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title: author: publisher: isbn10 | asin: print isbn13: ebook isbn13: language: subject publication date: lcc: ddc: subject:

Voice of an Exile : Reflections On Islam Abu Zayd, Nasr !a mid"# Nelson, Est$er R" %reen&ood 'ublis$in( %rou) *+,-./+-*.,/*+,-./+-*/ .,/*010*12311 En(lis$ Abu Zayd, Nasr !a mid, 4c$olars, 5uslim66E(y)t667io(ra)$y, Intellectuals66 E(y)t667io(ra)$y, Islamic rene&al66E(y)t, Islamic modernism66E(y)t" +**2 7'/*"A+.-A0 +**2eb +.,8"*.+ Abu Zayd, Nasr !a mid, 4c$olars, 5uslim66E(y)t667io(ra)$y, Intellectuals66 E(y)t667io(ra)$y, Islamic rene&al66E(y)t, Islamic modernism66E(y)t"

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Page i Voice of an Exile

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Page iii Voice of an Exile Reflections on Islam NASR ABU ZAID WITH ESTHER R. NELSON

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Page iv Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Abu Zayd, Nasr Hamid. Voice of an exile : reflections on Islam / Nasr Abu Zaid it! "st!er #. Nelson. $. cm. Includes bibliogra$!ical references and index. I%&N '()*+(,-)+'(+ .al/. $a$er0 1. Abu Zayd, Nasr Hamid. ). %c!olars, 2uslim3"gy$t3&iogra$!y. 4. Intellectuals3 "gy$t3&iogra$!y. 5. Islamic rene al3"gy$t. +. Islamic modernism3"gy$t. I. 6itle. &P-'.A),+A4 )''5 ),*7.',)3dc)) 8&9 )''4':)5)* &ritis! ;ibrary <ataloguing in Publication =ata is available. <o$yrig!t > )''5 by Nasr Abu Zaid and "st!er #. Nelson All rig!ts reserved. No $ortion of t!is boo/ may be re$roduced, by any $rocess or tec!ni?ue, it!out t!e ex$ress ritten consent of t!e $ublis!er. ;ibrary of <ongress <atalog <ard Number: )''4':)5)* I%&N: '@)*+@,-)+'@+ Airst $ublis!ed in )''5 Praeger Publis!ers, -- Post #oad Best, Best$ort, <6 ':--1 An im$rint of Creen ood Publis!ing Crou$, Inc. .$raeger.com Printed in t!e Dnited %tates of America 6!e $a$er used in t!is boo/ com$lies it! t!e Permanent Pa$er %tandard issued by t!e National Information %tandards ErganiFation .Z4,.5-(1,-50. 1' , - * : + 5 4 ) 1

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Page v To Cliff, who like Nasr, is Sensei of the senseiTeacher of the teacher

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Page vii Contents Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter " Chapter ' Chapter * Chapter 7 Chapter + Chapter & Chapter 1. Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13

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Preface by Esther R. Nelson Exiled My Early Years Badriyya, Karima, Ayat, a d !heree A #el$cta t !ch%lar (ere ) !ta d My America Adve t$re ,%i g -apa ese E/tehal My 0eachi g -%$r ey A 1ece t #et$r 0he 2ex$s %f 0he%ry a d Practice 3%%4i g Ahead 0he 5ay 6%r7ard Appe dix 2%tes ) dex

ix 1 17 37 "& *3 +' 1.3 11& 13' 1'3 1*' 1+1 1&& 2.& 213 217

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Page ix Preface I first became acquainted with Nasr Abu Zaid after reading Mary Anne Weavers article ev!luti!n by "tealth# in The New Yorker $%une &' ())&*+ I was immediately drawn t! his st!ry+ Islamists f!rced Nasr fr!m ,air! -niversity' his alma mater and the instituti!n where he currently taught' charging him with heresy+ .is crime/ Nasr had stated in his writings that hist!ry and culture must be ta0en int! acc!unt when inter1reting the 2uran+ In additi!n' Nasr argued f!r a meta1h!ric inter1retati!n !f the 2uran rather than an inflexible' literal understanding !f that sacred text+ In %une ())3' the ,air! ,!urt !f A11eals f!und that Abu Z4a5ids writings in and !f themselves 1r!ved him t! be an a1!state+#( Islamists threatened his life+ .e n! l!nger was able t! teach+ 6uards' armed with machine guns' surr!unded his h!me+ Islamist lawyers attem1ted t! se1arate him fr!m his wife' 7r+ 8btehal 9!unes' als! a 1r!fess!r at ,air! -niversity' !n the gr!unds that a Muslim w!man cann!t be married t! a n!n:Muslim+ Nasr' having been declared an a1!state' c!uld n! l!nger be c!nsidered a Muslim+ "ubsequently b!th !f them fled t! the Netherlands' and since then Nasr has been teaching Arabic and Islamic "tudies at ;eiden -niversity+ In <===' my husband began w!r0ing f!r an !il c!m1any in "audi Arabia+ "ince then' Ive s1lit my time between "audi Arabia and the -nited "tates+ When Im in the "tates' I teach religi!us studies in the "ch!!l !f W!rld "tudies at >irginia ,!mm!nwealth -niversity in ichm!nd+ In ?ebruary <==<' I disc!vered Nasr all !ver again in an

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Page x interview article, written by Daniel del Castillo, on the back page of The Chronicle of Higher Education (February 8, 2 2!, titled "#n $xiled %cholar of &sla'() #gain, & felt 'yself drawn to his story( &n this interview, *asr states, "+e have a proble' in the #rab world of intellectuals only talking to intellectuals() #nd "the basic issue behind terroris' ,is the- absence of any public sphere for exchanging ideas() $xcitedly, & showed the interview article to 'y depart'ent chair'an, Dr( Cliff $dwards( "&t see's to 'e,) he stated 'atter.of.factly, "that if so'eone were flying through #'sterda' on her way to the /iddle $ast, she could easily stop off and interview *asr #bu 0aid() 1es, yes, of course( 2hat3s exactly what & would do( 4ut would he agree to 'eet with 'e5 &f so, what would & say5 6ow would & explain what it was that drew (and continues to draw! 'e to his story5 & grew up in 4uenos #ires, #rgentina, the daughter of evangelical, funda'entalist 'issionaries( /y parents spent their lifeti'es fighting heresy( Convinced they were co''issioned by 7od 6i'self, they had devoted their lives to 7od3s service( 2heir 8ob was to "7o(((into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature,) fully assured that "6e that believeth and is bapti9ed shall be saved: but he that believeth not shall be da'ned()2 /y parents never wielded enough power to issue death threats( &t3s hard to i'agine the' ever carrying out such edicts( *onetheless, they easily and co'fortably took 7od on their side, understood 2ruth through a specific interpretation of a specific text, and were not at all bashful about conde'ning to hell those who understood and believed differently fro' the'( +hat always see'ed odd to 'e was that today3s heresy, over ti'e, could (and often would! beco'e to'orrow3s 2ruth( &n the 'eanti'e, those who 'anage to have the'selves declared apostate and branded as heretics are stripped of their dignity, discri'inated against, discredited;and so'eti'es have to run for their lives( & could never <uite buy into the funda'entalist rhetoric that 'y parents defended( 6owever, funda'entalis' as a syste' knows no ideological boundaries( *o wonder & felt so drawn to *asr3s story( & a' grateful to Dr( Cliff $dwards, 'y depart'ent chair'an, for encouraging 'e to get in touch with *asr( +ithout Cliff3s gentle prodding and steadfast encourage'ent, this book would not have taken off( *or could this book have co'e into being without the efforts of %u9anne &( %tas9ak.%ilva, senior editor of 7reenwood Publishing 7roup( &3' grateful for %u9anne3s expertise and cheerful readiness to attend to the innu'erable details involved with bringing a book to publication( /ost of the text took shape after & spread out 'y 'aterials

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Page xi on my sister Bettys kitchen table in Redwood, Virginia, and began to peck away at the keys of a laptop computer. Not only did Betty ignore the clutter in her kitchen, she pro ided a co!y home for me in the midst of my gypsylike existence. " kinder and more lo ing sister would be hard to find. #n addition, Nasrs patience seemed endless as he tirelessly unfolded #slamic doctrine to me while simultaneously wea ing that doctrine into his own life experience. $hroughout the text, Nasr demonstrates that personal experience cannot be separated from scholarly achie ement. %xperience pro ides the stuff from which scholarship sprouts. &y first meeting with Nasr happened in a coffee shop underneath 'eidens train station in &ay ())(. "s we chatted o er coffee and tea, # noticed the slee es on Nasrs na y blue suit *acket inching higher and higher. % entually, a good six inches of white shirt on each arm lay exposed. # couldnt help but think that here was a man ready to roll up his slee es and get to work. "nd thats exactly what happened. But e en more noteworthy was that as we continued to talk underneath the rumbling of commuter trains, # felt Nasrs warmth, compassion, and generosity flowing from what # can best describe as the heart of a born teacher. # suggested that Nasr write a book about himself, not merely focusing on the e ents that led to his exile +although that would be included,, but also showing the path that carried him along his scholarly *ourney. -ow did he come to see and interpret the .uran from a perspecti e that today is at odds with mainstream understanding/ 0# would lo e to write such a book in %nglish,1 Nasr assured me. 0# speak %nglish so much better than #m able to write it. $his is a problem for me.1 0$hats where # come in,1 # said. 0#ll help you craft your story. &y degree is in %nglish2writing and rhetoric.1 3hat follows is the product of our combined efforts. "bo e all, we want to con ey to our reading audience that #slam, like all ma*or world religions, expresses itself in a wide ariety of ways. $here is no single #slam. 3e also belie e dialogue among &uslims +as well as with non4&uslims, regarding the arious expressions of #slam to be an essential ingredient in promoting understanding both within and outside #slam. #f our work contributes toward that end, we will count oursel es as ha ing been successful. %sther R. Nelson

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Page 1 1 Exiled I left Egyptmy homein 1995. Ever since then, Ive been a professor of Arabic and Islamic t!dies at "eiden #niversity in the $etherlands, a %ell&'no%n instit!tion established in 15(5. "eiden is located so!th of Amsterdam, a thirty&min!te train ride from the center of the city. )!ring the day, Im b!sy s!pervising st!dents, digging a%ay at my research thro!gh my %riting, debating %ith my colleag!es, attending conferences, and spea'ing to the p!blic thro!gh comm!nity events and f!nctions. Its %hat %e scholars do in o!r attempt to create and disseminate 'no%ledge. At night, tho!gh, I dream of Egypt. I %as born in Egypt. *he %aters of the $ile flo% thro!gh my veins. Egypt has shaped me. *o this day, I remain thoro!ghly Egyptian. +orn on ,!ly 1-, 19./, in 0!hafa, a small village near *anta in the $ile )elta, to ordinary, poor, hard%or'ing parents, I learned early on abo!t the concept of 1!stice. ,!stice lies at the heart of the 0!ran. Ive %or'ed on and developed this idea of 1!stice in my scholarshipespecially as it applies to social iss!es. +!t Im getting ahead of myself. I live in e2ile. ome of the facts s!rro!nding the case %hich led to my e2ile are %idely 'no%n. 3ther facts have not been as %ell p!blici4ed. *his is %hat happened5 In 6ay 1997, I applied to the )epartment of Arabic at 8airo #niversity for promotion to f!ll professor. I s!bmitted my p!blications 9eleven papers and t%o boo's: to the #niversity *en!re and Promotion 8ommittee. *his committee gave the material to a s!bcommittee of three professors to eval!ate. *hose

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Page 2 professors were Dr. Abd al-Sabur Shahin, professor in the College of Dar al-Ulum and a fundamentalist preacher in the Amr ibn al-As Mos ue in !ld Cairo" Dr. Mahmud Ali Ma##i, professor of Andalusian Studies at Cairo Uni$ersit%" and Dr. Awni Abd al-&a'uf, professor of linguistics at (A%n Shams Uni$ersit%. )he *ob of the Uni$ersit% )enure and Promotion Committee was to write a report, based on the report from the subcommittee, and then to send it, with their recommendation, to the dean of the facult%. Se$en months later, December +, ,--2.four months longer than the usual period of time to decide such things./ learned that the committee had re*ected m% bid for promotion. 0ater on, / found that / had narrowl% missed being promoted b% a $ote of 1 to 2, not the unanimous $erdict that the official report claimed. Professors in the Department of Arabic Studies, colleagues of mine, had submitted a fa$orable report on m% behalf that stressed the breadth of m% #nowledge, m% scientific contributions to the field of /slamic Studies, and m% use of modern methodolog% when doing research. )he departmental report emphasi3ed m% use of ijtihd, independent reasoning. Man% Muslims toda% consider 4the gates of ijtihd5 closed. )hose gates ha$e been shut in traditional /slam since the thirteenth centur%. )his means that scholars toda% must rel% on insights garnered before the thirteenth centur% as the% attempt to bring the 6ur'an to bear on the umma, the Muslim communit%. )here is no place, nor space, to come to new insights regarding the 6ur'an through application of modern scholarship to the sacred te7t. !f the three e7perts consulted b% the committee, two ga$e a positi$e report on m% wor#. Shahin did not. According to him, m% writing demonstrated an 4atroph% of religious conscience5 while engaging in 4intellectual terrorism.5 8e li#ened m% wor# to 4cultural A/DS5 and a 4Mar7ian-secularist attempt to destro% 9g%pt's Muslim societ%.5, )here were specific things about m% scholarship that Shahin too# issue with. Among them was m% contention that man% different copies of the mushaf , a word literall% meaning 4boo#,5 circulated during the time of the Prophet. )he mushaf contains the 6ur'an, although when we spea# about the 6ur'an, we understand that the 6ur'an is not limited to the mushaf . )he 6ur'an can reside in the memor% of the reciter. So when Muslims spea# about the 6ur'an, we refer to that which can be memori3ed and orall% transmitted. :hen we spea# about the mushaf , we refer to the boo# in which the 6ur'an is written. :hen

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Page 3 the Prophet Muhammad died (632), there were many copies of the mushaf circulating among his followers. People wanted their own copy. In spite of this, oral transmission of the Qur an was (and in many ways still is) the primary means of passing on the sacred te!t to succeeding generations. "he early copies of the mushaf were written using #ra$ic letters. #t that time, there were no %owels signs. It didn t matter a whole lot $ecause the te!t was merely an aid to the memory of the reciter. &'thm(n i$n &#ff(n, the third caliph, was instrumental in $ringing a$out a standardi)ed Qur anic te!t. Muhammad, $efore his death, had $egun the tas* of getting the re%elation into te!tual form. +cri$es used materials such as roc*s and palm lea%es for that purpose, so the written te!t was already in e!istence when &'thm(n came along. "here were, howe%er, different ways of reciting and reading the Qur an $ecause of the %arieties of dialects spo*en $y the Prophet s followers. "he Prophet had no ,ualms a$out these %ariations. -ow could a standardi)ed dialect $e enforced, anyway. /uring &'thm(n s caliphate, soldiers from %arious $ac*grounds were thrust together in close ,uarters. #s they recited the Qur an according to the particular %ersion they had learned, they noticed some differences0differences that stemmed from the %ariety of dialects represented. "hey $egan to accuse each other of ma*ing changes in the sacred te!t. 1ecause of this dispute, &'thm(n decided to standardi)e the Qur an. # committee gathered together, produced the 2ttomanic mushaf , and su$se,uently decided that all other copies of the Qur an should $e $urned. # dispute erupted0people were loath to gi%e up their personal copies, $ut the decision to standardi)e the Qur an had $een made. "his is history. "here were different mushafs circulating during the Prophet s time along with a %ariety of ways of reciting the te!t, not different Qur ans. "his was not new information for +hahin, a man who earned his Ph./. doing wor* on the history of the Qur an. I ,uoted pu$licly from his wor*, showing where he himself ma*es mention of the %ariety of mushafs in circulation among families in the earliest Muslim communities. 3hy was he going against his own scholarship and ta*ing me to tas* on this issue. +hahin also $al*ed at my scholarship that argues for a human dimension of the Qur an. 2rthodo! Islam has always insisted that the Qur an is 4od s eternal, uncreated speech. 1ecause it always e!isted, it was ne%er created. "he fact that the Qur an was re%ealed to Muhammad in the conte!t of se%enth5century #ra$ia should ha%e no

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Page 4 bearing on how we interpret the text. The text should be read literally and applied uniformly across time and place. As a result of this understanding, Islam has no tradition of using textual criticisma practice long employed by Hebrew and biblical scholars. onetheless, there ha!e been Islamic scholars who ha!e challenged the orthodoxy. The rationalist school "nown as the #u$ta%ilites emerged in the ninth century under the Abbasid &mpire '()*+,-).. They argued that the /ur0an, ha!ing come into existence at a specific time and in a specific place, was indeed created. There0s a difference, they insisted, between 1od0s essencesomething eternal and beyond human understandingand 1od0s 2ord, which is created and accessible to reason. &!en though the #u$ta%ilites were marginali%ed after only two decades, their thin"ing has remained ali!e and has carried down through the generations. I belie!e that in order to ma"e sense of the /ur0an, we need to understand the text metaphorically rather than literally. I also belie!e that it is essential to interpret the text by ta"ing into account the cultural context in which it was recei!ed. To be sure, my scholarship is contro!ersial. I bear the guilt of traffic"ing in ideas. 3ut isn0t that what the academy is all about4 Ideas, debate, teaching, research. The climate in &gypt today is one of intellectual stagnation when it comes to the study of religion. 5ac" of any public space to exchange and debate ideas has resulted in a siege mentality. To offer new explanations or interpretations of religion becomes a blasphemous act. In uni!ersities throughout the #uslim world, no Islamic scholarship exists. 6ou0ll find plenty of preaching, but no comparati!e study. I use nontraditional research methods as I del!e into the field of Islamic 7tudies. That alone is enough to label me apostate. A !erbal war erupted between the Islamists, who bal"ed at the conclusions I reached as a result of my scientific, methodological research regarding the /ur0an, and the intellectual freethin"ers, who were appalled at 8airo 9ni!ersity :ust rolling o!er and playing dead while people they described as bulliesthe Islamistsswayed academic decisions. As a result of this ;bullying,< I was denied my promotion to full professor. 2hat0s at the core of this clash4 Two ways of thin"ing. The Islamists cling to the immutability of the past. This attachment to the past appeals to those who find change and de!elopment threatening. Intellectual free=thin"ers such as I do not consider our Islamic heritage sacred in and of itself. Islamic 7tudies has always emerged from human

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Page 5 thought about religion. As culture develops and moves forward, our thinking needs to develop and go forward in relationship to the Quran as well. Modern methods of scholarship can help us know how to apply the Quran in useful and meaningful ways to our ever changing world. My !uarrel has never been with religion, but with the religious thought "which is human thought# coming from, in this particular case, the $slamists. $n spite of this clash of ideologies, $m convinced that %hahin allowed his personal animosity toward me to cloud an ob&ective, scholarly assessment of my work. 'e was the one individual on the sub committee who voted against me. $ think $ know why. $n the introductory pages of my book Critique of Islamic Discourse,( $ draw attention to the relationship between political $slamist discourse in )gypt and the socioeconomic scandal brought about by $slamic investment companies. $slamists had published a number of fatwas "formal legal opinions on matters of $slamic law# condemning the current )gyptian banking system as religiously illegal because it operates on a fi*ed interest rate. +his is usury, they said, and therefore prohibited in $slam. $slamic investment companies sprang up as alternative institutions to the usurious practice of ,esterni-ed banks. +hese investment companies, among them al .ayyan $slamic $nvestment /ompany0the one %hahin was associated with0claimed they structured themselves according to $slamic principles. 1ecause of the fatwas, many )gyptian people put their savings into these investment companies. +hese companies were at the center of a huge public scandal in 2344. 'undreds of thousands of people, trusting the companies representatives and attracted by the religious emblems designed to appeal to )gyptians religious sensibilities, lost their life savings. %hahin, the religious adviser to al .ayyan $slamic $nvestment /ompany, stood accused of misappropriating the savings of the faithful. $ believe %hahin became incensed after reading the introductory pages of Critique of Islamic Discourse, one of the two books $ had submitted to the 5niversity +enure and Promotion /ommittee. $n his report, he made no comment on the bulk of my scholarship, nor did he address my methodology. ,hen the professors of my department read the report that re&ected my bid for full professor, they protested by writing a letter to the dean. +hey argued that %hahin had not kept abreast of scholarly research, nor had he familiari-ed himself with theoretical developments such as semiotics. +he professors also believed

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Page 6 that Shahin either had not read or had failed to appreciate my work as a whole. They thought that his report went beyond the scope of the Tenure and Promotion Committees job, which was to in estigate the scholarship of the candidate up for promotion, without any other consideration. Shahin, they concluded, was passing judgment on my faith rather than on my academic credentials. !ithin the academy, matters came to a head when all the documents"the report of the committee rejecting my appointment, the fa orable report reflecting departmental opinion about me, and the facultys endorsement of this opinion"were placed in the hands of #amun Salama, rector of Cairo $ni ersity. The position of rector of a uni ersity is a political appointment. %ager to keep his job, as well as to keep things on an e en keel and not pro oke the &slamists in the uni ersity, Salama found it easier to deny my promotion than to address the core issue" manipulation of the academy by a political group. Salama thought & could reapply for full professor some months down the road and get promoted in the second go'round. Pro oking the &slamists by attempting a compromise was just too dangerous. $nfortunately, Salama beha ed in an academically irresponsible manner. (is failure to take a stand grossly compromised the integrity of the academy. This, to me, is an e)tremely serious issue. *esides his job as professor at Cairo $ni ersity, Shahin is a preacher in +mr ibn al'+s #os,ue in -ld Cairo. -n .riday, +pril /, 0112, not long after & was officially denied my promotion, Shahin, from the pulpit of this mos,ue, declared me an apostate. The following .riday, +pril 1, preachers in mos,ues all o er the country followed Shahins lead, including the preacher in a small mos,ue in 3uhafa, my home illage. The preacher in that mos,ue and & grew up together. !e learned and memori4ed the 3uran in the traditional school known as kuttb. #y friend belie ed Shahins allegation that & was an apostate. !hy else would a man of his caliber speak out so forcefully5 The uni ersitys decision to deny my promotion ga e the apostasy label e en more weight. -nce & had been declared an apostate from the pulpit, #uhammad Samida +bd al'Samad, an &slamist lawyer, along with si) of his colleagues, brought a case against me before the Personal +ffair 6epartment of the 7i4a Court of the .irst &nstance on 8une 09, 0112. They wanted to separate me from my wife, 6r. %btehal :ounes, an associate professor of .rench at Cairo $ni ersity, on the grounds that & was an apostate.

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Page 7 Sharia consists of laws derived from the Quran and the sunna (Prophetic tradition). The sunna contains the hdiththe sayings of the Prophetand other documented teachings of the Prophet not found in the Quran. Islamists claim that sharia law is divinely ordained and immuta levalid for all times and all places. I! along with others! elieve that sharia law is a human interpretation of principles found within the Quran and Islamic history. Islam is fle"i le! and when we apply reasoning to the sacred te"ts! we promote individual and pu lic well# eing y steering Quranic interpretation in the direction of the $ord of %od. In &gypt! sharia court was a olished during %amal ' del (assers regime ()*+,-)*7.) in favor of a /udicial system ased on secular principles. The one e"ception to this seculari0ation was family law. 1o my case went efore the Personal 'ffair 2ourt through use of a ninth# century principle called hisba. Hisba allows any 3uslim to sue efore a court of law if he or she elieves Islam is eing harmed. The person who sues need not e personally involved in the case. This is how hisba wor4ed in my case5 In Islam! a 3uslim woman may not marry outside her faith. I stood accused of eing an apostate outside the pale of Islam. Therefore! I was eing sued for separation! not y my wife ut y a group of Islamists charging me with apostasy. 6ur marital status! of course! did not really concern them. Their intent was to have me declared an apostate y the court. Their one chance to do this was to use the hisba loophole. (&ven though this loophole was responsi le for my ultimate conviction of apostasy! due largely to the wor4 of my lawyer! 3ona 7ulficar! a law was passed in ,... that closed the hisba loophole. 8ecause this loophole no longer e"ists! the courts have re/ected hearing the cases of several li eral thin4ers and artists. 3ona has told me! 9$e have unfairly lost the attle! ut we are winning the war.:) ' d al#1auad and his entourage charged me with pu lishing material that reputa le scholars declared put me outside Islam. If the court were to find my writings lasphemous! not only would my marriage e officially dissolved! ut proceedings could egin to have me fired from my teaching post at the university. The editor of the moderate Islamic wee4ly al-Liw al-Islm (The Islamic 8anner)! a newspaper financed y &gypts ruling party! pu lished an editorial ('pril )+! )**;) that railed against 9the heretic ' u 7aid: as someone who endangered the spirituality of his students and urged the rector of 2airo <niversity to fire me.

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Page 8 The intellectual community throughout the Arab and Muslim world was up in arms. How could this be happening? What about freedom of thought within the academy? How could a persons faith be a matter of public discussion and up for udgment before the courts? The !gyptian "rgani#ation for Human $ights urged the go%ernment to pro%ide police protection for !btehal and me. Muslim e&tremists had gunned down and 'illed (arag (oda) an !gyptian secularist) in *++,. -ater .*++/0) they tried to snuff out the life of 1aguib Mahfou#) a 1obel laureate in literature) by stabbing him in the nec'2an act that) ironically) left him unable to use his hand to write. Things were spinning out of control2at least thats how it seemed to me. !%er since the 3slamists had succeeded in stic'ing the label of apostate on me) preachers in mos4ues all across !gypt had clamored for my death) at the same time declaring 3 had no right) as an apostate) to remain married to a Muslim woman. !btehal and 3 were confined to our apartment. 5o%ernment guards) armed with automatic assault weapons) were stationed around the bloc' where we li%ed. !btehal and 3 feared for our li%es. 3 felt some relief when the 5i#a (irst 3nstant 6ourt ruled in my fa%or in 7anuary *++/. That relief) though) was short8li%ed. The ruling was appealed through the use of a *+9* constitutional amendment that ma'es sharia law :the principle source; of !gyptian law. .This amendment came as a result of Anwar <adats concession to 3slamists. <adat ruled !gypt from *+9= until his assassination in *+8*.0 The court accused me of denying :the e&istence of certain creatures such as angels and de%ils referred to in the >uran.; 3t stated that 3 :described certain images in the >uran about hea%en and hell as mythical); that 3 belie%ed :the te&t of the Holy >uran ?to be@ human); and that 3 had :ad%ocated the use of intellect to replace the concepts deri%ed from the literal reading of the te&t of the >uran by modern) more human and progressi%e concepts) ?particularly@ the te&ts related to inheritance) women) the 6hristians and the 7ews ?ahl adh-dhimma@ and women sla%es.;A "n 7une */) *++B) ust two wee's after 6airo Cni%ersity decided to promote me to full professor in spite of all the contro%ersy surrounding me and my wor') the 6airo 6ourt of Appeals ruled that my writings pro%ed 3 was indeed an apostate. <ince 3slamic law prohibits the marriage of a belie%er to an apostate) the courts declared my marriage to !btehal null and %oid. As if that were not enough) a fatwa issued by Ayman al8Dawahri from al87ihad) the underground terrorist group

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Page 9 responsible for assassinating Anwar Sadat, decreed that it was an Islamic duty that I be killed. A week later a group of scholars, known as the Front of al-A har Scholars, in an effort to force my repentance, called on the go!ernment to carry out the legal punishment for apostasy "death. Islamists"including Shahin"were thrilled with the court#s ruling. $n %une &', &99(, while deli!ering his sermon at the Amr ibn al-As )os*ue, he had this to say about the ruling of the Appeals +ourt, -.he +ourt has issued its ruling after ha!ing e/amined the case o!er a period of two years, and has become con!inced that the man 0Abu 1aid2 is an apostate who should be separated from his wife.34 $n %uly 5, &99(, the +ommittee on Academic Freedom of the )iddle 6ast Studies Association of 7orth America wrote a letter to President 8osni )ubarak. .hey were concerned. .he ruling, they said, placed -drastic limits on the freedom of research and publication of our colleagues in 6gypt,3 and was -incompatible with international norms of academic freedom and human rights.3( 6!en support such as this was not enough to re!erse the ruling against me. 9hen )ubarak came to power after Sadat#s assassination, he signed a law which guaranteed immunity to the public prosecutor and his deputies. 6gyptian intellectuals are generally happy that the :udiciary system en:oys an independence offered by this immunity. I am more interested in ha!ing the system run its course with my case, not ha!ing )ubarak"or or anybody else"inter!ene. $n the e!ening of %uly ;5, &99(, 6btehal and I were on a plane, on our way to Spain. 6btehal had made plans to be in )adrid for the month of September after ha!ing been awarded a professional fellowship. She had initially intended to go alone, but because of all the turmoil around us, we decided to go earlier and to go together. I remember telling her, -I don#t want to go back to 6gypt"back to the siege.3 .hat#s all it took. <y $ctober ;(, &99(, we were in =eiden, the 7etherlands. $n August (, &99', the 6gyptian Supreme +ourt upheld the %une &4, &99(, Appeals +ourt#s decision. .he reasons for my con!iction follow, &. >escribing certain things mentioned in the ?ur#an such as the throne of @od, angels, de!ils, :inn, paradise, and hell as myths of the past. ;. +alling the ?ur#an a cultural product, thereby denying its pre-e/istence in the preser!ed .ablet.

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Page 10 3. Calling the Quran a linguistic text. (The implication is that the Prophet lied about receiving revelations from od.! ". Calling the Quranic sciences...#reactionar$ heritage%& and sa$ing that the sharia is the cause of 'uslims bac()ardness and decline. *. +a$ing that a belief in the supernatural reflects a mind submerged in m$th. ,. Calling -slam an .rabic religion% thus den$ing its universalit$. /. .sserting that the final version of the Quran )as established in the Qura$shi idiom in order to assert the supremac$ of the Qura$sh tribe. (Prophet 'uhammad )as from the Qura$sh tribe.! 0. 1en$ing the authenticit$ of the sunna. 2. Calling for emancipation from the authorit$ of religious texts. 10. Contending that submitting to religious text is a form of slaver$., There )as no doubt about it in the collective mind of the courts. - )as guilt$ of kufr % therefore% considered an infidel or an apostate. 3g$ptian intellectuals groaned% (no)ing that the +upreme Courts decision )as irrevocable. .s a result of this decision% man$ intellectuals consider .ugust *% 122,% to be the dar(est da$ in 3g$ptian histor$. . spo(esman for the 3g$ptian 4rgani5ation for 6uman 7ights said the decision )as #a big shoc( to us...a damaging blo) to 3g$pt8and a slap in the face of civil societ$% a restriction on freedom of opinion and belief% and a license to murder.& .nd 9ahmi 6u)a$di% a popular 3g$ptian columnist% called the .ppeals Court verdict #s$mptomatic of a brea(do)n in societ$. :obod$ debates an$more% onl$ t)o channels are left% guns and ;udges.&/ The conservative )riter 1r. 'uhammad <.mara% (no)n for his commitment to freedom of thought% ac(no)ledged that m$ case )as an intellectual one% not a legal one. -f m$ )or( )as to be challenged% it ought to be done through debate% not ta(en to the courts. 6e noted that the Quran does not prescribe punishment for apostas$. 1eath for such an offense is based on the hdith% documented traditions of the Prophets teachings and actions% )hich states% #6e )ho changes his religion% and deserts the 'uslim communit$% must be (illed.& 1eserting the communit$% according to teachings )hich )ere later ascribed to 'uhammad% )as seen as tantamount to treason. #9aith%& said <.mara% #is a matter of assent and certaint$ in the heart.&0 The Quran asserts% #There shall be no compulsion in religion& (+ura =>=*/!.

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Page 11 A retired judge, Sad al-Ashmawy, a prominent Egyptian Islamic scholar, noted: !"or me, the most #rightening thing a$out the A$u % a"id precedent is that the courts ha&e no jurisdiction to judge whether a person is a $elie&er or not'they can judge only concrete issues, not ideas( )ut in A$u % a"id*s trial it was ideas that were on trial( +his is the #irst time that the courts ha&e ruled someone an apostate in modern history( ,e*re returning to the In-uisition(. /e&er do I want to gi&e the impression that I am against Islam( !ar #rom it( /or do I want to gi&e the impression that I am a new Salman 0ushdie( I am not( 1ne o# my worst #ears is that ,esterners will consider me only as a critic o# Islam( +hat*s not the whole picture at all( I*m a teacher, a scholar, an intellectual, and a researcher( I see my role as a producer o# concepts( I treat the 2ur*an as a te3t gi&en $y 4od to the Prophet 5uhammad( +hat te3t came to us in a human language, Ara$ic( As a result o# my wor6, I ha&e $een critical o# Islamic religious discourse( I show how social, political, and economic institutions use religious discourse to get hold o# power( 5y wor6 threatens some o# those who wield that power( /onetheless, I identi#y mysel# as a 5uslim( I was $orn a 5uslim, I was raised a 5uslim, and I li&e as a 5uslim( 4od willing, I will die a 5uslim( +hose people who loo6 #or ways to discredit me and my wor6 say that my 7$oo6s don*t amount to anything( 8et him say whate&er he wants,91: they insist, dismissing my ideas with a wa&e o# their hand( And that*s true'I am at li$erty to write what I thin6( )ut loo6 at the downside( I*m #ree to say and write whate&er I want outside the uni&ersity, $ut where #reedom o# thought is a$solutely essential, I ha&e $een silenced( I can write all the $oo6s I want to, e&en propagate what some #ol6s call heresy, $ut under no circumstances am I permitted to teach( +hat*s considered much too dangerous( ,hat 6ind o# #reedom is it that doesn*t allow me to trans#orm my ideas into any sort o# power; Silencing is at the heart o# my case( E3pelling me #rom the uni&ersity is a way o# silencing me( <uring the early summer o# 1..=, just a#ter the courts declared our marriage o&er, I recei&ed a phone call #rom a woman whose daughter was in elementary school( +he woman was e3tremely respect#ul( She said, 75y daughter is just in elementary school $ut she is so upset a$out the &erdict, #orcing your separation #rom your wi#e, she would li6e to tal6 with you( 5ay we stop $y and see you;9 1ur

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Page 12 apartment at this time was filled with people who supported us in our current trouble. We lived far outside of Cairo, but the woman told me her daughter could not be consoled. She wanted to visit with me. She could not imagine that a court verdict could enforce the separation of a husband from his wife against their willall under the guise of religion. How could this be possible !n "g#pt, the famil# is considered sacred. Separation and divorce are not light matters. "ven though she was $uite #oung, this girl too% her religion seriousl#. She insisted on wearing the hijb, the traditional head covering of &uslim women. So, even though we lived $uite a distance from them, the woman and her daughter came to visit. ! was happ# to receive them. What was significant to me about this visit and others li%e it was the fact that these fol%s, li%e so man# people in "g#pt, %new little, if an#thing, about m# academic writing and scholarl# pursuits. 'he# had difficult# getting a handle on the crimes ! supposedl# had committed, but !(ll not forget their support, their love, and their compassion toward "btehal and me. 'hese visits were a source of strength and comfort. ! also found the response of man# "g#ptian women, interviewed b# )ournalists, refreshing and $uite telling. &an# women fran%l# stated that the# didn(t understand the crime of *asr +bu ,aid. Wh# this punishment Wh# insist on divorce Wh# destro# a famil# !t made no sense to them. 'he# were particularl# concerned about the fate of the children. &ost people were unaware that we were childless. *onetheless, their concern underscored the high esteem "g#ptian people have for the famil#. ! remember one woman in particular. She was illiterate, but her thin%ing was sharp. She said, -Suppose this man reall# did sa# all these terrible things about .od and the /ur(an. Suppose he is an apostate. ! hear that his wife is a good &uslim.0 'he argument, of course, is that we 1&uslims2 cannot let a &uslim woman be married to a non3&uslim. !, having been declared an apostate, could no longer be considered a &uslim. 'he woman continued, -!f +bu ,aid(s wife is a good &uslim and she wants to live with him, wh# don(t #ou leave them alone &a#be she will be able to convince him to be a good man.0 'his illiterate woman(s understanding showed me that in spite of the patriarchal nature of "g#ptian societ#, "g#ptian women can and do resist living passive lives. 'heir resistance carries with it the possibilit# of sha%ing those patriarchal foundations, paving the wa# for a more )ust societ#.

