centipoise (Curve No. 6).
Figure 13.10. Viscosity ofWater and Liquid Petroleum products (data from R. F. Stearns, R. M. Jackson, R. R. Johnson, and C. A. Larson, "Flow Measurement with Orifice Meters," D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1951; W. L Nelson, "Petroleum Refinery Engineering," McGraw-Hill, New York, 1949; E. C. Bingham and R. F. Jackson, Bureau of Standards Bulletin 14, Special Publication 298, August 1916, pp. 58-86; data extracted in part by permission from Oil and Gas Journal).
429
VALUES OF (vdJ FOR WATER AT 60 F {VElOCiTY IN FT./SEC. ){ O!AMETIER IN iHCHESl
400
000 !iOO
~"
,.f
,?'
.os
.06' ''
'1 ' ' ' ' -.-..._,,
I\.
.04
.03
.05
.02
.015
.04
.Ol
f
Friction Factor =
.03 .015
.008
Relative .004 Roughness

.002
=
.006
(~\'"'. DI ~g
.01
h '
8&\s
.0006 .0004
.015
.IJfJ1l1
.0001
.IJOOIJS
-:m111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
. 10' 2 3 4 5 6 B lil' 1 3 4 5 6 8 !O' 1 3 4 5 6 8 !O' . . . . .
R,. Reynolds Number = Problem: Determine the friction factor for io-inch cast iron pipe (10.16" l.D.) ata Reynolds number ftow of 30.000.
For olher fornu of
th~
Dvp
,
Re equation, ieii po:.igft 32.
Solution: The relative roughness (see page A-23) is 0.001. Then, the friction factor (j) equals 0.010.
Figure 13.11. Friction factors for any type of commercial pipe (data from L. F. Moody, "Friction Factors for Pipe Flow,'' Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Volume 66, pp. 671-678, November 1944).
VALUES OF (ud) FOR WATER Ar GO F \fEl..OCl"rY IN FT./SEC. X OIAMETER IN iNCHES)
'),~
"'~~i?~~~~
Nominal
Pipe Size,
lnches
f_E==t::::; ___ . ._~1/8
f
Friciion Factor =
--t 111J 111 H-ttt= H+~HH f-H#--++ttt+ft+l-Hl '

---r
1 1 111111
-P
(;;_)~
D 2g . 02 h-1+1--!--1 1 1\1111 11111
llllJJJII:
36 46
'---l-'---..L.L..LLLLLLLL----L--....!........!.....LJ ...L.LL .. l
[!a
4 6 8 1 1 1
000024
o o o
S<:hedule Numher
.009 LLLU_L_LJ.......Ll...1
.LLLLU.
2 3 4 5 6 8 10'
3 4 5 6 310'
2 3 4 5 6 810'
2 3 4 5 6 810 7
2 3 4 5 G 8 JOB
R, Reynolds Number
= =;-
DvP
For other fo:-m$ of the fl~ equatlon, ~ page J.2.
Problem: Determine the friction factor for 1 2-inch Schedule 40 pipe at a flow having a Reynolds number of 300,000.
Solution: The friction factor (f) equals
0.016.
Figure 13.12. Friction factors for clean commercial steel pipe (data from L. F. Moody, ''Friction Factors for Pipe Flow, '' Transactions American Society of Mechanical Volume 66, pp. 671-678, November 1944).
Pipe Diameter, in Feet -D
.o 5
.04
.1
'
.3 .4 .5 .6 ' . B , 1
.03 .02
'
~
'
"' 1\...
1\...
' ....
-"
"'r-.
'
'
4 5
,10
'
lO 25
~
"'
'
~
" 1\..
....
"'
~
~
07
.06
.05
l'I""
.01 .008
.006 .... .005 1'-' .... .... ,.... ... .... ' :004 ' .... .003
-- ,
'
"',,
RV T
ED
L
- '"
''
!'-
..... 04
035
....
N R
.002
..,~
"' .0006 ~
~ .0003
o::
.001 :!! .0008

1
''
,..., ' ' !"\ "'" ""' "~,

''
W< O
E
~
"'
' ""
-.03
' "'-'.,.
ro.,
~
T/W
'
I"
r-,1'
.::
'!;
a .0005
''
"r-. 'ro. ,ro.

I'
' '"' ..
ro. '!\..
'
'
'
1\..
....
,'
',
''
\,.
' "'ro.
....
...
025
tr'~-
...
.,:1.s->'
l'I
.0004
'
~...
'
'lo.." (1'''
-\~'llrrrr. ~"" -~-s- . .,..""""'
~ 0,,._
.0002
'"<_. ~<~~"-. " (~ ~~' 1, rt<-r ..">-"'' r-..' r-e.1>
'\, <~'?"'
''
'
"
'
' 018 ;f -' -e '" - 016 .=

...... 02
<>::
Q)
'
e: ~
8.
:;
~o
~ "'----
....
'
'
,~,
-....[,, "IP.. .....
- .014
~
1
.f
.0001 .00008 .00006 .00005 .00004 .00003 .00002
~-\.
'<~o
~
r-..,' ~ ....
~'
"" ' -~,.,. - -
" ...."
'
' ,....
~-
""'
"1~,
N
.....
,
',
'
-'
'"' .... '~

~
"',...,. '11 !',.,. ............

.......
'
'-.
012
.....
' "of
""' 1
1
'
-,.
'
.00001 .000008 .000006 .0000051
~~
... ,
01
.....009
~
008
..... .t
4 5
8 10
20
30 40 50 60 80 100
200 300
Pipe Diameter, in loches -d

Data extracted from Priction Faclors for Pipe Flow by L.F. Moody, with pcrmission of thc publishcr, The American Socicty of Mechanical Enginccrs. 29 Wcst 39th Strcct, New York.
Problem: Determine absolute and relative roughness, and friction factor, far fully turbulent flow in 10-inch cast iron pipe (l.D. = 10 1 6'). Solution: Absolute roughness () = 0.00085 ..... Relative roughness (/D) = 0.001 ..... Friction factor at fully turbulent flow (/) = o.otQ6.
Figure 13.13. Relative roughness of pipe materials and friction factors for complete turbulence (data from L. F. Moody, "Friction Factors for Pipe Flow," Transactions ofthe. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Volume 66, pp. 671-678, November, 1944).
432
d,/d2=~
1.20
u u
1.1
...-....- .....
./
~75
~
'-
,,725
d.
1.1 1.11 1
,
/
,,.,...... ....
~
....
...--
./
"""' .....
......... .........
-~
1.081
..,...v
L.--
Flow-
1.116;
1:041
cd c=-v1-f14
C for nozzles
1.02! 1.001
0.981
--
~-
,_,,_ ..
;
, ~
,,-~
....... ,...... '.: .....:::;: .......
"""' / """' ....... / .......... ........ ..,.t'7 ,.,... ,..i"""' ........... _,...
_,..
_ _.... ....
--
i--
--
~
70
!ij
675 a..
.65
.625
1.&0
-~ .s
Qj
1il
1ij
e
z
C1>
M75 o.55 ::l
-~
...
1.50 45 40 JI
~
"' o::
----
0.20
Example: The ftow coefficient for a diameter ratio {3 of 0.60 at a Reynolds number of 20,000 (2 x 1a4) equals 1 .03.
0.96;
0.94 0.92
',,' ,
2
... ~6810' 2 4 68105 2 4 68106
/l,. - Reynolds Number based on
d2
Figure 13.14. Flow coefficient C for nozzles (data from "Fluid Meters, Part I," 4th edition, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1937).
Korifice
1 C2 4
/3
132
Flow-
e for square-edge
e
1.3
l. 2
l.
1
,.._ ....__
11
=~;;-=.SO
d,
17 ./
/
_.__
=.75 -.70 =.65 =.60 =.50
1.0
o. 9 o. 8
0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4
-1 1
I\\
,/
1/
,/
I~ v ... "' __.. __.. I~ ~ v" t:-,....

/
l./~
..--i-
--..........
v"~
,, [A
~ ~
~
6
"" ~ 8 \:: ,____

~,,
~
.~
--
t--
1\ \~ !'--...._ r--."f'....."- !"-.... ,... ........ r-- ~ r-t:'t--r--..._

~
'
-~
~o-d;
d,
= 401= =
.301- (_/
o ... :
175 r--;;::: ~V/1

f.-._
r-- t-- ,.... ....
11
,._ ...
8 10
'Q
4Q60BOJ02
8 10'
6 8 10
Rr - Reynolds Number based on d 2

0.78 0.76 0.7 4 0.71 0.7o
0.68
--
...._
r-- ...._
t--
--,_ --...._
..._
L
.75 .,
o .115f o .70 ~
~
-..
1---~
.,
fl
o .65 o .60
16 e
o
~
0.66 0.64 .0.61 0.60 0.58
r--..__
-~
...___
I' 0.10
6 8 10
6 8 10'
~.40 0.30
o .55 'O o .50 ~ o .45 &;
8 10
R,. - Reynolds Number based on d 2
Figure 13.15. Flow coefficient C for square-edge orfices (data from "Fluid Meters, Part 1," 4th edition, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1937; G. L. Tuve and R. E.
Sprenkle, "Orfice Coefficients for Viscous Liquids," Instruments, p. 201, November 1933).
434
Q
20 000
1
10 10
B
-JO 000
000
6 ~3000
000
6 000 .
4 000
r
w
8 000
lndex
Jnternal Pipe D1ameter, lnches
000
4 000 3 000 lOOO
R,
10 000 6000 4 000 1000 l 000 600 400
200 100 50 40
10
2 llOO
000
~f
3 1
!
\
.4 .5 .6 .7 .8
'~
~
.5
.6
3/4
70
l.O
-~m
llOO
GOO
w
300 ~
200
~
400
1 3/4
f
l.5
65
1/1
~
lll
400-
"
\' \
~
:
6IJ
"-
100 llO
50
e
~ o
~ ~
"'
o
~
;,;: 2\\
3
1.5 :;.
,_,
~
"
lO
~~
40 30
IH-~ o
;;;
.O! .02 .03 .04
~
"-
-;;
w
55
~
"-
::
-
~
';;
N
3*
"'
~
.6
-;;;
;;
10
lO 8
;:
';;
w
i o
.o
11l-di
30-'l~
~ Friction Factor !or Clea11
.4
.2
Stoel Pipe
"
"'
'
Z.i
-;;
!lJ ~
~
.02
' ~
"'
.!
~
8
""
9
45
'
""
1
<>.
100
.O! .008 .006 .004 .003
10 11 14
JO
!
.8 .6 .4
:!JO
16
15
40
300 '!JO 500 6lllJ
18
1{)
.002l1
.3
.2
20
24 -14
.8
U"I
.6
Figure 13.16. Reynolds number for liquid flow friction factor for clean steel pipe.
TABLE 13.1. Equlvalents of Absolute (Dynamic) Vlscoslty

TO OllTAIN - '.>lULTlPLY
Centipoi1e
Poise
Grsm
Cn;i. Sec
~ e
*Pound Sec
Ft'
tPoundm Ft Sec Poundal Sec Ft'
Dyne Sec
1
Cntipoi
'\"'" () 11'.
(100 )
()
~ (100 )
O.O!
(',)
(,)
2.09 (I0- 5)
6.72 (10-)
Poi se Gram CmSec Dyne Sec

~
100
l
1
2.09 (!O-)
0.0672
Slugo Ft Sec
:Pound1 Sec
('e)
1
47 90ll
479
g or 32.2
Ft
tPoundm Ft Sec Poundal Sec Ft'
(,)
1487
14.87
1 1
l.or .0311
fJ
*Pound= Pound of Force
tpoundm = Pound of Mass
To convert absolute or dynamic viscosity from one set of units to another, locate the given set of units in the left hand column and multiply the numerical value by the factor shown horizontally to the right under the set of units desired.
Asan example, suppose a given absolute viscosity of 1 poise is to be converted to slugs 1 foot second. By referring to the table, we find the conversion factor to be 2.og ( I0-3). Then, 2 (poise) times 2.og ( 1 o-3) = 4.18 (10-3) = 0.00418 slugs. foot second.
TABLE 13.2. Equivalents of Kinematic Viscosity

TO OBTAI\;-\!LLTIPLY
Centistokes
Stokes
l
Cetistokes
BY
Cm' Sec
Ft 2 Sec
(,')
~
(,)
(,)
(IOO ,)
11'
100
11
0.01
1.076 (I0-5)
Stokeo
Cm' Sec
Ft 2 Sec
(100 ,)
!.076 (10-')
(/)
11
92 900
929
To convert kinematic viscosity from one set of units to another, locate the given set of units in the left hand column and multiply the numerical value by the factor shown horizontally to the right, under the set of units desired.
As an example, suppose a given kinematic viscosity of o. 5 square foot.isecond is to be con verted to centistokes. By referring to the table, we, find the conversion factor to be g2,goo. Then, 0.5 (sq ft/sec) times q2,goo = 46,450 centistokes.
436
TABLE 13.3. Equlvalents of Klnematlc and Saybolt Universal Vlscoslty

Kinernatic Viscosity, Centistokes
V
TABLE 13.4. Equlvalents of Klnematlc and Saybolt Furol Vlscoslty

Kinematic Viscosity,
Equivalent Saybolt Universal Viscosity, Sec At IOOF Basic Values 31.01 32.62 39.14 45.56 52.09 58.91 77.39 97.77 119.3 141.3 163.7 186.3 209.1 232.1 255.2 278.3 301.4 324.4 347.6 370.8 393.9 417.1 440.3 463.5 556.2 648.9 741.6 834.2 926.9 1019.6 1112.3 1205.0 1297.7 1390.4 1483.1 1575.8 1668.5 1761.1 1853.9 1946.6 2039.3 1131.0 2224.7 1317.4 Saybolt Seconds equal Centistokes times 4.6347 At 210 F 32.13 32.85 39.41 45.88 52.45 59.32 77.93 98.45 120.1 142.3 164.9 187.6 210.5 233.8 257.0 280.2 303.5 326.7 350.0 373.4 396.7 420.0 443.4 466.7 560.1 653.4
Equivalent Saybolt Furo! Viscosity, Sec At 122 F 25.3 26.1 30.6 35.1 39.6 44.1 48.6 60.1 71.7 83.8 95.0 106.7 118.4 130.1 141.8 153.6 165.3 177.0 188.8 200.6 212.4 224.1 135.9 247.7 259.5 271.3 283.1 294.9 306.7 318.4 330.2 342.0 353.8 365.5 377... 389.1 400.9 412.7 414.5 436.3 448.1 459.9
471.7 483.5 495.1 507.0
Centistokes
V
At 210 F
1.83 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0
48 50 60
70 80 90
25.2 29.8 34.4 39.0 43.7 48.3 60.1 71.8 83.7 95.6 107.5 119.4 131.4 143.5 155.5 167.6 179.7 191.8 204.0 216.1 228.3 240.5 252.8 265.0 277.2 289.5 301.8 314.1 326.4 338.7 351.0 363.4 375.7 388.1 400.5 411.9 425.3
437.7 450.1 461.5 474.9
100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525 550 575 600 625 650 675 700 725 750 775
800
so.o
55.0 60.0 65.0 70.0
75.0 80.0 85.0 90.0 95.0 100.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 180.0 200.0 120.0 240.0 260.0 280.0 300.0 310.0 340.0 360.0 380.0 400.0 420.0 440.0 460.0 480.0 500.0 Over 500
Saybolt Seconds equal Centistokes times 4.73
815 850 875

