APES 2009 RKV Chapter 2, Science, Systems, Matter and Energy Review

Exercise Part 1 (Q’s 1-13)

KEY
Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions, 15th Ed

1. Master the boldfaced terms in this chapter. Refer to the chapter 2 glossary.

2. Define science and explain how it works. Distinguish among scientific data, scientific hypothesis,
scientific model, scientific theory, and scientific law. Explain why we should take a scientific theory
seriously.

Science: Attempts to discover order in nature and use that knowledge to make predictions about
what should happen in nature. See frontier science, scientific data, scientific hypothesis, scientific
law, scientific methods, scientific model, scientific theory, sound science.

Scientific data: Facts obtained by making observations and measurements.

Scientific hypothesis: An educated guess that attempts to explain a scientific law or certain
scientific observations.

Scientific model: A simulation of complex processes and systems. Many are mathematical
models that are run and tested using computers.

Scientific theory: A well-tested and widely accepted scientific hypothesis.

Scientific law: Description of what scientists find happening in nature repeatedly in the same
way, without known exception.

We should take scientific theories seriously because this is the best science can
provide. If one doesn’t respect a theory, then all other science should be
suspect.
3. Describe peer review and reproducibility. Why are they important aspects of science? (pg 30)

P.R. happens when a scientist publishes details of the methods he/she

used; the results of their experiments and models; and the reasoning
behind their hypotheses for other scientists working in their field (peers) to
examine and criticize. Ideally the other peers would attempt to duplicate the
experiment and the results compared.
4. Give an example of a scientific method. What is a controlled experiment? What is multivariable
analysis? (pg 31)

Ask questions; collect data; develop hypothesis; make

predictions; test the predictions; and accept or reject
the hypothesis

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5. Distinguish between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning, and give an example of each.

Inductive reasoning: Using observations and facts to arrive at generalizations or hypotheses. It

goes from the specific to the general and is widely used in science.

Genes mutate. Some genes are more adaptive than others. An organism with an adaptive set of
genes will live longer than others without the adaptive genes. These adaptive organisms will
reproduce more offspring that are also more adaptive. Over time the adaptive genes will be the most
common gene types.

Conclusion: Gene pools change over time.

Deductive reasoning: Using logic to arrive at a specific conclusion based on a generalization or

premise. It goes from the general to the specific.

Birds fly. A robin is a bird therefore Robins flies.

6. Distinguish between frontier science and sound science.

Frontier science: Preliminary scientific data, hypotheses, and models that have not been widely
tested and accepted.

Sound science: Scientific data, models, theories, and laws that are widely accepted by scientists
considered experts in the area of study. These results of science are very reliable.

7. What is junk science? List four ways to recognize junk science. (pg 32)

Junk science: Scientific results or hypotheses presented as sound science but not having
undergone the rigors of the peer review process.

Data is not reproducible; Conclusions don’t follow logically from the data; the
experiment does not accord for all of the data; and the conclusions have
not been peer reviewed
8. If scientists cannot establish absolute proof, what do they establish? (pg 32)

They establish a very high probability of truth, but not

absolute certainly.

9. What is a system? Distinguish among the inputs, flows or throughputs, and outputs of a system.

System: A set of components that function and interact in some regular and theoretically
predictable manner.

Input: Matter, energy, or information entering a system.

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 Throughput: Rate of flow of matter, energy, or information through a system.

Output: Matter, energy, or information leaving a system.

10. What is a feedback loop? Distinguish between a positive feedback loop and a negative feedback
loop, and give an example of each.

Feedback loop: Circuit of sensing, evaluating, and reacting to changes in environmental

conditions as a result of information fed back into a system; it occurs when one change leads to
some other change, which eventually reinforces or slows the original change.

Positive feedback loop: Situation in which a change in a certain direction provides information
that causes a system to change further in the same direction. Polar sunlight heats ice and the ice
melts reducing the reflection of solar radiation. Subsequently, more solar radiation melts even more
polar ice.

Negative feedback loop: Situation in which a change in a certain direction provides information
that causes a system to change less in that direction. On a heater thermostat a higher input of heat
causes the heater to eventually cut off (produce less heat).

11. Define and give an example of a time delay in a system. (Pg 33)

Time delay: Time lag between the input of a stimulus into a system and the response to the
stimulus.

Smoking and lung cancer; may take 20 years to become a problem and is
detected.

12. Define synergy, and give an example of how it can change a system. (pg 34)

Synergistic interaction: Interaction of two or more factors or processes so that the combined
effect is greater than the sum of their separate effects.

Example: smoking and tiny asbestos particles (inhaled) together, amplify the
cancer rates above the sum of either inputs cancer causing rates.(5 vs. 50 x)

13. Define discontinuity and environmental threshold. Describe one environmental threshold that
might be crossed to create a discontinuity. (pg 34)

Discontinuity: An abrupt change in a system when some environmental

threshold is crossed (critical level or intensity of a physical, biological, or
chemical entity).
The overfishing of a species might lower the base stock of fish below the
point that can find mates and reproduce.

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