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Page 13 At the same time, jokes and cartoons abounded in popular magazines and journals. One such cartoon showed a man sitting with his wife. The man s thought balloon reads, !" would like to know how Abu #aid did it.$ " understand from se%eral of m& friends that a one'act pla&, titled Good Morning, Egypt, appeared on the scene as well, mocking the process that declared me an apostate and separated me from (btehal. )" ne%er saw the pla& and ha%e been unable to locate the pla&wright. *hat " rela& is what " remember from m& friends account.+ The title, Good Morning, Egypt, reflects the wa& (g&ptians respond to &ou if the& think &ou are talking nonsense. "t s an attempt to get &ou to wake up and not beha%e as though &ou are still asleep. The title is reall& sa&ing, !*ake up, (g&pt.$ The pla& is not just about me. Parts of the pla& deal with politics in (g&pt and the problem of housing, poking fun at different aspects of (g&ptian societ&. The first section of the pla&, though, is about me. "t begins b& projecting newspaper clippings titled !The ,ase against Abu #aid$ onto a screen, along with a displa& of all the co%ers of m& books. An e-tremel& angr& woman then appears on stage. The cause of her anger is her upstairs neighbor, who sets out wet laundr& that drips down on the woman s clothes. *hen the woman s husband returns home, she asks, !,an t &ou do something about this madwoman upstairs.$ !*hat can " do.$ he asks. !/ou are a law&er. /ou ha%e an office. ,an t &ou just accuse her husband of apostas& like the& did Abu #aid, and ask them to separate.$ the woman sa&s. The husband0law&er succeeds in making a case. The court decides the upstairs couple should be separated. 1ut who will lea%e the onebedroom apartment. (g&pt has a se%ere housing shortage. "t wouldn t do to throw one of them out in the street. 2o the& di%ide the apartment down the middle and a policeman watches their e%er& mo%e to ensure that there is no ph&sical contact between them. After all, the& are separated, and separation is understood within the framework of se-. This is all part of the spoof. The audience then sees the couple in the same bed3a bed that separates easil& into hal%es. A policeman stands guard o%er the couple. The& re stuck li%ing with one another because of the se%ere housing shortage in ,airo. The go%ernment cannot pro%ide another li%ing space for either of the indi%iduals caught in this enforced separation, so the policeman keeps watch o%er the bed. 4od forbid the couple should ha%e se-. As the policeman nods off, the bed that had separated down

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Page 14 the middle comes together. The policemans eyes start to open. The bed separates and the policeman starts to fall asleep again. This happens several times before the couple decides to grab hold of the cop and throw him out the window. Actually, I thin I gave the idea of this play to the playwright because !btehal and I made a "o e about this very thing in the middle of the court case against us. !btehal and I said that we would never separate. #There is a problem,$ I noted. #%ho will leave the apartment&$ This happens all the time in !gypt when a couple divorces. !ach person lays claim to the apartment. According to the law, the wife is allowed to stay put. 'ut I said, #I am not going to leave the apartment to !btehal.$ !btehal responded with, #I am not going to give the apartment to (asr. The government should give us each another place to live.$ )o I feel that in a real way, !btehal and I wrote this play. !gyptian society is definitely a traditional society. %hen it comes to the family, well, this is sacred ground. I have a very dear friend*an actress*who visited !btehal and me at home sometime after the final verdict in our case. )he was wailing, her grief and sadness apparent. #+h, my ,od, what are they doing to you& They are destroying you. -y poor friend.$ ,et a grip*thats what I really wanted to tell her. #.es, they are trying to destroy me,$ I agreed with her, #but in fact, I am destroying them. Im here. I never spo e a word.$ I did not defend myself in court. I refused to defend myself against charges of apostasy because I do not allow anyone, no matter whom, no matter what authority, to "udge my faith. -y friends demeanor changed. )he no longer wailed or moped about. #/ont ever thin that I will allow myself to be victimi0ed,$ I said. #I dont go around crying about things such as this. /oing so is not healthy, and I would li e to have a healthy life.$ %hat happened to me*the accusation, the conviction of apostasy, my enforced divorce, being deprived of my place at 1airo 2niversity, my e3ile*was hard on me. Through it all, I refused to play the role of a victim. I am not a victim. (either am I )uperman. 'ut I refuse to be dragged too deeply into the muc and mire of the corrupt system that put me through the wringer. I love life and insist on living it to the fullest. Interestingly enough, several years ago, )hahin wrote a boo titled My Father, Adam.11 This boo tried to reconcile /arwinism with the

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Page 15 Quran. Shahin attempted to prove that Adam was not the first man. The whole subject had been settled long ago. Shahin produced nothing new. didnt thin! highl" of his wor!. Shahin tried to come off as a liberal thin!er# but he made mista!es no undergraduate student would ma!e while developing a thesis. At an" rate# the boo! brought him accusations of heres". The iron" of the whole case wasnt wasted on the $g"ptian people. The thin!ing was %&'# Shahin# "ou once set the fire# and now that same fire burns "ou.( A journalist called me# as!ing what thought of this turn of events. thin! he was e)pecting me to sa"# %*onderful# Shahin is getting a taste of his own medicine#( or something along those lines. thin! surprised him. %+o# am not happ" at all about this. *hat we are witnessing is a fire in our house# a fire in our culture. *e cannot !ill a man for a stupid boo!.( %Are "ou supporting Shahin,( the journalist as!ed. %-es# definitel" am#( said. % will defend his right to write what he thin!s.( Shahin didnt seem too happ" about what said. The $g"ptian people wanted to !now what he made of m" statement %*e cannot !ill a man for a stupid boo!.( &ne of the journalists told me Shahin said# %*hat do "ou want me to do, Should go around sa"ing# .Than! "ou# Abu /aid# "ou are m" hero,( 0ow could be happ" about the s"stem going after Shahin in the same wa" it came after me, believe that if "ou are not able to defend "our enem" in a situation such as this# "ou cannot defend "ourself. *hen we defend our opponents# the slamists# we are reall" defending ourselves. m not tal!ing about defending their interests# but cannot support the principles of freedom and e)clude the slamists. Some will tell "ou that when the slamists tal! about freedom# the" mean freedom onl" for themselves. Thats true. 1ut that doesnt mean we should ma!e the same mista!e. +evertheless# Shahins name is not popular in our household. 0e was vicious as he pushed for our divorce during the trial. 0e offered to bring $btehal another husband2he would pa" for it all. find it hard to forgive such arrogance. f have an opportunit"# will do m" best to insult him2not for m" sa!e# but for $btehals. magine3 &ffering to bring $btehal a man to marr" her. 0es vulgar. have to wonder. The whole countr". The president. The rector of 4airo 5niversit". The prime minister. The" all are aware that Shahin is as croo!ed as the da" is

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Page 16 long. Egypts culture considers marriage and family sacred. How could Shahin get away with treating the institution so disrespectfully? Corruption. Corruption permeates everything a out Egypt. !t ma"es me terri ly worried a out the future of my country. Shahin# elieve it or not# is a $% star. & corrupt society supporting a corrupt man. 'ecause of the investment scandal in which he was implicated# people "now he is a thief. People are lac"adaisical a out that. So what? they as". ! thin" if you are una le to confront a thief with his theft# there must e some s"eleton in your own closet. !ts the stuff corruption is made of. Edward Said# professor of English and comparative literature at Colum ia (niversity until his death in )**+# delivered the commencement address at the &merican (niversity in Cairo on ,une 1-# 1.... /uring his speech# he wondered if the university 0can survive as a real university if its governance and teaching mission ecome the o 1ects of scrutiny and direct interference not of its teachers ut of powers outside the university.2 He continued# 03e must always view the academy as a place to voyage in# owning none of it ut at home everywhere in it. $here can e no for idden "nowledge if the modern university is to maintain its place# its mission# its power to educate.2 Said added# 04$5he whole notion of academic freedom underwent a significant downgrading during the past three decades. !t ecame possi le for one to e free in the university only if one completely avoided anything that might attract unwelcome attention or suspicion.21) ! dont "now whether Said had my case in mind when he made this speech. His words# though# certainly apply. 'y this time# E tehal and ! had long since made our decision to leave Egypt. 3e arrived in the 6etherlands on 7cto er )8# 1..8# and !ve een a professor of &ra ic and !slamic Studies at 9eiden (niversity ever since. !m grateful to 9eiden (niversity and the /utch government for opening their collective arms to us. !ve made some solid and lasting friendships as a result of my e:ile. !ve supervised students;many of whom have made great strides in furthering !slamic scholarship. Egypt# though# is the mother who has nurtured me. !t is Egypt who calls to me at night in my dreams. !t is Egypt to whom ! long to return.

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Page 17 2 My Early Years I am firmly convinced that life experience is at the heart of this thing we call knowledge. Our experiences are what give knowledge its shape. Knowledge is not an independent entity. It does not exist apart from our understanding and interpretation of facts or events. That interpretation to a large degree comes from our own individual experiences. !or that reason two people may witness the same event yet give two different accounts of it. One reason for writing this "ook is to show how connected and interrelated my life experiences are with my academic scholarship. I came into the world short round and heavy. I#ve "een "attling my weight for my entire life. $y father was also heavy%no dou"t I inherited this proclivity for poundage from him. &s in most societies my weight made me vulnera"le to ridicule from other children while growing up. I wasn#t nearly as agile as they so I learned early on to compensate for this lack of agility. I took up reading as a ho""y. I en'oyed reading and I soon reali(ed that reading was the one activity at which I could excel. )uhafa a small village located in the *ile +elta area of northern ,gypt is the place I call home. Tanta a mere ten-minute walk from )uhafa .when I was a child/ is the capital of this district. .)uhafa is one of many villages in the area each of which has its own local administration./ In spite of "eing so close to Tanta most folks were reluctant to travel to the "ig city where cars sped through the streets giving the place a "oisterousness that )uhafa lacked. )uhafa had no

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Page 18 cars, no electricity, and no running water when I was growing up. Gradually, though, our village grew, expanding until it became part of Tanta. branch of the !ile sna"ed around our small village, so we en#oyed lush green fields and lovely trees. $tudents would often venture outside to study. I attended the kuttb, a traditional school, where I learned the %ur&an, reading, writing, and simple math. 'y my eighth birthday, I had memori(ed the entire %ur&an. lthough my father started out in life as a farmer, he soon discovered that the piece of land he owned was too small to sustain his growing family. $o he sold the land and became a grocer. )is grocery store, one of the two in our village, stood on one of the corners of the only crossroads in %uhafa. s far bac" as I can remember, he had problems with his health. In retrospect, I believe he suffered from some "ind of heart disease. !one of us reali(ed this at the time. )e died in 1*+,. I was fourteen years old. -y mother&s family had deep roots in the village. )er father was a professional reciter of the %ur&an, thereby giving the family an elevated status within the community. -y mother was a beautiful, somewhat pampered, woman. .ne of her most stri"ing features was her soft, smooth s"in. $he was her father&s favorite child and therefore stayed indoors for most of her childhood. 'eing se/uestered in this fashion was considered a privilege, a favor showered upon beloved children by doting parents. -y aunts0my mother&s sisters0told me, 12our mother was the closest to our father, so we had to do all the dirty #obs while she sat around li"e a /ueen.3 s a result of her 1regal3 status, she never learned how to navigate in and around the small village of %uhafa. 4hen she married, the villagers carried her to my father&s house. 4hen she wanted to visit her family, a five5minute wal" from her new home, she could not go alone. $he didn&t "now how. I remember how proud I felt when I accompanied her on these visits, showing her the way. %uhafa always seemed to me li"e one huge family. 6verybody "new everybody else0as well as their business. There were two mos/ues0one was an official government mos/ue, and the other one was what we called our local mos/ue. The public cemetery sprawled by the side of one of the main roads. .ur village appropriated several saints whose shrines have ta"en root in the village. popular saint throughout the entire region, $ayyid hamad al5'adaw7, was enshrined in Tanta even though he originally came from -orocco. !o matter. Tanta claimed him as its own. 8Sayyid is an rabic title meaning 1be

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Page 19 longing to the Prophets family. In English, the word becomes just ister.! E"ery year, we celebrated the birthdays of our fa"orite saints with wee#long festi"als. $uhafa had a mayor, of course, appointed to that position because of his wealth. %e li"ed in lu&ury compared with most of the people. 'ith the e&ception of the mayors house, the "illagers homes stood tightly crammed together. (ur house was planted right in the middle of the "illage. )he many small streets that wound around $uhafa reminded me of a ma*e, e&cept there were no dead ends. E"ery street connected in some way to e"ery other street. )here were two doors in our house. Enter through one door and you would find yourself rubbing elbows with the +bu ,aid clan. -o through the other door and you would meet a completely different family. +s in all agrarian communities, "illage life in $uhafa re"ol"ed around the changing of the seasons as well as the rising and setting of the sun. People returned to their homes at sunset after wor#ing the land, and ate their e"ening meal. 'hen night settled, we used candles and oil lamps to illuminate our homes. +fter dinner, fol#s sat outside their houses, chatting with those who happened to pass by. 'e celebrated .amad/n0a festi"al lasting a month0in a big way. .amad/n commemorates uhammads recei"ing the $uran from -od through the mediation of the angel -abriel. uslims throughout the world refrain from eating, drin#ing, smo#ing, and ha"ing se&ual intercourse from sunrise to sunset during this monthlong holiday. Each day, the sun slipping below the hori*on ushered in an end to that fast, and the mood in $uhafa became festi"e. )he men set up huge oil lamps all around our "illage while the women prepared special food. People often stayed awa#e until dawn, especially if .amad/n fell during the summer. 1 uslims use a lunar calendar2 therefore, .amad/n falls se"eral days earlier each year.! 3hildren, delighted with the change of routine, played throughout the night. )he $uran was recited in the mos4ues as well as in peoples homes, especially in the more affluent homes. )he 5esti"al of Eid mar#s the end of .amad/n. )his is a big occasion as well. People decorated the mos4ue for this special e"ent and an array of sweet6smelling fragrances wafted through the air. 7illage life in $uhafa was a full and "ibrant e&perience for me. In spite of my modest surroundings and upbringing, I gradually became aware of my countrys rich culture and ancient ci"ili*ation. 8ong before the ad"ent of Islam, Egypt was home to the 3optic

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Page 20 Orthodox Church, a church with a strong monastic tradition. When the Romans, intent on expanding their empire, marched into Egypt during the early part of the first millennium c. 200!, they persecuted and then massacred many Copts. E"en after Emperor Constantine legali#ed Christianity $%$!, persecution of the Copts continued. E"entually the Christian Church split, an act formali#ed at the Council of Chalcedon in &'%. (he Copts then esta)lished their own patriarchate in *lexandria e"en though the +official, separation of the Eastern and Western )ranches of Christianity didn-t happen until %0'&.! .aint *nthony, the world-s first Christian mon/, was a Copt. .aint Pachom, also a Copt, esta)lished rules that the monastic tradition follows to this day. Other famous Coptic desert fathers include .aint 0a/arios, .aint 0oses the 1lac/, and .aint 0ina the Wondrous. (he later desert fathers include Pope Cyril 23 and his disciple 1ishop 0ina *))a 0ina. 3n spite of Roman persecution, )y the end of the fourth century, hundreds of monasteries were scattered throughout the Egyptian hills. 0any of these monasteries continue to flourish. 3 )elie"e that .ufism, the mystical expression of 3slam, deri"es much of its su)stance from the Coptic Christian monastic heritage in Egypt. 3slam, e"en )efore the ad"ent of .ufism, concerned itself with issues of social 4ustice. (here are many 5ur-anic passages that spea/ directly to the concerns of orphans and the poor, condemning those who accumulate wealth for themsel"es while turning a )lind eye to people in need. 6or this reason, the 5ur-an ta/es a strong stance against usury. (he aim of such a stance was to esta)lish 4ustice in an ine7uita)le society. .ufism )egan as a spiritual re"olutionary reaction against social and political in4ustice, especially the une"en distri)ution of wealth. People within this mo"ement, in order to )ring attention to this ine7uity, used what we call today passi"e resistance. (hey fasted. 6asting hits at the heart of self8control. 3n *ra)ic, the word for fasting is siym. 0ore is in"ol"ed here than ritual fasting no eating, no drin/ing, no smo/ing, no sexual intercourse )etween dawn and sunset! during Ramadan. Siym in"ol"es gi"ing up unnecessary )eha"ior and communication in order to contemplate. Contemplation in"ol"es listening to the inner music of the soul, music that reflects the rhythm of the cosmos. (o do this effecti"ely, dissociating yourself from the distractions of e"eryday li"ing )ecomes essential. 9hu8:un al80isr; <=>?@>%!, a man from Apper Egypt, was the first 0uslim .ufi who de"eloped the practice of zuhd asceticism! into a philosophical sys

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Page 21 tem known as Gnosticism. He was the first Muslim to claim that love is the essence of mystical experience. He visited the temples of the pharaohs and also had contact with Coptic monks. Muslims Coptic Christians and a small !ewish presence "lended together in the #gypt $ remem"er as a child. %or years my family hosted a strange old Coptic man who came from &pper #gypt to 'uhafa looking for work. He was a carpenter. $ called him &ncle (alama)his name means *Peaceful+)and he really knew how to tell a story. How $ en,oyed listening to the tales he "rought with him- He never spoke a"out his "ackground. My father did not press him for information a"out himself even though my father.s friends were uneasy with my father.s unconditional hospitality. *Perhaps (alama is hiding from someone who is after him for revenge + my father speculated. *May"e he wants to remain anonymous. /hy should $ force him to reveal what he would rather keep secret0 1he man is my guest. $t is not appropriate to 2uestion your guest.+ /hen &ncle (alama died my father disregarded the difference in religion and "uried him in the family cemetery. 1his is the atmosphere in which $ was raised)an atmosphere of compassion consideration and sympathy toward the needy regardless of their religious affiliation. $ also learned to work hard and take responsi"ility at an early age. 3s far "ack as $ can remem"er my father never really en,oyed ro"ust health. 4eing the oldest male child in the family it "ecame my duty to help my father keep the grocery store running smoothly. /hen $ turned ten $ would wake early in the morning take the keys and open the shop in order to serve the early customers. 3round noon my father am"led into the store and took over the "usiness so $ could attend to my schoolwork. My father insisted that $ continue with my schooling in spite of his illness and for that $ am grateful. He expected me to excel in my studies. 3nd $ did. 4ut my first lessons in life came from a handful of my father.s friends who gathered every afternoon in front of our small grocery store ,ust to talk. 1hese men my father.s friends talked a"out everything)heavy su",ects such as the political situation in #gypt as well as lighter matters such as gossip a"out hus"ands and wives. 4ecause $ was so young $ think they assumed $ wouldn.t "e interested in their conversation. 4ut $ was. $ listened to everything. Much of their talk had to do with the 4ritish occupation of #gypt 5166271892: the new revolution 51892: the politics of the Muslim 4rotherhood the revolution of 1818

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Page 22 led by Sad Zaghll, as well as the older revolution when the Egyptian officer Ahmad r!b" went up against #hedive $awf"%&a revolt that was suppressed by the 'ritish( ) learned a basic history of Egypt from these men( $oday, ) consider this e*perience to be my first real school( After my father died and ) had matured somewhat, some of these men, blessed with longevity, became my friends as well( ) also learned about private things( $hese men spo+e in code when discussing se*ual matters( ,hen they tal+ed to each other about se*, they would say, -So, yesterday you were traveling, right./ )f a man had splashed some fragrant scent on himself, it was a dead giveaway( $hat meant he had ta+en a bath, and when a man too+ a bath in 0uhafa, he most certainly had en1oyed a se*ual escapade with his wife( Since our village had no running water, people bathed in metal tubs( ) learned that if a woman tossed out sweet2smelling water from a metal tub into the street, that was another sure sign that intercourse had recently ta+en place in that household( 3or a child of ten, this was e*citing stuff( ,hile ) was tending the shop one morning, the wife of one of my father4s friends stopped by( ) had seen her throwing out bathwater from a metal tub early that morning( ) said to her, -,ell, ) thin+ ncle 5uhammad 6the woman4s husband7 was traveling yesterday(/ $he woman gave me a %ui88ical loo+( She said, -$raveling. ) don4t +now&)4m not sure(/ ) was toying with her, and when ) loo+ bac+ on the incident, ) am ashamed of myself( 9ater on, ) learned that when ncle 5uhammad arrived home from wor+, his wife as+ed him, -,ere you traveling yesterday./ -,ho told you that./ he demanded( -$he son of :amed Abu Zaid,/ she replied( ncle 5uhammad immediately reali8ed that ) had been listening to and&even worse&understanding their afternoon conversations in front of the grocery store( :e told my father( 5y father, not +nowing what else to do, gave me the usual punishment doled out by a father in Arab society; :e hit me( At the same time, ) felt my father too+ great pride in my budding se*ual interest and development( ) was eavesdropping at my parents4 bedroom door later that day when ) heard my father say to my mother, -<an you imagine what this stupid boy did./ As he recounted the traveling story, his tone of voice did not reflect anger, but pride( )n my mind4s eye, ) could see him smiling(

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Page 23 While growing up in Quhafa, I often heard stories about jinns or genies. Jinns are spirits or ghosts that appear to people, usually during the night. I would often wander off by myself in the dark to the outskirts of the illage, waiting sometimes for hours, hoping to see a jinn. I ne er did. We had jinn e!perts"people you #onsulted if you lost something or suspe#ted that a #ertain item had been stolen. $ jinn e!pert supposedly had spe#ial powers to summon the jinn, who would then di ulge the information through the mouth of a #hild. $ #hild is belie ed to be inno#ent, whereas an adult is tainted with sin. %ne day one of the illagers dis#o ered that an item was missing from his house. I had not gone to s#hool that day due to some problem with my teeth. &in#e I was the only #hild a ailable when the man #alled on the jinn e!pert for help, the jinn e!pert de#ided to use me as the inno#ent mouthpie#e. 'e #o ered my head with a #ap and then set a #up filled with ink in front of me. $fter he finished re#iting a formula or two, my job was to peer into the #up, look right through the ink, and wat#h a s#ene unfold at the bottom of the #up. (he jinn e!pert asked me, )What do you see*+ $ll rituals ha e a pattern. (his one was no e!#eption. It was understood that the s#ene at the bottom of the #up showed a jinn setting the stage for a #elebration"usually arranging some #hairs. ,hildren ine itably said, )-es, I see him.+ (he e!pert would always follow up with the .uestion, )What does he look like*+ I saw nothing but ink, the #olor of midnight, taking up the entire spa#e inside the #up. Was I e!pe#ted to somehow see through this stuff* (he onlookers kept telling me to #on#entrate, just #on#entrate. (he jinn e!pert kept asking me, )What do you see*+ /epeatedly I replied, )0othing.+ 1olks were s#andali2ed. (he s#ene went on for hours. (he angry jinn e!pert was about to hit me. In desperation, he asked, )'ow old are you*+ I was ten years old at the time. 'e #ontinued with his probing, )3id you ha e a dream*+ 'e was trying to as#ertain whether or not I had e er had a wet dream. If so, this would ha e put me into the sinful #ategory of adult. If I were an adult, it was no wonder that I did not see anything at the bottom of the #up of ink. $t the time, I had no idea what he meant. )0o, no, what do you mean did I ha e a dream*+ I asked. (he jinn e!pert, in order to bring an end to this embarrassing episode, pro#laimed that I had a ery strange nature. )'e belongs to

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Page 24 the fire, he declared. According to him, some people belonged to fire, and others to dust. And that was the end of it. The attempt to have a jinn speak through me failed and, as a result of this e perience, m! longing to meet a jinn went up in smoke. "ven so, after m! father died, #$d often go to the cemeter! at night and sit near his grave. %ost of the villagers believed dangerous jinns lived in cemeteries. #$m not sure what # e pected to find at the cemeter!. # did know # felt lonel! and abandoned&much like an orphan. 'id # e pect m! father to somehow reveal himself to me while # sat near his grave( # think # !earned for some communication from him&something # never had with him while growing up in )uhafa. #t wasn$t all that long ago that it hit me&most of what # know about m! father comes from seeing him through the e!es of his group of friends who hung around his grocer! store. Their words&their talk&created an image of him for me. #t$s the image # carr! with me to this da!. # don$t believe # ever e perienced him on a one*to*one basis. After m! father died in +,-., # started to see m! mother in a new light. /hen m! father was still alive, her role was that of intermediar!, even acting as a protective shield at times. #n "g!ptian societ!, a father demands respect. A huge amount of fear usuall! accompanies that respect. At least, that was so in m! case. 0ometimes m! father would ask me, 1'o !ou need an! school supplies( %! automatic response was alwa!s 12o. #$d then go to m! mother to tell her what supplies # needed for school. 13ut !our father just asked !ou. /h! didn$t !ou tell him( A pu44led look would come over her face. 3ut # could never get past m! fear of m! father. 5eeping him at arm$s length seemed the safest thing to do. /hen m! father$s health began to deteriorate severel!, he gave the famil! instructions regarding his funeral. 6e was adamant about not having a procession of wailing women follow his corpse as villagers carried him to the cemeter!. 7urthermore, he did not want m! mother ever to visit his grave once he had been buried. 6e had a conservative religious bent and believed that visiting graves served no useful purpose. As it turned out, there were no wailing women in the procession that accompanied his bod! to the cemeter!, but m! mother on several occasions after the burial did visit his grave. At first, # took her there. 8ater on, as she began to e perience life more full!, she went alone.

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Page 25 My mother was thirty-five years old when my father died. She had five children living with her at home. My elder sister, Badriyyaher name is the feminine form of full moon had married !y this time and lived with her hus!and"s family. She was !arely eighteen years old. #t fourteen, $ was the eldest child in my mother"s house. My !rother Muhammad, !orn in %&'5, is two years my (unior. My sister )arima came along in %&5*. +sama ,the name means lion -, named after the son of the ado.ted son of Pro.het Muhammad, was !orn in %&52. #nother sister, #yat, whose name means miracles, arrived in %&5/, the year my father died. #fter my father"s death, much of the res.onsi!ility of .roviding for the family fell to my mother. Being the eldest male in the household, some of that res.onsi!ility fell on my shoulders as well. $ had an older !rother who died when he was four or five years old. $ (o0ingly tell .eo.le that he and $ are not on good terms. $f he had lived, so much of that familial res.onsi!ilitysomething $ did not hesitate to assumewould have !een his. $f he had lived, my life, $"m sure, would have !een 1uite different. But, here $ wasnot 1uite fifteen years old, having recently !uried my father. My !ehavior during the funeral .roceedings could !est !e descri!ed as stoic. $ wal0ed, along with the rest of the villagers, !ehind my father"s coffin to the cemetery. 2he (ourney too0 only ten minutes. #fter returning home, $ did not cry. 2hat came much later. $ do remem!er that our friends and relatives worried a!out my stiff u..er li.. 3ith my father"s .assing, $ could feel a change ha..ening dee. inside of me. $ no longer thought of myself as a child. Suddenly, overnight, $ had !ecome a man. $ had an enormous tas0 ahead of meone that com.letely overwhelmed me. 4ow would $ ever manage to hel. feed, clothe, and educate my si!lings5 My father"s medical e6.enses had drained away any savings we had managed to scra.e together over the years. 2he grocery store had deteriorated along with my father"s health, and finally, not long after my father died, gave u. the ghost altogether. $ can honestly say that the e6.erience of su..orting my family over a .eriod of years transformed my life. #s $ !ecame dee.ly involved in the individual lives of each si!ling, $ discovered the delicious mi6ture of .ain and .leasure that attends the (o! of .arenting. 7ow that the children are grown, $ can loo0 !ac0 on the e6.erience and feel a large degree of satisfaction when $ thin0 a!out how my mother and $

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Page 26 provided for the familys needs. Focusing on the wider picture (my family) forced me to enlarge my vision. I didnt have the time to gaze at my navel thin!ing only of myself and how "est to promote my own interests. #hrough the often painful and always difficult process of caring and providing for my family I "ecame sensitive to the suffering that people endure as a result of social in$ustice. %hen I "egan my career as a scholar in Islamic &tudies academic research to me was neither an a"stract concept nor $ust an interesting career choice. 'y academic research came to life as a result of my own e(periences. 'y passion for social $ustice did not come out of the "lue. I was loo!ing for answers to )uestions*)uestions that sprang initially from the difficulties I e(perienced while trying to ma!e ends meet for my family. +t first my concern didnt go "eyond the "oundaries of my own family. #hat concern gradually stretched to ,gypt then to the +ra" and 'uslim world and as I immersed myself in reading and research my concern "roadened to include the whole world. -ow could it not. #he whole world (people animals plants and the ,arth itself) suffers when ine)uity ta!es hold in a society. %e are all connected. /f course this understanding too! years to develop. Immediately after my fathers death I "ecame possessive toward my mother. I was terrified of losing her. &he attracted )uite a num"er of suitors. 'en "egan to hang around our house. I !new a"out traveling. I saw how men flirted with her. I could feel the $ealousy welling up inside my chest. I wished that I had had an ugly mother. I felt certain that if she were ugly that would !eep all her suitors at "ay. I would then "e safe. +ll these feelings wrapped themselves up in aggressive and angry "ehavior that I hurled in my mothers direction. #oday I shudder when I thin! a"out it. /ne day I happened to have a pair of scissors in my hand. I dont recall the particular incident that got me hot under the collar "ut I do remem"er throwing the scissors right at her. &he duc!ed. Im sure she would have "een severely in$ured had the scissors hit her. &he stared at me for a moment "efore dashing into my "edroom. I was terrified "y the calm "ut determined loo! on her face. &he put all of my clothes on a sheet "rought the corners of the sheet together tied a sturdy !not in the sheet threw the "undle out the front door pushed me out after the "undle and then slammed the door shut "ehind me. Insolent chap that I was I didnt ta!e the incident very seriously. I thought that in a couple of hours shed calm down perhaps even cry and then "eg me to return home. #hings didnt go the way I e(pected.

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Page 27 After a couple of hours, people noticed me standing by the front door of my house with a white bundle beside me. Whats happening? Where are you going? they as!ed. " had no choice but to tell them what had happened. #ight began to settle. $ore and more people gathered around me, demanding to !now what !ind of problem would ha%e dri%en my mother to such a desperate act. &hey !noc!ed on the front door. 'he did not answer. What could possibly be wrong? fol!s wondered aloud. We !now she is inside. &he %illagers summoned certain men in our e(tended family to come o%er and help sort out this problem of my sudden homelessness. &hese men possessed an enormous amount of authority in our community. $y father would submit to them whene%er there was a dispute of some sort. When they arri%ed, one of them shouted, $a)#asr *mother of #asr+, open the door, $a)#asr. And she did. What happened? he as!ed when he was inside. Why is your son outside? " could hear the whole con%ersation ,uite well. #othing happened, she replied. -e is outside because he does not belong here. &his woman, my mother, was playing it cool. " hardly recogni.ed her. What do you mean? the man as!ed. -e does not belong to me. "f you would li!e to ha%e him, help yourself/ he is not my son. 'he was strong and determined. 'he was about to get rid of me without so much as batting an eye. #o, you cannot do this, the man declared. And then he tried begging. Please, for my sa!e, do not do this. $y mother was emphatic. #o, #asr does not belong with me. &he man became furious. #o man in the family had e%er said no to him, but here was my mother, a woman, standing her ground, refusing to do what he as!ed of her. As if to remind my mother of her duty, he said, 0ou are not listening to me. 'he was bold. 0ou listen to me. #asr is my son. -e threw a pair of scissors in my direction. #ow, he is a boy. " am feeding him. What can we e(pect from him in a few years? -ow will he treat me then if he throws scissors at me now1while " am feeding him? &he man was speechless. $y mother continued, "f #asr would li!e to return, " ha%e one condition. -e must !iss my feet. 'he brought our only chair into full %iew of the %illagers who were hanging around. 'he sat down and stretched out her legs. 'he astonished e%erybody. &o me, she loo!ed li!e 2ueen 3leopatra. " bent down and li!e a dog, " !issed her feet. 'he then allowed me bac! in the house

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Page 28 and everybody left. The show was over. It was the most humiliating moment of my whole life. To think that I had kissed her feet in front of all those villagers! At that moment, I hated her. Later that evening, I ould hear the muffled sounds of my mother!s rying. I began to reali"e how diffi ult life must be for her. The ne#t morning, she was $uite %leasant. &he didn!t seem to hold a grudge against me. And then she s%oke'very almly. (Look, you are my son. )ou are not my husband. I e#%e t you to behave like a %ro%er son. *hen you grow u%, you will be res%onsible for this family. +ight now, I am the head of this family. I e#%e t you to res%e t and obey me., -er words ut me to the $ui k. .u h later on, though, I learned to a%%re iate the strength it must have taken for her to take the stand she did. If she had not taken su h a stand, I!m sure that our family life would have s%un out of ontrol. The results ould very well have been disastrous. I witnessed a similar situation when I lived in the &tates in the late /012s. An 3gy%tian family had taken me under their wing. The man, a %rofessor of so iology and anthro%ology, died suddenly. -e and his wife, an edu ated woman who had earned her Ph.4. and worked within the ommunity, had one son. 5oth mother and son a om%anied the body of their husband and father ba k to 3gy%t. After forty days 6the amount of time re$uired to om%lete the death eremony7, they returned to the &tates. I witnessed this fourteen8year8old boy behaving in the e#a t way I had behaved toward my mother after my father!s death. The differen e, though, was that this woman, in s%ite of her edu ation, was unable to a t de isively and effe tively as my wise, but illiterate, mother had done with me. I visited this woman and her son from time to time after their return to the &tates. I was a%%alled when the son would shout at his mother from u%stairs, (9ome here!, And his mother would run u% the stairs and see to his needs. :ne day I said to her, (This boy is not your husband. )our husband died. -e is your son., I told her the story of kissing my mother!s feet shortly after my father died. &he listened, but didn!t seem able to onne t my story with her own situation. At one %oint, the boy attem%ted to set the house on fire. &omeone had told him that he would be able to olle t several thousand dollars from the fire insuran e %oli y. -is mother alled me, begging me for hel%. 3ven as we s%oke, her son was looking for the most effi ient way to set the house abla"e. I went over there and found the boy

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Page 29 out of control. I dragged him down to the basement so we could talk privately. At the time, it seemed that the best thing I could do for him was to hit him. I knew I was taking a chance. I knew about the many charges of child abuse thrown at parents in the States when they hit their children as a means of disciplining them. is father used to tell me, !I would love to take this boy to "gypt and #ust hit him.$ %rankly, I was at a loss. I spoke to him about filial responsibility, but all he did was stare at me, not hitting me back&something I really thought this strong young boy would do. "ventually, he broke down and cried. I held him as he sobbed on my shoulder. !'ou have to understand,$ I said, !that your father died. 'ou cannot be your father. 'ou are acting like a #erk.$ (nfortunately, his mother could never summon the strength to undertake the difficult #ob of putting her foot down with her son as my mother had done with me, an act that eventually would have freed them both. )hen I listened to my mother cry after the kissing of the feet incident, my heart became softer toward her. I, along with the rest of the family, had a rough road ahead of us, but the way had been opened for my mother and me to work together to help the family thrive. I eventually learned to give up the entitlement I felt by virtue of being the eldest male in the household. *y mother loved to sew. She owned her own sewing machine, and while my father was alive, she+d design and make clothes for people. It was her hobby. After my father+s death, sewing became her profession. In addition to the income she earned from that, we were able to keep the grocery store afloat for a short while with the help of my cousin Sayyid, the man who eventually married my elder sister, ,adriyya. Sayyid became a fre-uent presence in our house. e unobtrusively helped fill the huge gap left by my father+s death. e became our unofficial guardian&a father figure&someone who kindly and gently helped us get back on our feet after the loss that disrupted our lives. Sayyid is the third of three brothers. )hen their father died, my father contributed his resources to care for them. .ow Sayyid had an opportunity to give back to our family what we had given to his. I have always respected Sayyid. /ver the years, I grew to love him as well. After I graduated from the kuttb, my father+s dream was for me to continue my education in a religious institution, eventually becoming a sheikh, a leader in the religious community. e admired the