90 925 950 975
1000 1025 1050 1075 1100 1125 1150 1175

t,
487.4 499.8 512.3 524.8 537.1 549.7 561.2 574.7 587.1 599.7 611.1 614.8 637.3
518.8 530.6 542.4 554.1 566.0 577.8 589.5 601.3 613.1
Note: To obtain the Saybolt Universal viscosity

equivalent to a kinematic viscosity determined at
multiply the equivalent Saybolt Universal viscosity at 100 F by 1+ (t - 100) 0.000 064. For example. 10 v at 210 F are equivalent to 58.91 multiplied by 1.0070 or 59.32 sec Saybolt Universal at 210 F. These tables are reprinted with the permission of the AmericanSociety for T esting Meterais (ASTM) The table at the left was abstracted from Table 1, 02161-3T. The table at the right was abstracted . from Table 3, 02161-H.
1200 1225 1250 1175 1300 Over 1300
*OVER 1300 CENTISTOKES AT 122 F: Saybolt Fluid Sec = Centistokes x 0.4717 toVER 1300 CENTISTOKES AT 210 F: Log (Saybolt Furo! Sec - 2.87) 1.0276 ll.og (Centistokes)] - 0.3975
437
TABLE 13.5. Physical Properties of Water

Temperature
of Water
t
Degrees Fahrenheit
Saturation P;ressure
Specific Volume
P'
Pounds per Square Jnch Absolute
1
1
v
Cubic Feet Per Pound 0.016021 0.016019 0.016023 0.016033 0.016050 0.016072 0.016099 0.016130
Weight Density
p
Weight
1
1
1
1
1
Pounds per Cubic Foot 62.414 62.426 62.410 62.371

62.305 62.220 62.116 61.9%
Pounds Per Gallon 8.3436 8.3451 8.3430 8.3378 8.3290 8.3176 8.3037 8.2877 8.2698 8.2498 8.2280 8.2048 8.1797 8.1537 8.1260 8.0969 8.0667 8.0351 8.0024 7.9957 7.9690 7.8979 7.8226 7.7433 7.6608 7.4308 7.1717 6.8801 6.5433 6.1434 5.6548 4.9993 3.6505
32
40
'
50 60
70 80 90 100 110 120 130
1
0.08859 0.12163 0.17796 0.25611 0.36292 0.50683 0.69813 0.94924 1.2750 1.6927 2.2230 2.8892 3.7184 4.7414 5.9926 7.5110 9.340
140
150 160 170 180 190 200
210 212
0.016165 0.016204 0.016247 0.016293 0.016343 0.016395 0.016451 0.016510 0.016572

0.1)16637
61.862 61.7132 61.550 &1.376 61.188 60.994 60.787 60.569 60.343 60.107 59.862 59.812 59.613 59.081 58.517 57.924 57.307
220
240
il.526 14.123 14.696 17.186

24.%8 35.427 49.200 67.005 134.604 247.259 422.55 680.86 1045.43 1543.2 2208.4 3094.3
0.016705 0.016719 0.016775

0.016926 0.017089 0.017264 0.01745
260
280 300
350 400
450 501)
0.01799 0.01864 0.01943 0.02043

0.02176
55.586
53.648 51.467 48.948 45.956 42.301 37.397 27.307
60
550
600
650 700
0.02364 0.02674 0.03662
Specific gravity of water at
F = 1 .oo
Weight per gallan is based on 7.48052 gallons per cubic foot. All data on volume and pressure are abstracted from ASME Steam Tables (1967), with permission of publisher, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, N. Y. 10017.
TABLE 13.6. Weight Density and Specific Gravity of Various liquids
Liquid Temp. Weight 1Specific Density Gravity
1
p
Liquid
Temp.' Weight Specific Density Gravity

p
s
I
Mercury Mercurv MercurY Mercury Mercury
Deg
Fahr.
1cb~.- P~.r
49.4 40.9
Sb.I 68.05 67.24 63.25
Fahr.
i Deg
1c~: ~tr
849.74 848.03 113.623 13.596 846.32 !3.568 844.62 13.541 842.93 l '3:'.l.4 t 57.J 0.919 38.9 ' 0.624 54.M 0.876 56.02 0.898 57.12 0.916 52.56 1 0.843 53.77 0.862 52.81 0.847 0.825 51.45 49.16 1 0.788
Ace tone 1 Ammonia,. Saturated Benzenc Brinc, IOC;~ Ca Cl
O 10 32 32 Brine, 10% Na Cl 1 32 BunkcrsCFue!Max. 60 Carbon Disulphide 32 Distillate 60 Fue! 3 Max. 60 Fue! 5 Min. 60 Fue! 5 Max. 60 Fue! 6 Min. O 1 Gasolinc 60 Gasoline, Natural 60 Kerosene 60 M.C. Residuum 1 60
0.792 0.656 0.899 1 !.091 1 1.078 1.014 80.6 1.292 1 52.99 1 0.850 56.02 0.898 60.23 0.966 61.92 0.993 1 61.92 0.993 1 1 0.751 46.81 0.680 42.42 0.815 50.85 1 58.32 1 0.935
20 40
1
60 80
Milk OliveOil Pentanc SAE 10 Lubej SAE 30 Lube! SAE 70 Lubet Sal t Creek Crude 32.6 API Crude 35 .6' API Crude 40' API Crude 48' AP! Crude
...
1
100
59 59 60 60 1 60 60 1 60 60 60
1
438
TABLE 13.7. Equlvalents of Degrees API, Degrees Baum, Speclflc Gravity, Welght Density, and Pounds per Gallon at 60 F /60 F
Degrees on API or Baum Se ale Values for API Scale Oil Specific Gravity Weight Density, Lb/Ft
p
Valuea for Baum Scale Liquida Lighter Than Water Liquida Heavier Than Water
~ific ~cific ravity
Pounds
per-
Gallon
Weight Density, Lb/Ft

p
Pounda
G~n
... . .. . .. . .. ...
8.337 8.219 8.105 7.994 7.886 7.781 7.679 7.579 7.482 7.387 7.295 7.205 7.117 7.031 6.947 6.865 6.786 6.708 6.632 6.557 6.484 6.413 6.344 6.275 6.209 6.143 6.079 6.016 5.955 5.895 5.836 5.778 5.722 5.666 5.612
vity
Weight Density, Lb/Ft

p
Pounda per Gallon
s
2 4 6 8 10
12
s
... . .. ... ...
. .. 8.337 8.221 8.108 7.998 7.891 7.787 7.736 7.587 7.490 7.396 7.305 7.215 7.128 7.043 6.960 6.879 6.799 6.722 6.646 6.572 6.499 6.429 6.359 6.292 6.225 6.160 6.097 6.034 5.973 5.913 5.854 5.797 5.741 5.685 5.631 5.577 5.526 5.474 5.424 5.374 5.326 5.278 5.231 5.186 5.141 5.096
s
1.0000 1.0140 1.0284 1.0432 1.0584 1.0741 1.0902 1.1069 1.1240 1.1417 1.1600 1.1789 1.1983 1.2185 1.2393 1.2609 1.2832 1.3063 1.3303 1.3551 1.3810 1.4078 1.4356 1.4646 1.4948 1.5263 1.5591 1.5934 1.6292 1.6667 1.7059 1.7470 1.7901 1.8354 1.8831 1.9333 ...
... ... ... ...

...
1.0000 0.9861 0.9725 0.9593 0.9465 0.9340 0.9218 0.9100 0.8984 0.8871 0.8762 0.8654 0.8550 0.8448 0.8348 0.8251 0.8155 0.8063 0.7972 0.7883 0.7796 0.7711 0.7628 0.7547 0.7467 0.7389 0.7313 0.7238 0.7165 0.7093 0.7022 0.6953 0.6886 0.6819 0.6754 0.6690 0.6628 0.6566 0.6506 0.6446 0.6388 0.6331 0.6275 0.6220 0.6166 0.6112
. .. ...
. .. ...
. ..
... ... ...

...
1.0000 0.9859 0.9722 0.9589 0.9459 0.9333 0.9211 0.9091 0.8974 0.8861 0.8750 0.8642 0.8537 0.8434 0.8333 0.8235 0.8140 0.8046 0.7955 0.7865 0.7778 0.7692 0.7609 0.7527 0.7447 0.7368 0.7292 0.7216 0.7143 0.7071 0.7000 0.6931 0.6863 0.6796 0.6731 0.6667 0.6604 0.6542 0.6482 0.6422 0.6364 0.6306 0.6250 0.6195 0.6140 0.6087
...
... ...
62.36 61.49 60.63 59.80 58.99 58.20 57.44 56.70 55.97 55.26 54.57 53.90 53.24 52.60 51.97 51.36 50.76 50.18 49.61 49.05 48.51 47.97 47.45 46.94 46.44 45.95 45.48 45.00 44.55 44.10 43.66 43.22 42.80 42.38 41.98 41.58 41.19 40.80 40.42 40.05 39.69 39.33 38.98 38.63 38.29 37.96
... . ..
...
62.36 63.24 64.14 65.06 66.01 66.99 67.99 69.03 70.10 71.20 72.34 73.52 74.73 75.99 77.29 78.64 80.03 81.47 82.96 84.51 86.13 87.80 89.53 91.34 93.22 95.19 97.23 99.37 101.60 103.94 106.39 108.95 111.64 114.46 117.44 120.57
8.337 8.454 8.574 8.697 8.824 8.955 9.089 9.228 9.371 9.518 9.671 9.828 9.990 10.159 10.332 10.512 10.698 10.891 11.091 11.297 11.513 11.737 11.969 12.210 12.462 12.725 12.998 13.284 13.583 13.895
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100
62.36 61.50 60.65 59.83 59.03 58.25 57.87 56.75 56.03 55.32 54.64 53.97 53.32 52.69 52.06 51.46 50.86 50.28 49.72 49.16 48.62 48.09 47.57 47.07 46.57 46.08 45.61 45.14 44.68 44.23 43.79 43.36 42.94 42.53 42.12 41.72 41.33 40.95 40.57 40.20 39.84 39.48 39.13 38.79 38.45 38.12
14.122 14.565 14.924 15.302 15.699

16.118
5.558
5.506 5.454 5.404 5.354 5.306 5.257 5.211 5.165 5.119 5.075
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
...
... ... ...
. .. . .. . .. ... . .. ... ... ... . .. ...
...
439
TABLE 13.6. Commercial Wrought Steel Pipe Data (Schedule Wall Thickness-per ASA B36. Hl1950)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .;
Schedule Wall 'l'hicknes.-Per ASA 836.10-1950
Nominal Pipe Size
lnches 14 16 18 20 24 30
8 10
12 14 16 1!1 20 24 30
1
''~~]
Outside Diarneter
Thickness
Inside Diamete
Inside Diameter Functions (In lnches)
T:ransverse lnternal Area
~,~ >5
lnches 14 16 18 20 24 30 Hl.75 12.75 14 Hi 18 20 24 30
Inches 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.312 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.312 0.312 0.312 0.375 0.375 0.500
ln:hes 13.5 15.5 17.5 19.5 23.5 29.376
F~et
1.125 1.291 1.4583 l.625 1.958 2.448
d'
d' 2460.4 3723.9 5359.4 7414.9 12977. 25350.
d'
d' 448400. 894660. 1641309. 2819500. 21864218.
Sq. In. 143.14 188.69 240.53 298.65 433.74 677 .76
Sq
~t. ~;
, .
182.25 240.25 306.25 380.25 552.25 862.95

1
33215. 57720. 93789. 144590. 304980. 744288.
7167030.
0.994 l.311) l.670 2.074 3.012 4.707 0.5731 0.8185 0.9758 1.290 l.647 2.021 2.948 4.587
8.6251
18.12510.6771166.02 10.25 0.8542 105.06

12.25 13.376 15.376 17.376 19.250 23.25 29.00 1.021 150.06 l.lll 178.92 1.281 236.42 1.448 301.92 l.604 370.56 1.937 540.56 2.417 841.0
13635.2 5246.3
7133.3 112568. 24389.
536.38 1076.9 1838.3 2393.2
111038. 4359.3
22518. 32012. 55894. 91156. 1373i7. 292205. 707281.
35409. 113141. 275855. 428185. 859442. 1583978. 2643352. 6793832. 20511149.
151.8510.3601
82.52 117 .86 '140.52 185.69 237.13 29!.04 424.56 660.52
...
;: ;,,. ..i.> ;':../
--;~-,-,~-;--,.-,.,..,......,....,~~;--~~;--~-;-~~--;~~~~..;--~~------;-~~~~~..;--~~-,-~~
8 1 525.75 4243.2 34248. 1 51.1610.3553 ~ 10 10.75 0.307 10.136 0.8447 Hl2.74 1041.4 10555. 106987. 1 80.69 0.5603 . 1 12 12.75 0.330 12.09 1.0075 146.17 1767.2 21366. 258304. 114.80 0.7972 14 14 13.25 li.1042 175.56 2326.2 30821. 408394. l 137.88 0.9575 -~--+----7---~---'----'-"-----'------+------!---------'---'----!---.:...c:.__ ::;}' 16 16 0.375 15.25 1.2708 232 ..% 3546.6 54084. 824801. 182.65 1.268 18 18 0.438 17.124 293.23 5021.3 85984. 1472397. 230.30 1.599 20 20 o.soo 19.oo 1.5833 36i..oo 6859.o 130321. 2476099. 283.53 1.969 .;~ 24 24 0.562 22.876 1.9063 523.31 H971. 273853. 6264703. 411.00 2.854 .~~--~; 30 30 0.625 28.75 2.3958 826.56 23764. 683201. 19642160. 649.18 4.508 .:.
1 8.6251 0.2771 8.07110.6726165.14
:":!
0.375 l
l.4270
%
% %
0.405 o.540 0.675

1'
o.oss 0.091
0.0681
0.26910.02241 o.364 0.0303 0.493 0.0411

1.049 0.0874 l.380 0.1150
0.07241 0.1325 0.2430

l.100 1.904
0.01951 o.o4&2 0.1198

1.154 2.628
0.0052421 0.01756 0.05905

1.210 3.625
0.00141 0.00639 0.02912
1'
0.05710.00040 :;:;i 0.104 o.ooon,:\;.i 0.191 0.00133 "~~j

