NONMALEFICENCE means that one should not do and not risk harm (physical, mental, psychological, social, financial,

spiritual, symbolic etc.). Nonmaleficence is a negative action. Hippocrates emphasized that the healthcare giver should do no harm. It is essential for trust and justice. Examples of harm are providing incompetent care; disrespecting dignity; breaching privacy, causing hopelessness, destroying reputation, misleading a younger colleague, stigmatizing a social group. However, there are occasions when some harm may be allowed in order to avoid greater harm (double effect or lesser evil) or when a more fundamental principle overrides nonmaleficence (justice or inviolability of life). In such cases, asking for the free and informed consent of the one harmed is always encouraged. BENEFICENCE means that one should prevent or remove harm or risk of harm, do good, or provide a benefit. It is a positive action. In health, beneficence involves benevolence, compassion and charity. It is often an extraordinary act. Its urgency is in proportion to the relationship of the does to the person at risk. Examples include providing free medical service or medicines, exposing oneself to danger when caring for another, spending extra time to guide a younger colleague or extra effort to be a role model. The conditions that require one to perform a benefit act are: 1) the person aided is at significant risk, 2) the action is needed and likely to succeed, 3) there is no significant risk for the doer, 4) the benefit for the recipient outweighs the harm to the doe. Beneficence acts are something paternalistic and may conflict with autonomay and other interests.