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Page 30 Egyptian scholar and theologian Muhammad Abduh (1849 190!"# $ho belie%ed education $as essential to bring about a better society& Political re%olution $as no substitute 'or the lasting trans'ormation possible through an educated population& Abduh# considered to be a pioneer in (slamic thought# became )no$n as the 'ounder o' the Egyptian modernist school& As my 'ather*s health deteriorated+$hen he became a$are that he probably $ould not li%e more than t$o or three more years+he too) me out o' religious education and trans'erred me into ci%il education& ,hese $ere the t$o educational paths a%ailable in Egypt at this time& My 'ather*s older brother ob-ected to this mo%e# thin)ing ( should go to high school and e%entually uni%ersity# not enroll in technical school a'ter my secondary education $as completed& ./0#1 my 'ather shot bac) at his brother# .i' he goes to high school and ( die# $ill you pay 'or his education2 3ho $ill ta)e care o' the 'amily21 My 'ather )ne$ that ( $ould need a -ob $here ( could earn enough money to help support the 'amily a'ter he died& A technical education pro%ided me $ith this ability because it ga%e me a basic education in electronics& ,he curriculum also e4posed me to some geography and a little history& 3hile ( $as enrolled in this course o' study# ( listened one 5riday as a sheikh 'rom the local mos6ue denounced magic# using %erses ta)en 'rom the 7ur*an dealing $ith the stars& /riginally# he said# some o' the stars $ere husband and $i'e# but they committed adultery& 8od cursed them# and as a result# they became stars& ( could be an arrogant youngster& .,his is stupid tal)#1 ( told him& .9tars $ere ne%er human beings&1 People o%erhearing this e4change $ere shoc)ed& A'ter all# ( $as spea)ing $ith a sheikh& ( $as a mere boy& .:o$ dare you spea) li)e this to the sheikh21 they as)ed& ( thought they $ere going to hit me# but instead they reported the incident to my 'ather& My 'ather as)ed me about the incident and patiently listened to my e4planation o' the e%ent& .3e studied this in school#1 ( told him& .9tars $ere ne%er human beings&1 .;ou are right#1 my 'ather said& .( am not going to punish you# but in the 'uture# please be tact'ul and polite $hen you disagree $ith people&1 ( $as surprised# yet so relie%ed# at his response& Maybe he -ust didn*t ha%e the energy to hit me& As a young man# enrolled in ci%il education and studying electronics# ( $as concerned about separating 'act 'rom myth& Myth# to me#

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Page 31 meant something falsenot true. I did not yet understand that mythology or story contains those values that a culture or society holds dear. Much later in my life, I would come to understand how sacred texts hold life-changing truths within their mythologies. Myth or story teaches us on a different plane than factual information. iscovering and uncovering the meaning of a text eventually !ecame a part of my life"s wor#. $ut all of this was a long way off. I !egan to feel intellectually superior to most of the villagers%ust !ecause I had the privilege of continuing with some #ind of education. It was the group of my father"s friends who !rought me down a notch or two. &hese men avidly devoured the daily newspaper. 'ot all of them could read, though. 'onetheless, all of them made it a point to #eep current with what was happening in the world. My father could read and write. (very day, ritually, his friends would stop !y the store and as#, )*hat is the news today+, My father would tell them the news. I would read the news to them from the newspaper itself. )-ome, 'asr,, they would say, )!ring the newspaper and read to us., I made a lot of mista#es. I mispronounced the names of world leaders such as -hurchill. My father"s friends didn"t even try to muffle their laughter. )*e thought you #new how to read,, they"d say. ).oo#s li#e you can"t read after all., I had no idea what an important role -hurchill played on the world"s stage at the time. It !ecame clear to me at that moment that #nowing how to read does not automatically ma#e a person #nowledgea!le, let alone wise. &hese menmy father"s friendsunderstood the material I was reading to them. I did not. &hese illiterate men were among my first teachers. I may have !een the reader, !ut they interpreted what I read. &hey gave meaning to the text. I graduated from technical school in 1/01. 2lmost immediately, I !egan to !ring enough money into the household to meet our needs. I wor#ed for the Ministry of -ommunication as an electronic technician, maintaining the communication e3uipment in a police head3uarters. 2lthough my father wanted me to emulate Muhammad 42!duh, I had long admired &5h5 6usayn 7188/91/:3;, Muhammad 42!duh"s disciple. I never lost my dream of following in his shadow, so I started studying !etween wor#ing hours, eventually earning my $.2. in 2ra!ic language and literature from -airo <niversity in 1/:=. &5h5 6usayn, pic#ing up on the theme that 42!duh !eganapproaching the >ur"an from a literary perspectivedeveloped 42!duh"s wor# even further. 42!duh had concluded that the >ur"an"s

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Page 32 main purpose was not to teach us about history. No doubt there are some historical incidents recorded in the text, but we should understand the text symbolically, looking for spiritual meaning, not historical facts, in the sacred book. Husayn was convinced that !bduh, who wrote in the staid language of a classic, religious scholar, was right on track with his scholarship. Husayn"s approach was different, though. He used colorful#even shocking#language to make the case that a literary approach to the $ur"an was essential in order to understand its meaning. %ecause & brought home a regular paycheck, & suggested to my mother that it was time for her to 'uit slaving over her sewing machine. (he ob)ected. (he wanted to continue making her contribution to the family"s coffers. *orking every day and sometimes through the night, though, had compromised her health. (ince & was working in al+,ahallala -ubra, a city some thirty kilometers from .anta, & felt that the family would benefit by moving to al+,ahallala -ubra. .his city, famous for its textile industry, is a source of national pride for all /gyptians. & commuted every day, often returning home late at night. ,y schedule didn"t give me ade'uate time to supervise the children"s schoolwork. & wanted to make sure they were keeping up with their lessons. & was better able to stay on top of this when we moved. ,y mother and & dreamed of giving every one of my brothers and sisters a good start in life by ensuring they were educated. *e accomplished that goal. & feel as if &"ve been a parent ever since & graduated from technical school. & became concerned, though, that in my 0eal to educate my siblings, supporting them as far as they were able to go in school, & would leave myself behind. *orse yet, & feared & might grow envious of them. & did not want to end up resentful and bitter. & vowed to educate them, but along with that vow, & made a promise to myself that & would not neglect my own education. & en)oyed school, and & wanted to continue with my studies in the university, but part of my motivation to go ahead with my studies had to do with my refusal to play a victim"s role. & guard against that#always. ,y mother and & sacrificed much in order to launch my siblings, but & was always aware of the fact that a sacrifice, if not freely given, stinks. ,oving away from $uhafa made it easier for my mother to disengage from her customers. (he had built up 'uite a clientele over the years. ,y mother"s health started to improve once she gave up her business. ,y relationship with my mother began to change as well#we developed a comfortable friendship. /ven so, & still clung to some sense of entitlement. 1rankly, & was still 'uite a spoiled boy.

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Page 33 When Id come home from work at the end of the day, my mother always had supper prepared for us. If I did not like the food, I insisted on eating something else. She didnt cater to my gastronomical whims, but one evening when the children were in bed for the night, she said, I would love to serve you fancy, e!pensive meals. "ou reali#e, of course, that it would cost you. When I cook something that you refuse to eat, all your brothers and sisters refuse to eat it as well. I end up throwing it away. Its your money, though, so you decide what youd like me to do.$ I got the point. %ever again did I complain about the food she served. &fter several years, my mothers health began to fail. We had moved to 'airo by this time. (y youngest brother, )sama, wanted to marry. I felt he was too young. *e had no apartment. I was against the whole thing. %onetheless, he did marry, and lived with his wife in my mothers apartment. %ot wanting to be in the way of the newly+weds, my mother announced, I would like to visit your brother (uhammad in the village.$ I understood that she wanted to give )sama and his bride some space, so I asked, *ow long will you be with my brother (uhammad,$ )ne month, maybe two,$ she offered. &fter two weeks, she became -uite ill. .he doctor diagnosed her with a heart valve problem. *e recommended that she change her dietary habits, but the moment her doctor told her to refrain from eating certain foods, she demanded them. Id visit her every week, trying to keep her spirits up. (y brothers wife said, I cannot refuse her any food she asks for. "ou must understand my position. If I refuse her, I will be sub/ect to her anger.$ I told my mother, If you do not follow your doctors advice, you will die.$ She became -uite angry. .his is none of your business. I would welcome death. &nd by the way, dont come and visit me again. 0ven if I die, dont come.$ %o, if you die, I should be there. People will be e!pecting me to be present to receive their condolences.$ What else could I say to her, "ou are giving me a hard time by telling me what to eat and what not to eat,$ she wailed. &ctually, I am not telling you, the doctor is,$ I offered. I paid her doctor, Ibrahim 1adran, a visit. *e was the president of 'airo 2niversity at the time. 3ater he became the minister of health.

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Page 34 Thanks to the efforts of my friend Ahmad Mursy, a close friend of the doctor, the doctor made a courtesy visit to check my mother in the village. I returned to Cairo with oth of them. The doctor told me, !"isten, we could #erform a technically sim#le o#eration on your mother to fi$ the valves in her heart. The #ro lem with your mother, it seems to me, is that she has decided to die. %e would most likely e clinically successful o#erating on your mother, ut we doctors always say the surgical outcome has much to do with the #atient.& 'e glanced at me. 'e knew I was ske#tical of what he was saying. 'e continued, !I think your mother has decided to die.& In (gy#t at that time, #eo#le avoided hos#itals if at all #ossi le. The doctor e$#lained that he would e willing to #erform the o#eration, ut the hos#ital stay would e stressful for her. !I e$amined your mother thoroughly. )he is a woman o sessed with cleanliness. )he will have a terri le time with #eo#le washing and caring for her in the hos#ital.& My mother did not have the o#eration. %e sto##ed fighting with her a out her diet. I visited her every week at my rother*s home. (very week she would ask me for money. %hen my si lings visited her, she asked for money from them as well. %henever anyone asked, !+o you need anything,& her standard res#onse was, !-es, I need money.& .ne day the mood was light, so I asked her, !%hy do you need all this money, .ur rother should e #roviding for all your needs. If he is not doing so, tell me.& !/o, no, he is taking very good care of me,& she insisted. !%hen I ask you for money, 0ust give it to me. I rought you u#. I #rotected you. /ow that you are grown, you should not 1uestion me.& !.2, Mother,& I said. !3ut I need to know if you are going to remarry. If you are collecting this money to esta lish a new household, let me know, so I can hel# you. .f course, I must know who the groom will e.& )he laughed, ut continued to ask for money. The night she died, she called my rother to her side and gave him all the money she had een egging from her children. )he said, !This money is for my funeral. I need a res#ecta le urial. I*d like two 4ur*an reciters5the famous ones we see on T65to lead the ceremony at my funeral. I didn*t want to urden you with this e$#ense when I died.& My mother died while I was on my way to visit her. 3efore I ste##ed out of the car, I knew she was gone. I could see many #eo#le

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Page 35 milling in and about my brothers housea sure sign that death had visited this home. I immediately went to the room where she had been laid out. I uncovered her face and kissed her on the cheek. She had lived to see her sixtieth birthday. y brother came in the room and said! "#ere is the money that our mother has been asking for over the $ast months.% y mother had s&uirreled away five hundred 'gy$tian $ounds&uite a decent sum of money at the time. I didnt know whether to laugh or cry. I ended u$ doing a little of each. (e honored her re&uest for a res$ectable funeral. It was the least we could do. (hen I reflect on the $erson my mother had become over the twenty)five years since my fathers death and com$are her with the woman I knew *ust before my father died! I have to marvel. +ver the years! she develo$ed a strength and confidence that suited her well. She had been forced by her circumstances to engage the world in a way that had been closed off to her when my father was still alive. ,hat engagement transformed her into a different $erson! and the transformation intrigued me. She radiated an inner beautysomething I found much more attractive than her $hysical charms.

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Page 37 3 Badriyya, Karima, Ayat, and Shereen After living in al-Mahallala Kubra for some years while I worked at the police head uarters there! we moved to "airo# I had enrolled in "airo $niversity in %&'(! when my youngest sister! Ayat! was still in elementary school# )oth Karima and *sama had graduated from high school by that time# )y %&7+! I had earned my undergraduate degree# Moving was hard on the family! especially on my mother# ,he had really balked when I first moved the family to al-Mahallala Kubra from -uhafa in %&'+# At that time! she actually refused to move# I could understand her reluctance to be uprooted# ,he had her own house in -uhafa and raised chickens! ducks! and rabbits! producing much of the food we consumed# In al-Mahallala Kubra! we lived in a small apartment and had to buy all our food# It cost more to .ust live# My mother stayed alone in -uhafa for a week while the rest of us went on ahead# /hen ,ayyid0s brother! who worked in a department store in al-Mahallala Kubra! paid my mother a visit# 1,ayyid! my cousin! was the man who became our unofficial guardian after my father died#2 ,ayyid0s brother told my mother how difficult life had become for us since moving and how badly the children suffered as they attempted to ad.ust to their new situation# 34asr! especially! is doing terrible!5 he said# 6is report had the desired effect# /he ne7t day! my mother boarded a train and .oined us in our small apartment in al-Mahallala Kubra#

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Page 38 My mother was just as reluctant to move to Cairo when the time came. Life in Cairo moved at a faster pace than it did in al-Mahallala Ku ra. !t wasn"t easy to navigate the city. !t also cost more to live in Cairo. #ecause ! was an e$cellent student% the university granted me a position as assistant teacher% compensating me with a yearly stipend. &e struggled financially'! no longer wor(ed at the police head)uarters' ut we managed. #adriyya% my elder sister% had een married riefly to a young man efore she married my cousin *ayyid. *he was a rilliant% am itious girl and wanted to continue with school. #ecause she was a girl% my father decided that she should marry% not pursue an education. !n traditional +gyptian society at that time% a girl"s education was% at est% optional. ,he marriage didn"t wor( out. #adriyya"s hus and was an only child% and his mother resented a new ride getting most of her son"s attention. ,hey all lived together in the same house. ,he marriage lasted for a out a year. -uring that year% #adriyya egged my father to allow her to divorce her hus and% ut my father refused. !nstead he as(ed his son-in-law% .&hy don"t you get your own place/0 !f his mother made life misera le for the couple% living apart from her could only help matters% my father reasoned. #adriyya"s hus and was una le to ma(e the rea( when his mother threatened to commit suicide if he went out on his own with his wife. ,hings went from ad to worse. 1eigh ors approached my father as(ing% .&hy are you letting your daughter suffer/ 2er hus and may e a good man% ut her mother-in-law is awful.0 My father finally agreed to allow #adriyya to divorce her hus and. Many Muslims elieve divorce to e a rupture that 3od allows under some circumstances. 1onetheless% 3od is never pleased with such a turn of events. My father wanted a smooth transition with this whole divorce thing. +ven though in !slam there are rights that a wife can lay claim to when she divorces her hus and% my father released his son-in-law from any responsi ility toward #adriyya. ! overheard my father say% .!f my daughter hates him% ! will as( him for release% that"s all. ,hen we will all e free.0 2e did as he said% and the divorce ecame a reality. *hortly after the divorce% #adriyya found herself pregnant. !t angered my father no end'not ecause he wasn"t eager to welcome a grandchild% ut a grandchild would mean that the two families would continue to have some (ind of relationship% and he wanted to put #adriyya"s failed marriage ehind him.

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Page 39 My father took Badriyya to a Coptic doctor. He asked the doctor to get rid of the baby. It would ha e bee! practically i"possible to fi!d a Musli" doctor to perfor" a! abortio!. Coptic doctors# he thought# perfor"ed abortio!s at will. $he doctor ga e Badriyya so"e "edici!e a!d told the fa"ily that she would soo! abort her preg!a!cy. It did!%t work. $he doctor had actually decei ed "y father# a!d i!stead of prescribi!g a! abortifacie!t# he had prescribed ita"i!s to keep Badriyya a!d her child healthy. &obody bothered to ask Badriyya what she wa!ted to do about her preg!a!cy. $he decisio! was "y father%s alo!e. I! due ti"e# Badriyya ga e birth to a healthy boy. 'hortly after his birth# "y father took "e alo!g to pay the Coptic doctor a isit. (hat we!t wro!g) "y father asked the doctor. Ha"ed# he said# addressi!g "y father# you thought that because I a" a Copt# I would ha e !o *ual"s about killi!g a! u!bor! child. +ou were wro!g. +ou do!%t ha e the right to kill the child# a!d !either do I. &ot o!ly was "y father pleased with the doctor%s respo!se# he took great pride i! telli!g the story to all his frie!ds. $his doctor has "ore faith i! ,od tha! I do# he%d say# gri!!i!g fro" ear to ear. -ater i! "y life I was to look back at i!cide!ts such as this o!e# seei!g fro" a re"o ed perspecti e how Coptic Christia!s a!d Musli"s li ed together i! peace.freely i!teracti!g with o!e a!other. $he child was still a baby whe! "y cousi! 'ayyid proposed "arriage to Badriyya. My father# belie i!g his !ephew to be acti!g "erely out of a se!se of respo!sibility# refused to gi e his blessi!g to their u!io!. I belie e they were i! lo e. My father# though# soo! beca"e persuaded that their "arriage "ight be a good thi!g after all. /!fortu!ately# the child Badriyya brought to the "arriage li ed o!ly u!til he was four or fi e years old. 0!e day he fell ill a!d died. Most 1gyptia! people had !o access to health care at that ti"e. Badriyya died i! 2934. 'he was al"ost forty years old. $he doctors thought her death was due to so"e ki!d of heart ail"e!t. I !e er really k!ew. I was i! the 'tates at the ti"e# o! a two5year course of study. (he! I retur!ed to 1gypt se eral "o!ths after her fu!eral# I fou!d her husba!d# 'ayyid# de astated a!d still reeli!g fro" "y sister%s death. 6or "e# it was as though she had died the ery day I set foot o! 1gyptia! soil after "y two5year abse!ce. 'ayyid said# +our sister has left "e lost. 'he took care of e erythi!g. I do!%t k!ow a!ythi!g about "y house or "y childre!. My

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Page 40 cousins statement seems petty, perhaps even whiny, to our modern sensibilitiessensibilities which have been influenced by feminist theory. Traditional Egyptian society operates with the understanding that men occupy the public domain while women wor within the private sphere. !y cousins statement reflected the givens in Egyptian society. "ayyid approached me one day and told me he had found somebody he planned to marry. #e then as ed, $%ill you support me in this marriage&' Two years had passed since my sisters death. !y mother, still grieving for her daughter, refused to attend his wedding. "he tried to get me to abandon my plans to attend. $(ont go,' she pleaded. )f the truth be nown, ) was hesitant when my cousin announced that he was about to establish another household. ), as well as my mother, was still raw with grief. $*f course ) will support you,' ) replied. +fter my fathers death, "ayyid helped support our family, both financially and emotionally, for ,uite some time. #ow could ) turn my bac on him when he as ed for some familial support& ) felt ) owed him something. Even though my mother ob-ected, ) promised him that )d be at his wedding ceremony. %hen the day arrived, my cousins new father.in.law made a point of coming over to me and saying, $Than you very much for coming.' #e made an attempt to tone down the festivities out of respect for /adriyya. $0o, please,' ) assured him. $This is the brides first marriage. "he has a right to this -oyful celebration.' +t that moment, ) was glad ) had gone to the wedding. ) felt my presence sent a message to both my family and "ayyids new familya message of acceptance. !y mother, after some time, did ad-ust to her son.in.laws remarriage, a union that eventually produced three children. 1i e many people, my mother felt that "ayyids remarriage indicated that he no longer loved /adriyya. 0othing could have been further from the truth. *f all my siblings, ) felt especially close to 2arima. %hen she was fifteen, she could have passed for twenty. "he possessed a classic beauty. ) felt protective toward her. ) saw how young men stared at her. ) was already beginning to receive people interested in marrying her. /oth my mother and ) were concerned about her education. %e wanted to arm all of the children with what we called $weapons for living.' %e had no inheritance to leave them. )n fact, we were living hand.to.mouth. To obtain a decent -ob in order to earn a living, they needed to be educated.

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Page 41 In Egypt, there are financial responsibilities for both families when a couple decides to marry. So even if we thought it might be a good thing for Karima to marry one of her suitors, we would not have been able to come up with the necessary money. I new Karima had a special suitor because I found some letters. I worried. In Egyptian society, there is this matter of honor. ! girl dishonors herself and her family if she engages in se" before marriage. #ould Karima be one of those girls$ It terrified me to be responsible for teenage girls. I certainly had made my share of mista es. I learned valuable lessons from them. #hy should my younger sisters not have that same privilege%ma ing mista es and going on with their lives$ &his is unheard'of in the !rab world. #hen !yat, my youngest sister, was a student at the university, one of my friends came to me and in an angry voice as ed, ()id you now that !yat is seeing someone$* (+o,* I replied, (but why are you so angry$* (!ren,t you afraid of what might happen$* he as ed. (+o. If I were afraid, I would never have consented for her to be at the university, where boys and girls mi" freely. So what$ She is seeing somebody.* -y friend was appalled at what seemed to him to be my indifference. (#ell, you now, the boy she is seeing is one of your students,* he said. (!re you telling me that you will .ust loo the other way$* (I,m telling you that I,m trying to bring up my sister in an appropriate way,* I responded. (#ell, suppose she ma es a mista e and allows this boy to have intercourse with her$ #hat will you do then$ &his has to do with honor,* he reminded me. (I will not be very happy about her decision,* I told him, (but do you really thin that a girl,s honor lies within this little piece of s in%the hymen$ /ertainly, I thin it would be a big mista e for her to have intercourse with him. I don,t thin she will, but if she did, I am not going to ill her.* &he boy whom !yat was seeing came to me one day and as ed to spea with me privately. 0e was one of my favorite students. (I,m in love with your sister,* he blurted out. (So$* &hat was my gut response. It surprised me. ()on,t you have anything to say to me$* he as ed. (+o,* I assured him. (If you were to come to me as ing to marry !yat, then I would have something to say, but you are telling me you are in love with her. I don,t now if she is in love with you. 1ou are

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Page 42 giving me informationinformation I dont have to make a decision about. You need to be telling Ayat that you love her, not me. I truly believed !hat I told him. Peo"le need to be free to e#"erience their lives. $his is ho! !e learn. In s"ite of !hat I kne! to be true, my first reaction after finding %arimas love letters !as anger. I could have hit her, shut her off from the outside !orld, and not let her go to school. In &gy"t, this !ould not have been considered aberrant behavior on the "art of a father or guardian. It !ould have been a stu"id move on my "art, though. I !anted %arima, as !ell as my other siblings, to have the freedom to chooseto make decisions about their o!n lives. 'o! !ould they ever learn if I scri"ted their lives( )f course, I tried to discourage her from this liaison. I told her, *You !ill have "lenty of time in the future for such thingsyou need to consider your education. It !as the kind of talk "arents give their teenage children all the time. +efore long, a man loaded !ith "resents came knocking on my doorthe father of %arimas suitor. $he man !as !ell kno!n in al,ahallala %ubra and -uite !ealthy. I did the "olite thing. I !elcomed him into my home. 'e said, *,y son, .ayyid, !ants to "ro"ose marriage to your sister. You are a decent, res"ectable family. I kno! you !ant %arima to finish school. /e !ould be !illing to !ait until she graduates. 'e !ent on to assure me that he !ould undertake the !hole financial res"onsibility. 'is son had already graduated and !as "re"aring to do his military service. ,y mother thought this marriage might not be such a bad idea. */hy not( she asked. *$he man is rich. 'is re"utation is good. $he boy has graduated. /hy not( I dreamed of a different future for %arimaone that !ould give her the freedom to make choices, to have more o"tions. If she !ere to marry as soon as she finished school, her life e#"erience !ould be -uite limited. I !anted more for her. +esides, I !as not convinced that if !e established an engagement at this "articular time, %arima !ould actually finish school. I said to the man, *$hank you very much for coming and bringing so many gifts. I cannot acce"t such generosity. Please understand. I cannot make any commitment right no!. ,y father, 0od rest his soul, asked me never to arrange marriage for any of his daughters until they finished their education. )f course, my father never said any such thing. It !as 1ust a di"lomatic and tactful !ay to say, *2oyou are asking me to go beyond

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Page 43 what I feel I can do. I did tell him that after Karima finished her educationand who knows, she might qualify to go to the universityif ayyid was still interested and Karima agreed, I would !e very ha""y to give my consent for their marriage. #t the moment, I was una!le to "romise him anything. $e ended u" kee"ing the "resents. It would have !een an insult to the man to return his gifts. Karima continued to see ayyid. I wasn%t a!le to "ersuade her to sto" seeing him, and I certainly wasn%t interested in forcing the issue. he needed room to find her own waya way that would ultimately hel" her make wise decisions, decisions in her !est interest. I did ask Karima to kee" me a!reast of their friendshi". he did. he told me he waited for her in front of the school. #fter school, they%d talk for a !it. #t least she felt comforta!le enough to tell me this much. $hen we moved to &airo, I thought they had forgotten all a!out each other. 'ive years had ela"sed. Karima had graduated and was working as a secretary at &airo (niversity. he had )oined me in &airo for a short while !efore the rest of the family arrived. *uring this time, she and I hung out together. I introduced her to my friends. $e went to the movies and to the theater. It was all quite wonderful. +hen, one day ayyid a""eared in my office at the "olice headquarters in ,i-a. ayyid knew I had !een transferred from al./ahallala Ku!ra to ,i-a several years !efore. I wasn%t hard to locate. 0e was smartly dressed in his military uniform. 0is visit came as a sur"risenot a very "leasant one. It wouldn%t do not to !e "olite, though. 1Please, sit down. 0ave a drink, I said. 1I came to ask you to make good on your "romise, he said, getting right to the "oint. 1I%m a!out to finish my military service and Karima has graduated. 2ou made me a "romise. 12es, this is true, I said. 1I will not go !ack on a "romise, !ut it%s !een five yearsalmost si3. /uch has ha""ened. I was stalling. $hat should I do4 #nd then I got an idea. I asked him to come home with meright thenunannounced. $e would sit down together and see if Karima wanted to marry him. 15ut you must "romise that you will acce"t whatever she says. I was not convinced that this would !e a wise union. In my o"inion, ayyid was a s"oiled !oythe only son of a wealthy man, de"endent on his father for his livelihood. In 6gy"t, during the 789:s, the ideal model of manhood was one where a "erson carved out his own future. +oday, things are different. It%s all a!out how much wealth you can inherit.

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Page 44 It took an hour to get home. I could feel myself shaking. I reminded myself that this would be Karimas choice. She was mature enough to make her own decision regarding marriage. Even if I didnt like her decision, I would go along with her. hen we arrived home, Karima o!ened the door. "er eyes widened and she gas!ed. e sat down and drank some tea. I was holding my breath. #Karima,$ I began, #I !romised Sayyid almost si% years ago that if you were still interested in each other after you graduated, I would give my blessing to the wedding. &ow, its u! to you. 're you interested($ )he moment stretched into what seemed an eternity. Karima said nothing for a minute or two. )hen she said, #*ook, Sayyid, we were very young. e were children.$ Sayyid stared blankly ahead of him. "e had heard enough. "e looked over to me and asked, #+ay I !lease be e%cused($ #,ou are welcome any time in this house,$ I offered. -eeling relieved by Karimas res!onse, it wasnt difficult to be hos!itable. #)hank you,$ he said. #,ouve ke!t your word, and now I will go.$ I walked with him to the bus sto!. hen I returned home, I found Karima in tears. I comforted her the best I could. #Its .K. ,ouve made a difficult choice. I know it wasnt easy for you.$ Internal conflict always seems to accom!any difficult decisions. #I have so many fond memories of our time together,$ Karima sobbed. #,es, of course. )hese memories become !art of who you are. hy would you want to erase them($ I asked. # hat did you e%!ect the outcome to be($ Karima asked. #I really did not know. If marrying him would have made you ha!!y, I would have moved forward with the wedding. It was really u! to you.$ Even though I had reservations about the marriage, I meant what I told her. Karima !ushed me even further. # hat would you have me do in my situation($ #I would like you to have a family someday with someone who has made a life for himself, not with somebody de!endent on his father.$ I s!oke with com!lete honesty. Karima worked for two or three more years, e%!eriencing much of the vibrant life that /airo offered. .ne day she told me she had found somebody she wanted to marry. I had confidence in her 0udgment. I never regretted giving her enough freedom to make her own

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Page 45 way through life. Sometimes, under the guise of protection, parents can destroy their childrens lives. Women in a patriarchal society such as Egypt are especially vulnerable to this ind of e!ploitation. "ertainly #adriyya, my elder sister, suffered as my father, in his attempt to do what he thought best for her, manipulated her life, ma ing decisions for her instead of involving her in the process. $ll my younger siblings finished their high school education. $yat graduated from "airo %niversity&'epartment of (apanese )anguage. *sama studied engineering in college. +uhammad had no interest in going to school any longer than he had to. ,e had some e!perience wor ing in my fathers grocery store when my father was living. )ater on, he wor ed for a te!tile company in -anta. ,e received promotions along the way, eventually settling into a good position. #oth my younger brothers, being men, navigated their adolescence with an independence not generally e!perienced by Egyptian women. .nowing that Egyptian society puts women at a disadvantage had much to do with my ta ing special pains to insure that .arima and $yat had the freedom they needed to e!perience life on their own terms. #adriyya, my elder sister, the only one of us who never attended high school, read voraciously. She educated herself. /t was most unfortunate that she was not able to continue with her education. / believe she would have gone far. / would be remiss if / failed to mention Shereen, my adopted daughter. / met Shereen shortly after she had been appointed an assistant teacher at "airo %niversity. $t that time, / was an associate professor. We wor ed together on the e!amination committee. -his is an occasion where the older and younger generations come together in a more rela!ed atmosphere, a change of pace from the usual formal academic0dare / say it10stuffiness. Sometimes, after we had completed our wor , wed go out to lunch or have a drin together. Ebtehal, at this time, was an assistant professor, having already earned her Ph.'. We were not yet married, but Ebtehal and Shereen were close friends. *ne day0it seemed to come from right out of the blue0Shereen as ed me, 2'o you mind if / call you 'ad13 / had a nee45er response. 26es, / mind. 6ou have a father, dont you13 27o, my father died a long time ago, and / dont thin my mother would ob5ect if / called you 'ad,3 she assured me. ,er mother, a teacher, had raised Shereen single4handedly. 2What is your ob5ection to my calling you 'ad13 she as ed.

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Page 46 I dont want to take anything that doesnt belong to me, I replied. We can be friends, of co rse, b t yo dont ha!e to call me "ad. # t Id like to call yo "ad. $he was already acting like a da ghter, p shing to get her way with me % st as my yo nger sisters had done with me many times. Well, &', I finally conceded. If yo really want to, thats fine. I ha!e so many children, whats one more( # t not e!en my brothers and sisters)people I helped to raise)call me "ad. *e!ertheless, $hereen began to call me "ad. When +btehal and I married, $hereen celebrated with s. +btehal and I then tra!eled. $hereen tra!eled as well, earning her ,.-. and Ph.". degrees along the way. When my case became national news, she p blished an article s pporting me. We remained in close contact e!en after I had gone into e.ile. In /001, $hereen and I met in &.ford to attend a h ge conference. $he was a participant on one of the panel disc ssions. $hereen teaches +nglish literat re at 2airo 3ni!ersity and accepts speaking in!itations from all o!er the world. 4er most recent pro%ect has to do with -rab women a thors who write in +nglish. I arri!ed at the airport two ho rs before her flight was d e)thats how eager I was to see her. I wanted to be s re I was there to greet her when she landed. -s soon as she arri!ed, we went to the cafeteria. We spent ho rs sipping coffee, catching each other p on o r li!es. I noticed the sky darkening as night began to fall. We sho ld make o r way toward &.ford, I said. When we arri!ed at &.ford, o r accommodations were not yet ready, so we were forced to check into a nearby hotel. 5here was only one room a!ailable. $hereen noticed me fidgeting. Whats yo r problem( she demanded. I dont ha!e a problem, I lied. I ha!e a conser!ati!e backgro nd. +!en tho gh $hereen had long ago declared herself to be my da ghter, how co ld I % st check into a hotel and stay in the same room o!ernight with this bea tif l yo ng woman( $hereen was matter6of6fact. 7es, "ad, yo ha!e a problem. We dont ha!e a choice. We need to share this room, thats all there is to it. I do ha!e a problem, yo re right, I conceded. I snore. 5hen Ill % st p t earpl gs in my ears, she said. -nd that was that.

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Page 47 The following morning, the rooms at Oxford were ready and we moved into separate quarters. We spent a delightful week together. any of my friends, present from all over the glo!e, looked at us skepti"ally. #$s she really your daughter% &er name is different from yours.' #(es,' $ assured them. #)he de"ided to !e my daughter. This is our "hoi"e.' *or many +ra!s and uslims, it takes time to a""ept the fa"t that you have a daughter who is not your !iologi"al offspring. $n addition, many of the men would smile as if to say, #$t,s O-, $ understand.' any folks have diffi"ulty thinking that friendship without sex is possi!le !etween women and men. One day she "alled me.in e"stasy. #/ad, $ am going to get married. We are in love. +fter our marriage, we are "oming to visit you.' $ spoke with her hus!and0to0!e on the phone. &e was a movie dire"tor. $ knew him !y name. 1ut after they had !een married a year, he died. #Where should $ go% What should $ do%' $ asked her over the phone. y instin"t was to rush to her side, !ut she "ame to me instead, staying with 2!tehal and me for a week. +s a result of her visit, $ reali3ed in a new way how mu"h $ had grown to love and "are for this human !eing. )he suffered after losing her hus!and, !ut she was ready to pi"k up and keep going. The morning she left, $ told 2!tehal, #That girl is strong. )he will do well.' +nd she did.in spite of some diffi"ulties with her hus!and,s family over inheritan"e. #They 4the family5 want me to disappear into thin air,' she told me later as we spoke !y phone. #$,m not going to do that. $ have "ertain rights.' There was no dou!t in my mind she,d take "are of herself. When $ was appointed to the 6lerevinga 6hair 78999:899;< at =eiden >niversity, $ wanted )hereen to attend the "eremony. #(es, $ am "oming,' she assured me. $ addressed her in my spee"h as my daughter. Tradition di"tates that the family stands together in the re"eption area after all the spee"hes have !een delivered. )he was in"luded, of "ourse. #?ow, $,m offi"ially your daughter,' she said. #)ee, it,s right here on paper. (ou "annot deny it anymore.' $ would not even think of denying our !ond. Over the years, $,ve developed a fatherly pride in the person she is.as well as taking pride in her a"hievements. We re"ently met in /amas"us to attend a "onferen"e. The organi3ing "ommittee had !ooked uhammad unir, a famous singer, to entertain us in the evening after our workshops. $

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Page 48 know Munir. We were students together. He began to singbeautiful words that unfortunately lose something in translation. Raise your voi e in singing!"ongs are still #ossible.$ % found myself &uite moved by the words and the musi . %s it #ossible' %s it really still #ossible' (an we still sing' )or me* of ourse* singing here is a meta#hora symbol of re+oi ing in life* ha##iness* and intelle tual freedom. %s singing still #ossible' Munir re#eated the #hrase over and over* and before long* % reali,ed that my fa e was wet. Munir-s song had tou hed me in a dee# #la e* and my tears flowed freely. My thoughts were about .gy#tthe .gy#t that % love and the .gy#t that % hate. Part of my sorrow had to do with the wound .gy#t had infli ted on me. "hereen-s #resen e omforted me. /he ne0t day "hereen took #art in a #anel dis ussion. % arefully wat hed her #erforman e. "he was under atta k. "he talked about how ensorshi# these days seems to be oming from the grass roots of so iety. /here is a sense in the 1rab world that so many of our #roblems and so mu h of our suffering are a dire t result of Western influen e. /he 1rab world res#onds to this sense by ensoring. "hereen* in her attem#t to show that ensorshi# ould never a hieve the kind of so iety many Muslims envision* s#oke out against the #ra ti e. )olks in the audien e were trying to take her down.$ "he res#onded arti ulately and learly* and used her sense of humor to ease the tense situation. 1fterward* % envelo#ed her in my arms* omforting her the best % ould. /he dis ussion had taken its toll on her. Many young #eo#le look to me as a father figure. % love them all. 2ver the years* though* "hereen has taken her #la e beside my siblingsthe hildren % raised. % am fortunate indeed to be able to laim her as my daughter.