0.864 0.00600 ; 1.495 0.01040 ';;.
l 114,
!1 1 ~:~~ ~:!~~ 1~::i 1~:~:~~1 ~:~~:91 ~:~~~~ 1 ~:!ii~ 1 ~:~~~~ U~jg:~~i~! .~-~-
11
1.315 l.660
0.133 0.14()
1.270 5.005
i1h
!Yz 5
6
~112 1 t~ 1 g:~~: 1~:~!~ 1g:~~~i1 !:~ii 1 ::~;: 1 ,g~~ 1 i~:~i5 1 ;:~~~ 1 g:g~jl~ ~1.4'~
1
!:= 1g:i;~ !:~~: 1g:5j~~1 ~~:~i 1 11.8.56 !~:~~~ 5.563 0.258 5.047 0.4206 25.47
1
i::~ g:~~~
0.280
;::: g:i~~~
::~~
i~:~~~
li.625
6.065 0.5054
36.78
223.10
648.72 1352.8
~~t~!
~~:!~!
3275. 8206.
i~~~:2
2ii:~
20.00610.1390
28.891 0.2006
1i:~~~ g:g::~~ '.F;~ I%~

1
~:;~~ ~:g~i;~ ~)
~t;
~! 1~H~5 ltili1~u~;1rm~l!~n: 1tfT 1i~~v

i~
HJ
8
~:
1 ~::g
1
i~:g
1g:~~ 1~:::: 1 ~:!~~3 1i~~:~ 1!~~::~
i!
16 18
20 24
8.62510.40617.81310.6511 476.93 0.500 9.750 IJ.8125 61.04 95.06 926,86 5 ~!:~ ~:~~; g:~i: ~:~~~: ~~:~~ ~~~~:
10.75
g:~:~ i~::~: ~ ::~;: ~r~:~ 1~~j: 5
1~~~i~:
1
1i~I~~~
l 1;~:~;~:
i~~~!~:
m:~:
3725.9 9036.4
~~~~~:::
1 ~~tig 1
402.07
!iUi;IH~~i :~!~
2.7921
0
116.0 18.0
20.0 24.0 0.405 0.540 il.675
1
0.656114.68811.22401215.74 0.750 16.500 1.3750 272.25 13168.8 4492.l

18.376 l.5313 337.68 22.064 1.8387 486.82 o.21s 0.302 10.01791 0.0252 0.423 0.0353 6205.2 10741.
146544 74120:
114028. 23&9'!4.
11222982. 683618.
2095342. 5229036.
;;~::
29113. 88110.
1169.441 i.1766 'ti':j 213.83 1.4849;~'..~:

265.21 382.35 l.8417 ,,,~'. 2.6552;.~.;
147.9410.332' 1 ,p, 74,66 0.51!15 ,c_,q i~~:~~ g:~!~~ ~\ll

o.0361 o.002s.~ ..~ .. 0.072 O.
0.141 o. 1.283
um c'~~l !~
0.812 0.%8
l/s 1/.i
o.0951 O.H9
0.126 0.191
o.04621 0.0912 0.1789
0.0275 0.0757
0.009941
0.0011341 IJ.008317
0.03200
0.0004591 ll.002513
0.01354
1 1%
~:~:g 10.1471 0.54610.04551 0.29811 1.315 ~:~~: ~:~:; ~:~~~ ~:~~~

1.660 1.278 0.1065 l.633
~:!~~~ 1 0.8387 ~:~~~~61 0.8765

2.087 2.6667
0.8027 3.409
~:~i:~21 0.719 ~:!~~1~:003oq~...i._,_ 0.00499'}'

0.0089%'i::
'
(confinued on rha next poge}
-~'<i;<.j
"\:~..,,~.:
440
TABLE 13.8. (Contnued)

Schedule Wall Thickness-Per ASA 836.10-1950
Nominal Pipe Si:e lnches Outside ThickDiamneas eter lnches lnches Inside Diameter
1
Inside Diameter Functions (In Inches)

d'
1
Transverse Internal Area

1
A
ln~es
F~et
1 d'
1
1 d'
1
d'
Sq.In.
Sq. Ft.
1% 2 2% 3 .. 3%
11.900 2.375 2.875 3.5 1 4.0
0.200 11.500 1 0.1250 0.218 1.939 0.1616 0.276 2.323 0.1936 0.300 2.900 0.2417 1 0.3181
2.250 1 3.760 5.396 8.410 1
3.3751 7.290 12.536 24.389 38.0691
5.062 14.136 29.117 70.728 128.14
7 .594 27.41 67 .64 205.1 430.8
1.76710.01225 2.953 0.02050 4.238 0.02942 6.605 0.04587 1 8.88810.06170
l, __14 12-o-~7--12~~7-5-i-~-68~7-+-~ll~~37~6-i-~-94-=80~7l2~9~.4~1,--i-=-14~772~.2,---;--1~67747~.~--;-1~90~5~2~3-.~~71~071~.64~~-7~0~58~ clS ,14.0 0.750 12.500 1.0417 156.25 1953.1 24414. 305176. 122.72 0.8522
16 18 20 24 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 4 5 6 8 10 12 116.0 89 18.0 1 0.843114.31411.19281204 o.937 16.126 t.3438 260:05 20.0 1.031 17.938 1.4948 321.77 24.0 1.218 21.564 1.7970 465.01 1 8.625 0.5931 7.439 0.6199 55.34 10.75 0.718 9.314 0.7762 86.75 12.75 0.843 11.064 0.9220 122.41 14.0 0.937 12.126 1.0105 147.04 116 o 11 031 113.938 'i 18:0 1:156 15.688 20.0 1.281 17.438 24.0 1.531 20.938 1 4.50 1 0.4381 3.6241 5.563 0.500 4.563 6.625 0.562 5.501 12932.8 4193.5 5771.9 10027. 411.66 807 .99 1354.4 1783.0 141980. 67626. 103536. 216234. 3062. 7526. 14985. 21621. 1600904. 1090518. 1857248. 4662798. 22781. 69357. 165791. 262173. 1526020. 950250. 1612438. 4024179. 625.1 1978. 5037. 119202. 61179. 143563. 160.92 204.24 252.72 365.22 43.46 68.13 96.14 115.49 11.1175 t.4183 1.7550 2.5362 10.3018 0.4732 0.6677 0.8020
-3 1 ~
5 5.563 o.375 4.813 o.4011 23.16 111.49 536.38 2583. 18.194 0.1263 ~~r1-~4-o-~7--4~~5~+-o-3=3~7-+--3~~8~26=-i-~-3~1~88-,---;-1~4~.64~---;-:5~6~.006~-;---=21~4~.3~3~---~=81~9~;8~~~1~1~.4~97~~~~7~98::-6 6 6.625 0.432 5.761 0.4801 33.19 191.20 1101.6 6346. 26.067 0.1810 l
3.3641 0.2803111.32
1t;~5 1 ~:~~ 1 ~:~!: 1 ~:;~~ 1 ;t!~
~!::i
~:::
~;~:
~::31 ~:~~~~
'3
~ ..
1.16151194.27 12707.7 137740. t.3057 246.11 3861.o 60572. 1.4532 304.0!1 5302.6 92467. 1.7448 438.40 9179.2 192195. 0.302 113.133 47.5951 172.49 0.3802 20.82 . 95.006 433.5 0.4584 30.26 166.47 915.7 1 744.66 371.54 1 6750. 2671. 1242.3 13355.
1152.58 / 1.0596 193.30 1.3423 238.83 1.6585 344.32 2.3911 10.31510.07163 16.35 0.1136 23.77 0.1650 140.59 64.53 90.76 ,0.2819 0.4481 0.6303
~ 1 __ 14~~,__14_._o~_,__1_.0_9_3~_11_._8_14_,__o_.9_8_45__._13_9_.5_7__,,__1648~_9~_,_1_9480~-~__,_23~0_13_7_.~~~1_09~.6_2~--1_6_12~
16 18 20 24 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 1h 3,4 1 11,4 1112 2 2% 3 4 5 10 12 14 16.0 11.218113.56411.1303 183.98 12495.5 18.0 1.375 15.250 . 1.2708 232.56 3546.6 20.0 1.500 17.000 1.4166 289.00 4913.0 24.0 1.812 1 20.376 1.6980 415.18 8459.7 8.625 0.8121 7.001 0.5834 49.01 343.15 10.75 1.000 8.750 0.7292 76.56 669.92 12.75 1.125 10.500 0.8750 110.25 1157.6 14.0 1.250 11.500 0.9583 132.25 1520.9 116.0 18.0 20.0 24.0 11.438113.12411.09371172.24 1.562 14.876 1.2396 221.30 1.750 16.5 1.3750 272.25 2.062 19.876 1.6563 395.06 0.4661 0.614 0.815 1.160 0.0388 0.0512 0.0679 0.0966 12260.5 3292.0 4492.1 7852.1 0.1012 0.2315 0.5413 1.561 2.3951 4.818 9.596 18.067 33849. 54086. 83521. 172375. 2402. 5862. 12155. 17490. 129666. 48972. 74120. 156069. 1459133. 824804. 1419857. 3512313. 16819. 51291. 127628. 201136. 1389340. 728502. 1222981. 3102022. 1144.50 182.66 226.98 326.08 38.50 60.13 86.59 103.87 1135.28 173.80 213.82 310.28. 11.0035 1.2684 1.5762 2.2645 ,0.2673 0.4176 0.6013 0.7213 10.9394 1.2070 1.4849 2.1547
1 10.75 8.6251 0.7181 7.1891 0.843 9.064 0.5991 0.7553 151.68 82.16 12.75 1.000 10.750 0.8959 115.56
Ul
1 0.840 1 0.1871 1.050 0.218 1.315 0.250 1.660 0.250
0.21721 0.3770 0.6642 1.346
0.047161 0.1421 0.4412. 1.811 3.205 8.138 20.39 47.41 1
0.021971 0.08726 0.3596 2.100 . 4.288 13.74 43.33 124.4
0.170610.00118 0.2961 0.00206 0.5217 0.00362 1.057 0.00734
-3 'O
1---o-~-i--=-~-i-~=o-+--o--=-i-~~~-:-:~~--~-==-+~'77'~~---~~~~-;--=--=,,-,~~=-
11.900 0.281 11.3381 2.375 1 0.343 1.689 0.111511.790 0.1407 2.853 1 2.875 0.375 2.125 0.1771 4.516 3.50 0.438 2.624 0.2187 6.885 1 4.50 1 0.531 1 3.4381 0.2865111.82 5.563 0.625 4.313 0.3594 18.60 10.75 12.75 14.0
11.40610.00976 2.241 0.01556 3.546 0.02463 5.408 0.03755

1 9.283 10.06447
40.6371 80.230
139.7 346.0 5220. 10514. 15668.
480.3 1492. 44371. 106461. 175292.
14.61
0.1015
8-r-:~:7!~~:-+-7~~:~~ 2 -+l-=j1-~:o----il--0:~::~~7:~-~~:7~~ ::~~~ !6 ~1:~~.,--7 ,~~:7 ~=o-~6~==-r~:~:~:~o--rl-!~~7 2~~!~::-~-rl-l~~~76~!~:~~rl7
1.125 1.312 1.406
8.500 10.126 11.188
0.7083 72.25 614.12 0.8438 102.54 . 1038.3 0.9323 125.17 1400.4
56.75 80.53 98.31
0.3941 0.5592 0.6827
16 18 20 24
116.0 18.0 20.0 24.0
1.593112.81411.06781164.20 1.781 14.438 1.2032 208.45 12104.0 3009.7 1.968 16.064 1.3387 258.05 4145.3 2.343 19.314 1.6095 373.03 7204.7
126961. 43454. 66590. 139152.
1345482. 627387. 1069715. 2687582.
1128.96 163.72 202.67 292.98
,0.8956 1.1369 1.4074 2.0346
441
TABLE 13.8. (Continued)

Nomin al Pipe Size
Outside
Diam.
In ches
loches
ldentification Steel Stainless lron Sched. Steel Pipe No. Sched. Size No.
Wall Thickness (t)

Inches
lnside Diame ter (d)
Are a of Metal
Square
Transverse
Moment Weight
Interna! Area
(a)
(A) Square Feet
of Inenia (/)
lnches4
Pipe
Weight Externa! Section Water Surface Modulus
Pounds Pounds Sq. Ft.

per foot 23.07 27.73 36.71 45.61 S4.S7 63.44 72.09 85.0S 106.13 130.8S 150.79 170.28 189.11 27.90 31.7S 42.0S S2.27 62.S8 82.77 107.50 136.61 164.82 192.43 223.64 245.2S 31.43 3S.76 47.39 58.94 70.S9 82.lS 93.45 104.67 138.17 170.92 207.96 244.14 274.22 308.SO 39.78 46.06 S2.73 78.60 104.13 123.11 166.40 208.87 256.10 296.37 341.09 379.17 43.80 S0.71 S8.07 86.61 114.81 197.41 250.81 302.88 3S3.61 403.00 451.06
per foot per foot
Square
loches
13.688 13.624 13.SOO 13.376 13.250 13.124 13.000 12.812 12.SOO 12.124 11.812 11.SOO 11.188 IS.670 lS.624 lS.SOO IS.376 IS.2SO 13.000 14.688 14.312 13.938 13.S62 13.124 12.812 17.670 17.624 17.SOO 17.376 17.250 17.124 17.000 16.876 16.SOO 16.124 IS.688 1S.2SO 14.876 14.438 19.624 19.S64 19.SOO 19.2SO 19.000 18.812 18.376 17.938 17.438 17.000 16.SOO 16.062 21.624 21.S64 21.SOO 21.2SO 21.000 20.250 19.7S 19.2S 18.7S 18.2S 17.7S
Inches
loches
147.lS 145.78 143.14 140.S2 137.88 13S.28 132. 73 128.96 122.72 11S.49 109.62 103.87 98.31 192.8S 191.72 188.69 185.69 182.65 176.72 169.44 160.92 1S2.58 144.SO 13S.28 128.96 245.22 243.9S 240.S3 237.13 233.71 230.30 226.98 223.68 213.83 204.24 193.30 182.66 173.80 163. 72 302.46 300.61 298.65 290.04 283.S3 278.00 265.21 2S2.72 238.83 226.98 213.82 202.67 367.2S 365.21 363.0S 354.66 346.36 322.06 306.3S 291.04 276.12 261.S9 247.45
of pipe 63.77 63.17 62.03 60.89 S9.7S 58.64 S7.46 SS.86 S3.18 S0.04 47.45 45.01 42.60 83.S7 83.08 81.74 80.SO 79.12 76.58 73.42 69.73 66.12 62.62 S8.64 SS.83 106.26 105.71 104.21 102.77 101.18 99.84 98.27 96.93 92.S7 88.50 83.76 79.07 7S.32 70.88 131.06 130.27 129.42 12S.67 122.87 120.46 114.92 109.Sl 103.39 98.3S 92.66 87.74 1S9.14 158.26 1S7.32 153.68 150.09 139.56 132.76 126.12 119.65 113.36 107.23
of pipe 3.665 3.66S 3.66S 3.665 3.665 3.665 3.665 3.665 3.665 3.665 3.66S 3.665 3.665 4.189 4.189 4.189 4.189 4.189 4.189 4.189 4.189 4.189 4.189 4.189 4.189 4.712 4.712 4.712 4.712 4.712 4.712 4.712 4.712 4.712 4.712 4.712 4.712 4.712 4.712 S.236 S.236 S.236 S.236 S.236 S.236 S.236 S.236 S.236 S.236 S.236 S.236 S.760 S.760 S.760 S.760 S.760 S.760 S.760 S.760 S.760 S.760 5.760 23.2 27.8 36.6 4S.O S3.2 61.3 69.1 80.3 98.2 117.8 132.8 146.8 IS9.6 32.2 36.S 48.0 S9.2 70.3 91.S 116.6 144.S 170.S 194.S 220.0 236.7 40.8 46.4 61.1 7S.S 89.6 103.4 117.0 130.1 168.3 203.8 242.3 277.6 30S.S 33S.6 S7.4 66.3 7S.6 111.3 145.7 170.4 22S.7 277.1 331.S 37S.S 421.7 458.5
SS lOS STO 14 14.00 XS 60 80 100 120 140 160 SS lOS STO 16 16.00 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 SS lOS 10 20 STO 18 . 18.00 10 20 30 40
.soo
.S94 .7SO .938 1.094 1.250 1.406 .16S .188 .2SO .312 .37S
.156 .188 .2SO .312 .37S .438
6.78 8.16 10.80 13.42 16.0S 18.66 21.21 24.98 31.22 38.45 44.32 50.07 SS.63 8.21 9.34 12.37 IS.38 18.41 24.3S 31.62 40.14 48.48 S6.56 6S.78 72.10 9.2S 10.S2 13.94 17.34 20.76 24.17 27.49 30.79 40.64 S0.23 61.17 71.81 80.66 90.7S 11.70 13.SS lS.Sl 23.12 30.63 36.IS 48.9S 61.44 7S.33 87.18 100.33 111.49 12.88 14.92 17.08 2S.48 33.77 S8.07 73.78 89.09 104.02 118.SS 132.68
1.0219 1.0124
.9940
.9758 .9S7S .9394 .9217 .8956 .8522 .8020 .7612 .7213 .6827 1.3393 1.3314 1.3103 l.289S 1.2684 1.2272 1.1766 l.117S l.OS96 l.003S .9394 .8956 1.7029 1.6941 1.6703 1.6467 1.6230 l.S990 l.S763 l.SS33 1.4849 1.4183 1.3423 1.2684 1.2070 1.1369 2.1004 2.0876 2.0740 2.0142 1.9690 l.930S 1.8417 l.7S50 1.6585 l.S762 1.4849 1;4074 2.SS03 2.S362 2.S212 2.4629 2.4053 2.2365 2.1275 2.0211 l.9!7S 1.8166 l. 7184