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Page 49 4 A Reluctant Scholar As soon as I finished my undergraduate studies at Cairo University in 1972, I was appointed as an assistant teacher in the university s !epartment of Ara"ic, #acu$ty of %etters& I fe$t honored& 'hese appointments are awarded to those who graduate with high mar(s& I fe$t fortunate as we$$& I had a$ways dreamed of teaching, and that dream was fina$$y "eing rea$i)ed& I *uit my +o" at the po$ice head*uarters and de$ved into my responsi"i$ities with a newfound )ea$& 'he ne,t academic hurd$e I faced was choosing a fie$d of research for my graduate studies& 'he facu$ty in the !epartment of Ara"ic, who had recent$y "ecome my co$$eagues, to$d me they had an urgent need for a specia$ist in the fie$d of Is$amic -tudies& 'hey strong$y advised me to go in that direction for "oth my .&A& and Ph&!& theses& I was re$uctant to ta(e their advice& .y re$uctance to focus on Is$amic -tudies stemmed from the reading I had done even "efore enro$$ing in the university& -ince I was we$$ into my twenties when I "egan my forma$ university education, I had more reading tuc(ed under my "e$t than most students have when they matricu$ate& 'hrough my reading, I "ecame aware of the danger of wor(ing within Is$amic -tudies& I $earned a"out the case against /A$0 A"de$123)i* in 1924& 5e wrote a "oo( tit$ed Islam and the Foundation of Political Authority&1 In his "oo(, he argued for an end to the ca$iphate system of government& 'he ca$iphate, he asserted, is not essentia$ to Is$am& It is nothing more than a po$itica$ system of government used "y .us$im peop$e&

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Page 50 Islam, in fact, does not insist on any particular form of government. Muhammad never claimed to be a king or a ruler. Muhammads role was that of a leader and a prophet in Medina. It was up to the people to decide what form of government they wanted. bdel!"#$ik was walking on thin ice. t that time %&'(5), Islam and the state were considered to be one entity. In spite of *urkish authorities abolishing the caliphate in *urkey after +orld +ar I %&'(,), many rab and Islamic leaders since then have vied for nomination as the new caliph. -one was successful. In &'(5, .uad was the king of /gypt. bdel!"#$iks book did not 0ust undermine the orthodo1 foundations of Islam, it threatened political interests as well. 2ing .uad believed that his regime, a regime that included religious rulers, was under attack. *he government needed to s3uelch bdel!"#$i3. bdel!"#$i3 was a 0udge in a sharia court when he wrote his controversial book. 4e had graduated from a religious institution. 4e was a Muslim scholar, intent on bringing an up!to!date perspective to Islam5a perspective that, if implemented, would lead to change. *hat was the problem. 4e threatened established power. *he orthodo1y %al! $har) formed an investigating committee to evaluate and 0udge bdel!"#$i3s book. In the end, the committee found him guilty of heresy and fired him from his position. -o longer could he be a 0udge. *he courts even revoked the grades he had earned when he was a student. I also read about *#h# 4usayn. 4usayn earned his Ph.6. at the 7orbonne under the supervision of the .rench sociologist /mile 6urkheim %&8589&'&:). In &'(;, *#h# 4usayn published a book titled Pre-Islamic Poetry.( In this book, he 3uestioned the authenticity of the entire body of pre!Islamic poetry. 4usayns work took place within the conte1t of a burgeoning intellectual movement associated with the newly established academic institution, the -ational <niversity. %*he -ational <niversity later became =airo <niversity.) 6uring the early part of the twentieth century, it was believed that the languages of -orth rabia and of 7outh rabia were two distinct tongues. >ut when 4usayn researched the sub0ect of pre!Islamic poetry, he found poets from ?emen %7outh rabia) and poets from the northern part of the peninsula e1pressing themselves through an identical language. >ecause pre!Islamic poetry did not reflect the e1pected linguistic diversity, 4usayn came to the conclusion that this poetry was written after the @uran had been revealed to Muhammad.

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Page 51 Furthermore, Husayn argued that the Quranic story of Abrahams arrival in Mecca with his wife Hagar and newborn child shmael!an event ta"en as historical fact, mar"ing the time Arabia became unified by a common language!was really an oral narrative that e#isted before the revelation of the Quran$ %&arious versions of the story of Abraham, Hagar, 'arah, saac, and shmael were well "nown before the Quran$( Husayn maintained that the Quranic story had been ada)ted and then embellished by the Arabs %the original inhabitants of Medina( in res)onse to the *ewish migration from +emen to Medina$ ,hese newcomers %*ews( were strangers, and as is often the case when newcomers a))ear on the scene, conflict followed$ As a way to ease this conflict, the Arabs s)un a tale showing that the *ews %and -hristians( descend from one ancestor, Abraham$ 'tory is one way to assimilate newcomers into an e#isting society$ n this case, the story was used to bridge the distance between *ews and Arabs$ 'ince the story e#isted before the Quran, the Quran used the story to connect itself to other Abrahamic traditions$ ts a fol" narrative saying that we all belong to one grandfather$ Husayns )oint was that the story ought not to be understood factually!it was not necessarily history$ n addition, the Quran used this )articular story not only to situate slam within the *udeo.-hristian traditions but also to establish the )riority of slam as a monotheistic religion$ /ven though Husayn considered the Quran to be the most reliable and authentic source for understanding )re. slamic social and religious life, his boo" created 0uite a stir$ ,he dis)ute reached the /gy)tian Parliament$ Husayn stood accused of insulting slam$ 1efore going to trial, the )ublic attorney 0uestioned him$ 1eing a well.educated and enlightened )erson, he read Husayns controversial boo", investigated the charges of heresy brought against him, and came to the conclusion that Husayn had no intention of com)romising slam$ His was an intellectual, scientific wor"$ His language might be offensive to some, but this was the language of in0uiry and science$ Husayns intentions were honorable$ ,he )ublic attorney declared Husayn innocent of any criminal intention against slam$ n s)ite of this, Husayn endured hardshi) as his re)utation suffered$ He was forced to rewrite the boo" and )ublish it under a different title$ /ven so, the new edition was based on the same methodology and rationale as his original wor"$ n the second, enlarged edition of his boo", he removed the story of Abraham and Hagar bringing shmael to Arabia$ He titled this new boo" Pre-Islamic Literature$2

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Page 52 According to the more popular story, Abraham had two wives, Sarah and Hagar. Sarah became jealous of Hagar and Hagar s son, !shmael, in spite of the fact that Sarah had given birth "some years after Hagar# to her own son, !saac. $ecause of all the domestic friction, Sarah demanded that Abraham send Hagar and !shmael away. Abraham too% Hagar and !shmael to an uninhabited area of the Arabian Peninsula, leaving them there with this prayer& 'Please (od, send people around them to settle.) And people did start to arrive because, as the story goes, !shmael s heels dug into the sand as he cried and flailed his arms. *ater gushed from the place where !shmael had inadvertently been digging. *hen the water flowed, people gathered about and eventually settled. (od answered Abraham s prayer. !shmael was not Arab, but because Arab people nurtured and sustained him within this newly founded community, it wasn t long before he identified himself with them. Husayn noted that the +ur an spea%s about Abraham and !shmael, but just because the +ur an spea%s about them in no way proves that these characters were real flesh,and,blood people. -f course, Husayn was building on the wor% of the !slamic .eformation /ovement0a movement that reached its pea% toward the end of the nineteenth century. 1his movement made a clear distinction between history and religious te2t. /uhammad 3Abduh "456784795#, a rational thin%er considered to be the father of modern !slamic thought, believed that all the stories in the +ur an were allegories0not historical accounts of specific events. 1he +ur an uses a narrative style, he said, in order to convey spiritual and ethical truths. *hen Husayn asserted that the stories in the +ur an did not necessarily reflect history, te2ts such as pre,!slamic poetry0poetry Husayn believed was written after the +ur an0received a status never before granted to such wor%. .eligious te2t might relay a historical incident, he noted, but the te2t is not meant to reflect an accurate historical event. Stories have a meaning beyond the te2t. Husayn created a ruc%us. How could anybody claim that the +ur an was not historically accurate: 1here were other cases as well. ;ven though ! had read about them, the general public had no clue about all the upheaval the <epartment of Arabic in =airo >niversity had gone through in the recent past. !n 476?, /uhammad Ahmed @halafallah, an assistant teacher, presented his Ph.<. thesis to the <epartment of Arabic at =airo >ni

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Page 53 versity. Professor Amn al-Khl, an important reformist scholar whose work to date has gone nrecogni!ed, s pervised Khalafallah"s thesis, which was titled #$he Art of %arration in the & r"an.' Al-Khl had developed a literary approach to the st dy of the & r"an(a direction )eg n )y * hammad +A)d h and followed p )y $,h, - sayn. Al-Khl contin ed the direction of these scholars, f rther developing the literary approach to the st dy of the & r"an. -e made it crystal clear that we can come to the sacred te.t from different angles, s ch as philosophically and ethically, ) t to do that, we m st first )egin )y st dying the & r"an as a literary te.t. Khalafallah sed a literary approach as well to find meaning in the & r"an. -e )ased his thesis on making a clear distinction )etween history and story in the & r"an. After a heated de)ate, the niversity re/ected Khalafallah"s thesis, declaring that s ch an approach when st dying the & r"an casts do )ts on the a thenticity and divinity of 0slam"s sacred te.t. $he niversity fired Khalafallah and transferred him to a nonteaching position within the *inistry of 1d cation. Amn al-Khl, a man 0 consider to )e my grandfather, was )arred from teaching and s pervising 0slamic 2t dies. -e co ld teach only literary criticism and classical Ara)ic. 0n 3455, a government decree, initiated )y the new military a thority called the 6ree 7fficers *ovement, forced al-Khl into retirement along with many other professors. According to the government, this action was part of a revol tionary process intended to remove corr ption from 1gyptian society and to cleanse the niversities. $he chair which had )een occ pied )y Amn al-Khl fell vacant. $eaching ndergrad ates was left to any professor interested in doing so. 0 wanted to find o t what ltimately happened to * hammad Ahmed Khalafallah. 0 strongly identified with Amn al-Khl and )elieved, along with him, that we were tending a garden, growing scholars, lovingly caring for them as a gardener might tend to roses, ) t then some cra!y wind came along, )lowing everything away. 0 discovered that Khalafallah wrote another thesis three months after his original one had )een re/ected (something trivial(/ st to get his degree. 0 met him. 0 know him. 8hen my own tro )le )egan, the tro )le that event ally led me into e.ile, he wrote three important articles a)o t my work, e.plaining how a scientific report sho ld )e written. -e was eager to e.plain to the 1gyptian people that the acc sation of heresy h rled in my direction demonstrated that my acc sers knew nothing a)o t how to go a)o t doing scientific in9 iry and research.

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Page 54 When I was teaching at Cairo University, I invited Khalafallah to come and speak to my class. his is one of my teaching strategies!inviting professors from o"tside the "niversity to share their e#perience and wisdom with my st"dents. $e hesitated. %&o" are part of the history of Cairo University, whether the "niversity likes it or not,' I reminded him. %(ven the pro)lems yo" e#perienced with yo"r thesis are part of the history of this "niversity. &o" are an Islamic *t"dies scholar. I wo"ld like my st"dents to meet yo". We co"ld have some good disc"ssion.' $e finally agreed to come. $owever, as I was a)o"t to leave my apartment to pick him "p on the day he was to speak to my st"dents, he phoned me. %+ook, ,asr, I am sorry. I am "na)le to come. I have not )een to Cairo University in fifty years, and I -"st can.t do it.' I "nderstood at the time. I "nderstand even )etter today. I wonder if I co"ld go )ack and teach at Cairo University after )eing away for eight years. /any times I feel like an a)andoned child. Khalafallah m"st have felt -"st as deserted. *o I was aware of all this history in the 0epartment of 1ra)ic *t"dies when I )egan my grad"ate st"dies at Cairo University. (ven tho"gh Islamic *t"dies had always interested me and I had at one time every intention of p"rs"ing a degree in the field, I resolved not to go that ro"te. I felt the risk wo"ld )e too great. I wo"ld work on literary criticism instead. he department, tho"gh, e#erted considera)le press"re on me, insisting that the newly appointed assistant lect"rer sho"ld )e an Islamic *t"dies scholar. I o)-ected. People in the department didn.t seem to "nderstand. %Why2' they asked. I said, %&o" know the pro)lem!the pro)lem of 31l4 1)del5678i9, the pro)lem of 7h7 $"sayn, the pro)lem of /"hammad 1hmed Khalafallah.' /y professors downplayed my concerns, saying that the pro)lems these men had were personal, -"st something )etween professors!an internal affair. hey were "naware how deeply I had delved into the history of the department. :ne of my professors asked, %Why do yo" think that this will happen to yo"2 0o yo" think yo" are going to say something new2' his, of co"rse, is the "s"al thinking. If yo" work within the field of Islamic *t"dies, the ass"mption is that yo" will discover no new knowledge. Islamic scholars, generally speaking, e#plain what has already )een esta)lished. *cientific investigation is considered

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Page 55 superfluouseven dangerous. Islamic Studies focuses on preaching. Amn al-Khl, !h! "usa#n, and others started to $ring Islamic Studies into the field of scientific in%uir#. I tr# to do this as &ell. 'ost of the 'uslim &orld resists appl#ing scientific methodolog# to the stud# of Islam. his is the $asic pro$lem. (hen the su$)ect of Islamic Studies comes up, people thin* of faith, not investigation. Islamic Studies toda#, for the most part, $rings tried-and-true ideas to the attention of the people through preaching, $ut does not loo* at those ideas through a critical lens. +eedless to sa#, I &as provo*ed &ith this *ind of tal* from m# professors. ,(hat are #ou sa#ing-. I as*ed. ,Are #ou appointing me as a scholar of Islamic Studies )ust to repeat &hat has $een said alread#- "o& is that $eing respectful to the /ur0an- Are #ou actuall# encouraging me not to $ring an#thing ne& to m# field of stud#- (h#, then, should I $e a scholar-. rue, I &as a $it outspo*en. I &as also critical of their assump-tionthe stud# of Islam creates no ne& *no&ledge. he professors scolded me, reminding me that I &as )ust a )unior mem$er of the department. +onetheless, I felt I had to spea* m# mind. ,I0m sorr#,. I said, ,$ut I thin* it is m# dut# as a scholar to $ring something ne& to the field.. o avoid further trou$le, I &ent along &ith the department0s plan for me. I &ould $ecome a scholar of Islamic Studies. I $ent over $ac*&ard to ensure that I &ould not &or* &ith an# of the traditional professors &ho used to supervise Islamic Studies. hat chair had $een vacant ever since Amn al-Khl &as forced into retirement, so there &as no$od# &ithin the field to supervise me. I chose A$d al-A11 alAh&!n, an Andalusian Studies e2pert and professor of classical literature, to supervise m# &or*. 3or m# '.A. thesis, I decided to stud# the 'u4ta1ilite interpretation of the /ur0an, focusing on the concept of metaphor. he 'u4ta1ilite movement, $egun $# (!sil i$n 4At!0 5d. 6789, en)o#ed its he#da# during the first half of the ninth centur#. According to the 'u4ta1ilites, the /ur0an is :od0s uncreated speech; ho&ever, the &ords, the in*, and the paper used to e2press that speech came to us in time and space, and therefore the actual te2t &e have toda# is a created phenomenon. <et&een 8=6 and 8>>, the A$$asid caliph al-'a0mn $egan an in%uisition. "e announced that an# religious )udge &ho resisted the 'u4ta1ilite thesis of the created /ur0an &ould lose his )o$ or go to )ail. Ahmad i$n "an$al 568?@8559, al-'a0mn0s

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Page 56 opponent, held fast to the traditional understanding that the Quran was both uncreated and eternal. Is Gods Word found in the content of the message as expressed in human language !oes that message include language as an essential component "he Quran states, #If all the trees of the earth were pens, and the sea, replenished b$ se%en more seas, were in&, the words of God could not be finished still' ()ura *+,-./. If Gods Word cannot be confined, how can the Quran, a text limited within space and time, be the onl$ manifestation of the Word of God 0t the same time, the Quran refers to itself as Kalam Allah, the speech of God1an idea that would e2uate the Word of God with the Quran. "he idea of God as spea&er raises theological difficulties1difficulties that the 3u4ta5ilites resol%ed b$ interpreting certain passages metaphoricall$. "he 3u4ta5ilites were hea%il$ influenced b$ Gree& philosoph$ and logic, and therefore the$ applied rational methods of in%estigation when interpreting the Quran. 3u4ta5ilite theologians disagreed on some points, but the$ were all in agreement on fi%e fundamental principles 1Gods 6ustice, Gods unit$, the #intermediate position' (committing a gra%e sin does not automaticall$ ma&e one an infidel/, Gods irre%ersible threats and promises, and Gods commanding the right and prohibiting the wrong1principles best understood as a response to their ri%als. "heir opponents included those who held to a literal interpretation of the Quran and those who belie%ed in un2ualified predestination. 0fter four $ears of anal$5ing and comparing 3u4ta5ilite theolog$ with the discourse of their critics, I understood that at the heart of the battle was this matter of interpretation. 7ow do we find meaning in the text when unambiguous %erses (ayt muhkamt/, considered the bac&bone of the Quran, come up against ambiguous %erses (ayt mutashbiht/ "here is no argument within Islam that ambiguous %erses are to be interpreted in light of the unambiguous texts. "he problem What the 3u4ta5ilites considered unambiguous, their opponents considered ambiguous, and %ice %ersa. 8ach side held tenaciousl$ to its %iew, belie%ing that both the structure and the meaning of the Quran were at sta&e. 3$ 3.0. thesis, #"he 9oncept of 3etaphor as 0pplied to the Quran b$ the 3uta5ilites,' was later published as a boo& titled The Trend of Rational Exegesis of the Quran: A Study of the Mu ta!ilites "on#e$t of Qurani# Meta$hor.: ;ne of the conclusions I reached dur

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Page 57 ing my study was that each side was attempting to shore up its own ideology and impose that meaning onto the Quran. In other words, each side attempted to bring the Quran in line with its own beliefs. I wondered how the meaning of a text could be so easily manipulated. When I began reading about hermeneutics methodological principles of textual interpretation! in the "nited #tates $%7&'$%&(!, I was already familiar with exegesis, critically examining a text in an attempt to understand the intention of that text. While scouring uni)ersity libraries in the #tates for boo*s on the philosophy of hermeneutics and its history, I disco)ered that the +rabic word tawl closely approximates the ,nglish word -hermeneutics.. When I returned to ,gypt from the "nited #tates, I wrote about hermeneutics in +rabic. I belie)e I was the first scholar to do so. /y basic argument about the Quran is that in order to ma*e Islamic thought rele)ant, the human dimension of the Quran needs to be reconsidered. Placing the Quran firmly within history does not imply that the origins of the Quran are human. I belie)e the Quran to be a di)ine text re)ealed from 0od to the Prophet /uhammad through the mediation of the archangel 0abriel. 1hat re)elation too* place through the use of language2a language +rabic! rooted in a historical context. 1he Quran addressed the +rabs li)ing in the se)enth century, ta*ing into account the social reality of those particular people li)ing on the +rabian Peninsula at that time. 3ow else could they ha)e understood the re)elation4 Without the Word of 0od being embodied in human language, there is no way for us to understand it. 1he Quran states, -,ach apostle We ha)e sent has spo*en only in the language of his own people, so that he might ma*e his precepts clear to them. #ura $565!. 3ow can we assume, then, that the Quran is exclusi)ely and literally the Word of 0od4 0ods Word exists in a sphere beyond human *nowledge, but we can apply hermeneutical principles to a text that exists in time and place. 3istorically, most /uslims ha)e insisted that the Quran in +rabic is literally and exclusi)ely 0ods Word. 1his excludes other #criptures from presenting the Word of 0od in a language other than +rabic. I belie)e that one of the reasons we currently experience such stagnation in Islamic thought is that we o)eremphasi7e the di)ine dimension of the Quran at the expense of ac*nowledging its human characteristics. I see my scholarship as a continuation of the rational school of thought started by the /u8ta7ilites and further de)eloped by /uslim philosophers such as al9:ind;, al9<=r=b;, Ibn #;n= +)icenna!,

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Page 58 and Ibn Rushd (Averroes). My scholarship reflects my roots in classical Islam as ell. !hen I began to study the "ur#an as interpreted by mystical scholarship$ I found myself dra n to the discourse of Ibn %Arab&$ an Andalusian 'ufi born in 'pain. Ibn %Arab& is best (no n for his or( The Meccan Revelation.5 )e died in 'yria in *+,-. I decided to focus on Ibn %Arab& for my doctoral research. I proposed to study the hermeneutics of the "ur#an from a mystical ('ufi) perspective. !hereas the Mu%ta.ilites attempted to apply their interpretation of the "ur#an to political and social issues (oftentimes becoming hat e call today political activists)$ I as convinced that Ibn %Arab& ould offer a "ur#anic interpretation void of ideological interest. At the time$ I thought 'ufis did not concern themselves ith the orld around them$ choosing to concentrate on their o n mystical e/periences instead. In time$ I ould learn differently. 0ust as I had discovered ith my study of the Mu%ta.ilites$ I sa all over again ith my study on 'ufism ho all interpretation of te/t is informed by current sociopolitical and cultural factors. "ur#anic interpretation is no e/ception. Ibn %Arab& anted to bring modernity (current (no ledge) to bear on the "ur#an. )e believed that Islamic thought should be fle/ible enough to absorb all of his society under Islam#s umbrella. 1he 2religion of comprehensive love3 is ho Ibn %Arab& described his utopian vision in his poetry. )e attempted to gather various elements of thought from 4hristianity$ 0udaism$ Islam$ and all other faiths in his society and integrate them into a unified Islamic system. It proved difficult to put Ibn %Arab&#s pro5ect into practice. In his attempt to create this utopian society$ he did not address social problems in a realistic manner. 6ven as he as developing his thin(ing$ tensions ere mounting ithin his o n society 7tensions that could not be diffused through the application of the principles of his 2religion of comprehensive love.3 )asan 'ama( as one of my father#s friends ho used to hang out in front of our little village grocery store$ discussing everything from local gossip to the current political situation. )e as a poet. After I had matured some hat and become a professor at 4airo 8niversity$ our friendship blossomed. !henever he as in 4airo$ he#d stop in to see me in my office. !hen I returned to my home village$ there he as7a ubi9uitous presence. )e as a 'ufi7a mystic7and I learned a lot about 'ufism from him long before doing my formal study of Ibn %Arab&.

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Page 59 One day he came to see me. I had traveled back to Quhafa for a brief visit, and I was happy to welcome him to my home. I noticed right away, though, that he was trembling from head to foot. I have to talk with you,! he managed to blurt out. I thought for sure disaster had struck him. "s soon as he closed the door behind him, he began to cry. #hat$s the matter% #hat happened%! I asked. I saw him. I saw him. I saw him. I cannot keep the secret any longer,! he lamented. #hat secret% #hom did you see%! I demanded. &ears rolled down his face. I saw the Prophet. "nd I talked to him and I said, 'I love you, Prophet (uhammad.$ )e said, 'I love you, )asan.$! #hat is wrong with that%! I wondered aloud. *on$t you see% +ow, I am revealing the secret,the secret of seeing the Prophet in a dream,! he said. I could only look at him blankly. -o what%! I will be punished,! he insisted. )e will never show himself to me again. .ut I couldn$t keep it inside. I had to talk to someone.! "t the time, I didn$t fully understand the turmoil )asan was going through. "ll I could do was wonder about the nature of the burden he carried. If he believed there would be adverse conse/uences as a result of his confession, what drove him to do such a thing% #hen I read about Ibn '"rab0,mysticism, the vision, the secret, how to keep the secret, and punishment for revealing the secret to people who are not ready,)asan$s e1perience began to make some sense. I was in the 2nited -tates when I began my research about Ibn '"rab0. #hile I was reading, )asan$s e1perience was right there before me, weaving its way in between the words of the te1t. I think this is what gives my research and writing its flesh and blood. #hen I write about something, it$s not 3ust an intellectual e1ercise. (y reading, my research, and my e1perience all fuse. &his fusion, I believe, is essential to the process of creating knowledge. It$s also what$s missing from so much work done today in the academy. I finished work on my doctoral thesis in 4956, the year I returned to 7gypt from the -tates. #ithin a couple of months, I was awarded my Ph.*. (y dissertation on Ibn '"rab0 was published under the title The Philosophy of Hermeneutics.8 It was my second book.

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Page 60 What kept begging to be addressed as a result of my study for both my M.A. and Ph.D. theses, as well as my experien es in life, re!ol!ed around se!eral "uestions. What is #slam$ #s it a religion of so ial %usti e$ Does #slam support apitalism$ Does it prote t pri!ate property$ #s #slam a religion of jihad against the enemy$ &r is the fo us on pea e$ Does the 'ur(an support a Mu)ta*ilite interpretation or that of their opponents, or did the +ufi #bn )Arab, best understand what the 'ur(an re!eals$ And %ust what is the 'ur(an$ -he "uestion must be addressed be ause the 'ur(an is the foundation of #slam. #s the 'ur(an lear$ Ambiguous$ # ould find no easy answers. # had ome to the on lusion, based on my M.A. and Ph.D. work, that e!ery interpretation of the 'ur(an has ne!er been separate from so ial and politi al influen e. #n other words, it is not possible to speak about the 'ur(an as an absolute that trans ends spa e, time, and pla e. .uman beings understand text through some sort of prism that !aries depending on experien e/both indi!idual and ultural experien e. As a result of further study and resear h, my third book emerged, whi h # titled The Concept of the Text: A Reinvestigation of Classical Quranic Disciplines.0 1efore dealing with "uestions regarding the interpretation of text, # needed to study and examine rules go!erning the study of a text and then apply those rules to the 'ur(an itself. Without this rigorous appli ation of s holarship, the 'ur(an 2or any other text3 is !ulnerable to ha!ing the interpreter(s ideology made part of that text. What about the 'ur(an(s stru ture$ We know that Muhammad re ei!ed his re!elation in installments o!er a period of twenty4three years. Muhammad ould neither read nor write. + ribes wrote as Muhammad re ited his re!elation. -he hronology of the re!elation has been rearranged into the order in whi h we find the 'ur(ani text today. -his pro ess/ anoni*ation/also needs to be taken into a ount when interpreting the 'ur(an. #n addition, we annot understand the 'ur(an properly without studying history in order to learn about the ontext 2geography, politi s, so iety3 in whi h the 'ur(an was re!ealed. People within a parti ular ommunity raised pertinent "uestions about a !ariety of issues/wine, gambling, orphans, menstruation, diet, harity, war. -he answers to those "uestions, found within the 'ur(an, be ame the basis for sharia law, a system of %urispruden e that looks to the legal prin iples found in #slam(s sa red text, and the hdith, sayings of the Prophet, when establishing laws within a parti ular #slami ommunity.

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Page 61 I keep returning again and again to the same questions. What is the Quran? What does it mean to me, the individual? What does it mean to the umma, the community o !uslims? Islamic theology has not developed much "eyond the thirteenth century. #he "asic questions remain ro$en. #he %ork that I do&my critical scholarship&has everything to do %ith making Islam relevant to our lives at the present time.

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Page 63 5 Here I Stand Iconsider myself to be very, very Egyptian. What I mean by that is that I feel I can communicate at a gut level with Egyptian people. I know how to oke with them. I know how to connect with them no matter what their status within our society. I take them as they are. Perhaps my father!s death when I was fourteen years old forced me out into the world at an earlier age than most folks. I didn!t have the lu"ury of lingering in adolescence. I had to learn early on how to survive. I got to know the street and the life of the underprivileged in Egyptian society. I think the ordinary e"periences of day#to#day living in my home village of $uhafa set the stage for what later developed into my passion for ustice. %uch of my early religious education in the kuttb was rote. &ecitation and memori'ation of the $ur!an took center stage. (orrect pronunciation of the )rabic words and clear enunciation of the te"t were our goals and highly pri'ed by our teachers. Even though I had the entire $ur!an memori'ed by the time I reached my eighth birthday, I did not comprehend much of what the te"t said. %y father, my mother, the preacher in the mos*ue, and other folks in the village e"plained the te"t!s meaning to me. I prayed five times a day and fasted during &amad+n. ,here were people in my village who did not observe those rituals-rituals so central to Islam. ,hat was ./. ,hese people were not ostraci'ed. I never considered ritual to be the essential part of Islam. Even as a child, I understood that Islam had everything to do with how you lived your life. ,he emphasis was on orthopra"is 0proper

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Page 64 behavior), not orthodoxy (proper belief or doctrine). Within my small community, I learned that the spirit of Islam as all about helping the poor and the ea!. "oday, I stand ith the oppressed# hoever they are and herever they may be. $et een %&&' and %&&(#the years I as accused and finally convicted of apostasy#my picture appeared fre)uently in *gyptian papers and periodicals. +nce, a caricature of me in the form of the devil stared me in the eye as I opened my ne spaper to catch up on the day,s events. "he -devil. had /ust stabbed the 0ur,an. $lood gushed copiously from the sacred text. *gyptian people ere )uite familiar ith my situation. +ne evening, on our ay home from the university, *btehal and I stopped at the supermar!et to get some provisions for our long ee!end. 1s *btehal and I gathered some items together and placed them in our cart, a very old man !ept staring at me. 2e reminded me of my father and my grandfather#all the fathers in *gypt. I !ne he recogni3ed me. 2e al!ed around me, fro ned at me, loo!ed me up and do n, and then as!ed, -1re you...4. I !ne hat he as about to as!. Whenever I,d go out in public, people ould often as! if I as -that man accused of heresy.. I,d al ays ans er, -5es, yes, I am that man accused of heresy.. +ften my tone ould be one of moc! impatience mixed ith a healthy dose of boredom. "his elderly man became angry and started to shout at me. 6ol!s gathered all around *btehal and me. -1ren,t you ashamed of yourself4 5ou should be ashamed. I !no that your father is a 7uslim. Isn,t that right4. -5es,. I said. -7y father,s name is 2amed.. In the 1rab orld, if your name is 2amed, there is no doubt about your religious affiliation. "he man !ept at me. -2o can you call yourself a 7uslim4 2o is it that your father as a 7uslim and your mother as a 7uslim and no you bring disgrace to the 0ur,an, to the Prophet 7uhammad, and to Islam4 1ren,t you ashamed of yourself4 5ou must be cra3y.. "he man repeated these )uestions several times#only changing the order of his )uestions and accusations. -Please, did you finish4. I finally as!ed him. -5es, I have finished,. the man replied. -+8, no please listen to me,. I said. -5ou have been atching me for ten minutes here in this supermar!et. 5ou have seen every inch of my body, every inch of my face. Is this true4.

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Page 65 Yes, it is true, he agreed. Tell me, I said. If you didnt know my reputation, what impression would I gi e you! "o I look like Im in need of psy#hiatri# inter ention! $r do I appear normal! You a#tually do not know me personally. %hats your erdi#t! You seem to look like e ery&ody else, he admitted. 'o Im not out of my mind! Im not #ra(y! I asked. )o, he said. You dont seem #ra(y. Tell me, I said, pushing forward with the #on ersation, if someone who is not #ra(y, &ut normal like you or like your son, and if he worked in the uni ersity in a *uslim so#iety like +gypt, and if he wanted to get a promotion in order to raise his salary to meet the e er,rising #ost of li ing, would you think this person normal if he asked for a promotion and then showed himself as an atheist to the uni ersity! The old man seemed to &e listening, so I #ontinued. Im not talking a&out whether or not this man is a#tually an atheist. %e ha e un&elie ers in our so#iety who pass themsel es off as &elie ers. -ut if you were not fasting during .amad/n, would you go out in pu&li# and eat! )o, of #ourse not. You would eat &ehind #losed doors. 'o e en if I am not a &elie er, would I flaunt my atheism and then ask the uni ersity to promote me! %hat would you think a&out someone who would pull a stunt like that! They would &e #ra(y, he said. -ut you 0ust said that I am not #ra(y, I reminded him. "o you think Im #ra(y! )o, he said. Thats right, I responded. 1 sane person like myself would ha e made a de#ent presentation to the uni ersity2something faithful to Islam. Then, after I had re#ei ed my promotion, then may&e I would make a show of my atheism &e#ause I am 0ust like you. 3ife is ery hard. I need my salary. 1nd this is my wife. 4I introdu#ed +&tehal to the man.5 You know the pri#es here. The man, who 0ust a few minutes ago had &een ready to atta#k me, started to #alm down and asked me, %hat is the pro&lem, then! Those people who ha e a##used you2they are not stupid, they are good, holy men. Yes, I agreed. They are good, holy men. "o you want to know what the pro&lem is! Tell me, he insisted.

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Page 66 I criticized those holy men who supported the Islamic investment companies. These are the same men who robbed the Egyptian people, I said. od curse all o! those people, the old man shouted. Every Egyptian was !amiliar with the scandal surrounding the Islamic investment companies. "s he told me his story, I learned that the old man#s son had wor$ed in %uwait !or ten years. &e had put all o! the money he earned overseas into one o! these investment companies and lost it all. 'o this is the reason !or all this commotion around you( he as$ed. This is e)actly the reason, I answered. *ou $now the name o! this man+he was a religious counselor to these companies. That#s why I criticized him. I#m ,ust an Egyptian li$e you. -ecause I had no money to invest, I didn#t get bil$ed out o! my savings, but I was de!ending you, your son, and your grandson. Those people have been able to steal money !rom the people in the name o! religion. The man bro$e down. .h, my son, I didn#t $now. I am so sorry. I didn#t $now. "nd he came toward me and $issed me and hugged me, and I held him close to me right there in the middle o! the busy supermar$et. I !elt relie! and contentment on the !orty/$ilometer drive home. I said to Ebtehal, 0hat I really need to do is meet every Egyptian citizen and e)plain mysel!. &ow can I do that( 0ith T1, o! course, I could communicate well with !ol$s. &owever, it would have to be live T1. Piecing together !ragments o! conversation ,ust would not wor$. This is what I mean when I say I#m very, very Egyptian. I#m able to communicate with people !rom di!!erent educational bac$grounds as well as with people who have no education at all. Egyptian people have always e)pressed themselves in a wide variety o! ways. .ur recent history in particular re!lects this variety. 0hile I was growing up, Egypt had what came to be $nown as the 2ree .!!icers 3evolution 456789. " select number o! Egypt#s military o!!icers went up against the royal regime, wresting power !rom the monarchy. This became a turning point !or Egypt. People were tired o! the corruption that had seeped into every part o! the society, much o! this corruption stemming !rom the royal !amily, the -ritish occupation 4since 5::89, and some minor parties all vying !or power. The Egyptian people were su!!ering. 'o the 2ree .!!icers got themselves together, got rid o! the $ing, declared Egypt a republic, and started

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Page 67 instituting reforms. People welcomed this turn of events. Egypt was finally being governed by Egyptians. During this upheaval, everybody had an opinion about what direction the country should take. Different ideologiesways of thinkingdeveloped. ll of them tried to in!ect "slam with their particular perspective. "n other words, in order to be heard, your opinion had to s#uare with "slamic thought. $rom the mid%&'()s through the &'6)s, rab nationalism took hold of the country*s imagination. +cores of books were published about "slam and rab nationalism. ,hese authors interpreted "slam according to their own ideas about the shape and direction an "slamic state should takeloyalty and devotion to Egypt. During this time, the state*s ideology began to incorporate socialism into its politics and policies. "t*s #uite easy to make the claim that "slam teaches socialism. " was in my late teens and early twenties during this time. " agreed with this socialist interpretation of "slamit made a lot of sense to me. ,he "slam that " learned growing up in -uhafa practiced social !ustice and believed in e#uality among peopleeven e#uality between women and men. During the &'6)s in Egypt, women gained considerable ground as socialism crept into Egypt*s consciousness. .ost notable were the e/pansion of women*s education and women*s suffrage. $rankly, " loved this interpretation of religion. During the &'()s and &'6)s, any opposition to the regime in power was #uickly s#uelched0ommunists as well as "slamists. 1amal bdel 2asser 3&'&45&'7)6 became the leader of a new Egypt in &'(7. 8e was a member of the $ree 9fficers who overthrew the royal regime. 3 nwar al%+adat, 2asser*s successor, was a member of the $ree 9fficers as well.6 2asser established a new social structure in the countrya structure that included free education for everybody. ,:h: 8usayn had the same idea during the earlier part of the century. 8e believed education should be available to all!ust like air and water. ;ithout this sweeping social change instituted by 2asser, " would never have dared to dream of becoming a university student. ,he cost would have been prohibitive. Eventually, though, " became #uite critical of 2asser*s regime. ,here was one political voicethe voice of the state under a military regimea system that did not take kindly to criticism. s an Egyptian citi<en, " was appalled that those who critici<ed the government were sub!ect to persecution. t the time, " had friends who were 0ommunists, some who were +ocialists, and some who even belonged to the "slamic +ociety of .uslim =rotherhood. During the

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Page 68 1950s, I remember Quhafa, my home village, hosting a branch of this Society of Muslim rotherhoo!" #hey ma!e an effort to e!ucate $eo$le about the Society%s $hiloso$hy an! activities" &bove all, they 'ante! an Islamic (gy$t, an (gy$t governe! by Islamic $rinci$les alone" (ven though I 'as )uite young at the time, I listene! to 'hat the rotherhoo! ha! to say" *i+e all reformers at this time, they $ut their $articular s$in on Islam, base! on their o'n i!eology" #he Muslim rotherhoo! reste! on the follo'ing $oints, 1" Since -o! reveale! .imself in the Qur%an an! in the Pro$hetic #ra!ition /sunna0, all as$ects of living ought to be subsume! un!er the Qur%an an! the sunna" oth the Qur%an an! the sunna 'ere seen as universally vali!" /1#he Qur%an is our 2onstitution an! the Pro$het is our lea!er3 became the Society%s motto"0 4" Muslims shoul! return to an early e5$ression of Islam un!erstoo! as being untainte! by the influence of -ree+ theology an! $hiloso$hy" & believer coul! +no' -o! only through !escri$tions of -o! in the Qur%an an! the 'or!s of .is $ro$het, Muhamma!" 6" Since the structure of (gy$t%s society7greetings, the use of foreign languages, 'or+ing hours, the calen!ar, recreation7ha! been infecte! by the 8est, an overhauling through the use of sharia /bo!y of legislation base! on the Qur%an an! the sunna0 'as in or!er" 9" #hese ste$s 'oul! ultimately lea! to a restoration of the cali$hate /the cali$hate, a system of government historically use! by Muslims, 'as abolishe! in 19490 by bringing all Muslims together in a single state" Shortly after the :ree ;fficers assume! $o'er, they abolishe! all $olitical $arties /19560" #hey e5em$te! the Muslim rotherhoo! because they consi!ere! it a religious organi<ation, not a $olitical $arty" #here 'ere reasons for this e5em$tion" Some of the members of the :ree ;fficers ha! belonge! to the Muslim rotherhoo! before the revolution" #he rotherhoo! a$$eale! to $eo$le from all 'al+s of life an! all sectors of (gy$tian society" #he Muslim rotherhoo! as+e! =asser%s government to a$$oint five men from 'ithin their ran+s to official government $ositions" #hey 'ante! enough clout an! $o'er to chart (gy$t%s future, an! they 'ante! to start 'ith getting ri! of the monarchy an! all its tra$$ings once an! for all" #he ne' government acce$te! only one minister from 'ithin the ran+s of the rotherhoo!" & $o'er struggle follo'e! as =asser%s regime clashe! 'ith the rotherhoo!" =asser felt threatene!

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Page 69 by its push toward the establishment of an Islamic state, and he reacted by dissolving the group in 1954. n ctober !6, 1954, "ahm#d $bd al%&atif, a member of the "uslim 'rotherhood, shot (asser during a political rally. (asser survived this attempt on his life and subse)uently came down hard on the 'rotherhood. *housands were arrested. "any served long prison terms. +ome were e,ecuted. *he 'rotherhood appeared to have been crushed. -hat loo.ed li.e defeat, though, was merely illusion. /uring all this upheaval, I couldn0t help but thin. that 1gypt certainly needed a good political overhaul, but I believed 2and still do3 that force and coercion were improper methods to bring about lasting reform. $ society needs to be open enough so people feel free to discuss and e,change ideas in the public sphere. /iscussion4hammering out those ideas4brings resolution. +ometimes it ta.es a while, but without the freedom to discuss and debate4when people feel as though they have no voice4a society can easily turn violent. (asser0s regime s)uelched this freedom of e,pression. 5asan al%'anna 21966719493, a schoolteacher, founded the "uslim 'rotherhood in 19!8. 5is ideas were influenced by the 9ournalist :ash;d :ida 21865719<53, a moderate who believed 1gypt could be both modern and Islamic. *he Indian influence on the "uslim 'rotherhood became apparent when $bul al%"awdudi 2196<719=93, a 9ournalist, politician, and founder of >amaat%I Islami in Pa.istan, came on the scene. $l%"awdudi was convinced that the encroachment of the -est would eventually destroy Islam. 5e felt "uslims needed to band together in order to fight this encroachment. $l%"awdudi0s ideology paved the way for and influenced +ayyid ?utb 21966719663, an active reformer in the "uslim 'rotherhood since 195<. ?utb had spent two years 21948719563 at @olorado +tate @ollege of 1ducation in Areeley. 5e had been a literary critic in @airo and was one of the first people to recogniBe (aguib "ahfouB, the 1gyptian author who won the (obel PriBe for &iterature in 1988. 2Islamists stabbed "ahfouB in the nec. in 1994, leaving him barely able to write.3 1gyptian nationalism had captured ?utb0s imagination during the early 1956s. -hile studying in the +tates, he grew disillusioned with the -est because of what he perceived to be a lac. of spiritual values evidenced in the loose way $mericans lived their everyday lives. +ayyid ?utb was among those who spent years in prison for his membership and activity within the 'rotherhood. $fter seeing members of the 'rotherhood tortured and murdered in prison, ?utb reacted

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Page 70 by coming up with even more of a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam than al-Mawdudis. Qutb proclaimed that even though asser claimed to be Muslim! his behavior "proved# he was not. assers government! he thought! would neutrali$e Islam. %herefore! it was every Muslims duty to do what they could to remove him from power. %hese were unusually difficult times that called for dramatic action. Qutb wrote& %he Muslim community has long ago vanished from e'istence.... It is crushed under the weight of those false laws and customs which are not even remotely related to Islamic teachings.... (e need to initiate the movement of Islamic revival in some Muslim country ...in order to fashion an e'ample that will eventually lead Islam to its destiny of world dominion. %here should be a vanguard which sets out with this determination and then )eeps wal)ing on the path.* In *+,*! an underground movement of the dissolved and illegal -rotherhood was uncovered. Qutb was among those arrested and persecuted. .ive years later! he was sentenced to death and e'ecuted. -efore he was hanged on /ugust 0+! *+,,! he said! "%han) 1od! I performed 2ihad for fifteen years until I earned this martyrdom.#0 %he -rotherhood3those left after the purge3went on about their business in secret. asser had pushed them underground. assers regime! aware of the -rotherhoods clandestine meetings and activities! )ept on hounding them! arresting them when feasible! 2ailing them when possible. (hat the government could not do was stamp out its ideas. 4ntil the *+,0s! I sympathi$ed with the Muslim -rotherhood. I li)ed their interpretation of Islam. 5ocial 2ustice was at the heart of their message. I applauded that message. %he -rotherhood tried to establish a more 2ust society by penetrating social institutions such as schools and hospitals. %hey even branched out into commercial establishments. Many 6gyptian people supported their cause. %he -rotherhood filled a need. 6ven the more radical Islamic groups that arose in the *+70s and *++0s continued to provide services to people who had no other means of obtaining such things as education and health care. %he *+,0s! though! saw the Muslim -rotherhood veer in a fundamentalist direction. More than anything else! the -rotherhood feared that 6gypts move toward moderni$ation meant that religion would be eradicated from 6gyptian society. It felt s8uee$ed out! unable to par

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Page 71 ticipate in Egypts development. The members felt that their identity as Egyptian Muslims was at stake. uring the 1!"#s$ % remained convinced that a proper understanding of %slam had everything to do with social &ustice$ with e'uality$ and with tolerance. % was distressed with the way Egyptian politics e(cluded any kind of opposition such as the Muslim )rotherhood. Those in power persecuted people without reason*&ust arrested them and slammed them in prison. Those imprisoned had no legal recourse. %t was inhumane and un&ust. Even though many countries in the +est thought of ,asser as a secularist$ Egyptians understood him differently. - conversation % had with a medical doctor while studying in the .nited /tates 01!7121!1#3 was 'uite telling. +hen the doctor reali4ed % was Egyptian$ he began speaking of /adat as a national hero and a great statesman. % didnt agree with him. My demeanor must have reflected that disagreement. 56h$ you are a ,asserist78 he asked. +hen % answered affirmatively$ he immediately concluded$ 5Then you are a 9ommunist.8 5-bsolutely not$8 % shot back. 5,asser was not a 9ommunist.8 This brief conversation showed me that sometimes the image a leader has within his own country is vastly different from his image outside his own country. To this day % feel that without the social reforms brought about by ,assers regime*even with the absence of political freedom*many of the positive changes in Egypt could not have taken place. % respected ,asser$ yet at the same time$ % became critical of him. % graduated from technical school in 1!"# and began working in the town of al:Mahallala ;ubra at the police head'uarters$ maintaining electronic communication e'uipment. % did this kind of work for the ne(t twelve years. %n 1!"1$ % &oined a small literary group composed of poets and short story writers from the area. These people had been e(cluded from the local youth organi4ation because they thought too deeply*too critically. %nterestingly enough$ all of these folks went on to become highly respected authors. uring this time$ % remember being 'uite critical of Egypt from an %slamic point of view. The secret police became suspicious of our group and began following several of us. 6ne of our members was arrested and spent fifteen years in &ail. % went down to the police head'uarters after this harassment and arrest*uninvited. %t was not a particularly prudent thing to do. 5+hy are you following me78 % asked. The officer merely said that it was their duty 5to investigate.8 % became increasingly offended with this militari4ation of society.

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Page 72 During this time, intellectuals began producing novels and poems criticizing the Egyptian political systemnot explicitly, of course, but through the use of symbols. n a society !here freedom of speech cannot be ta"en for granted, the intellectual cro!d needed to be circumspect as they expressed their opposition to the political system in po!er. #or"ing at the police head$uarters allo!ed me to observe, and sometimes even to get involved !ith, a !hole array of social problems especially problems that plagued the underprivileged, the poor, and those on the margins of society. remember a particular incident !here a !oman came to the police station, complaining that her husband had hit her. %he !as bleedingit !as difficult to tell from !here. &he staff at the police station ignored her !hile she !aited and !aited. #hat else could she do' &he policy, of course, !hen somebody comes in bleeding is to ta"e the individual directly to a hospital. (or some reason, the police ignored her. n Egypt, !e don)t thin" of police as public servants. n an authoritarian society !here public officials are given po!er *ust because they occupy a certain position, abuse of that po!er happens fre$uently. +n authoritarian system assumes that those in po!er ,"no!.- .ecause they ,"no!,- you, the one !ithout po!er, have no business $uestioning them. (orget about demanding that something be done. #e Egyptians generally have unpleasant experiences !ith the police. stuc" my nose into this situation. .ecause !as so offended by the inaction of the department, $uestioned, not very mee"ly, the police officer in charge. &he officer lit into me. ,#hy are you angry'- he demanded. ,Do you "no! this !oman',/o. #ould that ma"e any difference'- as"ed. ,%he should be ta"en to a hospital and you should bring her husband in for $uestioning. sn)t this the procedure'- "ne! that if aggravated the police too much, !ould put myself in the path of their !rath and ultimately !ould not accomplish !hat !anted to by interfering in the first placegetting help for the !oman. ended up ta"ing the !oman to the hospital, staying !ith her until she !as treated and released. !ent bac" to the police head$uarters, handed them the hospital report, and !ent on !ith my duties. &!o days later, the police brought her husband in, but did not get involved !ith the situation. + little later on that same day, the !oman came to my office. %he had brought me a hot mealrice and chic"en. !as afraid that the police officers !ould thin" that her familiarity !ith me indicated that

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Page 73 somehow I really did know the woman and had been unwilling to admit that when I got involved with this situation. Look, I said, this is very nice, but I cannot accept this. I am at work. I cannot eat on the ob. Please take it home, she suggested. !onsider it as a gi"t "rom your sister. I did as she suggested. I was living alone at the time. #he woman had come in to withdraw her complaint against her husband. $he e%plained to me that what she wanted was "or the police to admonish her husband in some way, not to be physically abusive with him. &"ter all, he is my husband and the "ather o" my children. 'o you love him( I asked. $he didn)t seem to understand the *uestion. +e is my children)s "ather, she said again. 'oes your husband hit you o"ten( I asked. ,o, she said. +e was very angry about some problems. #he man was a street peddler, selling "ruit. -ecause we were in the middle o" summer, !airo was hot. & lot o" the "ruit had spoiled that "ate"ul day, and in anger he had lashed out at his wi"e. .ould it help i" I visited you( I asked the woman. &"ter all, you brought me some "ood, which means you invited me to your house. #hat would be wonder"ul, she said. I will come only with your husband)s permission, though. -ut bringing me "ood indicates that we are "riends. I didn)t want her husband to "eel threatened by my presence. I visited them. #hey had three children. #hey were e%tremely poor. #he man was *uite a decent "ellow. $he had told him about my inter"ering with her case at the police station and that I had taken her to the hospital. $he wasn)t at all shy. $he had also told him that he, her husband, should have been the one to take her to the hospital. #his incident showed me that sometimes the poverty that people endure a""ects them to such an e%tent that it ta%es their unstated love and respect "or each other in ways that the wealthy cannot even imagine. I saw a host o" problems like this one/many o" them appeared to me to stem "rom an unbalanced power structure. #he woman)s husband asked me, .hy aren)t you married( 0ou have a good ob and are steadily employed. I told him I had a "amily to care "or. #his incident happened when I was living alone/be"ore the "amily oined me in !airo "rom

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Page 74 al-Mahallala Kubra and just before I began teaching at Cairo University. I cannot get arried because I cannot afford to.! "hen y fa ily eventually did settle in Cairo# our t$o fa ilies develo%ed a co fortable friendshi%. &he 'ree (fficers )evolution $as a huge turning %oint for *gy%t. +nother of *gy%t,s turning %oints ha%%ened in -./7. In fact# the $hole +rab $orld changed as a result of the +rab ar ies, hu iliating defeat by Israel in $hat beca e 0no$n as the 1i2-3ay "ar. "e *gy%tians thought $e had created a strong society# one that included a strong ilitary. "e thought $e should have been able to easily %ush Israel into the Mediterranean 1ea. +t that ti e# +rabs su%%orted jihad against the ene y45ionis 4as a good and %ro%er thing to do. 5ionis is all about the creation of a ho eland4a s%ecific %iece of real estate4for the 6e$ish %eo%le. &he 6e$s have been scattered and %ersecuted ever since the )o ans s7uelched the 6e$ish revolt in 6erusale # an event that led to the destruction of their &e %le in 78 C.*. Centuries later 9-:.7;# in <asel# 1$it=erland# &heodor >er=l organi=ed the 'irst 5ionist Congress. <ut it $as the <alfour 3eclaration of -.-7 that gave 5ionis its real i %etus. &he <alfour 3eclaration established the legiti acy of a ho e for 6e$ish %eo%le in Palestine. *ver since then# 6e$ish settle ents have ushroo ed in Palestine# encroaching on and ta0ing over Palestinian land# dis%lacing fa ilies# $rea0ing havoc# and causing econo ic hardshi%. &he defeat in -./7 did not co e as a total sur%rise to e# nor $as it a sur%rise to ost intellectuals. <ut being defeated in a atter of hours $as shoc0ing. I $as not arried at this ti e# but had any friends $ho $ere. I heard story after story fro y friends about ho$ they $ere unable to engage in regular se2ual intercourse $ith their $ives4it $as as though they had been castrated. &he $hole country $as abu== $ith this 0ind of testi ony. Men felt their anhood had been severely co %ro ised. &he defeat $as understood in religious ter s. ?od $as %unishing us4Musli s4because $e had abandoned Isla . +%%arently# ?od $as re$arding the 6e$s. 6udais had triu %hed over secularis . >o$ could Musli s bring about a solution to this hu iliation@ )eturn to Isla . *stablish a strong Isla ic state to co %ete $ith a 6e$ish state. My brother Muha ad too0 %art in this 1i2-3ay "ar# $hich bro0e out on 6une A# -./7. "e had received a letter fro Muha ad the day before# 6une 4. &o$ard the end of 6une# $e began to see soldiers tric0ling bac0 fro 1inai# $here the fighting had ta0en %lace.

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Page 75 There was no organization, no leadershipnothing but chaos in the train and bus stations as the remnants of an army began arriving home. We loo ed for, but did not find, !uhammad. !y mother was beside herself, wailing for her son. "# $ust want to now his whereabouts.% We were prepared to accept his death. We $ust wanted to find his body. &o # went to 'airo, going from office to office, loo ing for any scrap of information that might lead me to !uhammad. (othing. # then went to every hospital in 'airo, chec ing lists of the dead and in$ured, lists that were updated every hour or so. People from all over )gypt had come to the hospitals in 'airoall searching for their sons, brothers, and fathers. &ome of these fol s were illiterate. *ften # would read aloud the names of the dead and wounded from these lists. #t was a terrible e+perience watching family members realize that their fathers, brothers, and sons were wounded orworse yetdead. # spent a month in 'airo searching for my brother. ,inally, # came across the name of !uhammad -bu .aid in one of the hospitals. # felt nothing but relief. # had found him. -ccording to the list, he was in a coma. # didn/t care. 0e was alive. # too what was left of my money and bought some fruit, candy, and nuts. # arrived at his bedside with my offering. !uch to my surprise, this was not my brother. #t was another man with the same name. # left everything there. With no money in my poc et, # was forced to wal an hour and a half to the home of one of my friends from 1uhafa who had moved to 'airo. # then had to wait ten hours for my friend to arrive home from wor . # must have been a sight. "What is wrong2% he as ed me immediately. -fter some food and rest, # returned home. !y efforts to locate !uhammad were fruitless. -bout a month later, we received a letter telling us the location of his army unit. &ayyid 34adriyya/s husband5 and #, laden with food my mother had prepared, raced to the military camp. Thousands of people were sitting on the sand outside the gateall waiting for sons, fathers, and brothers to be notified that their relatives had come to see them. &ayyid and # ept straining our nec s, loo ing for !uhammad to come through the gate. ,inally, a young man approached us. We had not recognized him. "*h, my 6od, is it really you, !uhammad2% # as ed. To this day, !uhammad does not spea of this e+perience. #/ve stopped as ing him about it. #n 'airo, $ust after the &i+78ay War, there were reports that the 9irgin !ary had suddenly appeared on top of one of the churchesa 'optic church. !illions of people gathered around the church, hoping

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Page 76 to get a glimpse of the Virgin. People at this time felt a need for support from sacred figures like Mary. (Mary is a sacred figure to both Muslims and Copts.) At the same time sheikhs (spiritual leaders in the Muslim community) began reporting that the Prophet !as appearing to them in dreams telling them "#f course you must suffer this defeat you ha$e to learn. %f you return to the Prophet&s teachings you !ill be restored and triumph o$er your enemies.' (y this time % had long since applied my critical thinking skills to e$aluate and make sense of !hat !as going on around me. )ot only had % graduated from technical school % !as learning a lot from the day*to*day e+periences of my ,ob. % also continued to read on my o!n a habit begun in childhood. -hen % first began to read seriously literature (poetry and no$els) intrigued me most. .iterature became a stepping*stone to academic te+ts. Philosophy fascinated me particularly the idea of /od. % managed to get hold of books that had been translated into Arabic from 0nglish and 1rench. 2hrough these translations % started to read about %slam from an array of $ie!points. 0$en though % situated myself comfortably !ithin a socialist ideology (and 0gypt at this time had definite socialist leanings) there !as a lack of freedom !ithin the society that grated on me. 2he military trying to create this ,ust and e3uitable society they talked about tightly controlled the people they !ere !orking to free. %t struck me as odd ironic and ultimately un,ust. 2he 4i+*5ay -ar (6767) and the !ar in 6778 (my brother Muhammad took part in this !ar as !ell) marked the end of nationalism and socialism in 0gypt. %slam !as no longer understood in terms of social ,ustice but in terms of po!er. People gradually began to turn to a radicali9ed understanding of %slam. 2he state should be established using %slam itself. After )asser&s death in 677: An!ar al*4adat came to po!er. ;e desperately fought to keep nationalism and socialism at bay<especially as manifested !ithin the student body of the uni$ersity. 4adat put his o!n t!ist on %slam. ;e talked about 0gypt as a state of religion and science. %t !as the first time anybody tried to co$er so many bases<0gypt as a state of religion of faith of science and faith and kno!ledge and faith. ;e also put on 3uite a sho! as he tried to get the message across to the people that he !as at heart a de$out Muslim. 0$ery 1riday he !ould !ear the jalabbiyya (long !hite robe) on his !ay to the mos3ue and as he !orshiped tele$ision cameras captured his image and broadcast it all o$er 0gypt. ;e had the $ery recogni9

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Page 77 able black foreheada sign that he had prostrated himself often in prayer. He was eager to be seen fingering sibha (prayer beads) in public. He adopted the title of The Faithful Presidentthis phrase has a connotation of inspired! in a religious sense. He also initiated the tele"ised call to prayer fi"e times daily. #ll o"er $gypt% prices of basic needs were skyrocketing. The bread strike (&anuary '()*+% '(77) instigated "iolence in the big cities% especially ,airo and #le-andria. The army finally took o"er in order to restore a modicum of peace. .n another front% /adat released members of the 0uslim 1rotherhood who still lingered in 2ail% and for the first time% the 1rotherhood was recogni3edthough not officiallyas a political party. 4t became acti"e in the uni"ersities. 4n 5o"ember '(77% /adat decidedon his ownto "isit &erusalem. The decision seemed to come out of the blue. The message he was trying to con"ey was 6ook% 4 am willing e"en to go to the de"il to bring about peace between 4srael and Palestine.! 0any $gyptians% including myself% thought his "isit 7uite inappropriate. 8e resented what appeared to us to be ma"erick beha"ior. 4t was around this time that /adat became in"ol"ed in the process of establishing peace with 4srael at ,amp 9a"id in the :nited /tates. He again made a ma2or decision (going to ,amp 9a"id) without consulting the $gyptian people or other #rab leaders. #s a result% he recei"ed 7uite a bit of opposition. 4n spite of all of this% /adat did begin to allow some political opposition. He 7uickly grew irritated with this opposition% though% which prompted him in /eptember '(;+ to issue a slew of decrees that led to the arrest of more than fi"e thousand people from different political affiliations% including 4slamists. He then fired faculty from ,airo :ni"ersity who disagreed with his policiesat least si-ty<fi"e profes<sors. 4 was one of those professors. /adat accused us of stirring up conflict between the ,opts and 0uslims. 4n .ctober '(;' the radical underground 4slamic organi3ation al<&ihad assassinated /adat. $gypt was shocked. 9uring the '(7+s% while an assistant lecturer at ,airo :ni"ersity% 4 would often bring current political issues before the students% hoping to open a space for discussion. 4 tied /adat=s political discourse to religious discourse% showing how intertwined the two really are. .n the surface% /adat=s speeches were political% but if we looked at them on a deeper le"el% they were religious.

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Page 78 By peppering his speeches with an inordinate number of Islamic symbols, Sadat tried to make certain ideologies (the transformation of a statecontrolled economy to a free-market economy, for e ample! palatable to the "gyptian people# "$en as li$ing conditions continued to deteriorate, Sadat kept assuring the people that by enacting certain policies, Islam would be protecting pri$ate property# %ll that had been accomplished since the &ree 'fficers (e$olution for the benefit of the poor)land reform, for e ample)went up in smoke# *he land reform law, passed in +,-., limited the si/e of a piece of property that any one person could own to one hundred acres# %nything o$er one hundred acres was taken by the go$ernment and distributed to farmers# Sadat0s go$ernment made an about-face and decided that the land reform law went against sharia, the body of law deri$ed from the 1ur0an and the sunna# 2hen Sadat came to power, he attempted to placate the 3uslim Brotherhood by changing the "gyptian 4onstitution from 5 sharia is one of the sources of legislation6 to read 5 sharia is the principle source of legislation#6 *his makes a big difference# So the go$ernment took the land from families who had worked that land for o$er twenty-fi$e years and returned it to the original landowners# % reshuffling# *he inheritance ta law also went against sharia, according to Sadat0s go$ernment# *a es ought not to be taken from people who ha$e inherited property# *his goes against 7od0s will# %ll the laws intended to create economic 8ustice were considered to be against sharia# Sadat also spoke to the people with the authority of an imam (religious leader!, 9uoting long passages from the 1ur0an before addressing "gyptians as though they were his sub8ects# :e0d say, 52hen I was assigned to rule you,6 and then continue with his prepared speech# ;asser had always addressed "gyptians as 5Brothers and Sisters6 or 5<adies and 7entlemen,6 and sometimes 8ust 54iti/ens#6 Sadat e uded a pomposity that I found difficult to swallow# In spite of Sadat0s outward display of religiosity, "gypt0s wealth remained in the hands of an elite minority# 3ost "gyptians were dirt poor# It was hard to belie$e that a president who sanctioned such economic disparity would really be interested in what I always considered to be the heart of Islam)social 8ustice# "gypt in the +,7=s produced a type of businessman who seemed to get rich o$ernight# *hese businessmen created no producti$e pro8ects in "gypt, nor did they employ people# *hey were commissioners, e porting things# *hey were not engaged in a producti$e economic sys

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Page 79 tem. The middle class started to lose ground. As a university professor, I belonged to this middle class, but I found it harder and harder to make ends meet. With the salary I earned at the university, I as not able to rent my o n apartment. !ven though I as thirty"plus years old, I as forced to continue to live ith my family in a very small apartment. The gap bet een rich and poor idened. #oung people could see no comfortable future for themselves. I remember being $uite vocal at this time, $uestioning ho in the orld anybody could use Islam to %ustify a political system that produced such economic suffering. &adat, using all the religious symbolism he could muster 'T(, prayer beads, blackened forehead, The )aithful President*, attempted to bend Islam to serve his o n purposes. It galled me. I come from a poor family. I belong to the poor. I defend the rights of the poor. This is here I stand. )or years, I believed that Islam could be interpreted only as a religion of social %ustice. +f course, I have to apply the same criti$ue to my thinking as I do to all other thinking. ,ut ho is it that the meaning of Islam could be manipulated so easily- Islam.s meaning kept changing and transforming, depending on hat ideology one brought to the religion. /ust hat is the relationship bet een ideology and interpretation of te0t- That became a burning $uestion for me. Today, I still identify ith the oppressed, although my vision has e0panded to include not %ust the eak or the poor in the 1uslim orld, but the oppressed throughout the entire orld. And this is here I find myself2defending the rights of the poor no matter ho they are or here they might be. I don.t restrict my efforts on behalf of the poor and oppressed to the religious realm. 3o can I hold to certain beliefs '%ustice, compassion, freedom*, beliefs taken from the 4ur.an, and not have those beliefs spill over into my thinking in the political arena- &o, given the $uestion of hat many people, especially in the West, refer to as suicide bombing, here do I stand- I stand ith the oppressed2people ho are fighting for the freedom of their land. I as invited to a Palestinian camp hen I visited 5amascus in April 6776. 5uring this visit, many people asked me, 8What do you think of the Islam of martyrdom- Where do you stand-9 +f course, I stand ith the Palestinians. I am all for fighting against the Israeli +ccupation. When people have no eapons ith hich to fight, they make themselves into eapons. This is legitimate. To give this hole thing the label of a religious ar, ell, that.s orrisome.

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Page 80 I am well aware of the Arab publicity regarding martyrdom bombing. You know the scene. A father and mother rejoicepraise odwhen they reali!e their child has just been blown to bits. "nfortunately# people belie$e the publicitythe marketing of these kinds of images has been effecti$e. %hat much of the world fails to understand is that people in Arab societies are not allowed to e&press their true feelings. 'hey e&press what they are e&pected to e&press. (o you really belie$e that a mother and father are happy because their son or daughter died) If so# you are swallowing the propaganda. And that*s e&actly what I told the Palestinians who asked me what I thought of the Islam of martyrdom. (o we really belie$e that these parents at the end of the day# when they close the door behind them to go into their home# are rejoicing o$er the death of their child) %e need to learn to e&press our true feelings. Are we really happy that our children ha$e to be bombs) %e don*t ha$e to celebrate death. I understand that when people feel there is no other way to defend themsel$es# martyrdom bombing seems the only way to go. +owe$er# we ha$e to think about innocent people# and frankly# I don*t buy the idea that all Israelis support their own military society. %e really should e&plain to the world that we are sorry for what we are doing# but we feel we ha$e no other option. 'his is not a religious war. ,abeling it as such -and it has been called a religious war since ./081 is counterproducti$e to finding a solution to the fighting. (on*t belie$e this line. If we are indeed fighting a religious war# then we ha$e already lost. 2ur religion is based on 3udaism. You cannot destroy 3udaism without destroying Islam. %e are not against the 3ewish people. %e are against the Israeli 2ccupationperhaps e$en against the concept of an Israeli state for the 3ewish people. I was trying my best not to offend the people# but I wanted to e&pand their $ision of the world and# at the same time# be sincere about my feelings. I talked about the 4rench resistance against the 5a!is during %orld %ar II. %hen a soldier went up against the 5a!is# he carried no name and no rank. %e are stupid. %hen we go up against our oppressors# we publici!e the name of the soldier and the names of his or her family. %hat kind of war is this) 'his is a show. %e are making a show of the blood of our childrensomething we ought not to be $ery happy about. If death is an option# it should come as a last resort and we should feel $ery sorry that we could find no other way to resol$e our problems.

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Page 81 When I look at Jewish history, there is no way not to stand against the oppression that the Jews have been subject to over the yearsincluding the Holocaust !o downplay the Holocaust is a gross "istake It doesn#t "atter how "any Jewish people were killed It#s not a "atter o$ nu"bers It#s a "atter o$ persecuting people just because they are di$$erent in so"e way Israel, though, has at this point beco"e an oppressor %long that sa"e line, nothing justi$ies the cowardly, terrible attack against the %"erican people on &epte"ber 11, '((1 )othing* !his was cri"inal behavior, and cri"inals "ust be con$ronted with their cri"e I a" against any kind o$ oppression &o"eti"es it is di$$icult to di$$erentiate between an oppressor and one who is oppressed I see it in ter"s o$ the power$ul and the weak Power can be wielded in the political sphere, within the "ilitary, and certainly within the religious cadre People can use physical power to e+ploit as well &o"eti"es the powerless beco"e power$ul and then beco"e oppressors the"selves !he issue has nothing to do with speci$ic religious or social a$$iliation !hese boundaries are $luid, changing easily )owadays, I a" a de$ender o$ the rights o$ ,opts in "y country %lso, I work $or the rights o$ wo"en I#ve written a book on that subject, titled Circles of Fear: Analysis of the Discourse about Women - &o"eti"es, within an .gyptian conte+t, I#ll de$end the right o$ Isla"ists to speak out in a $ree political "arket How could I not/ &o, even though I had so"e initial "isgivings, it pleased "e no end to accept the 0reedo" o$ Worship 1edal in conjunction with $our other recipients at the 0ranklin 2 3oosevelt 0our 0reedo"s %wards cere"ony in June '((' !he 0our 0reedo"s 1edal was given to )elson 1andela4 the 0reedo" o$ &peech %ward went to 3adio 0ree .urope53adio 6iberty4 the 0reedo" $ro" Want 1edal was awarded to 2r 7ro Harle" 8rundtland4 and the 0reedo" $ro" 0ear 1edal was presented to .rnesto 9edillo Ponce de 6eon I was in Paris when I received the letter no"inating "e $or the 0reedo" o$ Worship 1edal I wondered why the 0ranklin and .leanor 3oosevelt Institute, an %"erican institution, would select "e to be the recipient o$ this award Why "e/ Why this year/ 8la"e it all on "y critical "ind When .btehal and I discussed "y "isgivings, she thought that the reputation o$ an institute such as the one carrying 3oosevelt#s na"e went beyond %"erica

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Page 82 I agreed. But I feared the reaction in Egypt as well as the rest of the Muslim world. I just knew people would say, !". #ou now ha$e the official %lessing of &merica. 'e thought you were their puppet all along, and it looks as though our suspicions were not unfounded.( )ellow Muslims ha$e often accused me*especially since +,,2*of %eing hea$ily influenced %y the 'est. I discussed my dilemma with friends, of course. !ne friend*someone I thought for sure would tell me to steer clear of accepting such an award*told me he-d come from .airo to %e with me during the presentation. I ended up taking the ad$ice of my friends, %ut I remem%er telling E%tehal, I will go to the ceremony where the /ueen of the 0etherlands and &merican people will %e present. I will insist on wearing the Palestinian scarf on my shoulders %ecause I want to send a message to the &merican people and to the world.( & few days %efore the ceremony, &m%assador 'illiam 1. 2anden 3eu$el, the co4chairman of the )ranklin and Eleanor 5oose$elt Institute, came to the 0etherlands. 'e had dinner together. 3e said, I-$e read a%out you. I-m fascinated with your ideas.( 6hank you,( I said. I do ha$e a /uestion for you, and I need an honest answer. 'ere you specifically looking for a Muslim to award this pri7e to this year8( 3onestly,( he said, yes.( 3is candor took me a%ack. I-m not accustomed to such honesty from officials. 3e continued, 'e needed to gi$e a message to the Muslim world and to the &merican people that we are not against Muslims. 6o tell you the truth, we had no idea a%out you.( 3ow is it, then, that you found out a%out me8( I asked. I knew that the pri7e is gi$en during odd years in &merica and in the 0etherlands during e$en years. 6he 5oose$elts, of course, come from a 9utch %ackground. &m%assador 2anden 3eu$el said that they had held a meeting and decided that if they could find a Muslim scholar or indi$idual who %elie$ed in the %asic principles 5oose$elt stood for, they-d like $ery much to award the pri7e to that indi$idual. 'e left that matter in the hands of the people of :eeland in the 0etherlands, and to our surprise the editor of the newspaper of :eeland pointed us in your direction.( 6he editor was at ;eiden <ni$ersity in +,,= on a si>4month scholarship. 3e knew me only %y name, and forwarded my name to a representati$e from the Institute with this ca$eat, I don-t know anything

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Page 83 about Abu Zaids work. During the time this particular editor was studying at Leiden most people knew about the problems ! had "aced in my country#problems that e$entually "orced me into e%ile. &he editor also passed on the name o" Pro"essor 'illiam (tokho" e%ecuti$e director o" Leiden )ni$ersitys !nternational !nstitute "or Asian (tudies the man behind bringing me to Leiden )ni$ersity in *++,. Ambassador -anden .eu$el contacted Pro"essor (tokho" who then nominated me "or the award. /'e belie$e the pro"essors nomination was remarkable#0uite e%cellent the ambassador assured me. !n light o" this con$ersation it became an e$en more pressing issue "or me to wear the Palestinian scar" draped o$er my shoulders as a symbol o" solidarity with the Palestinians who su""er daily. &he Americans ha$e something to say and ! ha$e something to say as well. A Dutch reporter at the ceremony asked me /Dont you think that the !nstitute is e%posing itsel" to a lot o" criticism gi$ing you this medal because you are a 1uslim2 /3ou may be right ! said /but !m always e%posed to a lot o" criticism. !" the !nstitute is sacri"icing something please be aware that ! am making a sacri"ice as well in accepting it. /&his is $ery arrogant he shot back at me. /4o your 0uestion is arrogant ! insisted. /!" this !nstitute is making a sacri"ice ! too am making a sacri"ice ! repeated. !n the end the ceremony went o"" well. &he American ambassador attended the e$ent. ! was especially mo$ed by the speech o" Anna 5leanor 6oose$elt a direct descendant o" 7ranklin and 5leanor.8 9oth 5btehal and ! wore the black and white Palestinian scar" around our shoulders symbolically representing our brothers and sisters whose $oices are not being heard.