162.6 194.6 2SS.3 314.4 372.8 429.1 483.8 562.3 678.3 824.4 929.6 1027.0 1117.0 2S7.3 291.9 383.7 473.2 562.1 731.9 932.4 11SS.8 1364.S lSSS.8 1760.3 1893.S 367.6 417.3 549.1 678.2 806.7 930.3 1053.2 1171.S 1Sl4.7 1833.0 2180.0 2498.1 2749.0 3020.0 S74.2 662.8 765.4 1113.0 1457.0 1703.0 2257.0 2772.0 331S.2 3754.0 4216.0 4585.S 766.2 884.8 1010.3 1489.7 1952.S 3244.9 4030.4 47S8.S 5432.0 6053.7 6626.4
xs
.soo
.656 .844 1.031 1.219 1.438 l.S94 .16S .188 .250 .312 .37S .438
xs
30 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 SS lOS
.S62 .7SO .938 1.156 l.37S 1.562 1.781 .188 .218 .250 .37S
.soo
STO
xs
20
20.00
10 20 30 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 SS !OS
.soo
.S94 .812 1.031 1.281 l.SOO l.7SO 1.969 .188 .218 .250 .37S .500 .875 1.125 1.375 1.625 l.87S 2.125
STO
xs
22
22.00
10 20 30 60 80 100 120 140 160
69,7 80.4 91.8 13S.4 117.S 29S.O 366.4 432.6 493.8 SS0.3 602.4
ldentllcdon, wll thlckneu and weight1 are extractad from ANSI 836.10 and 836.19. The notatlons
Tranavarte lntemal arH values listed in "square feet" also
STO, XS, and XXS indica1e Standard, Extra Strong, and Oouble Extra Strong pipe respectlvely.
represent volume in cubic teet per foot of pipe length.
442
TABLE 13.8. (Continued)

NomOutside Diam. lron Pipe Size Identification
inal Pipe
Size
Steel Sched. No.
loches
loches
Stainless Steel Sched. No. 5S lOS
Wall Thickness (t)
lnside Diame ter (d)
Area of Metal Square loches 16.29 18.65 27.83 36.91 41.39 50.31 70.04 87.17 108.07 126.31 142.11 159.41 25.18 30.19 40.06 27.14 32.54 43.20 53.75 23.37 29.10 34.90 46.34 57.68 31.06 37.26 49.48 61.60 67.68 36.37 39.61 52.62 65.53 72.00 34.98 41.97 55.76 69.46 83.06
Transverse
Moment Weight Weight Externa! Section
Interna! Area
(a) (A)
Square
of
lnertia
Pipe
Water
Surface Modulus
Square
Inches
.218 .250 .375 .500 .562
loches
23.564 23.500 23.250 23.000 22.876 22.624 22.062 21.562 20.938 20.376 19.876 19.312 25.376 25.250 25.000 27.376 27.250 27.000 26.750 29.500 29.376 29.250 29.000 28.750 31.376 31.250 31.000 30.750 30.624 33.312 33.250 33.000 32.750 32.624 35.376 35.250 35.000 34.750 34.500
Inches
436.10 433.74 424.56 415.48 411.00 402.07 382.35 365.22 344.32 326.08 310.28 292.98 505.75 500.74 490.87 588.61 583.21 572.56 562.00 683.49 677. 76 671.96 660.52 649.18 773.19 766.99 754.77 742.64 736.57 871.55 868.31 855.30 842.39 835.92 982.90 975.91 962.11 948.42 934.82
Feet 3.0285 3.0121 2.9483 2.8853 2.8542 2.7921 2.6552 2.5362 2.3911 2.2645 2.1547 2.0346 3.5122 3.4774 3.4088 4.0876 4.0501 3.9761 3.9028 4.7465 4.7067 4.6664 4.5869 4.5082 5.3694 5.3263 5.2414 5.1572 5.1151 6.0524 6.0299 5.9396 5.8499 5.8050
Pounds Pounds Sq. Ft. per foot per foot per loches foot of pipe of pipe (/) 1151.6 1315.4 1942.0 2549.5 2843.0 3421.3 4652.8 5672.0 6849.9 7825.0 8625.0 9455.9 2077.2 2478.4 3257.0 2601.0 3105.1 4084.8 5037.7 2585.2 3206.3 3829.4 5042.2 6224.0 3898.9 4658.5 6138.6 7583.4 8298.3 5150.5 5599.3 7383.5 9127.6 9991.6 55.37 63.41 94.62 125.49 140.68 171.29 238.35 296.58 367.39 429.39 483.12 542.13 85.60 102.63 136.17 92.26 110.64 146.85 182.73 79.43 98.93 118.65 157.53 196.08 105.59 126.66 168.21 209.43 230.08 123.65 134.67 178.89 222.78 244.77 118.92 142.68 189.57 236.13 282.35 188.98 187.95 183.95 179.87 178.09 174.23 165.52 158.26 149.06 141.17 134.45 126.84 219.16 216.99 212.71 255.07 252.73 248.11 243.53 296.18 293.70 291.18 286.22 281.31 335.05 332.36 327.06 321.81 319.18 377.67 376.27 370.63 365.03 362.23 425.92 422.89 416.91 417.22 405.09 6.283 6.283 6.283 6.28S 6.283 6.283 6.283 6.283 6.283 6.283 6.283 6.283 6.806 6.806 6.806 7.330 7.330 7.330 7.330 7.854 7.854 7.854 7.854 7.854 8.378 8.378 8.378 8.378 8.378 8.901 8.901 8.901 8.901 8.901 9.425 9.425 9.425 9.425 9.425
(20.~J
96.0 109.6 161.9 212.5 237.0
... ...
STD
. .. ...
10 20 30 40 60
xs
24
24.00
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
80 100 120 140 160
26
26.00
STD
xs
... ... ...
10
20 10
28
28.00
STD XS
... ... ...
20 30 10
... ... ... . .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . ..
.688
.969 1.219 1.531 1.812 2.062 2.344 .312 .375 .500 .312 .375 .500 .625 .250 .312 .375 .500 .625 .312 .375 .500 .625
285.l
387.7 472.8 570.8 652.1 718.9 787.9 159.8 190.6 250.5 185.8 221.8 291.8 359.8 172.3 213.8 255.3 336.1 414.9 243.7 291.2 383.7 474.0 518.6 303.0 329.4 434.3 536.9 587.7 309.4 369.9 488.1 603.8 717.0
5S JOS
30
30.00
STD XS
...
20 30
... ...
STD 32 32.00
xs
...
10
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
20 30 40
34
34.00
STD XS
...
10
20 30 40
STD 36 36.00
xs
...
10
20 30 40
. .. ... ... ... . .. ... ... . .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
.688
.344 .375 .500 .625
.688
.312 .375 .500 .625 .750
6.8257 5569.5 6.7771 6658.9 6.6813 8786.2 6.5862 10868.4 6.4918 12906:1
ldentlftctlOill, wall thlckneH and wefghts are extracted from ANSI 836.10 and 836. 19. The notations STO, XS, and XXS indicate Standard, Extra Strong, and Double Extra Strong pipe respectively.
TrmnevePM lntemal are values llsted in "aquare feet" also represent volume in cubic leet per foot of pipe length.
443
T ABlE 13.9. Flow of Water through Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

Prenure Drop per 100 feet and Velocity in Schedule 40 Pipe for Water at 60 F. Discharge
Ga!lons 1 Cubic Ft.
pc11
per
Veloe- Pre... 1 Velo<- P.c... 1 Veloc- P,eu. 1Vcloc- p,.... 1 Veloc- p,..., 1Velo~ p,..u, 1 Veloc- p,.... 1 Voloe- p,.,.,
ity Drop ity Drop ity Drop ity Drop ity Drop ity Drop ity Drop ity Di:op
Feet
Minute
Seo>nd
&cond
.. ..-..
.2
.3 0.000446
.5
.6
..
l
o.ooau.
0.000891
0.00134 0.00178
l.13 l."9 2.26 2.82 3.39 4.52

ll .29
- ~1- - - - ~ - - - - - - - - V& .... 11. %' 'h' .,..

sq.
1
Lbs.
Feet
Lbs.
Feet'
Lbs.
Fe~t
Lbs.
Feet
Lbs.
Feet
Lbs.
Feet
Lbs.
Fe1:t
Lbs.
In. &X:ond SQ. In. S..:cond sq, In. &icond Sq. In. Second Sq. in., Second Sq. In. Seoond Sc]. In. Seconcl Sq. In.
4.12 .98 10.5 14.7 25.0
O.l6 0.924
l.23 l.54 l.B: 2.46
0.359 0.903 1.61 l.39 3.l"J 5.44
0.504 0.672 0.840 1.34

1.01
0.159 0.345 0.539 6.751 l.25
0.317 0.422 0.528 0.633 0.844
0.061 0.08& 0.167 O.JO! 0.140 0.Jl 0.400 0.481
0.033 0.041 0.102
!('
0.164 0.42.9 0.336 0.644 O.SllS 0.858 0.835 J.073
1.17 1.99 2.99 6.36 10.9
0.00213
10
20
,.
0.00668 0.00891 0.01U4

O.OJ.337 ().01782 0.02228
""*
5.M
134.~
37.2
1'
0.574 0.765 0.956 lAJ l.91
3.08 6.16 9.25 12.JJ
8.28 30.1 64.!

111.2
i.B 3.36 5 .04 .72 8.40
1.85 6.58 13.9 lJ.9 36.7
1.06 2.11 3 .17 4.n 5 .28
0.600 2.10 4.33 7.42 11.2
0.602 1.20 l.81

2.41
3.01
0.""456 0.05570
0.01798 ().08911 0.1003
o.oun
0.044 2%" 10.08 51.9 .33 15.S 0.013 13.44 27.7 91.l 8.45 0.100 0.670 0.046 10.56 42.4 3' 0.214 1.01 0.094 31iz,, 0.375 l .34 0.158 0.868 0.056 . 0.561 0.786 1.05 !.3S 1.67
3.l 4.81 6.02 9.0J 12.03
9.99 11.6 37.8
....
3.84
0.155 0.371 0.526 .74) l.O'l i.114 l.83 1.49 2.75 i.8 2.23 2.97 J .71 5.57 7.43
""'
'
0.044
11/z"
0.043 0.071 0.104
0.47J 0.150 O.DJO 0.213 o 788 0.309 0.518 0.7i4 !.63 l.78
"""
1.29 2.15 3.22 4.29

:.37 6.44 7.51 8.59 9.67 I0.74 12.89
1.72
0.946 l .26 1.58

2.37
0.145 0.241 O.JM 0.755

1.')3 1..72 3.64 4.65 5.85
J.16 3.94 4.73 5. 52 7.09 7 .88

9.47
...
45
25 30 3S
o.06684
0.1114 0.1337 0.1560 0.1782 0.:2005 0.1128
2.39 2.87 3.35 3 .83 4.30 4.78 6.70 7.65 S.O
1.8 2.01 2.35 l.8 3.02

3.35 4.02
4.69 5 .36 6.03
0.234 1.0'l 0.327 1.30 0.436 1.52 0.556 l.74 0.661! l .95
0.083 0.114 0.151 0.192 0.239
0.812 0.974 1.14 1.30 1.46
4' 0.041 9.28 0.056 ll.14 0.704 0.882 0.041 12.99 0.095 l.01 0.051 14.85 0.117 1.13 0.064
0.142 0.204 0.261 0.334 0.416
16.1 13.8 32.2 41.5
4.12 5.92 7.90 10.24 ll.80 15.66

22.2
'""
.JO
""
.
Sil
70
5.74
90
2.03 2.87 3.8' 4.97 6.20
{).839 2.17 l.18 2.O 1.59 J.04 2.03 J.47 1.53 3.91
o.wi 0.406 o.54o

LOS 1.61 2.24 3.00 3.87
l.62
l.95
2.27 0.687 2.O 0.861 2.92

J .25
! .'! l.51 l.76 2.02 2.27
0.076 0.107 0.143 1.12 0.JSQ 1.28 O.U4 l.44 0.212 0.415 0.580 0.774 0.985 1.23 !.46 1.79 2.U l.47 2.84 J.25 3.68 4.12 4.60 1.60 2 .O! 2.4! 2.81 3 .21
J .61 4.01
5'
0.047 0.074
""
6'
l.ll 1.39 1.67 1.94 2.22
11.05 12.62 14.20

0.036 15 .78
1Ul 13.71
26.9
41.4
17.59 l2.0
100 125 !50 175 200
0.3342 0.3899 0.4456 0.557
0.1785
ll .97
14.36 16.75 19.14
"
9.56
7.59 6.70 11.76 8.38 16.70 l0.05 ll.3 ll .73 l8.S 13 .42
15 .09
4.71 6.69 8.97 ll.68
3.0'l
4.34
5.43 6.51 7.60 8.8

9.77 10.85 il .94 13.00 14.12
4.06 4.87
6.49
"""
0.509 2.52 0.769 J .15 !.08 3.78 4.41 l.85 5.04
.....
0.090 0.135 (Ll90 0.253 0.323
0.077 0.1021 0.130 0.162 0.195 0.234 0.275 0.320
0.055 19.72
B'
1.44 1.60 1.76 1.92 2.08
0.043 0.051 0.061
125 325
250 175 300
0.5013
0.6127
......
o.nu
1.003
1.059 l.114 1.225 1.337 1.448
14.63
4.83 7 .JO 5.93 8.12 7.14 8.CJJ 8.36 9.74 9.89 10.5J 12.17 12.98 13.80 14.61
1.32 2.84 3.40 4.02 4.0'l
5 .67 .30 6.93 7.56 8.19
(.l.495 2.78
0.401 2.50 0.583 J .0) 0.683 3 .JJ 0.797 J.i:il 0.919 !.05 l.19 1.33 1.48
i.64
4.41
4.81
5 .21
c.on
0.083
....
425 450 500 550 600 650
360 375
475
0.8355
0.8911 1.560 l.671 1.782 1.894 l.005
0.7198
l 1 .J
5.41
10'
I.93 2.03 2.24 2.44 2.64
2.85 3.05 3.25 J.4 J.66
Ul
0.05'9 0.071 Oo083 0.097
.....
12'
0.047 14" 0.054 0.061 0.068 2.02 0.042 0.075 2.13 0.047
0.083 2.25' 0.091 2.37 o.uo 2.61 0.116 2.85 0.150 J.08
8.82 9.45 7oOJ 10.08 7.89 I0.71 8.80 li.H

&.18
5.62 .02 6.42 .82 7.22
3.89 4.16 4.44 4.72 5.00 5.27 5. 55 .11 6.66 7.22 7.78 8.33 8.88 9.44
9.99
0.367 2.24 0.416 2.40 0.471 2.56 0.519 2 .73 0.590 2.89
0.095 O.i08 0.111 0.136 0.151

0.166 0.182 0.119
11.97 12.60 IJ.85 15.12
7 .62 8.02 8.82 8.04 c:i.63 I0.43 11.23 12.0J 12.SJ IJ.64
14.44
5.12 5.65 6.79
L81 l.17 2.55 2.98

J.43 J.92 4.43
o.no
1.35 l.55 1.75 l.% 2.18 2.41 2.68 3.22 3.8! 4.45
0,653 3.04 J .21 0.861 J. 53 1.01 3.85 1.18 4.17 4.49 4.81 5.13 5.45 5.77
.O'l .41
0.258 (1.301
0.343 0.392 0.443 0.497 0.554
0.613
0.67&
...
850 950 000 1100 1200 1300
750 800
700
O.Ul 2.01 0.121. 2 .15 0.143 2.29 0.160 2.44 0.179 2.58
5.00
5.56
2.117 2.128 2.674 l.8%

3.!19 2.451
4.07 4.48 4.88 5 .29

6.IO 6.51 7.32 8.14
0.198 0.1!8 0.260 0.306

0.409 0.466 0.527 0.663
2.72 2.87 J.15 J.44 0.355 3 .73
o.oso
0.107 0.122 0.138 0.17l 0.209 0.321 0.451 0.607 0.787 0.990
1.21 1.7!
0.052 0.057 0.068
16'
Oo042 0.048
0.055 18' 0.063 0.071 0.088 2.58 0.050 0.107 2.87 0.060
15 .24 l.04
17 .65
2.18 0.093 2.36 2.54 2.72

2.'lO 3.27 3.J
6.21 10. 55 6.84 ! . IO 8.23 12.22 13 .33 14.41
s.:n
7.05 7.70
0.807
o.948
1.11
1400 2000
1500 1600 1800
3.342 4.010
4.456
S.70
3.565
0.808 5.73
4.01 4.30 4.59 5.16
C.171 0.195 0.219 0.276 0.339

0.731 0.982 1.27 1.60
J.32 3.56 J.N 4.27 4.74

7.11 8.JO 9.48 10.67
15.H l.66 17.77

q_qq
.... ....
HOO
5 000 6000
20
3.46 4.04 4.62 5.20
22.21
5.13 8.98 5.85 9.62 6.61 I0.26 8.37 11.54 !0.3 12.82
1.28 1.46
1.65 2.08 l.55
3000 3500
2500
6.684 'J.i98 8.912 10.03

13.37 17.82 20.05
5.570
10.17 12.20 14.24 16.27 18.Ji
J..24 7.17 1.76 8.60 2.38 10.03 3.08 11.47 3.87 12.90
o.515 5.93
4.54 5.45 .35 7.26 8.17
0.163 0.232 0.312 0.401 0.503
J.59 4.JO 5 .02 5 .74 6.46
0.091 0.129 0.173 0.122 0.280
0.075
0.101 0.129 J .19 0.162 3.59
24"
\.OJ 19.24 22.44 0.052 2L5 0.065 28.87

0.079 O.lU 0.150 0.192 0.242 0.294 0.416 0.5&2 0.723
3.94 5.59 7.56 !2.2

9.80
H.14
000
7000
15.60
20.H 24.41
28.49
4.71 14.33 6.74 i"/ .20 9.U 20.07 22.9J 25 .79 28.66 34.40
1.95 2.'71 3.74 4.84 6.09
11.85 14.23 l.60 18.% 21.34
9.08 10.8() 2.3! 12.71 2.99 14.52 3.76 16.34
,,
0.617 7.17 0.877 8.61 t.i8 10.04 1.5! 11.47 12.91
0.34-0 5.77 0.483 6.93 0.652 8.08 0.839 ().23 1.05 10.39
l.28
0.19'9 0.281) 0.376 0.488 0.608
J.99
10000 16000 18000 20000

11000 14000
22.28 26.74
31.1~
35.65 40.10 <4.50
... ...
7.46 23 .71 10.7 28.45 33 .19
For pipe lengths other than 100 feet, the pressure drop the length. Thus, for 50 feet of pipe, the pressure drop is approximately one-half the value given in the table ... for 300 feet, three times the given value, etc.
4.6i 18.15 2.34 6.59 21.79 3.33 8.89 25.42 4.49 29.05 S,83 32.63 7.31 J6.Jl '9.03 1s proport1onal to
14.34 17.21 20.08 22.95' 25 .82 28.69
1.83 2.45 3.18 4.03 4.93
11.54 13 .85 16.16 18.47 20.77 21.08
0.739 7.98 9.58 l.4J 11.17 1.85 12.77 2.32 14.J 2.86 15.%
....
6.)8 7. i8
4.7CJ 5.59
"
... . ..
0.907 1.12
Veloc1ty 1s a funct1on of the cross sect1onal flow area; thus, it is constant for a given flow rate and is independent of pipe length.
444
13.12
Summary of Formulas
Head loss and pressure drop In stralght pipe: Pressure loss due to flow is the same in sloping, vertical; or horizontal pipe. However, the difference in pressure due to the difference in head must be considered in pressure drop calculations: see page 1-5.
To eliminate needless duplication, formulas ha~ been written in terms of either specific volume V or weight density p, but not in terms .of both, since one is the reciproca! of the other.
v =-'P
p=
= V
These equations may be substituted in any of the formulas shown in this paper whenever necessary.
0.1863 -d-
JLv'
Bernoulli's theorem:
fqualJen .1 I
JLq' JU!' hL = 200 --;- = 0.03 1 1

hL = 0.015 24
-r
JLWV' JLV
z+
144 P +
p
-7!._
2g
= H
JLB' """'d"'
~
= 0.000 483 --d'--
z1 + -P-, 144?, v', - + 2

e
z.+
144?,+~+h,
P
2g
L:i.P = 0.001 294 L:i.P = 4J.5
= 0.000000 3 5 9 +
Meon velocity of flow In pipe:

(Continuity Equation)
V =
fq ..110 32
f~"!
= o.ooo 216 JL;Q'
A
B
fLpB' jLWSV L:i.P = o.ooo 1058 ----o- = o.ooo 003 36-----
= 0.286 {j2 = 183.3 (j2
wV
0.0509
wv
L:i.P = o.ooo ooo 007 26
JL T(q' .)S, d'P'
o.oo 1 44 P'd'
q',T
= 0.003 89
-;:-
q',S,
L:i.P = o.ooo ooo 019 ;9 -
L(q' )'S'
rPp '
V
\/
2.40
wv -0.233
3.06 (12
wv
For simplltl.O co111preuile lflild formulo, ~ poge 322.
'S q;i.,
Reynolds number of flow in pipe:
fquatien .1-3
R, =
Dvp =
.,
Dvp,
31.2,
Head loss .and pressure drop with laminar flow in straight pipe: Far laminar flow conditions (R, < 2000). the friction factor is a direct mathematical function of the Reynolds number only, and can be expressed by the formula: J = 64/ R,. Substituting this value of fin the Darcy formula, it can be rewritten:
h L = 0.092 "Ci'P
R, = 22 700<J..e.=1 7 NP = 50.6 Q!'_

d. RH. d.
Lv
fquaflon
.1-
R,
R,
6.31 d.
0.482 q
'S
d.'
7
dv
Bp 3Hdj;"
h,, = 17.6; ~ = 0.0393

hL = 0.027;
LB CFP l T
I'
Lq
dJP
L\l?
LQ
Dv
7
1 419000
7740
0.004 90. d' P'
R,
-~
= 3100
L:i.P = 0.000 668
Lq = 0.1225 ~
0.000 191
~
Viscosity equivalents:
=
L:i.P = o.ooo 273 ([iL:i.P = o.ooo 0340 ~

LW
LQ
LB
445
446
13. 12
Summary of Formulas - continued

$
Umlalion of Darcy formula

Nenccmpr&uiblit flow; liquidti:
Empirical formul" fer ih fiow
of water, 1team, and gas

Although the rational method (using Darcys formula) for solving flow problems has been recommended in this paper. sorne engineers prefer to use emprica! formulas.
Darcy formula may be u.sed without restriction for the ftow of water, ol, and other liquids in pipe. However, when extreme velocities occurring in pipe cause the downstream pressure to fall to the vapor pressure of the liquid, cavitation occurs and calc\:J.lated flow rates are inaccurate.
Compreuihie flow;
QC!H\l
~rhe
Haun and Williams

formuiA for
fh~w
c;nd
VA pon:
of wat111r: ,
Equation 3-9
When pressure drop is less than 103 of P,, use por V based on either inlet or outlet conditions. When pressure drop is greater than 1 o3 of P, but less than 40';/( of P,, use the average of p or V based on inlet and outlet conditions, or us.:: Equ~ tion 3-20. When pressure drop is greater than 40% of P,, use the rational or empirical formulas given on this page for compressible flow, or use Equation 3-20 (far theory, see page r -q). O lsothermal flow cf gas in pipe lines
Q = .442
d'" e
(Pi ~ p,)"
where: e = 1 40 for new steel pipe 1 30 far new cast iron pipe 1 1 o far ri,eted pipe
Equation 3-JO
(de!eted)
Equafion 3-7
Spitzglan formula fer low prenure gas: (pressu;e len thon one pound gcuge)
Equafion 3- l 1
q'h
Flov..ing tcmpcraturc is 60 F
l& Simplifled comprenible flow
for long pipe line
EquaHon 3 _70
w =
J( ~14/ ~') (
0.1072
Weymouth formulti for high preuure gtu:
Equafion 3- i 2
(P'r)' ;;;, <P'2) )
q',
28.0
/-(CP',)~J')--(d'"'\j \ S, Lm T
520)
\)
114.2
I(~)
V,JL
( (P',)'-: _(P',)') P,
Panhandlo formulal fer narural gas pipe linH 6 to 24~inch diamelu

and RP = (5 x 10") to (14 x 106):
Equation 3- J 3
q',
q,
19 Maximum (sonic) velocily of ccmpre..ible fluids in pipe 'fhe maximum possible velocity of a comprcssible 1uld in a pipe is equivalent to the speed of sound n the fluid; this is expressed as
'
3 .
68E
el'"'( (P'r)' Lm - (P',)')""
S, E
v,
Eq1.1ation 3-8
v, v,
../ k g 144P' V
68. 1
../
k P' V
where: gas tempera tu re = 60 F o.6 flow efficiency E 1.oo ( 100%) for brand new pipe without any bends, elbows, valves, and change of pipe diameter or elevation E 0.95 far very good operating conditions E 0.92 for average operating conditions E 0.85 for unusually unfavorable operating conditions
13.12 SUMMARY OF FORMULAS
447
13.12
e
Summary of Formulas - continued

e
Reslstance coefficient, K, for sudden and gradual enlargements in pipes
Head loss and pressure drop through valvas and fitting Head loss through valves and fittings is generally given in terms of resistance coefficient K which indicates static head loss through a valve in terms of "velocity head", or, equivalent length in pipe diameters L/ D that will cause the same head loss as the valve. From Darcy's formula, head loss through a pipe is:
Ir,
K,
o" 45,
=
2.6 sin~ (1 2
13') 2
*Eqwfloo 3-17
Ir, 45 <o" 18o, K, =(1 - fJ')'
*fquatloa 3-17.1
hL =
f D
J<
v' 2i
fquGlion 3-5
Resistance coefficient, K, for sudden and gradual contractions In pipes
and head loss through a valve is:

hL
Ir, o< 45,

fquation 3-14
V2
2g
K 1 -o.8sin!.(1
=
therefore:
f .!:::...
D
fquation 3-15
13')
Ir, 45 <O" 180,

K 1 = 0.5
To eliminate needless duplication of formulas, the following are ali given in terms of K. Whenever necessary, substitute (/ L/D) for (K). 522 Kq' -d-,= 0.002
Vsin~
(1 -
fJ')
*Equal/oo 3-18.1
59
=
KQ'
---;;-
fquation 3-14
0.001 270----;<
KB'
0.000 0403 --d-,-
KW'V
0.000 1078 Kpv' = o.ooo ooo 0300 Kp V'
*Note: The values of the resistance coefficients (K) in equations 3-17, 3-17.1, 3-18, and 3-18.1 are based on the velocity in the small pipe. To determine K values in terms of the greater diameter, divide the equations by (34.
Kpt 3.62 ----;<
0.000 017 99
KpQ' --r-
0.000 008 82
=
KpB' --
Discharge of fluid through valves, flttings, and pipe; Darcy's formula

Lfquld flow:
fquation 3.. 1'
K 0.000 000 280 --d--
wv
0.0438 d'
~~
0.525 d'
~ ~:
K(q',)'TS, o.ooo ooo ooo 005 d' P'

l!:.P = o.ooo ooo 001 633
K (q',)'S,'
d'
P
For compressible flow with hL or .6.P greater than approximately 10% of inlet absolute pressure, the denominator should be multiplied by Y. For values or Y, see page A-22.
ComprH1lltle flow:
Pressure drop and flow of liquids of law viscosity using flow coefficient
q'11
40 700 Yd2
'\J
/6PP',
KTi S,
fquafion 3-20
q'.
q',.
q'
=
6P
Q
Cv
( Q )'
Cv
24700 s;-v~
Yd'
/6PP,
=
62.4
fquatiP 3-1'
Cv~
Q
6P 6P 6 : 4 = 7.90Cv ~-P29.9 d' , / L/D

=
6 8 Yd' /6PP'1 7 "\JKT,S,

11.30 Yd'
412 S,"\JK.
Yd' / 6PP,
"IJ KT, S,
\}KV;
/6PP',
= 6.87
S,
Yd'
6P (6q)
29.9 d'
'\J----("
\}KV;
ftJ5P,
,J<
w = 0.525 Yd'
W= 1891 Yd'
891 d' (Cv)'
Values of Y are shown on page A-22. For K, Y, and t::.P determination, see examples on pages 4-13 anci 4-14.
448
13.12
e
Summary of Formulas - concluded

e
fquofion 3-21
Flow through nonios ond oriflcos

(h and il/' measured across pjpe taps
Speciflc gravity of liquids

Any llqultl:
al 1 diameter and 0.5 diameter)

Llquid:
lqNtion 3--2.5
p
8
q
q
AC..J2g hL = AC~2g (14:)
t:,.
any liquid at o F, ) ( unless otherwise specified (water at o F) 141.; 131.5 +DegAPI

fquofion 3-27
0111:
0.0438 d, e ..J hL
19.65 di2 C ..J hL
0.525 di'
e 'V-P/6P
/6P
S (o F/o F)
Q
w W
236 di'C '\i-p-
Ll11ultl1 ll9hter than water:
S (o F/o F) =
o.0438d12 C..J hLP' = 0.525.d,'C-VD.Pp
140 1JO + Deg Baum

fquation 3-21
157.6d1'CvhLp'= 1891d1'C..J6Pp
Values of C are shown on page A-20
Liqultls hoavlor than wotor:
S (o F/o F) =
145 -
~:~ Baum
Ce1npres1lble flultls:
Equion 3-22
q'.
40 700 Y d,' C
~6PP' T, S, '
Spociflc gravity of gases
q'.
q'm q' m q' q' w
Yd,'C - 24 700 v6P P 1
-s;-
R (air)
S, R (gas)
M (gas) M (air)
=
5J.J
R (gas)
618 Y d,' 412
e ~6; %,"
-..J6PP 1
s,
e
Yd,C ---:s;-
11.30 Yd' ,
2
~6PP', T, s,
General gas laws for porfod gases
p'V,
p R
w.RT
141 ...,;... 3-30
6.87
Yd1 C - -s.V6PP,
v.
w.
1545
p'
RT
144 P'
144 P' 7fT""
1,llClfOlt WJ
0.525 Y d,'
e ~t:,.p ~ v,
~t:,.p ~
pr
Ecruation 342
1891 Yd,C
v,
Values of C are shown on page A-20 Values of Y are shown on page A-21
p'V.
n,MRT
w. 1545 T n. 1545T = M
-'"" 3-33
fquation 3-34
Equivalants of hoad loss and pressure drop
fquotion 3-23
w, p'M V, = 1545 T
=
P'M _ 2.70 P'S, 10.72 T - --T--
hL
144 6P p
6P
~
144
where: n, = w,/M
number of mols of a gas
Changos in resistance coefficiant, K, required to compensa! for difforont pipo l. D.
Hydraulic radius
..-,..
R
H -
K.-K,,
(d.)' J.
fqNfion 3-24
cross sectional flow area (sq. feet) wetted perimeter (feet)
<- pago A30)
Subscript a refers to pipe in which valve will be installed. Subscript b refers to pipe for which the resistance coefficient K was established.
Equivalent diameter relationship: D = 4RH d = 48f{n

See page 1-4 for limitations.
13.12 SUMMARY OF FORMULAS
449
Velocily cf l.lquicb in Pipe
The mean velocity of any flowing liquid can be caiculated frorn the following formula. or. from the nomograph on the opposite page. The nomograph is a graphicai solution of the formula.
(For values of d, see pages B-16 to &.19)
The pressure drop per 100 feet and the velocity in Schedule 40 pipe, for water at 60 F, have been calculated for commonly used flow rates for pipe sizes of Ys to i4-inch; these values are tabulated on page B- 4.
Exampl., 1 Given: No. 3 Fue! Oil at 6o F flows through a 2inch Schedule 40 pipe at the rate of 45,000 pounds per hour. Given. Maximum ftow rate of a liquid will be 300 gallons per minute with maximum veiocity Jimited to 1 ?, feet per second through Schedule 40 pipe.
Find: The rate of ftow in gallons per minute and the mean veloc1ty in the pipe.
Solution:
l.