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Page 85 6 My American Adventure I greatly benefited from an exchange program in place between Cairo University and the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. I was awarded a scholarship that enabled me to live and study in the United States for two years !"#8 through !"8$. I was wor%ing toward my Ph.&. at the time. 'fficially I was to study fol%lore and learn about the methodology of fieldwor%. (nd I did)on my own terms. I traveled all over the United States visiting several campuses including UC*( +er%eley and Princeton. I also visited libraries throughout the country and toured interesting places in the ,est)-evada California and 'regon. I was young. I purchased round.trip tic%ets on buses planes and trains. I spent a good deal of my money on transportation. It was worth it. I wanted to learn as much as possible. ,hat better way than to visit a wide variety of places/ 'ne day 0ust after I had returned to Philadelphia from a trip around the country 1om -eff caught up with me. 1om was the director of the Institute of 2iddle 3astern Studies and I was responsible to him. 4e loo%ed somewhat fra55led. 4e grabbed me by the arm and as%ed 6,here have you been for the past two months/7 6I made a trip across the United States 7 I answered. 6&id you visit universities/7 he as%ed. 6'f course. I visited libraries as well.7 I told him about the stac% of photocopied boo%s I had managed to gather together.

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Page 86 OK, he said. I can pay you back for this trip. Bring me your ticket stubs. hat you!"e been doing is a## part of your scho#astic effort$I don!t consider it a %aste of time at a##. I %as stunned, but de#irious#y happy. I had e#e"en do##ars and some change #eft o"er from my tra"e#s. hen I first arri"ed in the &tates, I began my e'p#oration %ith Phi#ade#phia itse#f. I found that Phi#ade#phia is di"ided$not (ust into )orth Phi##y and &outh Phi##y, but underground and abo"eground. Buses, genera##y speaking, %ere for %hite fo#ks. &ub%ays, on the other hand, %ere the domain of b#ack peop#e. &ometimes, I!d go to c#ubs that b#ack peop#e fre*uented. I a#%ays had a good time #istening to the music and #etting myse#f get caught up in the atmosphere. I had a terrifying e'perience, though, one night after #ea"ing one of these c#ubs to head home. It %as *uite #ate, and I noticed se"era# b#ack teenagers (ust hanging about in the sub%ay station. +hey encirc#ed me. I thought for sure my number %as up. I p#ayed it as coo# as I cou#d. One of them asked me, here are you from, -frica, I ans%ered. +hey seemed interested, so I asked them, -re you fami#iar %ith -frica, I am from a p#ace in -frica ca##ed .gypt. I had been in the &tates #ong enough by this time to kno% that most b#ack -mericans kne% their ancestors came from -frica, but they didn!t kno% much e#se about that continent. I am teaching and studying, I continued. Oh, he!s a teacher. /ou hear that, 0e teaches. +hey %ere mocking me. hat do you teach, one of the more outspoken boys demanded. I teach -rabic, I ans%ered. 0e then asked, hy don!t you in"ite us to your p#ace to ha"e a drink, /es, %hy not, I ans%ered. It!s "ery #ate. If you %ou#d #ike to come, %e can ha"e something to drink together. 0o%e"er, I must get to bed soon because I ha"e to teach a c#ass in the morning. +hey seemed surprised at my response. 1rank#y, I cou#d not be#ie"e I %as asking these young men to come home %ith me to ha"e a drink, but I %as afraid to te## them no. e took the sub%ay. 1or the entire trip, my thoughts centered on the si' of them getting inside my apartment and ki##ing me. hen %e fina##y did arri"e at my apartment, one of them asked, hat do you ha"e to drink, I!d #ike a beer. e##, I said, I don!t ha"e any beer, because I don!t drink a#coho#. But you can ha"e tea, coffee, orange (uice, or mi#k.

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Page 87 Why dont you drink alcohol? They seemed to all ask me at once before one of them got specific. re you a !eho"ahs Witness? #o$ % am &uslim. 'rinking alcohol is against my religious tradition$ % replied. They looked at me some(hat suspiciously$ but didnt press me any further. )o % ser"ed these si* teenagers drinks from among the choices % had gi"en them. While they (ere in my apartment$ they (ere +uite polite. They asked serious +uestions about my teaching$ and after a fe( minutes$ each one of them thanked me$ saying$ We really en,oyed your company. nd they left in peace. % like to think that my respectful attitude to(ard them had a"erted a "iolent attack. &ost of all$ % felt lucky that % had not been slaughtered in cold blood. While % (as tra"eling around the -nited )tates .% belie"e % (as in Portland$ /regon0$ % stumbled across (hat looked like one of the black clubs that % hung out at occasionally in Philadelphia. % (as hungry$ and ducked inside to get a bite to eat. %t took a minute or t(o to take in the (hole scene$ but after looking around a bit$ % thought % had dropped into a gay bar. % sat do(n at a table. (oman .this seemed odd0 approached me. 'o you mind if % sit (ith you? she asked. % motioned for her to sit do(n$ and (e began to talk. fter e*changing a fe( pleasantries$ (e spoke on more personal terms. % got the impression that she (as interested in (hat mericans call ha"ing some fun. )he (anted a se*ual encounter. Where are you staying? she asked me. %m staying at a hotel do(n the street$ % replied. % think she ,ust assumed % (ould be interested in ha"ing a se*ual escapade (ith her. )he continued speaking (ith that assumption in mind. % ha"e to tell you something before (e go on. nd she told me she (as a man$ (aiting for a se*1change operation. 2er or his emotions$ she or he assured me$ (ere that of a (oman. %f % (ere (illing$ she or he could really satisfy me. % (as taken some(hat aback$ but did not (ant to be rude. % had ne"er before been approached by a man .under the guise of a (oman0 for se*. % must ha"e appeared a little disoriented to him. 'o you despise me no(? he asked. #o$ of course not$ % ans(ered. % could honestly say that % had no contempt for him. % could only imagine ho( difficult he must ha"e found his current situation. We can continue to talk? he asked. Why not? % replied. Would you like me to sho( you around the city? he asked. 3ou"e ,ust arri"ed and you are lea"ing tomorro(. % ha"e a car. We

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Page 88 could spend the day together. We did just that. I had a wonderful time. My culture does not easily tolerate what Islam defines to be aberrant sexual behavior. omosexuality and transvestism fall under that category. People call it all !inds of things"sin# crime# going against nature# and going against $od%s will. Must I# though# as a Muslim stand behind my culture# judging and condemning people who color outside orthodox lines& It%s easy to get on the bandwagon and ta!e cheap shots at people who are different. 'hrough my experience in this transvestite bar# I discovered that I am open to understanding behavior that perhaps theoretically I cannot accept. I developed friendships with homosexual people while living in the (tates"some of them I remember as extremely creative people# wor!ing as artists and musicians. I li!ed many of them and even grew to admire some of them. I never was able to write about this experience in )gypt# though. )ven my intellectual friends would not have understood. 'hey would have thought it all so weird. I could only imagine what the reaction in the press might have been. Much later *May +,,-.# after I had begun my life in exile in the /etherlands# I received a phone call from 0r. 1udolph (teinberger# a psychologist# as!ing to meet with me. 'urns out that his specialty was dealing with homosexuality in the Muslim world. e told me that many homosexuals come to the /etherlands from 2fghanistan# Pa!istan# Iran# and other Middle )astern Muslim countries when they reali3e they are homosexual. It%s difficult for them to live in societies where homosexuality is loo!ed upon as criminal behavior. 'here is no specific verse in the 4ur%an condemning homosexuality5 however# the story of (odom and $omorrah *$od destroys these cities with fire. implies condemnation of men having sex with one another. I wasn%t sure how I could help 0r. (teinberger and told him as much. e assured me that if I gave him a little time# he was sure our discussion would impact his wor! positively. e came to my office. We tal!ed for over three hours# hitting on a whole array of subjects. What is the relationship between Islamic culture and 2rabic culture& What about pre6Islamic culture& What does manhood mean in 2rabic culture& What about friendship& ow do women and men relate to one another in Muslim societies& 'he man could really dig. 0r. (teinberger was catalytic in my enlightenment. I learned from him that homosexuality is not a disease. 'his was new information to

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Page 89 me. Biologically speaking, he said, homosexuals are differentgenetically. We discussed the history of homosexuality. Something has gone aske in a society,! the doctor said, hen that society doesn"t recogni#e and accept differences $et een and among its indi%idual mem$ers.! & $ecame more a are of homosexuality as a natural phenomenon. & ha%e made friends ith people ithin the homosexual community in the 'etherlands. (hey feel free to discuss ith me some of the difficulties they experience ith their partners. & listen. People are people. (hey experience the same kind of dynamics ithin their relationships as e%ery$ody else does. Will &slam e%er accept homosexuality as anything other than a$errant) 'ot until e ha%e a real re%olutiona change in the ay e think a$out the *ur"an in con+unction ith our li%es. ,urists, scholars of la , throughout &slamic history ha%e culled legal principles from the *ur"an $ased on induction and deduction of certain texts. (hese scholars incorporated another sourcethe Prophetic tradition, or sunna. (his $ecame the second source of legislation. (he *ur"an and the sunna ere not sufficient to deal ith the increasing political, social, economic, and criminal pro$lems, so the +urists adopted a third principle $ased on already agreed-upon, practiced legal rules called consensus .ijm/ of the earliest 0uslim generationthe companions of the Prophet. 1 fourth principle, rational in2uiry .ijtihd/, needed to $e esta$lished in order to sol%e the pro$lems not sol%ed $y using the three other sources. (his principle of ijtihd, though, as restricted to the use of analogy. 1 solution to a certain pro$lem could $e reached only $y comparing its position to a similar pro$lem pre%iously sol%ed $y any of the other three sources. (hese four sources make up hat 0uslims call sharia la . Sharia la is human la . (here is nothing di%ine a$out it. When e look at certain legal stipulations spoken a$out in the *ur"an, such as the penalties for fornication, ro$$ery, murder, or causing social disorder, e need to ask certain 2uestions. 1re the stipulated penalties initiated $y &slam) 3an e consider them to $e &slamic) 4efinitely not. (he penalties meted out for such offenses ere used in pre-&slamic timessome of them come from 5oman la and some from ,e ish tradition. 6thers go further $ack. &n modern timestimes in hich all kinds of human rights legislation is initiatedmany people $alk at the thought of amputating parts of the human $ody or taking the life of an indi%idual as di%inely inspired and, therefore, o$ligatory as punishment for crime.

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Page 90 Other aspects of sharia, such as those dealing with religious minorities, womens rights, and other human rights (such as those of homosexuals) need to be reconsidered as well. The ob of the urists has alwa!s been to loo" for principles of law within sharia and then appl! those principles in different social contexts. The #uran is not a law boo". There are legal principles found within the #uran. These principles lea$e a wide space for human interpretation and reinterpretation. To claim that the bod! of sharia literature is binding for all %uslim communities, regardless of time and place, is to ascribe di$init! to human thought as it has de$eloped throughout histor!. &hen urists loo" for legal principles, the! wor" under the umbrella of fi$e agreed'upon #uranic ob ecti$es. (n! law drawn up b! urists must be in agreement with those ob ecti$es. )f there is an! contradiction between a law and the principles set out b! the ob ecti$es, the law cannot be considered #uranic. Those ob ecti$es are protection of life, protection of progen!, protection of sanit!, protection of propert!, and protection of religion or faith. The! ha$e a uni$ersal scope and ha$e become part of what is "nown as classical )slam. *lassical )slam reached its final expression in the thirteenth centur!. (ll the boo"s toda! on sharia law repeat the understanding our ancestors had reached b! the thirteenth centur!. There has been no de$elopment in sharia law since that time. The conclusions our ancestors came to were on the cutting edge of their time. Toda! we ha$e more "nowledge to wor" with, !et )slamic thought in all its aspects remains static, ha$ing come to a screeching halt centuries ago. )t was also through discussion with +r. ,teinberger that ) reali-ed something about m! culture that heretofore ) had not been able to see. Our societ!, at least publicl!, is based on friendship between men. %en feel ownership toward their male friends in a wa! that men and women often feel toward each other when the! are in a committed relationship. )t is not unusual to hear a man sa! to his friend, ./ou are m! friend. &h! did !ou do this 0whate$er1 to me2 3ow could !ou ma"e such a decision without consulting me24 ) disco$ered5and it was 6uite a re$elation to me at the time5that in a societ! where there is little opportunit! for the sexes to mix freel!, men easil! form strong bonds with other men. (n unhealth! possessi$eness toward one another can and does emerge. &here$er this "ind of possessi$eness (parent7child, husband7wife) ta"es root, trouble follows close behind. ( person needs to be free to ma"e his or her own choices according to his or her conscience, not be constrained b! anothers.

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Page 91 When I married Ebtehal in 1992, my friends were surprised. Ebtehal is outspoken, an intellectual, and a professor at airo !ni"ersity. In Egyptian society, her outspoken beha"ior and intellectual bent label her as unfeminine. I like to think that human beings, both female and male, possess traits that culture labels masculine or feminine. #orcing women into specific roles defined by a society as feminine and men into specific roles defined as masculine is oppressi"e$mainly to women. Women, generally speaking, are more constrained. Ebtehal%s father was unusual in that he went against con"entional family wisdom and allowed his only daughter &Ebtehal has a brother' to tra"el alone to #rance, study, and come home again. (t any rate, my male friends had no inkling whatsoe"er that I was about to marry Ebtehal. When the nuptials were o"er and they reali)ed that I had not discussed the matter with them, they were angry, saying that I had betrayed them by not consulting with them. *ow, I am thoroughly Egyptian. Egyptian ways of being and doing oo)e from my pores. +ut it seemed inappropriate to me that those friends e,pressed such anger. -etting married was a decision Ebtehal and I made together. +ut my friends had e,pected me to consult with them. Pri"acy is something I learned to appreciate while li"ing in the .tates. When I returned to Egypt after my two/year so0ourn in (merica, one of my professors, who is like my godfather, greeted me with a barrage of 1uestions$some of them innocuous and general &What did you study2 Where did you "isit2', others more intrusi"e and offensi"e &3ow much money did you sa"e2'. I answered as best I could before he started to report on what e"ery one of my friends had done while I studied in the .tates. I stopped him. 4Please don%t,5 I said. 4*o doubt if one of our friends told you something, he told you in confidence. If he would like to tell me, then he will. 6here is this thing called pri"acy. What I tell you about myself, maybe I would not tell others. We ha"e to respect that.5 6he professor laughed$either out of embarrassment or out of surprise. Perhaps a mi,ture of the two. 4.o this is what you ha"e learned in the .tates25 he asked. 47es, one of the things I learned. (nd what a relief it is not to ha"e e"erybody%s nose in e"erybody else%s business and to respect the secrets people gi"e to you.5 Perhaps my father%s death when I was fourteen ga"e me space to mo"e about$a space that would not ha"e been there had he li"ed. I disco"ered I did not need to get permission or appro"al from folks

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Page 92 as I went about my business. Since I could not depend on the authority of a father as I approached manhood, and because mothers do not carry that same authority in Egyptian society, I learned early in life that there were consequences I had to live with as a result of ma ing certain choices. I made some inappropriate choices. I learned by ma ing mista es. !ut having that freedom to ma e my own decisions"well, I wouldn#t want it any other way. So I chided my friends a bit, as ing them, $%hen you decided to marry, did you consider my opinion& 'ot that I believe you should have, but if you don#t li e my wife, this is your problem. I#m not as ing you to love my wife. %hat is your complaint with me&( )ost of them did not understand. *ow could they& +he Egyptian way of doing things was the only way they new. )y e,perience in -merica broadened my worldview. I would often get together with other students and chat with them over coffee. I still count many of these people as my friends. !y living in a culture different from my own, I learned not to .udge another culture by my own society#s standards. I became less ethnocentric. I became eager to learn what ma es -merican people tic . %hat ind of thin ing fuels their perspective on things& %hen I first moved to Philadelphia, I rented an apartment from an elderly woman. -s she handed me the ey to my new quarters, she as ed me, $%here are you from, son&( In the late /901s, people too one loo at me and new I wasn#t -merican2born and 2bred. I#m short and round, and have a dar comple,ion. $I am from Egypt,( I said. $Egypt& %here is Egypt&( she as ed. $Egypt is in -frica,( I answered. She stared at me with a blan e,pression, so I continued. $3ou now, the Pyramids, the Sphin,. Egyptian civili4ation has been around for at least seven thousand years.( $'o, that#s impossible,( she was quic to reply. $*ow so&( I as ed. $%e are tal ing about history.( $%ell, according to the !ible, life began only about five thousand years ago,( she said. I didn#t discuss the issue further with her. It did not seem to me that anything fruitful would have emerged had we continued our conversation"so sure was she about her biblical facts. !ut as I began piecing -merican culture together, I reali4ed that there are a significant number of fol s in the States who rely on the !ible as a primary

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Page 93 source of historical fact. (Many Muslims rely on the Quran in the same way.) I had another conversation with an elderly woman in an American su ermar!et. "he was wheeling a cat around in her sho ing cart. As the cat was a#out to $um out% I caught it and laced it #ac! in the cart. "he than!ed me and then as!ed me where I was from. I told her I was from &gy t. 'he woman frowned. (o dou#t% in her mind% Ara#s were a monolithic lot. "he as!ed% )*hy dont you acce t the +ews to live with you,- I assumed she was referring to Palestine and Israel. )I #elieve it is the +ews in Israel who cannot acce t the Palestinians living with them%- I said. 'he woman continued to frown. )'his is the Promised .and that Isaac inherited from his father% A#raham.I calmly res onded% )'his is true. *e are tal!ing a#out the Promised .and% #ut A#raham had two sons/Isaac and Ishmael. 0oes it seem right to you that A#raham would single out $ust one son% Isaac% for an inheritance,"he sur rised me #y saying% )1es% yes% of course% A#raham had two sons.)1ou are right%- I re lied. )I thin! thats one of the reasons why the +ewish eo le need to acce t the Palestinians/the descendants of Ishmael/to live with them.&ngaging fol!s in conversations such as this hel ed me to understand the inherent assum tions eo le have/assum tions that lay out in concrete ways through the #ehavior of individuals in any given society. *hen enough individual eo le #ehave ali!e% the society ta!es on a distinctive sha e or flavor. 0ating American women was a daunting e2 erience for me. In &gy t% there was never any 3uestion as to who ays the #ill for dinner or even $ust coffee. 'he man does% of course. "ometimes% in my haste to ay the #ill% some American women accused me of atroni4ing them. If I were to hold a door o en for a college coed% Id run the ris! of #eing accused of atroni4ing her. I learned to ad$ust. 5inding humor in my )mista!eswent miles in easing these social situations. 6nce I was telling my friends a#out the great time my date and I had together. I mentioned that I wanted )to satisfy- her. 'hey laughed% telling me that it would #e more a ro riate for me to say that I wanted )to lease- her. )"atisfy- carries a se2ual connotation. I learned a lot a#out American culture #y loo!ing at how Americans use language. I

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Page 94 would not have learned nearly as much had I stuck to the language of academic discourse prevalent in the university. Thats why I went outside the university as much as possible and mixed with people from all walks of life. hile living in Philadelphia! I felt right at home with Tom "eff! the director of the Institute of #iddle $astern %tudies! and his wife! &ane. The couple had lived in $gypt for seven years while Tom worked at the 'merican (niversity in )airo. The first time I had dinner at their house! &ane gave me pointers on how best to maneuver mealtime with 'merican families. *+ook! "asr!, she said! *I am going to act with you as I would with an $gyptian family. I am -ust going to put food on your plate. If you say! .Thank you! thats enough! I wont stop piling the food on your plate., %he told me that Id probably be invited to eat with 'merican families. *If you say! .Thank you! people will think you dont want any more food. They will take you at your word and not offer you any more food., &ane also told me that if some item /)oke! mustard! tea0 was not on the table! it was not impolite to ask for it. This is very impolite in $gyptian society. I appreciated her telling me these things. "onetheless! I still found it difficult to put the information she passed on to me into practice. 1ne day! &ane called me on the phone. *+ets have lunch together!, she suggested. I made some small talk! asking her how Tom was doing even though I saw Tom every day at the university. *2ou know we are separated!, she offered. *"o! I didnt know. Tom did not tell me., Their separation surprised me. They had been married a long time and had grown children. %he then told me she wanted to meet with me. e were acting like $gyptians. In $gypt! if there is a dispute between a husband and a wife! a third party can feel 3uite free to step in and try to bring the couple back together. 4ut I knew how 'mericans felt about marriage5it is a private matter. I still offered to help. *If theres anything I can do!, I said! my voice trailing off. *6o what your heart tells you to do!, &ane responded. I figured she was asking me to do something. The next day I met Tom in the office. *I had lunch with &ane yesterday and she told me that you are separated., Tom was kind! but he cut me off nonetheless. *"asr! Im sorry! but this is not your business. In addition! we dont want to add to your troubles and burden you with our problems., /#y sister 4adriyya had recently died.0

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Page 95 I may have called Jane once after my conversation with Tom, but for all intents and purposes, that conversation with Tom ended further contact with her. Through this experience, I understood a little more about the way mericans go about marriage and divorce. !enerally spea"ing, in #gypt, it$s unusual to even thin" about separation and divorce after twenty years of marriage%especially if there are grown children. I made no &udgment about Tom and Jane. s an outsider, I felt I could not possibly "now all the ins and outs of the situation. #gyptian rabs in a similar predicament would wonder, '(ow can I start my life over again at this point)* I had no way of "nowing it then, but a do+en or so years down the road, I would face a situation similar to the one Tom and Jane faced during this time. mong the things I too" advantage of while studying at the ,niversity of Pennsylvania was the huge offering of courses%courses that pointed the way to other disciplines%especially sociology and anthropology and the study of culture in general. -y academic experience in the .tates turned out to be /uite fruitful. I did a lot of reading on my own, especially in the fields of philosophy and hermeneutics. (ermeneutics, the science of interpreting texts, opened up a brand0new world for me. The science of hermeneutics was first applied to biblical texts. 1iterature, anthropology, and even psychology have appropriated hermeneutical principles as a tool in their research. (uman sciences rely on textual interpretation 2texts include speech, dreams, and individual cultures3, not on the controlled laboratory experiment, as a way of coming to "nowledge. The 4ur$an, the sacred text of Islam, is !od$s speech. !od too" the initiative and communicated with human beings through the Prophet -uhammad at a particular time 2seventh century3 and in a particular place 2 rabian Peninsula3. -uslims are in agreement with each other about this. The word 4ur$an itself means 'to recite.* 5hen analy+ing the first vision of -uhammad%the first session of revelation%what we notice is that -uhammad reported information to us. 5e were not there. 6obody was there. fter his vision, -uhammad told his companions that he had met an angel who had spo"en to him. 5hat we have is -uhammad$s word that this angel who spo"e to him revealed to him the 5ord of !od. 7id !od really spea" through an angel to -uhammad) If so, we have no idea what "ind of language the angel used. There is no way we can "now such a thing. -uslims have speculated ever since the seventh century about this first session of revelation. .peculation

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Page 96 inevitably leads to the making of hypotheses. But all we know for sure is that Muhammad told his companions that an angel revealed to him the Word of God. Muhammad then repeated the message. o what do we have! "he word of Muhammad reporting what he asserts is the Word of God. "his is the #ur$an. Muslims believe that Muhammad received the Word of God. "here is no dispute among Muslims about this. We believe Muhammad. We believe he is telling us the truth. But% at the end of the day% it is Muhammad% the human being% reporting to us the Word of God. "here is no way to test or prove that the #ur$an is the Word of God. Based on the information we have% we cannot establish absolute facts. We have room to maneuver% though% when we think of the Word of God as reported to Muhammad as a means to understand the Word of God. o &ust what is the Word of God! "here are passages in the #ur$an that tell us that God$s Word cannot be contained. ' cited one of these passages earlier. God$s Word goes beyond anything we can take in through the use of our senses and then record. 'f you were to take the #ur$an(the te)t we have today(you could easily write it all down in a couple of hours% using one pen and a container of ink. * distinction must be made between the absolute Word of God and the #ur$an. "he Word of God in the #ur$an can best be described as a manifestation of the Word of God. "herefore% there are other manifestations of the Word of God. God does not speak only *rabic. God speaks no specific language as we understand language. o if God has no specific language% this opens up a space for other criptures to be recogni+ed as manifestations of God$s Word as well. *ll these manifestations of the Word of God come to us by way of human beings. ,uman beings such as Moses% -esus% the apostles% and Muhammad report the Word of God through language. We$ve come% then% to an important point. What do we mean when we talk about language! .anguage does not emerge from a vacuum. .anguage has a cultural% social% and political conte)t. ,uman beings populate these conte)ts. ,uman beings% living throughout the world in specific places at specific times% leave their mark on language. o if we look to understand the Word of God as manifested in a specific te)t /#ur$an% ,ebrew Bible% or the 0ew "estament1% it is imperative that we understand the history of the te)t. ome people resist looking at God$s Word as a document e)pressed in human language% thinking that understanding sacred te)t

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Page 97 in such a way goes against belief or faith. What kind of language did God use to communicate with humanity? When you speak to a young child, what does that language look and sound like? Would you speak to a youngster with the same language you would use with a mature adult? Would you use academic language to get your point across? Not if you want the child to understand. ou use a language the child can access. ou adapt your language to the child!s language. "f you don!t, there is no communication. #o when we talk about God communicating with humanity, what we ha$e in the %ur!an is human language. &he Word of God needed to adapt itself'become human'because God wanted to communicate to human beings. "f God spoke God(language, human beings would understand nothing. "t!s like a professor talking about )ristotelian philosophy to his two(year(old. &he child has no conte*t in which to recei$e )ristotelian philosophy. +hristians belie$e that God re$ealed himself in the actual humanity ,flesh and blood- of .esus. &herefore, .esus is both human and di$ine. /uslims belie$e that God re$ealed himself in the %ur!an. &herefore, the %ur!an is both human and di$ine. 0ow are we to understand this dual nature of the %ur!an? 0ow do the human aspect and the di$ine aspect fit together? Was the human aspect made di$ine, or was the di$ine aspect made human? When we read the %ur!an, we certainly find the imprint of history. "t is ob$ious in so many passages. We follow /uhammad to specific geographic places as he tra$els about with his family. 0e interacts with the community. 0e ad$ises the community about specific things. /uhammad is firmly situated within a historical conte*t. )t the same time, the %ur!an goes beyond historicity. &here are passages that speak about the cosmos, creation, God, attributes of God, the mission of prophets, hea$en, earth, mountains, animals, beauty of the uni$erse, and morality. ) careful in$estigation into the %ur!an re$eals both a di$ine aspect and a historical, human aspect. &he di$ine te*t became a human te*t at the moment it was re$ealed to /uhammad. 0ow else could human beings understand it? 1nce it is in human form, a te*t becomes go$erned by the principles of mutability or change. &he te*t becomes a book like any other. 2eligious te*ts are essentially linguistic te*ts. &hey belong to a specific culture and are produced within that historical setting. &he %ur!an is a historical discourse'it has no fi*ed, intrinsic meaning. What is a te*t? What is the structure of a te*t? 0ow do we go about interpreting a te*t? "s there such a thing as an ob3ecti$e interpretation?

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Page 98 Does meaning reside within a text, waiting to be discovered? Just what is the relationship between a text and the reader? Perhaps the reader belongs to the same culture as the author, perhaps not. Within any culture there resides a host o actors that a ect our understanding o the language used in a text. !s the reader a contemporary o the author? ! not, then the relationship is not direct"the text has been interpreted throughout a period o time, and that interpretation easily worms its way into the original text. # reader cannot avoid this accumulated interpretation around the text. We live in a world o interpretation. When you loo$ at your watch, or example, and say, %!t is noon,& you are expressing a natural phenomenon. 'ut you are actually loo$ing at a piece o machinery and declaring that it is noontime. (ou have learned how to interpret a particular con iguration on your watch with a natural event. )po$en language is aural. Written language is visual. #t the end o the day, both spo$en and written language re er to concepts, and these concepts have a relationship to this thing we call reality. What is the relationship between concept and reality and the relationship between concept and language? *his ta$es us into wider ields such as linguistics +the study o human speech, and semiotics +the study o how signs and symbols unction in language,. -ne o the things ! discovered while doing research in the )tates was that there is no such thing as a pure interpretation o a text. #ny given text carries a point o view. #t the same time, readers.interpreters o text carry their own ideologies that a ect their understanding o that text. !slamic theology early on divided itsel along two main interpretive lines, literal interpretation and metaphoric understanding o the /ur0an. 1ach assumes a di erent idea about the nature o the text and how that text relates to 2od, humanity, language, and culture. # metaphoric view o the /ur0an considers language to be a human invention. 3anguage does not directly re lect reality. What language does re lect is the way human beings conceive, conceptuali4e, and symboli4e reality. *he 5u6ta4ilites understood this because they conceived o the /ur0an as a created action, not the eternal, verbal utterance o 2od. *his idea o a created /ur0an implies that the bond between the signi ier +language, and the signi ied +reality, exists only by human convention"there is nothing divine in this relationship. !n addition, being a cultural and historical product, the /ur0an cannot be understood properly without studying the speci ic historical context

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Page 99 where the text came about. All Muslims agree that the Quran is Gods speech. Disagreement over whether the Quran is eternal and uncreated or temporal and created led to dispute and persecution. This great persecution or in uisition lasted !rom "## until "$". Ahmad ibn %anbal &'"()"**+ ob,ected to the temporalit- and creation o! the Quran. %is view emerged victorious. A literal understanding o! the Quran holds language to be a divine gi!t. not a human invention. Gods speech is not something created. but one o! Gods eternal attributes. /hen the Quran re!ers to something nonexistent in the real world. the assumption is that this something exists in the unseen realm. 0iteralists believe that be!ore being revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. the Quran existed in heaven. where it is recorded on the well1preserved %ol- Tablet in magni!icent Arabic letters. each o! which is as great as Mount Q2!. /hen -ou see the Arabic letter representing Q2!. -ou note a small closed circle resting on the right top o! a larger hal! circle. 3rom this visual image. it is eas- to see Mount Q2! encompassing the whole 4arth. 5lassical 6slamic thought believes the Quran existed be!ore it was revealed. 6 argue that the Quran is a cultural product that ta7es its shape !rom a particular time in histor-. The historicit- o! the Quran in no wa- implies that the text is human. 8ecause the text is grounded in histor-. 6 can interpret and understand that text. /e should not be a!raid to appl- all the tools at our disposal in order to get at the meaning o! the text. Gods actual words. though. exist in a sphere be-ond human 7nowledge9a metaph-sical space that we can 7now nothing about except that which the text itsel! mentions. The message o! 6slam could not have had an- e!!ect i! the people who !irst received the revelation could not understand that message. 8ecause the communit- could9and in !act did9understand its message. the Quran produced a new culture. :impl- stated. the Quran !irst emerged as a text within a speci!ic sociocultural time. place. and space with a speci!ic language &Arabic+. 3rom this time. place. and space. a new and di!!erent 7ind o! culture emerged. /e must 7eep in mind that the Quran comes to us via a historical and ever1changing human communit-. 8ecause interpretation o! text o!ten intertwines with the actual text. its important to understand how the original Muslim communit- interpreted the Quran. %owever. we ought not to accept their conclusions as !inal or absolute. ;either should we thin7 o! the interpretations that succeeding generations

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Page 100 arrived at as being etched in stone. After the text is decoded in the light of history, culture, and language, it must then be recoded into the current cultural and linguistic context. The Qurans message has to be continuously discovered and rediscovered. The notion that religious texts are historically determined and culturally constructed is not only rejected but also condemned in most of the slamic !orld as atheism. The idea of the Quran as the eternal and exact utterance of "od has become the acce#ted doctrine in classical theological thought. $enying the textuality of the Quran leads to a !ooden or literal inter#retation of the text%an inter#retation that free&es the meaning of the message. There is never a s#ace to reinter#ret the Quran based on changing circumstances. 'o difference exists bet!een the letter and the s#irit of divine revelation. (hen the meaning of the text becomes fro&en, an authority of some sort )the state, theologians, or #oliticians* easily emerges, claiming to be the rightful guardian of slam. These guardians all too often have im#osed their o!n agenda onto the Quran, mani#ulating the sacred text to suit their o!n #ur#oses. +eta#horically understanding "ods (ord leaves room for reinter#retation of sharia or religious la! because that understanding stems from the s#irit of the text, not the letter. (hat logically follo!s, then, is that a society, through its #ublic authorities, becomes free to inter#ret and a##ly sharia to its #resent circumstances. (hen study the Quran and other religious texts, attem#t to create an objective and scientific frame!or, to analy&e and inter#ret those texts. This frame!or, has t!o #arts. -ne as#ect of my !or, tries to recover the original meaning of the text by #lacing it !ithin a sociohistorical context. The other as#ect of my !or, attem#ts to ma,e crystal clear the contem#orary sociocultural frame!or, and #olitical goals that motivate and steer Quranic inter#retation. All inter#retation has an ideological content%inter#retation that rarely s.uares !ith historical meaning. /urrent religious discourse obliterates the historical dimension of the Quran by assuming that !e can a##ly solutions that !or,ed !ell in the #ast to #roblems !e face in the #resent. easily gro! !eary !hen hear the Quran .uoted as a !ay of offering solutions to all the current social, economic, #olitical, and cultural #roblems in the +uslim !orld. +ost times, those .uoting verses from the Quran assume the meaning of the .uoted verses to be self0evident. ts not that sim#le. +uch Quranic imagery s#ea,s of "od as a ,ing !ith a throne and an army of angels. 1ome verses s#ea, of a #en and the Preserved

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Page 101 Tablet. This imagery, if taken literally, leads to an understanding of the universe that sustains a social order of royalty and tyranny. The early Muslim community may have understood only the literal level of meaning. It is more likely that the text reflects the early communitys lived reality.! This "ould be natural. #hat is not natural is that in s$ite of cultures for"ard thrust, much modern Islamic discourse clings to an inter$retation of text attributed to the earliest community. This inter$retation takes on a "ooden, lifeless %uality irrelevant to our modernday sensibilities and needs. & meta$horic reading of the 'uran is alluded to "ithin its o"n text. (everal verses in the 'uran admonish believers, by "ay of almsgiving, to lend only to )od. This loan "ill be returned to them multi$lied several times. The *e"s living in Medina at the time of the Pro$het asked a logical %uestion+ ,o" is it that Muhammads )od $rohibits usury, yet $romises to give $rofits on loans-! In order to make sense, a literal understanding of the text.one that $rohibits usury.cannot logically be sustained. I o"e much of my understanding of hermeneutics to o$$ortunities offered me during my brief so/ourn in the 0nited (tates. The science of hermeneutics "idened my vision.a vision I ho$e many more Muslims "ill glim$se as "ell.