Find: The smailest suitable pipe size and the velocity through the pipe.
Solution:
page A-7
Con:nect
l.
Read
12
Connect
1
Re ad
300
V=
3.2
2.
W= 45
Q
=
000
1
56.02
1 1
Q
V
= =
100
2.
3%" Schedule
Q
=
40
pipe suitable
1 V =
J.
100
1
2" Sched 40
10
J.
JOO
J ~1" Sched 40
10
Re<1"""ble V8l@<iliea for th" Flow of ""'"' !l"ough l'ip@

SeI"vice Condition
Reasonable Velocity
15 1o
Boiler Feed. 8 to Pump Suction and Drain Lines . .. 4 to General Service. . 4 to City. to
feet per second
7 f eet per second
feet per second 7 feet per second
450
Nomendature
cross sectional area of pipe or orilice. in square feet a cross sectional area of pipe or orifice, or l.ow area in valve, in square inches B rate of flow in barreis (42 gallons) per hour C flow coefficient for orifices and nozzles = discharge coefficient corrected far velocity o approach = e,!,.;~ e, discharge coefficient far orfices and nozzles Cv flow coefficient far valves: expresses tlow rate in gallons per minute of 60 F water with 1.0 psi pressure drop across valve D interna! diameter of pipe, in feet d interna! diameter of pipe. in inches base of natural iogarithm = 2.718 f friction factor in formula hL = f Lv'/D 2g fr = friction factor in zone of complete turbulence acceleration of gravity = 12.2 feet per second per second H total head, in feet of fluid h = static pressure head existing at a point, in feet of fluid h, total heat of steam. in Btu per pound hL loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow, in feet of fluid static pressure head, in inches of water res1stance coefficient or velocity head loss in the formula. h 1, = Kv'/ig k ratio of specilic heat at constant pressure to specific heat at constant volurne = e.ple" L length of pipe, in feet L D = equi valent length of a resistance to Aow, in pipe diameters length of pipe, in miles molecular weight universal gas constant = 1545 n exponent in equation for polytropic change (p'\/: = constant) p pressure, in pounds per square inch gauge P' pressure, pounds per square inch absolute
g
(.set page 1-5 for diagram showing relalionship betwun gauge and absolute pres.sure)
RH = hydraulic radius. in feet

re S
=
.S,
T
critical pressure ra(IO for c0mpressible flow specific gravity of liquids at specified temperature relative to water at standard temperature (6o Fl specihc gravity of a gas relative to air = the ratio of the molecular weight of the gas to that of air absolute temperature, in degrees Rankine (46o + t) temperature. in degrees F ahrenheit specifc volume of fluid, in cubic feet per pound mean velocity of flow. in feet per minute volume. in cubic feet mean velocity of flow. in feet per second sonic (or critica!) velocity of Aow of a gas, in feet per second rate of flow, in pounds per hour rate of f!ow, in pounds per second weight, in pounds percent quality of steam = 1oo minus per cent of moisture net expansion factor far compressible flow through orinces, nozzles, or pipe potential head or elevation above reference level, in feet
V
\/ \/, v,
W
w
U\i
G-k IAll..,.s
....
fJ
6
ratio of small to large diameter in orifces and nozzles, and contractions or enlargements in pipes differential between two points absolute roughness or effective height of pipe wall irregularities, in feet
Epsilon
Mu
. ,
'.
Nu
absolute (dynamic) viscosity, in centipoise absolute viscosity, in pound mass per foot second or poundal seconds per sq foot absolute viscosity, in slugs per foot second or pound force seconds per square foot kinematic viscosiry, in centistokes kinematic viscosity, square feet per second we1ght density o fluid, pounds per cubic ft density of fluid. grams per cubic centimeter angle of convergence or divergence in enlargernents or contractbns in pipes
pressure. in pounds per square foot absolute rate of flow, in gallons per minute q rate of tlow, ih cubic feet per second at flowing conditions q' rate of flow, in cubic feet per second at standard conditions ( 14. 7 psia and 6oF) rate of ftow, in millions of standard cubic ' q' feet per day, MMscfd q'. rate of flow, in cubic.feet per hour at standard conditions (14.7 psia and boF). scfh rate of llow, in cubic feet per minute at flowing conditions q' .. - rete of flow, in cubic feet per minute at std. conditions (14.7 psia and oF). scfm
p' Q
v'
ftho
p'
Sllileerlpla lo< Dl11moter
( 1) ... defines smaller diameter ( 2) ... defines larger diameter

llullocrlpls lor Fluid Property
individual as constant
154s/M R,
Reyno!ds number
MR/M
(1) ... defines inlet (upstream) condition (2) ... defines outlet (downstream) condition
PPENDIX 1 SYMBOLS ANO
NOMENCLATURECONVERSION
Symbol
(x)
Quantity Found in Text.
us
Units
ft/s 2 ft/s ft/s 2 ft/s 2 ft/s2 in ft
Muiti
=
-Ol 01 Ol Ol 01 01 01 02 02 00 05 05 02 01 04
Metrk Units
m/s 2
(a) (a)
(ap) (as) (ad) a a
(a)
(a)
atmos atmos atmos atmos atmos

A (A)
acceleration, linear speed of wave in liquid acceleration, piston (plunger) acceleration, suction acceleration, discharge wave amplitude wave amplitude area, cross section, orifice area, piston-plunger pressure pressure pressure pressure pressure are a constant are a
in 2
in 2 atmos atmos atmos atmos atmos
in 2
ft 2
3.0482E 3.0482E 3.0482E 3.0482E 3.0482E 2.5400E 3.0480E 6.4521E 6.4521E l.0133E l .Ol33E l.0133E !.013 E l.4696E 6.4516E
mis
m/s 2 m/s 2 m/s 2
+
-
mm
m
+ + + + + + +
-
mm 2 mm 2 bars N/m 2 Pa kPa psi m2
9.2903E - 02
m2
452
APPENDIX 1
Symbol
(x)
us
Units
Multi = 6.4521E + 02 2.5400E + 01 3.0480E - 01 2.5420E + 01 3.0480E - 01 l.4504E + 01 9.8692E - 01 l.OOOOE = 02 l.5899E + 02 9.2903E - 02 l.5899E + 02 3.0482E - 01 2.5400E + 02 2.5400E - 02 5.797 E - 03
Metric Units mm 2 mm m mm m psi atmos kPa liters m2 L/hr m/s m m m5/kg
(Av) A A b b (b) bar bar bar barrel B B B (BHP)
e e e
e e e e
d d
(C..) (C.,) (CP)
(D)
D D
(Dp) (D,) (Dd)
e e (E)
(E) E E E
if) if)
(j)
in 2 area, valve through in amplitude ft amplitude in breadth or width ft breadth of width coefficient of compressibility, liquid bar pressure, barometric bar pressure, barometric bar pressure, barometric bbl (42 gal) constant ft 2 area, acoustic tube bbl/hr rate-of-flow 42 gal Break Horse Power ft/s speed of surge wave in neutral axis to extreme fiber concentration, decimal or percent radial clearance, journal bearing in ft5 /lb acoustic capacitance fraction of solids (volume or weight) clearance volume, percent volume fraction of solids weight fraction of solids cost, pump in diameter in 3 displacement volume, in diameter GPM displacement, liquid in displacement, linear in diameter, piston or plunger in diameter, suction pipe in diameter, discharge pipe in pipe wall thickness base nat. log 2. 718 lbf/in 2 Young's modulus of elasticity lbf/in 2 bulk modulus of elasticity lbf.ft energy, kinematic lbf.ft energy, potential efficiency, decimal or percent friction factor s frequency in spring displacement
2.5400E l 2.5400E 3.7854E 2.5400E 2.5400E 2.5400E 2.5400E 2.5400E 6.8948E 6.8948E l.3558E l.3558E
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
01 01 00 01 01 01 01 01 03 03 00 00
mm mm3 mm lit/mio. mm mm mm mm m N/m 2 N/mm 2 N.m N.m
Hz
2.5400E
01
mm
~~"'
APPENDIX 1
453
Symbol
(x)
Quanfy Found in Text.

coefficient of friction foot foot foot 2 foot 3 foot4 foot 5
us
Uriits
ft
Multi
Met:ric Urdts
rn
(j) (ft) ft ( ft 2)
ft ft 2 ft 3
ft 4
( ft4 )
(ft 5)
ft 5
ft/s
(F) F {F)
water force, load Froude Number valve spring force, installed valve spring force, at max. lift (F) wavelength g acceleration due to gravity (g) modulus of elasticity, shea (G) mass flow G torsional modulus (G) (GPM) Gallons Per Minute (gal) US (231 in 3) US (231 in 3) gal US (gallons per minute) gal (GPM) US (gallons per minute) US (gallons per minute) gpm grains (troy) depth h h height head ( friction) h thickness, pipe wall h accelleration head (hcJ head, total Bernoulli H Henery' s gas constant (H) (H) head, liquid elevation wave height ( = 2a) H (HHP) Hudraulic Horse Power horsepower HP (HP) horsepower horsepower-hours in inch in inch
(ftlsec) ( f.t/min) (ft-lb) foot
force
ft/min ft.lbf ft lbf

lbf lbf
3.0480E - Ol 3.0480E + 02 9.2903E - 02 2.8317E - 02 8.63IOE - 03 2. 6307W -- 03 3.048 E - Ol 3.048 E - 01 l.356 3.048 E + 02 4.4482E + 00 4.4482E 4.4482E 3.0482E 3.0480E 6.8947E 4.7880E 6.8948E 3.7854E 3.7854E 2.2712E 3.7853E 3.7854E 6.4800E 2.5400E 2.5400E 3.0480E 2.5400E 3.0480E 3.0480E
mm m2 m3
ms mis
m/min Joules kg/m 2 N
+ +
--
ft
ft/s2 lbf/in 2 slug/s.ft lbf/in 2
+ +
+ +
00 00 01 01 03 01 03
N N
m
m/s 2 N/m 2 kg/s.m

Nlm 2
gal gal gal/min gal/min gal/min grains

m
in ft
m
ft ft
00 - 03 - 01 + 00 - 03 - 02 + 01 + 01 - 01 + 01 - 01 - Ol
liters m3 m 3 /hr lit/min. m 3/min grarns mm
mm
m mm
m
m
m m
ft ft
HP HP HP-hr in in
3.0480E - 01 3.0480E - 01 7.4570E 7.4567E 7.457 E 2.5400E 2.5400E
+ 02 - Ol - 01 - 02 + Ol
watts kw kw-hrs m
mm
454
APPENDIX 1
Symbol
(x)
us
Units
Multi
Metric Units m2 mm 2 m3 mm 3 m4 mm4 ms ms kPa atmos mm wat m/m kg.m mm4 bar/m m
6.4516E - 04 in 2 inch2 in 2 2 2 in inch in 2 6.4516E + 02 l.6387E - 05 in3 inch3 in3 in3 inch3 in3 l.6387E + 04 in4 4.l623E - 07 inch4 in 4 in 4 inch4 4.lq23E + 05 in4 5 5 in inch l.0572E - 08 in 5 in 5 inch5 in 5 l.0572E + 07 in Hg in Hg 3.3860E + 03 (in Hg) 3.342 E - 02 in Hg in H20 inches water in H20 2.54 E - 01 (i) head loss gradient ft/ft (l) 3.7069E - 01 inertia, mass moment of slug.in (J) 14.7 X H constant derived from Henry's (J) inertia, polar mass moment of in4 4.l623E + 05 J 2.2620E - 01 pressure gradient psi/ft J 2.5400E - 02 radius of gyration m (JI) modified Henry's constant 14.7 X H (12) modified Henry's constant 14.7 X H (k) concentration factor (k) spring constant lbf/in l.7513 + 02 k permeability of sand, etc. (k) Wright factor for acceleration head (K) bulk or vol. modulus of elasticity lbf/in 2 6.8948E - 03 (K) stress concentration factor (K) dampener sizing constant (K') effective bulk modulus lbf/in 2 6.8948E - 03 (Kc) Wahl' s factor for springs In natural logarithm length pipe in miles miles l.6093E + 00 Lm l length m 2.5400E + 01 l length 3.0480E - 01 ft (lb) pound (weight) 4.5360E - 01 lb lb pound (weight) lb 4.53600 + 02 (lb) pound (force) lbf 4.4482E + 00 (L) length in 2.5400E + 01 L length 3.0482E - 01 ft (L) length of shaft 2.5400E + 01 in (Ll) life hr (L2) life hr (Lv) lift, valve m 2.5400E + 01 (LJ length, connecting rod m 2.5400E + 01
Nlm
N/mm 2
N/mm 2
kilo mm m kg g N mm m mm hr hr mm mm
APPEND!X 1
455 Me trie
Symbol
(x)
(L,)
Qmm.tity
us
Units
Multi
Fouml. in Text.
Units
m m m
(Ld) (L)
(L) (L;)
m
(m)
m (M) M
(M) (M)
(ME) (ML) (MLR) (MR) (M X 1) (M X 2) n n

(n)
n.. n n n
(n') ns
N N N
(N)
(N) (N,)
oz
(P) (P)
(P)
p p p p p