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Page 103 7 Going Japanese When I received an invitation to go to Japan as a visiting professor in the Department of Arabic at Osaka University for oreign !ang"ages# I $"mped at the opport"nity% I didn&t think I&d ever be in a position to afford a ticket to s"ch an e'otic p(ace# so this seemed to me to be the best shot I&d ever get to see the ar )ast% I *as in Japan for a (itt(e over fo"r years+,arch 1-./ thro"gh J"(y 1-.-% 0he Japanese higher ed"cationa( system has a po(icy re1"iring that their foreign (ang"age departments be staffed *ith at (east one native2speaking professor for each (ang"age they offer% I fi((ed a partic"(ar niche% 3o((eag"es of mine from 3airo University fi((ed the position before me as *e(( as after me% ,y teaching responsibi(ities at Osaka did not ta' me as they did in 3airo% In Osaka# a f"(( c(ass meant t*enty2seven or thirty st"dents# not the one h"ndred or so I had been "sed to in )gypt% In addition# the co"rses I ta"ght *ere e(ementary+t*o c(asses in Arabic# one c(ass in (iterat"re# and one c(ass in Is(amic tho"ght% I a(so s"pervised one st"dent *orking on his ,%A% I didn&t need a *ho(e (ot of time to prepare for c(ass% I discovered that I (iked this s(o*er pace% It a((o*ed me to trave( aro"nd the co"ntry a bit% As in the 4tates# I deve(oped my o*n fie(d*ork and *as a(so ab(e to concentrate on my o*n *riting% Japanese st"dents impressed me% 0hey *ere hard*orking and e'treme(y conscientio"s% Whatever *ork I assigned# they comp(eted% Witho"t comp(aint5 4ometimes I *o"(d give them a t*o2h"ndred2verse# c(assic poem to read in )ng(ish% In spite of )ng(ish not being their native

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Page 104 language, they always came to class readyeven eagerto learn and contribute. In the first-year Arabic language class, the students new nothing at first. I had had some e!"erience in #gy"t teaching Arabic to students from other countries$ %ermany, #ngland, &rance, and even 'e!ico. I a""lied some of the teaching techni(ues that I had learned in #gy"t to my )a"anese students and found they wor ed well in )a"an. I used gestures and body language to begin building some vocabulary before stringing that vocabulary into sentences such as *I am a teacher+, *'y name is -asr+, *I am from #gy"t+, *.ow are you/+ After the first month, they were able to say a few sim"le "hrases, an ability that gave them a sense of accom"lishment. 0hat ability encouraged them to forge ahead into more difficult things. It didn1t ta e long for me to form a bond with my )a"anese students, something highly unusual within )a"anese educational tradition. 0he )a"anese ee" a res"ectful distance between "rofessors and students. It1s not a harsh distance, but it definitely is there. 0he student is the student. 0he "rofessor is the "rofessor. 'y e!"erience with "rofessors in the 2tates couldn1t have been more different. 0here, I could 3and was e!"ected to4 address my "rofessor by his first name, although I never found it within me to do so. I always rose to my feet when a "rofessor s"o e to me, and I never would initiate conversation with him from a sitting "osition. In addition, I always "refaced his name with the title Professor. 5n one occasion, one of my "rofessors chided me. *6hy do you continue to address me in such a formal manner/+ he as ed. I was the only student who did. I told him that I understood American tradition. I res"ected it. I even loved it. *7ut I am unable to address you by your first name.+ In )a"an, the "endulum swung com"letely in the other direction. I tried to bridge some of this distance between "rofessor and student when I taught at 5sa a 8niversity. I invited students to my home and introduced them to #gy"tian food. I too them to the mos(ue in 9yoto to watch the :amad;n festivities. I made arrangements with the imam 3leader of the 'uslim community4 to bring my students to one of the big feasts at the mos(ue. 0he imam was eager to have them come. .e thought this was a great way to bring "eo"le to Islam. 0his, of course, was never my ob<ective. Islam is "art of Arab culture. =ou cannot now about Arab culture without nowing something about Islam. It only made sense to have my students e!"erience Arab culture in

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Page 105 order to learn about it. Just being outside of the classroom and taking the train together to the mosque created an atmosphere of expectancy and possibility. The Japanese are quite capable of displaying a wide range of emotions. any people stereotypically think of Japanese people as stoic. This is a mask. ! learned how important the mask is to the Japanese by attending the "abuki Theater. The mask keeps emotion from the actor#s face. !t#s the $oice that becomes the $ehicle through which emotion is expressed. %ometimes ! stood se$en hours in the "abuki. ! understood nothing. ! reali&ed later on that the Japanese people themsel$es don#t understand the language used in the "abuki. The language of the "abuki is an archaic one. 'ut( as in all cultures( the Japanese use semiotics( the language of signs. )hile li$ing in Japan( ! began to see differently*my perspecti$e changed. ! read $oraciously about Japanese culture and history. ! also traipsed about( $isiting temples( but not as a tourist. ! looked for +and found, people within the temples who could speak -nglish. ! brought them my questions and used a tape recorder to hold on to their answers. ! li$ed at one of the temples for three weeks. They pro$ided me with a room*e$en welcomed me as a participant in their rituals. They had no ob.ection to my ha$ing an -gyptian student with me( working as a translator. ! ate their food( mostly $egetarian fare. The day before my three/week stay ended( the temple priest came to me and said( 01ou ha$e been quite a presence here among us. ! would like to in$ite you to ha$e a good dinner. 1ou must miss eating meat. There is a steak house not too far from here. ! would like you to be my guest.2 )hile we ate( ! don#t remember meat e$er ha$ing tasted so good. )hen we speak of Japanese religion( we usually think of %hintoism and 'uddhism coming together. 3owe$er( we cannot ignore 4hristianity in this mix. There has been a $iable 4hristian presence in Japan since the se$enteenth century. +4hristian missionaries tra$eled to 4hina and !ndia as well., ! experienced %hintoism as a result of my temple stay. ! had read some about %hintoism( the traditional Japanese religion. 'ut by li$ing in an actual temple( the experience became etched in my consciousness in a way that no amount of reading could ha$e gi$en me. ! ha$e a Japanese friend who graduated from 4airo 5ni$ersity. 3e and ! took se$eral undergraduate classes together6 howe$er( he had some difficulties with his studies( so we did not graduate together. 7fter

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Page 106 I graduated and had become an assistant lecturer, I helped him move along with his studies. His name is Muhsin Ogasawara. Muhsin loved Eg ptian !ood, especiall molokhiyya. "his dish is li#e a soup, but it$s substantial enough to be a meal in itsel!. "he molokhiyya plant has traditionall been grown as a companion crop with cotton. "he soup is prepared b simmering the molokhiyya lea! in chic#en broth be!ore adding vegetables. %hen coo#ed, the soup has a dar# green color and a gelatinous consistenc . &erved piping hot with rice or bread, it is delicious. "his is the 'uintessential Eg ptian dish. &o I$d invite Muhsin to come home with me especiall when m mother planned on ma#ing molokhiyya. &he loved the !act that Muhsin could spea# (rabic, but what reall moved her was that this bo had been awa !rom his mother !or seven ears. &he e)tended her care toward him b giving him a great big dose o! mother love*something she was sure he was missing terribl . +apanese are a ver polite people. I! ou were to sa to Muhsin, as m mother o!ten did, ,-ou should eat,. Muhsin would eat even i! he !elt he were about to e)plode. (s Muhsin grew more com!ortable with us, he$d sa , ,M mother, ou will #ill me. -ou love me, but ou will #ill me.. It made me happ to see m mother laugh. &he didn$t laugh o!ten, so when she did, it delighted me. &o Muhsin became part o! our !amil !or a while. %hen I went to +apan, one o! the !irst things I did was loo# up Mr. Ogasawara, m !riend. He wasn$t di!!icult to !ind. He was a pro!essor at one o! the universities in "o# o. (s I roamed about the universit one da , I as#ed several people, ,%here might I !ind Muhsin/. 0obod #new to whom I was re!erring. However, when I said Ogasawara, the #new immediatel . %e had a delight!ul visit*even spo#e in (rabic, using language and phrases that too# us both bac# to the time he had spent stud ing in Eg pt and had, !or all too brie! a time, become part o! our !amil . "he ne)t da , Muhsin came to Osa#a to invite me to visit his village. He had told his !amil that I was his sensei 1teacher2. %hen I arrived at his home, Muhsin ceremoniousl presented me to each member o! his !amil . I don$t remember ever !eeling so welcomed an where*not even in Eg pt. I spent a wee# in his village near "o# o, the sensei o! the sensei 1teacher o! the teacher2. It was the wee# be!ore the +apanese 0ew -ear. "here were celebrations and !estivities galore. "his e)perience opened up a window !or me to pee# a bit into traditional !amil li!e in +apan. Most meaning!ul, though, was the re

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Page 107 spect and love I experienced from this humble professor in his home villagea man who had once upon a time brought laughter into my mothers life. hen I was in !sa"a# I used to wal" from my house to the university. It too" me about an hour# but I figured the exercise could only be good for me. $ometimes# women would be in front of their houses# cleaning the sidewal". !ne of them stopped me one day# and with gestures and simple words we managed to communicate. $he "new about %gypt when I told her that was my home. $he couldnt figure out what &rabic was when I told her I taught &rabic. I spo"e to her in &rabic and she then seemed to grasp that I taught language. $he considered my teaching &rabic to 'our boys( to be a huge favor. It was as if I were on a great mission to )apan. I dont remember getting a reception such as this in any other place Ive taught. hile living in )apan# I often rode the train to get around. !n crowded trains# I noticed that men did not offer their seats to women. *uite the opposite# in fact. If a husband and wife traveled together on a crowded train# the man would be seated. +he woman stood. !n one particular occasion# an elderly woman got on the train and it was an automatic reflex for meI gave her my seat. $he was ,uite moved# "ept tal"ing to me in )apanese# but all I understood was '+han" you.( hen she got off the train# she handed me her card. +his is a common practice. I reciprocated by giving her one of my cards. & month later# I got a phone call from her son. -is %nglish was difficult to decipher# but I did understand that he was the son of the lady to whom I had given my seat on the train. -e invited me to have dinner with him. I accepted. %nglish was our common language# but conversation was ,uite limited. I remember gesturing a lot during the meal. .esides en/oying my students and attempting to experience as much of )apan as I could absorb# I translated Ina0o 1itobes boo" Bushido: The Way of the Samurai.1 Ina0o 1itobe 21345617558 wrote in %nglish# and this particular boo" deals with traditional )apanese culture. &long with translating the text into &rabic# I did a sort of comparative analysis as well. In my own field# after receiving my Ph.9.# I wrote my first boo"# The Concept of the Text: A Study of the Sciences of the Quran.: I also wrote Critique of Islamic Discourse5 while in )apan. I had plenty of time to concentrate on my academic wor" while learning about the country. ;y studies in the $tates focused on hermeneuticshow to go about interpreting a text. In )apan# I reali0ed that the )apanese religious

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Page 108 experience does not center on a text, but on personal experience. Religion expresses itself through individual interpretation of a persons experience. There is no dogma. Man fol!s become confused "hen the as! a #apanese person, $%hat is our religion&' #apanese people "ill hesitate, thin! for a "hile, and sa , $( dont have a religion.' )ften the conclusion people dra" is that the #apanese have no belief s stem. This, of course, is not true. The have no specific dogma. The believe certain things, but their practical lives are not dependent on an authoritative text. The #apanese do not struggle bet"een tradition and modernit in the same "a as people "ho claim a religion "ith a revealed text. *o perceptible tension exists bet"een tradition and modernit in #apan. +t home, tradition reigns. ( could hardl find a chair to sit on "hen ( visited a #apanese famil . (n the universit setting, ( could hardl find an indication that ( "as in #apan. Technolog and all the up,to,date amenities surrounded me. +s ( focused on m "riting in #apan, ( sa" -uite clearl that man of the difficulties "e face in (slam regarding the meaning of our sacred text become irrelevant in religious traditions that have no authoritative text. (f .od spo!e, verball spo!e, literall spo!e, then ever letter of the text has divine significance. /iteralism insists on a fixed understanding of text. 0undamentalists1people "ho insist on a literal interpretation of text1etch their particular understanding in stone. )f course, having no authoritative text does not render a religion immune to fundamentalism. 0undamentalism !no"s no ideological boundaries. The possibilit of fundamentalism exists "ithin an religious, political, or social ideolog . +s attractive as the concept of a pure text ma be to some fol!s, there reall is no such thing. + text comes into being through a process. %e can tal! about religion, though, "ithin the context of a fixed text1"here meaning becomes fro2en. %ithout understanding ho" a text comes into being, fundamentalism can easil ta!e root. 3ommunism, a political s stem of thought, can carr fundamentalist fervor. 3ommunism centers itself on Marxist text. 3ommunism is a text,centered ideolog . People have differed on 4ust ho" to interpret "hat Marx said. %hat did Marx reall mean& The moment ou ma!e a dogma of an text, ou are in danger, even if the text is a literar text such as a poem. The authorit of the text is not something inherent to the text. The authorit of an text comes "hen people give it authorit . (ts as simple as that.

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Page 109 I was born into an Arab-Islamic culture. I identify myself as Muslim. Like all of us, I am a roduct of my culture, !a"ing been s!a ed by t!at culture#s !istorical and socio olitical forces. $!e %ur#an, a te&t, is at t!e "ery center of e"ery Muslim#s identity. In 199', long after I !ad left (a an for )gy t and t!en left )gy t for t!e *et!erlands, Professor +ieter ,eng!aas from t!e Institute for Intercultural and International ,tudies, -ni"ersity of .remen, and I engaged in a dialogue titled /$!e Islamic 0orld and t!e Modern Age.1 $!is dialogue was later ublis!ed in a am !let t!at marked t!e tent! anni"ersary of t!e +e"elo ment and Peace 2oundation.3 +uring t!e course of our con"ersation, Professor ,eng!aas asked me, /0!y are you yourself so fi&ated on t!e $e&t41 $!e %ur#an is t!e "ery !eart of Islam. 5onse6uently, t!e crucial 6uestion for Muslims re"ol"es around t!e nature of t!is te&t. +oes t!e te&t !a"e an in!erent aut!ority4 0!at is t!e relations!i between t!e aut!ority of t!e te&t, t!e aut!ority of t!e inter reter, and t!e social aut!ority at large4 $!ose w!o insist on a literal inter retation of t!e %ur#an 7as fundamentalists do8 subscribe, w!et!er t!ey are aware of it or not, to a set of !ermeneutical rinci les. $!ey belie"e t!at meaning resides in t!e te&t itself. $!e te&t s eaks by itself. 0!en a religion is centered on a sacred te&t, religious intellectual acti"ity becomes all about !ermeneutics9inter retation. $!is is mainly true of t!e t!ree ma:or monot!eistic fait!s9(udaism, 5!ristianity, and Islam. Asian religions !a"e te&ts, but t!ose te&ts do not !a"e an in!erent aut!ority. Asian religions center on ersonal e& erience. .udd!a, for e&am le, was neit!er a god nor a ro !et. ;e was a case. )"erybody !as a c!ance to be a .udd!a. ,!intoism, t!e religion most associated wit! (a an, does not e"en !a"e a foundational te&t. .ut !ow does a articular inter retation of a sacred te&t 7and all understanding is deri"ed from inter retation8 become t!e only "alid inter retation4 )"ery te&t !as its conte&t. ,ocial and olitical forces influenced t!e c!ronology of t!e %ur#an as well as its content. $!e te&t, w!en it was re"ealed to Mu!ammad, res onded to current roblems e& erienced wit!in t!e community and answered s ecific 6uestions regarding t!ose roblems. Let#s take t!e e&am le of usury. 0!y does t!e %ur#an condemn usury4 Meccan society, like any society, !ad eo le w!o reyed u on t!e oor and owerless. Pro !ets, suc! as Mu!ammad, in"ariably c!am ion t!e cause of t!e widowed, t!e or !aned9t!ose w!o !a"e no "oice wit!in t!eir society. $!e wealt!y elite e& loited t!ose w!o

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Page 110 were in financial need through the practice of usury. The Quranic injunction against usury serves a specific purpose: to protect Meccas poorer citizens fro the wealthy elite ta!ing advantage of the . The "roader #uestion is one of justice. $n order to a!e sense of religion% especially those religions with an authoritative% sacred te&t% you have to start "y addressing the nature of this te&t. $ a trying to tell y Musli colleagues all over the $sla ic world that the te&t is a essage. $t has no authority in itself. 'e hu an "eings give this te&t its authority. The theologians jo" is to apply her eneutical principles to the te&t in order to discover eaning fro the te&t. (o those principles point to a literal interpretation) * etaphoric interpretation) Perhaps so e co "ination) Through application of tools +linguistics% le&icology% se iotics, to the te&t% the te&t yields eaning. This is the !ind of wor! $ do. This "eca e the content of y fourth "oo!% Critique of Islamic Discourse. $ intentionally used the words Islamic Discourse in the title% not Islamic Thought. (iscourse refers to any !ind of speech or writing-it even includes social "ehavior. 'hen you spea! of thought% you necessarily deal with intention. $t is possi"le for a discourse +and discourse can "e political% religious% or social, to convey ideas that have nothing to do with the intentions of the author. $n spite of peoples good intentions% their discourse can wrea! havoc. .peech% writing% and social "ehavior carry eaning with the . *s $ "egan to write Critique of Islamic Discourse% $ wanted to deter ine just what assu ptions were inherent in religious discourse. 'hats the starting point) 'hat do fol!s ta!e for granted at the out/set) $ discovered that political and religious discourses were si ilar. 0oth "ase the selves fir ly upon two untested presuppositions. The first presupposition of religious discourse is this: (ivine authority is a"solute. * dualis follows. 1od possesses !nowledge and wisdo . 2u anity is ignorant. 1od is powerful. 2u an "eings are wea!. .o% whatever 1od co ands% you ta!e literally. The te&t spea!s "y itself. 'hat do you% an ignorant and wea! hu an "eing% !now anyway) 3urther ore% hu an "eings are conceived as achines% created "y an engineer-1od. .ince 1od created hu an "eings% 1od !nows the inside and out. .cripture is seen as an instruction anual on how to care for the achine. 2u an "eings have the responsi"ility to apply those instructions to their lives. .hould they ess up% the achine gets destroyed.

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Page 111 To fundamentalist Islamic thinkersand there are plenty of them who produce this kind of discourse in Egyptthis is exactly the image they have. They dont think of human eings as social eings active in conversation with !od. "uman eings are mere creatures. !od and creation exist in separate vacuums. #ringing the social sciences to ear on their understanding of the $uranwell% this is all nonsense to them. The political discourse in the &uslim world is not 'uite as rigid as the religious discourse% ut it follows a similar pattern. Those who hold political power do not consult the people when they make decisions that affect those people they govern. People will often ask% ()hy didnt you consult with us*+ Those in power respond% (,ur decision was ased on certain facts you do not know.+ Those in power possess knowledge. ,thers do not. Theres a message that comes across clearly. ()e are privy to information you are not entitled to. -ince you are ignorant% you dont have the right to protest. )e know. )e ase our decision on knowledge that you have no access to.+ Its outrageous. This is exclusion. In the religious expression% this exclusion plays itself out through the assertion that an un ridgea le gulf exists etween !od and human eings. In the political expression% we see knowledge and power% grasped tightly y the elite% coming up against those the elite la el as ignorant. ,rdinary people internali.e this understanding. Its not unusual to hear ordinary people saying% (The government knows. )e dont.+ This power disparity also appears in different social arenas. The teacher% for example. The teacher knows. -tudents are ignorant. )hat a out the father* The father knows. /hildren have only to o ey. )hen it comes to women% the power structure remains in place. The wifes duty is to o ey her hus anda woman must even o ey her younger rothers. They are men% and ecause they are men% the assumption is that their life experience has given them knowledge. )omen% for the most part% are not given the same opportunities to experience life% so they remain ignorant. This kind of thinking infiltrates all institutionssocial% religious% and political. )hen the preacher in the mos'ue tires of people asking him 'uestions% he will often say% (0ont ask. 1sking too much is a sign of dis elief.+ #y using !od as a shield% religious discourse manipulates people. In the political realm% using knowledge as a shield controls and dominates people in much the same way. In each case% people are

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Page 112 intentionally kept in the dark, unable to get hold of power for themselves. Using a critical approach to challenge this kind of structural power shakes up the status quo. Saying that knowledge and education should be freely available to everybody, and that women should get out and have their own life e perience, threatens to turn society upside down. !ot everybody wants society turned topsy"turvy#especially those who stand to lose, the ones who wield power. $ther folks#those who have internali%ed their society&s assumptions' ()he government knows. *e don&t+#may initially lose the illusory sense of personal well"being that comes with uncritically accepting their society&s givens. ,rab culture is one of obedience. -rom infancy, children are taught that obedience is virtuous. .t&s difficult and often dangerous to go against the tide. )he rewards#freedom and autonomy#are well worth the effort, though. $ur dignity, our worth, our very survival are at stake. Saying that human beings operate under a degree of autonomy scandali%es those who hold religious power. /od, however, created humanity after creating the universe. 0uman beings were created within a conte t. *ithin this conte t, human beings developed a society. )o say that the world keeps spinning as a result of /od&s power does not mean that /od interferes in all the details of the world. .f /od ordains everything that happens, why do many theologians believe and preach that /od punishes people for going against /od&s will1 .f /od ordains all that happens, then it follows that a person&s disobedience is ordained as well. $n the other hand, if /od does interfere, what happens to personal responsibility1 2hallenging the religious and political discourse in 3uslim society is not 4ust about fle ing intellectual muscle. .t&s shaking the foundation of an authoritative society in order to establish another kind of society where every individual has the right to know and the right to choose. *hen . am critical of conventional religious discourse#a discourse that claims to speak on /od&s behalf#my goal is to show how that discourse uses religion as a political tool. Political rulers, patterning themselves after this first presupposition#divine authority is absolute#use religion as a way to boost their agenda and fortify their power. 5oth religious and political discourses in 6gypt believe in the right to rule, and both use )ruth to 4ustify their ambitions. )he second presupposition inherent in religious discourse is this' )he unfolding of history has no effect on how we interpret our sacred te t and apply it to our present"day lives. .n other words, this second

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Page 113 assumption attempts to solve current political, social, and ethical problems by resurrecting solutions that the Muslim community of a bygone era used. These solutions were effective at one time; hence, theyll be effective now. Thats the spin. ur current problems stem, so were told, from our having strayed so far from !slam. The solution" #eturn to !slam. $ithin the phrase %#eturn to !slam& there is the sense that !slam as practiced by the earliest community en'oyed a purity which subse(uent generations lost. )s a result of this*dare ! call it thin+ing"*the saying %!slam is the solution& has ta+en hold in Muslim society. ,-ot any different from bumper stic+ers !ve seen in the .tates that say, %/esus is the answer.&0 /ust e1actly what is the (uestion" Those who glibly spout such a simplistic formula as a cure2all for our present2day problems offer no plan, nor do they spea+ about what +ind of solution they envision !slam would bring to the social, political, and economic problems that plague us. They fill the gap between the past and the present by simply stating that since !slam solved the problems of the seventh century, it can 'ust as easily solve our problems today. $hat +ind of !slam are we tal+ing about" $hen we spea+ of !slamic civili3ation today, we must understand that we are tal+ing about something different from !slamic civili3ations of the eighth and ninth centuries. 4uring this time, Muslims rubbed shoulders with a variety of other cultures *!ndian, 5gyptian, and 6ree+. Muslims incorporated +nowledge obtained from neighboring cultures and integrated that +nowledge into the structure of !slam, producing new +nowledge that reconfigured Muslim theology, philosophy, language, and even 'urisprudence. !slam has evolved over time and throughout history. Thin+ing that !slam, as it was understood in the seventh century, is identical to !slam of the eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and subse(uent centuries reflects an understanding of human history as a static phenomenon. Many Muslim theologians either do not recogni3e or refuse to admit that historys influence on religion has been incorporated into the religion itself. They fail to distinguish between !slam as a divine message and the human, historical way !slam played itself out during the thirteen or fourteen centuries since the 7uran was revealed to Muhammad. Many fol+s have a dichotomous way of viewing !slam. There is a pure e1pression of !slam and a contaminated, corrupted !slam. )bul )la Mawdudi ,1893:18;80, the founder of /amaat2! !slami in Pa+istan, said that the real !slam e1isted during the lives of the Prophet and the

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Page 114 four guided caliphs. Because of subsequent foreign influence, Islam has become corruptal-Mawdudi e en went so far as to sa! that Islam"s histor! is totall! corrupt because that foreign influence has infected all of societ!"s institutions. #oming to this conclusion can be done onl! b! ignoring the fact that Islam is a historical phenomenon, a d!namic phenomenon that gets its shape from coming up against specific social and political forces. Islam is not static. Islam, li$e all other religions, has e ol ed o er time. %ow does Islam become meaningful to those within the umma, the communit! of belie ers& 'hen Muslims, in collaboration with the foundational te(ts, produce appropriate solutions to current problemssolutions that meet the present needs of indi iduals and communit! ali$e. )his production of meaning is ne er-ending. *ife is in a constant state of flu(. +ew problems ariseproblems that call for creati e solutions, not solutions ta$en from the past and superimposed on problems of the present. ,ur i al of an! religion depends on the abilit! of the communit! of belie ers to produce updated religious discourse, reinterpreting te(ts according to present needs. 'ithout this ongoing process, religion dies. -ll of this thin$ing made its wa! into m! writing while I li ed in .apan. -s I" e noted, m! teaching schedule was not all that ta(ing. I had time to de elop m! thin$ing along certain lines and to focus on m! writing. M! original intention was to sta! in .apan for two !ears, but I found m!self content and satisfied. I e(tended m! sta! for another two !ears. It would be great to be able to return there some da!. 'hile in the ,tates, not a da! went b! that I did not long for /g!pt. 'hile li ing in .apan, I found m!self longing to sta!. I learned more about #hristianit! while li ing in the ,tates, as !ou might imagine. I isited a ariet! of churches thereblac$ churches, born-again churches, Pentecostal %oliness. It seemed to me that whene er I went to isit a church in the ,tates, people considered me fair game for con ersion. I would politel! tell them, 0)han$ !ou for !our interest, but I"m a Muslim and er! happ! about that. I"m 1ust here to understand.2 )he! would tell me that .esus lo ed me and died for m! sins. I made friends with some of these fol$s, but the! ne er seemed to tire of tr!ing to con ert me. I watched baptismal ceremonies with a certain degree of awe as preachers submerged people for a second or two in small pools of waterpools built right into the sanctuar! of their churches. I spent da!s around the #hristmas season with -merican families who hosted

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Page 115 students from the university. Usually it was the elderly women in these families, determined to mold my behavior into their understanding of how a good Christian should behave, who admonished me about my smoking. Ive since given u the habit. !evertheless, these elderly women told me that smoking was sinful. I had to ask, of course, if they could show me one single verse in the "ible that would back them u . #hey tried, but the te$ts they ulled u never satisfied me. "ut here we were again with the te$t. %hat does the te$t say& In 'a an, finding meaning from a sacred te$t was never an issue. #raveling abroad was something I eagerly did in order to e$ erience and understand other cultures. %hat art does religion lay in sha ing these cultures& (ow do cultures sha e religion& )s a student and scholar of Islamic *tudies, I felt the need to know about the ractice of other religions. I knew about Islam. I was born a +uslim, meaning my ers ective on the world was sha ed through the rism of the ,uran. I wanted to e$ and my understanding-not de end solely on information from books, but to gather information from the e$ eriences of eo le living their religion. I learned this well while in 'a an. I learned this in the *tates as well, but the e$ erience wasnt as dramatic as it was in 'a an. In addition, I didnt sense there was as wide a cultural ga between .gy t and )merica as there was between .gy t and 'a an. In .gy t, we have all the )merican movies, all the .uro ean styles, but we dont have much 'a anese influence. I soaked u as much 'a anese culture as I could, and even learned to eat 'a anese food. #o an .gy tian, 'a anese food initially a ears gross. .gy tians are used to meat such as shish kebab, a dish that is inherently greasy. 'a anese food is not at all greasy. It doesnt smell the way I was used to having food smell. 'a anese eo le like the delicate scent of their food. In due time, I got over this initial re ugnance toward their cuisine. I saw 'a anese eo le en/oying, even relishing, their meals. I said to myself, 0#hese eo le are not stu id. #here must be something to what theyre en/oying.1 2radually, I learned to a reciate the aesthetic dimension of 'a anese food. I even began to imitate my hosts way of eating, aying close attention to the table setting. Its colorful. In addition, the distribution of colors within the food shows an artistic flair. 3ver time, I learned to savor food with my eyes, not /ust my tongue. Its a mark of honor and res ect when you, the guest, are offered raw fish in 'a an. Its e4uivalent to an .gy tian or a *audi slaughtering a lamb for guests. Peo le are bringing you the best they have. 5aw

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Page 116 fish needs to be fresh. Sitting in the refrigerator for more than an hour makes raw fish unacceptable to present to a guest. And when the host serves up this fish, the meal itself is like a ceremony. There s music involved. !olors must be compatible. There s a protocol that everybody follows. "t s the way #apanese people eat. And when they drink a little too much, they start to sing. Then they cry. " en$oyed it all%especially their tears. &ver the years " taught in #apan, my students and " bonded. 'ven though in their day(to(day living, they were not demonstrative of their feelings toward me, " was always keenly aware of their affection. )hen " arrived at the airport on my way home to 'gypt after my four years in &saka, " found out $ust how strong this bond of affection was. !ommon courtesy dictates that university officials receive you when you arrive in their country and accompany you when you leave. *ou are their guest. They even carry your luggage. )hat came as a surprise to me was that all of the students in the department%one hundred of them over the four years " taught there%were waiting at the airport for me, ready to give me a royal send(off. They stood in two lines in front of the gate area where " presented my passport to #apanese officials. The whole airport began to get a little $ittery. )hat was happening here+ ,uch to my delight, the students had made a gigantic paper heart. 'ach of the students had signed it and had written one sentence in Arabic. " still have that heart, although it is in 'gypt. They also sang a song%a #apanese farewell song%while " was going into the gate area. " had to stop. 'verything seemed to stop at the airport. "t was as though " were leaving my own country. " had given a lot to these #apanese students, but in the process they had given me so much more. -ater, " ran in to some of these students in .ermany and other parts of the world. They d come up to me and say, /*ou don t remember me, but " was your student when you taught in #apan.0 ,y heart would feel as though it were about to burst. " did find some similarities between #apan and my own traditional culture. "n the 'gypt of my childhood, we used to sit on the floor. )e did not use chairs, $ust cushions. )e also used the kind of toilet that was $ust a hole in the ground%the same kind used in #apan. A friend of mine came to visit me while " taught in &saka. 1e was unable to sit on the floor or use the toilet. 1e asked me, /1ow do you manage+0 /"t s $ust like my childhood,0 " answered. 'ven though " am 2uite heavy and sitting on the ground, tucking my legs underneath me, is

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Page 117 quite a feat, it was familiar to me. Its the same posture we Muslims assume when we pray. In many ways, I was much happier learning in Japan than I was in the States. Not a ay went !y in the States when I wasnt homesic". #omesic"ness was not e$en a small part of my e%perience in Japan. Ne$ertheless, $isiting !oth the States an Japan enriche me in ways that woul not ha$e !een possi!le ha I not $enture outsi e the !or ers of my own country. My perspecti$e wi ene as a result, gi$ing me $alua!le insights that ha$e foun their way into my writing.

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Page 119 8 Ebtehal When Ebtehal and I fell in love and married, it was as though the ship I had been sailing in all of my life had finally found a place to dock. Ever since my father s death in 19!", I had felt like an orphan#alone and bereft. $ircumstances forced me to think continuously about my family s welfare, something that took most of my time and energy. I spent little time focusing on my own needs. %nd then one night in 199&, with Ebtehal by my side, I finally released all the grief I had stored up#grief I had kept bottled up since the day of my father s funeral when my relatives and friends were so concerned about my stiff upper lip. %s Ebtehal s love encompassed me, I wept. I had been unable to shed those tears for twenty'five years. When I married Ebtehal, it was my second marriage. (y first marriage happened in 19)1, shortly after I returned to Egypt from my two years of study in the *nited +tates. I was thirty'eight years old. I should have been married much earlier, according to traditional Egyptian standards. (y mother, along with other members of my family, e,erted considerable pressure on me to tie the knot, and I eventually gave in. % tragedy hit our family while I was in the +tates. -adriyya, my elder sister, died. +he was not .uite forty years old. It tore my mother to pieces. +he became depressed. +he wept openly. /he first thing she asked me when I returned to Egypt from the *nited +tates after our two'year separation was, 0When are you going to marry1 2our brothers and sisters have all married and settled down. What about you now13

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Page 120 I had finished the job of raising my siblings. My mother thought I should settle down and establish my own home. She had a young woman in mind. She saw no reason not to go ahead with a wedding. I had no interest in getting married immediately after returning to Egypt. I tried to buy some time. I told my mother, People don!t get married in a month!s time, e"en two months! time. It!s not that simple.# $hen I li"ed in Philadelphia, I had fallen in lo"e with %anet, an &meri'an girl who was e(tremely proud of her )ree* heritage. She wor*ed as a se'retary at the +ni"ersity of Pennsyl"ania, where I was studying. $e enjoyed one another!s 'ompany, sometimes tal*ing and dis'ussing things into the wee hours of the morning. ,ur relationship ne"er be'ame physi'al. $e ne"er e"en *issed. I did propose marriage, though. She turned me down. E"en though I lo"e you,# she e(plained, this will not wor*.# She *new I wasn!t all that 'omfortable li"ing in the States. &nd I *new I still had a lot of things to learn and many more things to see. &ll that potential learning and ad"enture would ha"e probably ta*en a ba'*seat had we married. She showed a remar*able maturity when she said, If we allow this relationship to de"elop, both of us will suffer. I don!t thin* I would be able to li"e in Egypt and I don!t belie"e you would agree to li"e with me in the States. -esides, I *now you ha"e a job to do ba'* in Egypt.# $e remained friends. $hen I left the States to return to Egypt, I told her I would write. I did. She said she would send me post'ards o''asionally. She did. I sa"ed them all. She stopped sending the post'ards when I married in 1./1. 0alling in lo"e with %anet broadened my understanding of 'ourtship and marriage. I e(perien'ed firsthand how these rituals "ary from 'ulture to 'ulture. 1ow that my family began pushing me toward marriage, I 'ouldn!t help but 'ontrast my 'ourtship with %anet in the States with 'ourtship and marriage in Egypt. In Egypt, to marry someone you are not in lo"e with is no 'atastrophe. It is enough for ea'h family to *now the other and to ha"e appro"ed the union. &fter that, 'ommunity support generally pro"ides suffi'ient glue to *eep a marriage inta't. I dis'o"ered that in the States, dating is a means of getting to *now a woman. Initially, you ha"e little information about her and e"en less about her family. 2ourtship be'omes a gi"e3and3ta*e, a dan'e between two people. I found that I li*ed this pro'ess of dis'o"ering the 'hara'ter and personality of a woman before de'iding about marriage.