3.0482E - Ol length, suction pipe ft 3.0482E - Ol length, discharge pipe ft 3.0482E - Ol length pipe ft length, free, spring in 2.5400E + O! length, installed spring m 2.5400E + 01 slug mass (F!a) iA594E + Ol lb 4.5359E - 01 mass molality Moles of liquid per IOO ft of solvent Mach Number moment of force, bending lbf. ft l.3558E + 00 Ll298E - 01 lbf.in torque Mechanical Efficiency Lame' Multiplier mass log rate mg/hr universal gas constant (1544) initial moles of gas per l 00 ft cu 3 liquid secondary moles of gas per l 00 ft cu 3 liquid revolution per unit time number number of cylinders number of valves 9multiple) polytropic exponent for gas factor of safety roughness factor number pressure strokes per revolution specific speed number normal force lbf 4.4482E + 00 safety factor revolutions per minute RPM number of active coils, spring. number of total coils, spring (usually Na + 2). ounces (avdp) oz 2.8349E + Oi normal force per unit area lbf/in 2 6.8948E + 03 pressure PSI 6.8948E + 03 6.8948E - 02 pressure PSI pressure PSI 6.8948E + 03 pressure PSI 6.8948E + 00 6.897E - 03 PSI pressure pressure atmos l.4696E + 01 9.8692E - 01 pressure, bars bars
mm mm kg kg
N.m
N.m
mg/hr
''I'
RPM
grams N/m 2 N/m 2
bars
Pa kPa N/mm 2 PSI
atmos
456
APPENDIX 1
Symbol
(x)
us
Units
Multi
=
01 05 05 00 - 03 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02
Metrk Units
bars pressure, bars atmos pressure, atmospheres atmos pressure, atmospheres p lb total load (HP)ft.lb/s (P) power p peri meter PSI (Pl) primary pressure (P2) PSI secondary PSI applied pressure (PA) (Pu) PSI atmospheric pressure PSI suction tank head, ft to (P.,.J PSI liquid vapor pressure (P.,") (P,,) PSI suction tank gauge pressure (P,,) PSI suction velocity pressure PSI (Ps) suction pipe friction loss press. PSI pump valve spring POSIVA <Psac) (PV) Present Value (PRL) lbf Piston Rod Load, (POS IVA), val ve, lb/in 2 of val ve area lbf/in 2 q lb/ft load per unit distance q ft 3/s flow rate q' flow-rate, std. cond. ft 3/s (Q) flow rate US gpm (Q) flow rate US gpm (Q,) ftow-rate, theoretical US gpm (Qa) fiow-rate, actual US gpm (Q) force or load, concentrated lbf (Q) moment of area in 3 (Rl) Radius, bore, liquid end in (R2) Outside, bore, liquid end in acoustic resistance lb.s/ft 5 (R) (r) radius in (R) Radius pipe in (Re) Reynold's number (R) Gas constant (MR/M) 1544/M (R) radius (conduit, hydraulic) in (s) stroke length in (s) stress lbf/in 2 (slug) slug(32.17 lb) lb (S) specific gravity, with respect to water. s slip, pump loss, decimal or percent (S1) specific gravity of liquid
p p p
l.4504E l.Ol32E L0132E 4.4482E l .3558E 6.8948E 6.8948E 6.8948E 6.8948E 6.8948E 6.8948E 6.8948E 6.8948E 6.8948E 6.8948E 4.4482E 6.8948E l.488lE 2.8316E 2.8316E 3.7854E 2.27l2E 3.7854E 3.7854E 4.4482E l.6308E 2.5400E 2.5400E l.7242E 2.5400E 2.5400E
+ + + +
psi
N/m 2 Pa N
kW
bar bar bar bar bar bar bar bar bar bar
N
+ 00 - 03 + 00 - 02 - 02 + 00 - 01 + 00 + 00 + 00 + 04 + Ol + Ol + 02 + 01 + 01 + 01 + Ol + 03
- 01
N/mm 2 kg/m
m 2/s
m 3/s lit/min m 3/hr L/min L/min N mm 3
mm
mm kg.s/m 5 mm
mm mm
mm
N/m 2 kg
2.5400E 2.5400E 6.8948E 4.5359E
APPENDIX 1
457
Symbol
(x)
(Sm) (S,)
us
Units
Multi
Me trie Units
(T)
t t (t)
(ton) ton (ton)
(T) (T) (T) (T)

T
(TCP) u u u
V V V
(V) (V) (V) . (V)
(VE)
(Vd) (V,)
(Vg) (Vp)
(V,)
w w w w w
w w
(W) (W)
X
specific gravity of slurry (mixture) specific gravity of solids temperature, degrees as specified; F., C., R., K. temperature degF thickness ID 2.5400E + 01 time s long (2240 lb) ton l.Ol60E + 03 l.12 tons long (2240 lb) (short) short (2000 lb) ton 9.0718E + 02 lbf.ft torque l.3558E + 00 lbf tangent force 4.4482E + 00 temperature, absolute deg R pulsation, percentage period s 6.8948E - 02 Total Cylinder Pressure PSI 2.5400E + 01 displacement, linear in x velocity component peripheral velocity of runner 3.0480E - 01 ft/s velocity, linear y velocity component Poissons ratio 2.8317E - 02 Volume of free gas ft 3 6.2428E - 02 ft3/lb specific volume 3.0480E - 01 ft/s velocity, mean 2.8317E - 02 ft 3 Volume Volumetric Efficiency Volume discharge GPM 3.7850E + 00 3.7850E + 00 GPM equivalent volume 3.7850E + 00 gal Volume dampener 3.7850E + 00 GPM Volume piston 3.7850E + 00 GPM Volume suction 2.5400E - 02 displacement, linear ID specific weight lb/ft3 l.6018E + 01 load per unit distance lbf/ft l.4594E + 01 4.5359E - 01 lb/s rate of ftow lb/ft l.4882E + 00 weight per foot, pipe lb 4.4482E + 00 load, total weight, mass lbf 4.4482E + 00 4.5359E - 01 lb/h rate of ftow ft.lbf l.3558E + 00 work 2.5400E + 01 in distance
degK mm s kg
kg N.m N deg K s bar mm
mis
m3 m3/kg
mis
mJ lit/mio lit/mio lit lit/mio lit/mio m kg/m 3
Nlm
kg/s kg/M N N kg/h m.N mm
458
APPENDIX 1
Symbol
(x)
X
us
Units
Multi = 2.5400E - 02
Metric Units m
y y
z
(Z)
z
alpha alpha theta BETA beta tau tau DELTA DELTA delta epsilon gamma epsilon gamma epsilon eta theta theta lambda lambda mu rho nu nu upsilon SIGMA sigma delta tau phi psi omega
in displacement depth of flow net expansion factor for compressible ftow in distance ft distance in3 section modulus angle, con. rod to crosshead deg coefficient of expansion, linear deg F angle, crank rotation deg angle, connecting rod to crank deg compressibility factor, liquids angle rad torsional stress lbf/in 2 differential between two values in deftection of.beam, maximum elongation, total in strain, normal strain, shear roughness, pipe ft specific weight lb/ft3 roughness efficiency angle, crank rotation deg angle deg wavelength in, ft ratio; stroke to connecting rod length. viscosity, dynamic lbf.s/ft2 density slugs/ft3 Poisson ratio frequency factor, pipe spans viscosity, kinematic ft2/s summation stress, normal lbf/in 2 surface tension stress, shear lbf/in 2 angle angle angular velocity (2 f) rad/s
2.5400E - 02 3.0480E - 01 l.6388E - 05
m m m3 deg deg K deg deg rad N/m 2 m m
6.8948
03
2.5400E - 02 2.5400E - 02
3.0480E - 01
m N/m3
deg deg m 4.7881E 5.1538E
+ +
00 02
N.s/m 2 kg/m3
9.2903E - 02 6.8948E 6.8948E
m2/s kPa kPa
+ +
00 00
rad/s
APPENDIX 2 SUBSCRIPTS
a a a ac ad ap as e e d d e
f f
g
area acceleration atmospheric acceleration acceleration, discharge acceleration, piston acceleration, suction precharge connecting rod discharge diameter equivalent free friction U.S. gallon
g gs i L l
m p
s s u
V V V
vp
gauge gauge, suction installed lift liquid mixture pis ton suction solids upward velocity valve volume vapor pressure head, feet
ACft
APPENDIX 3 ABBREVIATIONS
RECIPROCATING PUMP TYPES Type SIMSA SIMDA DUPSA DUPDA TRIPSA TRIPDA TRIART TRIPOP QUASA QUADA QUINSA QUINDA SEXSA SEXDA SEPSA SEPDA NONSA NONDA Name Simplex single-acting Simplex double-acting Duplex single-acting Duplex double-acting Triplex single-acting Triplex double-acting Triplex articulated Triplex opposed pushrod Quadruplex single-acting Quadruplex double-acting Quintuplex single-acting Quintuplex double-acting Sextuplex single-acting Sextuplex double-acting Septuplex single-acting Septuplex double-acting Nonuplex single-acting Nonuplex double-acting Other ATM BHP
460
n
1 2 2 4 3 6 6 6 4 8
5
10 6 12 7 14
9
18
Atmosphere Brake or input horsepower
APPENDIX 3
461
Other
BPD CFM Barreis per day Cubic feet per minute Clearance volume, percent Feet per minute Feet per second U.S. gallons per minute U.S. gallons per revolution Hydraulic horsepower Maximum allowable pressure Mechanical efficiency Net positive suction head available Net positive suction head required Piston rod load Pounds per square inch gauge Pounds per square inch absolute Pounds per square inch Peak-to-peak Revolutions per minute Volumetric efficiency Reversal Rate, per Minute
cv
FPM FPS GPM GPR HHP MAP ME NPSHA NPSHR PRL PSIG PSIA PSI PTP RPM
VE
R'PM
INDEX
Abrasion, 316 Abrasive wear, 317 Abrasivity: definition, 271, 321 dry, 289 measurement of, 293 Acceleration: definition, 38, 74 head, 41, 365 piston,41 pressure, 41 Acoustic filters (dampeners), 123 Adhesive wear, 316 Air and gas saturation of liquids, 86 American Petroleum lnstitute (API) standards, 193 Application, pump, 342 Articulated pump, 9 Attenuation, 108 Autofrettage, 178 Basic elasatomers, 226 Baume degrees, 439 Bearings, 163 journal, 165 life, average, 164 life, B-10, 164 roller, B-10 life, 164 Bending moments, crankshaft, 159
Bending stress, crankshaft, 159 Bernoulli' s equation, 414 Black Mesa Coal Pipeline, 304 Blanket, gas, 93 Bolts, 384 tightening specifications, 384 Boosterpump, suction, 345 B-lObearinglife, 164. Bulk properties of solids, 308 By-Pass, pump, 349 Calculation: free gas, 66 mechanical natural frequency, 369 MillerNumber, 296 parts life extension, 328 SAR Number, 296 volumetric efficiency: hydrocarbons, 361 water, 358 Carbon dioxide, effects, 227 Cavitation, 89, 320 Centrifugalpumps,55 Ceramic plunger, 211 failure mode, 336 pitting, 334 Charging pumps, suction, 345 Clearance volume: method of measuring, 343
INDEX
463
Coal slurries, 284 Coal slurry viscosity, 284 Coating and plating, 186 Compressibility, liquid, 342 Concentration, slurry, 284, 286 Connecting rod, 153 forces, 153 Continuous service, 169 Controlled-compression gaskets, 225 Corrosion, 320 Cost, pump, 338 Crank end (CE), 10 Crank-end stroke, 10 Crankpin bearing, 21 Crankshaft: 20 bending moments, 161 bending stress, 161 offset, 152 types, 155 Critical suction conditions, 42 Crosshead, 21, 162 extension, 21 forces, 158 outside (upper), 10 Crushing and grinding, 317 Cylinderliner, 15 Cylinders, numberof, 147 Damped pressure gauge, 405 Dampener (See Pulsation dampener) Darcy's Formula, 416 Definitions, pumps, 1 Delay, val ve, 58 Derivation: acceleration pressure, 40 inlet pressure, 41 Design philosophy, 373 Diaphragm pump, 10 Direction, rotation, 150 Discharge: acceleration, 42 dampeners, 95 definition, 36 system, 103 velocity (liquid), 95 Discontinuity, 97 Discussion of ideal waveforms, 44 Dissolved air and gas, 56 Double-acting pump, 3 Double-acting vs. single-acting, 23 Duplex pump: double-acting, 8 single-acting, 8
Duty: continuous, 170 intermittent, 169 Dynamics, liquid piping system, 36, 60, 367 Effectsofwear, 289, 320 Efficiency: mechanical, 168 volumetric, 274 Elastomers: basic, 226 in carbon dioxide, 227 Energy, transmit time, 66, 87 Equations suction system, 76 Equivalents, Symbols and Nomenclature, APPENDIX 1 Erosion, 287 high-velocity, 318 low-velocity, 318 Expendable parts, guideline, 236 Iiners,206 pistons, 207 plungers, 211 packing, 215 standards, API, 193 Extension, crosshead, 21 Family planning, 142 Fatigue, 320 Filter, acoustic, 124 Final important notes, 139 Finite element anaysis, 372 Flow: ofliquids, 420 nature offlow in pipe, 412 through nozzles and orifices, 419 through orifice meters, 424 variation, 37 Auids, physical property of, 409 Aushing, plungers, 276 Aushing velocity, 279 Autter, valve, 266 Forces: connecting rod, 153 crosshead, 162 pumpmechanism, 156, 157 Fraction volume of solids, 309 Frequency: natural, pipe, 99 pulsation, 99 response, 387 Frettingwear, 320 Friction factor, 417
464
INDEX
Gas, blanket, 86 Gaskets, controlled compression, 215 Gas saturation, 86 Gas type dampener, 109 sizing, 112 Gear rating, 203 Gears, interna!, 34 Geometry, pump, 37 Gland, 18 tightening, 231 Glossary ofterms, 234 Gold Number, 302 Guidelines for material selection, 236 Harmonic frequency, 99 Head: end stroke, 10 static, 365 velocity, 365 Head end (HE), 10 High-frequency pulsations, 57 High suction pressure, 375 Hookup, pump, 343 Hydraulic flow and pressure waveforms, 44 Hydraulic Institute: Nomenclature and definitions, 13 Standards of application, 347 Hydraulic radius, 414 Increasing TCP, 88 Inlet, definition, 36 Intermittent service, 169 Intemalgears,34 Jacoby Leakage, 232 Joumalbearings, 165 Laminarflow, 412 Lantem ring, 17 Life, expendable parts, 339 Lift: head, 365 suction, 365 valve, required, 260 Liner development, 207 Liners, 280 Liquid: by-pass, 349 compressibility, 342 Liquid Ends, 172 cylinder, 14 end parts, 14 end stresses, 176
ends, configurations, 20, 172 ends, stress reduction, 177 ultra-high pressure design, 187 Load, piston rod (PRL), 144 Loops: pumphook-up, 345 suction system, 345 Lubrication, 156 Main bearing, 20 Manifolds, 15 Material selection, guidelines, 236 Maximum piston diameter, 146 Meaos of reducing wear rate, 337 Measurement: TCP(ex NPSH), 80 pressure, 405, 415 vibration, 389 Mechanical efficiency, 167 Mechanical forces, 154 Mechanics of wear, 316 Mechanisms, pump, 37 Metal-to-metal plungers, 121 Micronic particles, 307 relative size, 307 MillerNumber, 293, 296 calculation, 295 system, overview, 297 MillerNumbers, typical, 298 Minerals, specific gravity, 306 Modes, wear, 316 Multicylinderpump, 8 Multiple dampeners, 117 Myth ofNPSH, 84 Nature offlow in pipe, 412 Net Positive Suction Head, 55 Nitrogen cylinder, capacity, 119 Nomenclature, 13. Numberofcylinders, 147 Offset crankshaft, 152 Oil: cleaning, 167 temperature, 167 Oil mixed slurries, 300 Opening, sieve mesh, 307 Opposed pump, 9 Optical phaser, 402 0-Rings, 225 Oscillographs. reading of, 390 Outlet, definition, 37
INDEX
465
Outside-packed, 13 Overrunning, 151 Overshoot, 60
Packing, 17, 274 elastomers, 226 gaskets, 225 leather, 227 lubrication, 231 non-adjustable, 216 0-rings, 225 spring-loaded, 218 tightening, 231 Packing history, 215 Particles, slurry, characteristics, 316 Particle shape, 316 Particle size, 286 Parts wear and life, 316 PASAFEdampener, 107, sizing, 114 Phase, 117 Phaser, optical, 402 Pipe: data,441 friction factors, 418 relative roughness, 413 Pipeline flow problems, 422 Pipeline GPM per Million Tons Solids, 31 O Pipe vibration, 367 Piping: acoustics, 367 design guidelines, 374 natural frequency, 367 Piston, 15, 280 acceleration, 38 liner clearance, 333 maximumdiameter, 146 membrane pumps, 280 rod load, 144 speed, 69 velocity, 37 Piston pump, 6 Piston, maximumsize, 146 Plunger: ceramic, 334, 336 flushing methods, 276 flushing details, 278 vs. piston pump, 33 pump,6 Plungers, 17, 333 POSIVA, valve spring, 248
(POSIVA) and RPM, 248 Power: costs, 363 end parts, 20 frame, 20 Power-operated valves, 265 Precharging gas-type dampeners, 118 Pressure: disturbances, 97 drop in pipe, 420 dueto acceleration, high suction, 375 lubrication, 166 measurement methods, 387 pulses, 95 suction, 91 survey, 387 waveforms, 390 Properties, slurry, 299 Pulsation, 60 degree of, 106 dueto flow-variation, 98 Pulsation and control, classification, 97 Pulsation dampener, 356 classification, 102 discharge, 120, 357 gas-type, 102 manifolded pumps, 119 multiple dampeners, 117 PASAFE control sizing, 11 precharging gas type, 118 sizing, 111 suction, 356 types, 103 vaporization, 118 Pulsation dampener Facts, 121 Pulsation and surge control, I 09 water hammer, JO I Pulsations, high-frequency, 57 Pulse, pressure, 57 Pump: acoustic filters (dampeners), 123 application, 342 bearings, 163 connecting rod forces, 153 cost, 377 crankshafttypes, 154 crankshaft bending moments, 159 crossheads, 162 design, 140 family planning, 142 hookup, ideal, 344 lubrication, 156
466
INDEX
maximum piston size, 146 mechanical efficiency, 168 numberofcylinders, 147 offset crankshaft, 152 performance waveforms, 69 pis ton rod load, l 44 POSIVA and RPM, 69, 248 pressure survey, 387 rating standards, 140 reduced plunger, 72 service, intermittentorcontinuous, !69 for slurry service, 27 l speed, 149 stroke length, 146 stroke reversa!, 69 torque, 348 unusual pressure in cyiinder, 145 volumetric efficiency statistics, 72, 167 windows ofnonutulization, 143 Rating standards, 140 Reciprocating pump, J, 342 Reducing wear, 337 Reliefvalve, 358 Reynolds Number, 413 Roller bearings, l 64 Saltation ftow, 318 Sample problem, surge control, 138 SAR Number, 294, 296 calculation, 295 Saturation, air and gas, 86 Savage River iron ore pipeline, 305 Screen sizes, 307 Seats, valve, 245 Shotpeening, 186 Simplex single-double-acting pump, 1 Single-acting pump, 3 Size, particle, 307 Sizing pumps for pipelines, 376 Sizing of surge suppressors, 135 Slurries, oil-mixed, 300 Slurry: abrasion testing, 293 abrasivity, 338 concentration, 299 corrosion, 300 corrosive effect, 301 erosion, 287 horizontal vs. vertical pumps, 282 partirle shape, 299, 340 particle size, 299
properties, 270 pumping, 270 service, pumps, 271 suction pressure, 283 tables: fraction volume, 312 GPM per mili ion tons, 3 JO specific gravity, 305 S-N curve, 172 Solids, bulk properties, 308 Solubility, air or gas, 86 Southwest Research Institute, 367 Specific gravity, 411 Specific volurne, 411 Speed of duplex pumps, 149 Speed ofmulticylinder pumps, 149 Speed fRPM), 325 Split packing rings, 218 Spring loaded packing, 262 Springs, valve, 248 Stabilizer, suction, 102 Standard definitions, dynamics, 96 Standards of Application, HI, 347 Standby pumps, 329, 379 Starting pumps, 348 Strain bolts, 384 Strain gages, 403 Stress reduction: autofrettage, 178 coating and plating, 186 shot peening, l 86 strain bolts, 384 Stress reduction methods, 177 Stress-strain curve, 172 Stroke length, 146 Stroke reversals, 323 Stuffing box, 17 design, 230 trim, 228 wear, 228 Suction, critica! conditions, 89 Suction charging (booster) pump, 345 Suctiondampenersuctionpressure: high, 171 Suction requirements, 55 Suction requirements, analysis, 57 Suction requirernents, factors, 63 Suction stabilizer, 75, 125 Sucton system !oops, 345 Suction system(s), described, 92 short vs. long, 73 Surge control, 127 methods, 131 sample problem, 138
INDEX
467
Surge control sizing, 135 Surge supressor, 135 Switch-looppumping, 281 Synchronized flushing, 276 TCP, definition, 58 TCP, by degrees rotation, 74 TCP testing, 80 Testing, pump suction requirements, 89 Test procedure: MillerNumber, 294 Notes regarding, 88 procedure for testing, 82, 295 SAR Number, 294 TCP,80 TCP required, 57 Tests, valve, 256 Tests, valve combinations, 256 Theory offlow in pipe, 408 Thread types, 194-98 Through area, valve, 259 Tightening, gland, 231 Tons per year, solids, 3 JO Torque: gland tightening, 231 pump, 348 Transducers, pressure, 387 Transit time, suction, 87, 66 Transmission ratio, 108 Turbulent flow, 412 Typical Miller Numbers, 298 Typical waveforms, 392-93 Unbalanced valve area, 264 Underrunning, 150 Uppercrosshead, 20 Valves, assembly, 17 Ball, 253 chestcover, 15 classification, 240 combinations, 256 delay, discharge opening, 99, 268 efficiency, determination, 255 flutter, 266 leakage and slip, 65 lift required, 260 in parallel, 266 plateordisc, 15 plate(valvedeck), 15 poweroperated, 265 seat, taper fit, 250
seats, 245 seat taper, dimensions, 245 in series, 266 for slurry service, 287 spring: installed load, 248 POSIVA,248 spring design, 251 springs, 248 steady state flow, 267 tests, 256 through area, 259 types, 241, 242 unbalanced area, 264 unloading system, 345 weight, 260 Vaporization or heated dampener, 118 Velocity: head,445 liquids in pipe, chart, 448 inpipe,420 piston, 37 valve, 256, 263 Vertical pump, 1 Vibration, pipe, 368 Vibration measurement methods, 389 Vibration nomograph, 391 Viscosity, 409 Volume fraction of solids, 31 O Volumetric efficiency, 72, 167, 332 calculation, 358 hydrocarbons,361
Waveform, pressure, 69 Waveforms, 44 performance, 69 relation to pump cycle, 67 typical, 67, 389 Wear: abrasion-corrosion, 317 abrasive, 317 adhesive, 316 crushing and grinding, 317 liner profile, 323 mechanics of, 316 modes,287,316,317 saltation, 318 scouring, 317 Wearblock, 293 Weight density, 411 Weight fraction of solids, 309 WindowsofNonutilization, 143

The Reciprocating Pump Theory, Design, and Use - John E. Miller 2nd Edition

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The Reciprocating Pump Theory, Design, and Use - John E. Miller 2nd Edition

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THE RECIPR CATIN

THEORY, DESIGN, ANO USE

KRIEGER PUBUSHING COMPANY MALABAR, FLORIDA 1995

Second Edition 1995 Printed and Published by KRIEGER PUBUSHING COMPANY

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Pubiication Dala

2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2. 9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13

4. PULSATION ANO SURGE CONTROL

4.2.6 4.2.7 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9

Steady-State Flow Through Valves / 267 Valve Delay / 268

Savage River Mines I 305 Slurry Tables I 305

PARTS WEAR AND LIFE

13. THEORY OF FLOW IN PIPE

1.8 and 1.9.

1" to 2" Plunger by 2'h" Stroke Simplex

OPPOSED PUMP. A doubie-acting design attained by driving an opposed set of

CRANK END (CE) OF LIQUID END.

RECIPRDCATING RDD VAL VE

NOMENCLATURE AND DEFINITIONS

NOMENCLATURE ANO DEFINITIONS

LIQUID END PARTS

Figure 1.17. Liquid cylinder.

1.2 NOMENCLATURE ANO DEFINITIONS

Figure 1.18. Manifold.

VALVE CHEST COVER.

VAi.VE PLATE (VAlVE DECK).

Figure 1.19. Piston assembly.

Figure 1.20. Bull and snap ring piston.

Figure 1.21. Cup type piston.

Figure 1.22. Slush piston.

NOMENCLATURE AND DEFINIT!ONS

Figure 1.23. Individual ring piston.

Figure 1.24. Plunger.

Figure 1.25. Stuffing box.

Figure 1.26. Packing.

Figure 1.27. Gland.

Figure 1.28. Lantern ring.

Figure 1.29. Plate valve assembly.

Figure 1.30. Disc valve assembly.

Figure 1.32. Ball valve assembly.

POWER END PARTS

Figure 1.3;3. Upper crosshead.

1.2 NOMENCLATURE ANO DEFINITIONS

Connects the connecting rod to the crosshead. (Fig. 1.45.)

Connects the crosshead to the

plunger. (Fig. 1.46.)

308 309 310 311

312 314 315 316 324

Ring, Follower Bushing, Throat Packing Crosshead, Upper Ring, Gland

DOUBLE-ACTING VERSUS SINGLE-ACTING PUMPS

DOUBLEmACTING VERSUS SINGLEmACTING PUMPS

302 326 327 305 317

Figure 1.37. Liquid end, horizontal valve plate piston pump.

301 Cylinder, Liquid 302 Head, Liquid

311 Giand, Liquid 312 313 315 317 318

319 320 325 326 327 333

307 Valve Assembly,

310 Box, Liquid Stuffing

Figure 1.38. Power frame.

Figure 1.39. Crankshaft.

Figure 1.40. Sleeve bearing.

Figure 1.41. Roller bearing.

Figure 1.42. Connecting rod.

CRANK PIN BEARING

Figure 1.43. Crank pin bearing.

Figure 1.44. Power pump crosshead.

Figure 1.46. Crosshead extension.