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Page 121 As my mother kept the pressure on me to marry, I thought about how much I would have preferred to go about courtship and marriage the way I discovered it could be done in the States. hen my wedding seemed like a done deal, I told myself that traditional marriage isn!t always such a bad thing. I could ad"ust. I had known Ahl#m, the woman who was soon to become my wife, for some time. She worked at $airo %niversity with my sister &arima. &arima and I met with Ahl#m and her family, and everybody agreed that our getting married would be an e'cellent way to go. I wanted to be honest with Ahl#m about my feelings. (ne day when we were alone, I spoke )uite frankly with her. *+ook,, I said, *we are going to get married. I!m not sure it will work. I suppose love can develop between us, but if at any time, you feel that this marriage is not working, please tell me, and I promise to do the same with you., She seemed pu--led when I told her that I could not commit to her forever. * e cannot speak about an everlasting future,, I said repeatedly. She was twenty.eight years old, a traditional young woman with little life e'perience. She wanted to get married. */ice, would be the best way to describe her. I talked about love, about commitment, about human nature, and about change. I wanted her to know where I was coming from. She simply stated, *I don!t understand what you are saying., I replied, *0o put it simply, I have every intention to love you., *1ut I already love you,, she declared. *2es, thank you very much,, I answered. *1ut how do you love me3 hat do you know about me3, +ooking back on the whole scene, I believe the idea of getting married made her happy. I don!t think the identity of the groom would have mattered much to her. She was eager to assume the role of wife. I kept telling her, *+ove is not something that is guaranteed forever. 0here is no such thing. +ove is like a dream. It could die., I continued to assure her that I would do my best to make this marriage work. e went to 4apan in 1567 after I accepted a position as visiting professor in the 8epartment of Arabic in (saka %niversity for 9oreign +anguages. e lived together in 4apan for four years. Problems developed between us. In :gypt, problems could be diffused more easily. I had my friends. She had her family. 1ut even so, when we lived in :gypt, she resented the time I spent with my students. *2our students are more important to you than I am,, she!d complain. In addition, we never had children. As far as I know, she could have borne children,

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Page 122 but when we consulted a fertility specialist in Egypt after we had married a while, we discovered my low sperm count was the reason we remained childless. I remember the doctor asking me, here do you work!" I am a professor at #airo $niversity %ust like you," I told him. &he doctor was clear and to the point when he spoke to us. If we were determined to try to become parents, the way forward would not be smooth. 'e said, &his is a long, dark, and very e(pensive road. &he medicine costs a lot, and in the end, there are no guarantees." $niversity professors in Egypt do not earn a lot of money. I remember my mother asking me, hen are we going to have the prince!" )any people in Egypt, even educated people, assume that the woman bears total responsibility for a couple*s childlessness. I didn*t want anybody+especially my family+to blame ,hl-m for our failure to produce offspring. I was blunt with my mother. .ou are not going to see a prince from our union because medically I am unable to have children." ,nd I left it at that. &o tell you the truth, I have never been ashamed, nor have I been sorry, that I could not sire children. /y the time I married in 1011, I felt that I had already raised my children+my younger siblings. &hey eventually grew up. I felt as though I*d been a father for years, and frankly, I was tired of assuming a parental role. I really didn*t want to go that route again. I e(plained all this to ,hl-m. Perhaps a dog or some other kind of pet would help fill what she perceived as a void. I offered to release her from the marriage. Perhaps with another partner she would conceive a child. In the end, though, the idea of being divorced was %ust too much for her. e stayed married+at least for a while. hile we were living in 2apan, it became clearer than ever that we lived in two distinct worlds. &hat bothered me. ,s I was writing my book, The Concept of the Text: A Study of the Sciences of the Quran,1 I asked ,hl-m to type the manuscript. 3#omputers had not yet become commonplace.4 5he did. 5he typed the manuscript, but she did not read it. /ecause she did not engage the te(t as she typed, she made many careless mistakes along the way. I had hoped that through her typing the material I had researched and was currently shaping into a book, a door would open and we*d find some mutual ground for discussion. It didn*t work as I had hoped. e did visit several museums and historical sites together. 5he appeared to en%oy herself on these

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Page 123 outings, but nothing she saw in these places ever interested her enough to delve more deeply into the subject. She preferred to spend her days shopping. We were together alone. ife became increasingly tense and difficult. ! did not want to live li"e this. #owever, ! continued to plod along$ adjusting myself the best ! "new how to our mutual disappointment. When we returned to %gypt in 1&'&, the problems we e(perienced in )apan continue to flare. *he glue that had sealed our traditional marriage was losing its adhesive +uality. *he edges were fraying, and our life together was coming undone. ,nce bac" in %gypt, ! threw myself into my duties at -airo .niversity. ! supervised a large number of students. /hl0m became jealous of the time ! spent with them as they wor"ed towards their 1./. and Ph.2. degrees. She accused me of behaving in inappropriate ways toward certain students. She named several. /ll of them were women. *hey were beautiful as well. 3 oo",4 ! e(plained, 3these students are li"e my daughters.4 Some of them were brilliant. We enjoyed hearty discussions. *hese students were e(tremely polite and respectful to /hl0m. /fter all, it wouldn5t do to be disrespectful to the wife of your professor. /hl0m and ! began to drift even further apart. She traveled with her family to the beach. She e(pected me to accompany her. 36o, ! cannot spend so much time away from the university,4 ! said, 3! have my students and my research.4 36o, no, you should act li"e a proper husband and come with me to the beach,4 she said. !nevitably, an argument would erupt. 7inally ! told her, 3 oo", ! am wearing myself out trying to e(plain to you my role with my students. !t5s not what you thin". ! have been a father all my life. *hese students are li"e my daughters, nothing else.4 /hl0m just didn5t get it. #er family tried to help smooth things out. 3#ow come after ten years of marriage you cannot settle down with him84 they5d as". We separated, but continued to live in the same apartment. -airo has a severe housing shortage. iving together, but apart, seemed the practical thing to do. 7or some reason, neither of us could or would initiate divorce proceedings. !n the /rab world, it is very easy to live separately, but together$all the while giving the appearance to your family, your friends, and your colleagues of a happily married couple. 9ut this "ind of life got

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Page 124 old very quickly. It was within this context that Ebtehal and I came together. The year was 1 1! two years a"ter we returned to Egy#t "rom $a#an. Ebtehal and I had met be"ore 1 1 on several occasions. %he was an assistant lecturer in the &rench 'e#artment o" (airo )niversity. %he had gone to &rance. I went to $a#an. *e were colleagues. (airo )niversity! in 1 1! agreed to host a big con"erence on T+h+ ,usayn! the illustrious Egy#tian #ioneer o" modern -rab thought. Ebtehal was a member o" the organi.ing committee o" the con"erence. I was a #artici#ant. /ost male university #ro"essors in Egy#t treat women! es#ecially women on organi.ing committees! as their servants. *ith su#ercilious condescension! they0d re#eatedly ask Ebtehal questions such as 1*here is the bathroom23 or 1'o you have an extra #en23 Ebtehal could hold her own ground quite well. 1'on0t ask me43 she0d come right back at them. -t this #oint in my career! I had been to hundreds o" academic con"erences. I knew to kee# #a#ers! #en! and certain books on hand. I had no need to bug Ebtehal or anybody else "or su##lies. *hen I got to know her better! she told me that because I did not hound her "or directions and su##lies! she sat u# and took notice o" me. -bout this time! my name was becoming well known in Egy#t. The "irst edition o" my book The Concept of the Text: A Study of the Sciences of the Quran! was #ublished in (airo in 1 5. 6ooks I0d written about the /u7ta.ilites and Ibn 7-rabi had been #ublished in 6eirut! but it was my book on the 8ur0an! #ublished in (airo! that en9oyed a good rece#tion:at least initially. Every cou#le o" weeks or so! I had an interview with a news#a#er or maga.ine re#orter. %o! during the con"erence on T+h+ ,usayn! Ebtehal had ex#ected me! a #ro"essor in the university and an u#;and;coming author! to be 9ust as demanding as most o" the #ro"essors. %he attended my lecture at the con"erence. -"terward! she asked "or a co#y o" my lecture. I gave it to her. -nd that was the end o" it:at least that0s what I thought at the time. -t the conclusion o" the con"erence! we held a ceremony honoring the legacy o" T+h+ ,usayn. In order to make the event a truly "estive occasion! the organi.ing committee had #lanned a dinner #arty! a cruise along the <ile. It was all quite #leasant. Ebtehal and I bantered back and "orth as we stood on the deck! looking at the stars. ,er wit meshed quite nicely with my own. %hortly a"ter the con"erence! Ebtehal #honed. 1I have read a news#a#er article about you. The re#orter interviewing you said! 7a

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Page 125 great thinker, but still young. Yes, I will agree you are a great thinker, but young? Hardly. Thats an exaggeration. reat thinker? !ut o" #ourse. Young? $o way%& I liked her style. 'e be#a(e good "riends. )"ter she had "inished reading the #o*y o" (y le#ture, she +isited (e at (y o""i#e. ,he had written a "ew #o((ents in the (argins o" the *a*er, #o((ents that a#ted as s*ringboards "or "urther dis#ussion. 'e began to see one another (ore "re-uently while going about our tea#hing res*onsibilities at .airo /ni+ersity. 0y do(esti# *roble(s did not let u*. I la#ked #ourage. I ad(it it. )hl1( and I had been (arried ten years. 'e were li+ing in the sa(e a*art(ent 2I ha+e ne+er owned a house3, but we were not together. 'e were se*arated. In 4gy*t, nobody noti#es i" a husband and wi"e se*arate unless they (ake it a *oint to tell "olks. !e#ause I had re#ently returned to 4gy*t "ro( 5a*an, I had so(e (oney sa+ed u*. I bought a new a*art(ent6a bigger a*art(ent6and )hl1( and I (o+ed in together. ,he thought that as long as I was buying and "urnishing a new a*art(ent, our li"e was sa"e "ro( disru*tion. ,in#e we had shared "our years together in 5a*an, I "elt that she was entitled to *art o" whate+er (oney I had (ade while li+ing abroad. 'hen she reali7ed that what I really wanted was out o" the (arriage, she was astonished. 8'hy?& she asked. 8'e ha+e a new a*art(ent.& I "inally "ound the #ourage to say, 8'e ha+e a *roble(, and this *roble( is not going to resol+e itsel". You ha+e your world. I ha+e (y world. There is no #o((on (eeting ground. I( sorry. This is the way it is.& The de#ision to di+or#e is a serious undertaking in 4gy*t6not 9ust "or the #ou*le, but "or their "a(ilies as well. In our *arti#ular #ase, our *roble( was ne+er (ade *ubli#. I ne+er s*oke about )hl1( with (y "a(ily, nor did I s*eak about her with (y #olleagues. It is un"ortunate but -uite #o((on in 4gy*t "or (en to s*eak o*enly about the 8stu*idity& o" their wi+es. I ne+er did. Its not (y way. $obody knew about our *roble(s ex#e*t her "a(ily. )s "ar as (y #olleagues knew, I was the ha**iest husband in the world. I des*erately wanted to s*eak to 4btehal about (y "eelings "or her. I((ediately, I #ensored that thought. 8$o, no, dont do this to her,& I said to (ysel". 8,he is young. ,he is like your daughter. $o, no, dont do it.& !ut, as we rubbed elbows during the "ollowing se(ester, we "ound oursel+es growing #loser and #loser, day a"ter day, week a"ter week.

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Page 126 At times, Ebtehal would ask me, Why do you seem unhappy? We know you dont have p oblems, but in spite o! that, you look unhappy" What is w ong?# $t has nothing to do with my li!e now,# $ lied" $t has to do with some unhappy events in my %hildhood" &he p oblems always seem to be the e, %lose to the su !a%e"# '%%asionally, Ebtehal would visit us in ou apa tment" Ahl(m knew he " When Ebtehals !athe died, Ahl(m and $ paid ou espe%ts to the !amily" Ebtehal be%ame a !amily ! iend, the kind o! pe son that Ahl(m wel%omed into ou %i %le o! ! iends" )in%e she did not %onside Ebtehal to be a beauti!ul woman in the popula sense, she e*p essed no +ealousy towa d he , as she had done with some o! my students" Ahl(m was not able to see in Ebtehal what $ %lea ly saw,the beauty and st ength o! he %ha a%te " Ebtehals ! iendship nu tu ed me, taking me into all so ts o! inte esting pla%es" -e e was a woman $ %ould talk with about ideas, about %on%epts ,about li!e" $ didnt want to damage this ! iendship by saying something out o! tu n" $ didnt da e show my %a ds" $ dete mined to be satis!ied with en+oying ou ! iendship and to !o get about anything mo e than that" .ut it didnt wo k out that way" 'ne day Ebtehal and $ we e waiting !o some ! iends +ust outside the gate o! /ai o 0nive sity" &hey we e late" We we e on ou way to a !un%tion o! some so t" $t was autumn, a lovely time to be in /ai o" We we e bante ing ba%k and !o th as we usually did when $ said, $ts ve y st ange, Ebtehal" 1ou have many ! iends, but you a e not ma ied o even engaged" $s that ight?# 1es, thats ight,# she said" 2e y st ange,# $ o!!e ed, that you have not yet ma ied"# 3o you have someone in mind?# she asked" A e you now a mat%hmake ?# P obably,# $ said" '4,# she eplied" Put you %a ds on the table"# )o $ did" What about somebody like me?# )omebody like you, o you?# she asked" 5e,# $ meekly esponded" '4" $ ag ee,# she said" $m not +oking,# $ told he " Who said you a e +oking?# she asked" 3o you mean that? $! you dont mean that, take it ba%k"# $ %ould ha dly believe she was se ious"

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Page 127 Yes, I mean it, she said. But you know that I am already married, I reminded her. I know. I also know that you are unhappy and I know that you are separated. How do you know that I asked. !ook, we ha"e #een $riends $or a year now, and I think I %an read you. I know that you are unhappy. I "isited you at home. I&"e met your wi$e. 'he&s a ni%e lady, #ut I know that you are unhappy. (#tehal had read me right. )hat was it*it took +ust a $ew moments. )he year was 1,,2. It all %ame out on that #right autumn day in $ront o$ the uni"ersity gate. )here must ha"e #een an underground %urrent $lowing #etween us $or some time, I said. -id I really think this was news to (#tehal Yes, yes. I wondered why it took you so long to tell me, she mused. .ay#e it&s #e%ause I think I don&t deser"e you. In spite o$ the $a%t that we were /and %ontinue to #e0 intelle%tually well mat%hed, I $elt as though I didn&t deser"e her. 'he is $i$teen years younger than I am*the same age as 1yat, my youngest sister. I raised my sister. 'he is like a daughter to me. I suddenly $elt old. It wasn&t so mu%h a matter o$ %hronology. I $elt as though I had a%%umulated enough e2perien%e in my $orty3nine years to $ill se"eral li$etimes. But here I was, +ust ha"ing %on$essed to #eing head o"er heels in lo"e with a woman who was not my wi$e. It was the push I needed to initiate di"or%e pro%eedings. ("en so, initiating su%h a%tion was hard. I approa%hed 1hl4m, e2plaining that the time had %ome $or us to di"or%e. I promised I would tell you i$ and when I thought our marriage was not working out. 5ow is the time. I ha"e $allen in lo"e. 'he asked immediately, 6ho is it 'he rattled o$$ a #un%h o$ names. (#tehal&s name was not on the list. ("en though I wanted to keep the di"or%e low key, 1hl4m didn&t. Her $amily understood my position. I #ent o"er #a%kward trying to #e $air and +ust with the settlement. I legally trans$erred the new apartment and all the $urniture we had pur%hased together into her name. 'he didn&t ask $or it7 I ga"e it to her. 1nd e"en though we split all the money I had right down the middle, 1hl4m grew angry and em#ittered. Her sister told her, !ook, at least the man is honest. He didn&t go sneaking around #ehind your #a%k like so many hus#ands do. -i"or%ing you is a sign o$ respe%t. You ha"e #een his partner $or a

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Page 128 number of years and he has given you a generous settlement. This whole divorce thing was difficult for all of us. I dont know if hl!m ever remarried. I lost touch with her. "y divorce and remarriage ha##ened in 1$$2. %btehal and I started our life from scratch. "y trouble with &airo 'niversity began in 1$$2 as well. I dont know how hl!m would have reacted to the scenario that resulted in my eventual e(ile. )ould she have understood what was at stake* %btehal su##orted me through the trial+ the animosity from fellow %gy#tians+ the charge of a#ostasy+ the call for my death+ and all the rest of the gory affair. ,ut to say she su##orted me would be telling only #art of the story. The case became our case+ not -ust my case. )e are #artners. )e weather things together. The courts verdict that annulled our marriage wounded %btehal in a way that could not touch me. .ince she was unable to attend the /ourth )orld &onference on )omen held in ,ei-ing+ &hina+ in .e#tember 1$$0+ she sent a timely and #oignant message to the grou#. .he s#oke about ra#e. .he had been ra#ed+ she noted. 1ot #hysically+ but nonetheless+ it was a real and #ainful e(#erience. 2In order to #unish my husband+ her statement read+ 2Islamists attem#ted to de#rive him of me3something they considered to be an ob-ect of #leasure. I was 4and still am5 angry about the courts meddling in our marriage. %btehal was dee#ly wounded. %btehal has found ways to be #roductive while living with me in e(ile. .he has #ublished a number of #a#ers in /rench and .#anish #eriodicals while living in the 1etherlands. .he works at home+ develo#ing her ideas. .he has also #artici#ated in many conferences in /rance and .#ain3even in %gy#t. )hile living in e(ile+ %btehal a##lied for a full #rofessorshi# at &airo 'niversity. 'nder %gy#tian law+ it is #ossible to do this while on un#aid sabbatical. Professors in %gy#t+ u#on reaching si(ty years of age+ are officially #ensioned. 6owever+ they can continue at the university as #rofessors emeriti. Professors who reach si(ty years of age cannot teach undergraduate courses. ,etween si(ty and seventy years of age+ #rofessors are limited to teaching ". . and Ph.7. courses along with su#ervising ". . and Ph.7. students. The /rench 7e#artment granted %btehal the title of full #rofessor. 8ne of the remarkable things about her de#artment is that all of the faculty members are women. 6er de#artment has su##orted her+ kee#ing her well informed about develo#ments there ever since we moved to the 1etherlands. 6er -unior status made no difference to them3they included her in de#artmental discussions+ kee#ing her

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Page 129 abreast of new policies. She never lost her sense of affiliation with her colleagues in the French Department. This, of course, is completely opposite to my own e perience with my !epartment. "ecently, the chairperson of the French Department as#e! $btehal to return to %airo &niversity to teach for one semester each year. '(ou are now a full professor in your fiel!, an! as you #now, accor!ing to law, the ol!er professors cannot teach un!ergra!uate classes, so please come.) $btehal hesitate!. $ver since our e ile, we have often tal#e! together about how $btehal coul! best continue her own career. * never thought that giving up her teaching woul! be the best course for her to ta#e. +ust because * am no longer welcome to teach at %airo &niversity !oes not mean that $btehal shoul! suffer the same fate. *nitially,-ust after coming to the .etherlan!s,we were fearful that !ue to the !ramatic circumstances surroun!ing our !ecision to leave $gypt, if $btehal ha! staye! on at %airo &niversity, an inaccurate message woul! have been sent to those people in $gypt eager to silence an! censor me. *f she ha! continue! to teach in $gypt, we woul! have live! in separate countries. People woul! thin# we ha! separate!, an! neither one of us wante! to give that impression. $btehal felt torn. /n the one han!, she fin!s the classroom e perience challenging an! meaningful. *t was !ifficult for her to su!!enly be wrenche! away from her stu!ents in 1990 after being immerse! in the aca!emic culture of the university for so many years. /n the other han!, she !i! not want to leave me. .onetheless, she agree! to teach French %ivili1ation one semester each year. 2s much as * wante! us to be together, * never wante! $btehal to sacrifice her career because of me. * en-oy the vibrant atmosphere of 3ei!en &niversity. * have stu!ents an! colleagues who #eep me on my toes, engage! in aca!emic pursuits. $btehal !oes not have those same benefits in the .etherlan!s. * thought the time was right for her to return to her teaching. *4m gla! she accepte! the offer to return to $gypt. She went bac# into the classroom in September 2552. 6e were apart for five months. * misse! her. The timing was goo!, though. * ha! an invitation to go to 7erlin4s *nstitute of 2!vance! Stu!ies on a fellowship, an! * wor#e! with other scholars at the *nstitute on *slamic an! +ewish hermeneutics. * tol! $btehal, '*4m going to 7erlin for si months an! you4ll be in $gypt almost as long. 6e are not really separate!,-ust traveling along !ifferent paths for part of our -ourney together.)

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Page 130 Even after spending over a decade together, we are still the best of friends. In fact, friendship is the most important aspect of our relationship. We want to keep it that wa . We are both Eg ptian, but our backgrounds are vastl different. Ebtehal comes from an upper!middle!class background. "er father was a diplomat. "er mother was a teacher and eventuall became head of a school. Ebtehal was raised in what I call a regulated atmosphere#an atmosphere where dail life molded itself around Emil Post$t pe eti%uette. &here were right wa s to eat, proper wa s to dress, correct wa s to sit and stand. I found it all ver funn . I, on the other hand, come from a poor famil . 'ince m father died when I was onl fourteen ears old, I lacked a certain structure and direction that Eg ptian fathers provide for their children. E(perience became m father#the one thing I could count on to give me direction. "aving the freedom to make mistakes is of course essential to the process that allows human beings to learn, develop, and )hopefull * eventuall to thrive. 'o, initiall , Ebtehal struck me as rigid. I struck her as undisciplined. +raduall , we learned to ad,ust to one another-s differences. 'he accepted a lot of m disorgani.ed lifest le. I accepted her need to go about things decentl and in order. I tend to push rules to the breaking point. I believe rules eventuall need to be broken. &his paves the wa for the establishment of new rules. 'ince life is in a continual state of flu(, rules we create need to reflect that inevitable change. &here is nothing worse than living in a fro.en state of shoulds and oughts. In spite of Ebtehal-s need to follow certain social conventions, in other areas of living she is not conventional at all. /ur marriage, for e(ample. "er famil was not eager to see us married for man reasons0 the class difference1 m previous marriage1 m being fifteen ears older than Ebtehal. 2nd I can-t rule out the element of surprise. /ur decision to marr seemed to come out of the blue. "er famil saw me as a happil married man. I never talked about m private life in public. Even after m divorce, m standard response when people asked what happened was, 3&here was no particular problem. It ,ust didn-t work.4 2lwa s guarding against the proclivit of Eg ptian societ to blame the woman for a failed marriage, I would inevitabl add, 3It-s not 2hl5m-s fault. I have the utmost respect for her.4 Ebtehal-s famil was e(tremel reluctant to bless our marriage. Ebtehal, though, did not agree with the stand the took. 'he has a fiercel independent spirit, one of things I most admire about her.

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Page 131 There were several paths that we could have chosen to take when all my difficulties started with Cairo University. For example when the university refused my application for promotion to full professor we could have !ust kept silent. "fter a period of time # could have applied again. This is the normal procedure. This of course was not my choice. # felt # needed to speak out against what # perceived to $e a gross in!ustice. %onetheless &$tehal was my partner. #t would not $e fair to her to make this decision on my own. 'e discussed the situation at length. (he was as determined as # to speak out. (he said )%o it*s not !ust your promotion. #t*s the integrity of the academic institution that is at stake+an institution to which we $oth $elong. #f we keep silent it would mean that everyone who comes after you will $e punished., "ny discouragement that # experienced due to her family*s reluctance to accept our marriage evaporated when &$tehal spoke so clearly from her heart. These days my mother-in-law and # are good friends. 'hen she visits us she tells her daughter )# came here to visit %asr not you., .f course she*s speaking tongue-in-cheek $ut it shows the complete turna$out she and the rest of her family have had with respect to our marriage. #t never was any secret that my mother-in-law was dead set against our marriage. # understood. %ever did # force my way into the family $ut # did go to meet with one of &$tehal*s uncles $efore we officially tied the knot. "fter all # was the groom. #n traditional &gyptian society the groom*s responsi$ility is to go to the $ride*s family and ask permission to marry their daughter. (ince &$tehal*s father had died her uncle assumed a parental role. &$tehal*s mother was noticea$ly a$sent from this encounter. %evertheless # presented myself to the family. #t was all superficially polite. 'e had coffee. /er uncle said )'elcome., " deadly silence followed. # figured # had nothing to lose so # !umped right in with $oth feet. ).0. 1et me 2uickly get to the point , # said. )3ou are angry. # understand. # have nieces. #f one of them came to me wanting to marry a man # didn*t like and said 4# have decided to marry such-and-such a man * # would $e angry too. There is a $ig difference though $etween your reaction to me and my response in a similar situation. # would $e angry $ut # would support my niece., # felt # was on a roll so # continued )#*m not asking the family to love me. # don*t need your love. #*m asking you to love your daughter.

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Page 132 Thats all. Hate me as much as you want. It makes no difference to me. E tehals uncle !uickly roke into my solilo!uy. "#o$ no$ no$ we dont hate you. Please dont misunderstand. "Im using hy%er ole here to dri&e home a %oint$ I assured him. "I would 'ust like you to su%%ort your daughter. (e are not talking a out a minor or e&en a student. (e are talking a out )r. E tehal. It seems to me that you still think of E tehal as a girl. *he is a %rofessor at +airo ,ni&ersity. *he has earned an -... and a Ph.). degree$ and you are not gi&ing her free rein to decide whom she will marry/0 E tehals uncle shifted uncomforta ly in his chair$ ut I was not finished. "*u%%ose this marriage fails/ *o what/ The world does not guarantee us success. I elie&e E tehal has e&ery right to take on this res%onsi ility herself. Please con&ey to her mother and other mem ers of her family that I lo&e your daughter. Im not asking for your consent$ nor am I asking for your lessing. Im not really interested in knowing 'ust what it is that you o 'ect to. .ll I ask is that you stand ehind E tehal. In E tehals family$ tradition dictates that a huge cele ration take %lace whene&er %eo%le marry1%erha%s with u% to fi&e hundred guests. 2ecause her family does things y the ook$ E tehals mother egan making %lans for a gala affair. E tehal and I wanted 'ust a small ceremony with minimal frills. E tehal told her mother$ "34$ go ahead and make reser&ations at the iggest hotel in +airo$ %re%are to %ay the costs$ in&ite the %eo%le youd like to ha&e %resent$ %lan a ig %arty. ,nfortunately$ #asr and I will not e there. (e are usy. He and I ha&e made other arrangements. Her mother got the %oint. (e married in an understated fashion. .fter the ceremony$ which took %lace in the mos!ue$ the family would not e&en talk to me. In s%ite of that$ I ne&er wanted E tehal to se&er ties with her family. #either did she$ e&en though they would not gi&e me the time of day. *hed %hone her mother when we ha%%ened to sto% in +airo to see our mutual friends and shed take the time to &isit her family$ ut always without me. Im strong enough to take all of this nonsense. Thats e5actly what their shunning me amounted to1nonsense. I felt that e&entually the rift would somehow mend$ although at the time$ I wasnt sure 'ust how this would come a out. 3ne e&ening E tehals mother called to tell her daughter a out the death of one of her aunts$ her mothers sister. ")ont come$ her mother ad&ised. "(e li&e so far from you. The car we dro&e at the

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Page 133 time was unreliable, and we never knew when the thing would just stop dead in its tracks as we sped along the highway. There was a stretch of desert between our home and Ebtehal s family. !er mother was firm. "#on t come now. $t will be dark soon. %ou can come tomorrow.& Ebtehal s face was ashen as she hung up the phone. "'hat happened(& $ asked. ")y aunt died. )y mother told me not to come tonight, so $ will be going over there in the morning.& "%our mother gave you good advice,& $ offered. "$t would not be safe for you to drive to *airo alone at this hour.& $ dressed +uickly and told Ebtehal, "$ am going out.& "'here are you going(& ,he had a pu--led look on her face. "$ am going to *airo,& $ replied. "'hy( .nd are you going to take the bus(& she asked. /us transportation in Egypt is notoriously inefficient. "$ ll find some mode of transportation,& $ assured her. "'here are you going(& she asked again. "$ believe $ am going to your uncle s house to offer my condolences. %our uncle is your aunt s brother. $s that correct(& "%es,& she said. "'ell, $ know the man, so it is my duty to go to him at this time,& $ said. "$f you are going, $ will go as well,& she said. "/ut your mother told you not to go alone,& $ reminded her. "$f you are with me, then $ will not be alone. 'e will go together.& ,he was getting e0cited. $ had never really been involved with the family since our marriage, so $ m sure Ebtehal s mother thought $ would not darken the door of the house1even to offer condolences after the death of a family member. 2n such occasions, the women and men sit in separate places. Even so, Ebtehal s mother had an inkling that her daughter had not come alone when we arrived at her house. "$s 3asr with you(& she asked Ebtehal. "%es,& Ebtehal answered, and told her the se+uence of events that led to our coming together. .s is the custom, $ sat with the men and e0pressed my condolences to her uncle. !e then asked me, "'ould you like to offer condolences to Ebtehal s mother(& "2f course,& $ replied, "if she would like that.& ,o $ went to the women s room and e0pressed my sorrow regarding her loss. 'e spent

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Page 134 some time together. Before long, it was time for Ebtehal and me to be on our way home. This event was catalytic in mending the familial rift. After we had said our good byes, Ebtehal!s mother wal"ed with us to the car, lingering along the way. #t was as if she did not want the visit to end. The incident underscored to me the im$ortance of su$$orting $eo$le during life altering events. #t would have been a shame not to ta"e advantage of the o$$ortunity to mend the bro"en fences that a time such as this offered.

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Page 135 9 My Teaching Journey Teaching is not a one-way trip, I tell my students after they e settled into the classroom on the first day of class! In here you will need a round-trip tic"et! Teaching in ol es so much more than doling out information! Teaching and learning go hand in hand! #either one happens in a acuum! The teaching process re$uires that students %e engaged! To me, the classroom is li"e a la%oratory! The atmosphere must %e open and free as students %ring their $uestions and their arguments to %ear on whate er material we co er! &s we e'periment and wrestle with that material together, they help me de elop my ideas and refine my thoughts! (hen I first started teaching at )airo *ni ersity, my students thought me strange! I didnt +ust lecture,the teaching method most professors use e'clusi ely! I incorporated dialogue and discussion in my classroom! I wanted to "now what my students were thin"ing! I wanted to hear what they had to say! In -gypts authoritarian atmosphere,an atmosphere that spills o er into the uni ersities,my teaching methods seemed odd to them! .radually, as they %ecame more comforta%le participating in the process, they opened up! /ittle tender shoots tentati ely po"ed their heads through the stuff of our discussion, and %efore I "new it, lo e %loomed! I %elie e lo e is essential to education! If you do not lo e your students, you cannot %e a good teacher! If your students do not lo e you, they e'perience difficulty learning! &lthough I ha e no %iological children, I feel as though I ha e

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Page 136 thousands of children all over the worldstudents I have taught over the past thirty years. My adviser for my masters and Ph.D. theses !"d al#!$%$ al!hw&n% was my role model. 'e never gave me answers. 'e taught me "y raising (uestions. !nd he never seemed to run out of (uestions. !s I read and studied while wor)ing on the thesis for my M.!. Id come up with ideas that addressed some of the (uestions he had posed. I incorporated that speculation into the draft of my thesis. *e )ept discussing and I )ept wor)ing. +ne day we were reviewing the wor) I had done so far when he said ,-o ahead print this up and "ring me a copy in a couple of days.. /ven though I was uncomforta"le with his re(uestI didnt feel the thesis was at all finishedI did as he as)ed. 'e read my wor). 'e approved it. 0ut those hard (uestions he raised the ones that I did not address in my thesis rattled around in my head. I was not satisfied with my approved thesis. I felt the wor) needed more development "ased on those difficult (uestions that my adviser had posed. I )ept wor)ing. /very couple of months he would as) me ,*here are you1 *here is your finished thesis1. ,Im still wor)ing on it . Id answer. ,0ut Ive already approved it . hed reply. ,0ut I have not . I reminded him. ,2ome of your (uestions challenge the "asic argument. I have to "e sure.. It too) me an e3tra year to get to the point where I felt the thesis passed muster. 4hose days when I used to hang out in front of my fathers grocery store reading to my fathers illiterate friends vividly showed me that through the process of teaching I learned. 0ac) then I was very proud of the fact that these men my fathers friends needed me "ecause they could not read for themselves. !nd yes they did need me to get the te3t off the page for them "ut they opened up the te3t to me giving me insight and understanding. I never )new at what point they might interrupt my reading and get into a heavy discussion among themselves gra""ing and shaping into ideas those words which had suddenly ta)en on life for them as they leaped from the page. My students are not illiterate. 5evertheless whenever material comes alive and mallea"le in the classroom through discussion with my students Im reminded all over again that the teaching process re(uires a roundtrip tic)et.

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Page 137 Much of my teaching at Cairo University focused on uncovering the ideological basis behind religious and political discourse. Whats the agenda behind the rhetoric Who stands to benefit ! developed this sub"ect in my boo# Critique of Islamic Discourse.1 $his boo# became the catalyst that brought the charge of apostasy against me in 1%%&. !n it' ! critici(ed established !slamic institutions) therefore' ! *as considered dangerous by established religious' economic' and political institutions. +ottom line' my conviction of apostasy had nothing to do *ith my vie*s about the ,uran. Challenging the monopoly of po*er and #no*ledge is *hat sha#es up the political establishment. -nd my *riting did "ust that.it touched the sacred co* of established po*er. ! *ant religion to be freed from the monopoly of those in po*er. -ll of my boo#s' including Critique of Islamic Discourse' emerged as a result of class discussions *ith my students. !n a real sense' the classroom is a laboratory *here ideas are born' nurtured' developed' and tested. !ts a microcosm of contemporary society. University education in /gypt is free than#s to the efforts of $0h0 1usayn. ! understand from my nieces and nephe*s' though' that there is very little teaching in the university these days. !nstead' professors shout at students gathered in large lecture halls' telling them they *ill fail for sure. $hose students *ho can afford to do so hire tutors to teach them privately. !ts unfortunate. 2evertheless' ! never too# for granted the fact that the /gyptian people paid for my education. ! consider it a gift. $eaching' to me' provides a *ay to give bac# to the /gyptian people *hat has been freely given to me. Paying bac# a debt' though' is "ust part of it. +eing pronounced a heretic by the courts barred me from doing *hat ! loved doing most.teaching at Cairo University. When ! could no longer teach there' something essential to *ho ! am *as *renched a*ay from me. $eaching /gyptian students infused me *ith life and energy. 3ho*ing them ho* to thin# critically and rationally *as at the heart of my *or#. Without critical and rational thought' developing a better society.a society based on principles of freedom and "ustice.goes up in smo#e. $eaching is not something ! do in order to persuade students to see things from my point of vie*. 4ogma and propaganda have no place in the academy. !f ! *ere to use the classroom to dogmati(e and propagandi(e' ! *ould be cutting off the path that leads to the future.a future ! *ould li#e to see come about as a result of the free flo* and

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Page 138 discussion of ideas in the public sphere. I feel Im part of a chain of intellectual development. Knowledge will develop after mework that will be done b m students. !he fact that I am no longer a part of this process in "g pt is the cause of so much of m pain. "g pt is m mother. I love her. I care about her welfare. I remember one of m students in particular. #hmed was a fundamentalist$ accused of being a member of the jihad group who assassinated President #nwar %adat in 1&81. 'e went to prison for a time. (ut even though #hmed had graduated with high marks from the universit $ the universit did not appoint him as an assistant lecturer$ something customaril done for the top students. 'e took his case to court. #nd he won) *!his happened in one of the universities in +ans,ra$ not -airo .niversit . +ans,ra is a cit located in the /ile 0elta.1 2hen I returned to "g pt from 3apan in 1&8&$ several professors were read ing to take leave$ 4ust as I had done in 1&85. 6eturning professors like me had to oversee those +.#. and Ph.0. candidates who needed a supervisor. #s a result$ I had the 4ob of supervising students who under normal circumstances would have belonged to other professors. 7ne of these students$ #hmed$ was working at +ans,ra .niversit $ but due to a staffing shortage at +ans,ra$ he was forced to finish his +.#. and Ph.0. work at -airo .niversit . + department assigned #hmed to me. I knew nothing about him at first. I knew onl his topic of interestthe linguistic theor of #hmad ibn !a mi ah *1893:13881$ a great scholar from 0amascus. Ibn !a mi ah belonged to the 'anbali %chool$ one of the most orthodo; schools of Islamic thought. 'e believed ever thing in the <uran and sunna *sa ings and actions of the Prophet1 could be clearl understood b appl ing a literal understanding to the te;t. .nderstanding the <uran metaphoricall or appl ing rational thought in order to derive meaning from the te;t went against his belief s stem. 'e also re4ected the concept of a created <uran. Ibn !a mi ah lived during the +ongol invasions$ a time of great social upheaval in the +uslim world. +an +ongols converted to Islam but kept their own code of livinga code not in keeping with accepted Islamic practice. Ibn !a mi ah$ as man Islamic leaders have done$ fused religion with politics as a wa of wielding power during a time of great change in societ . !here were those who opposed him$ of course. #ccording to legend$ Ibn !a mi ah is reputed to have said$

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Page 139 If they imprison me, I am in solitary [like a pious mystic]. If they kill me, I am a martyr. If they force me into exile, I wan er in the lan of !o ." #e inspire much of mo ern Islamic fun amentalism. $he topic of %hme &s thesis intereste me. 'airo (ni)ersity ha sent letters to gra uate stu ents affecte *y professors going a*roa or taking sa**aticals. +ecause the professor super)ising your work is not a)aila*le at this time, you ha)e *een assigne a new super)isor." ,y name was on %hme &s letter. #e ma e an appointment to come an see me one morning. I was sitting in my office when the secretary of the epartment came in an sai , %hme is waiting for you. #e seems terrifie . #e&s e)en whispering )erses of the -ur&an to himself. I ha)e ne)er seen him like this." .ho is %hme /" I aske . #e is the stu ent who was assigne to you after his super)isor took lea)e," she answere . .hy is he so afrai /" I aske . I&m not sure, *ut he has a )ery long *ear . #e is an Islamist," she replie . $hen I un erstoo . #e was an Islamist an he was going to *e un er my super)ision. %t that time, there was no case against me, *ut I ha a reputation regar ing my i eas on -ur&anic interpretation. 0houl I show him into your office/" she aske . 1o," I answere . I will go out to meet him." I left my office, walke o)er to the reception area, an sai , #ello, %hme ." +ase on the secretary&s escription, I knew I ha i entifie him correctly. .oul you like to walk aroun the campus/ I want to stretch my legs." #e agree , an as we were walking, I sai , 2ook, %hme , you ha)e *een transferre to me to *e your super)isor, no ou*t against your will. $ake your time. $hink a*out it, tell me which super)isor you woul like to work with, an then let me make a suggestion to the epartment." #e imme iately proteste my suggestion, *ut I interrupte him. 1o, no, on&t say anything now. $ake your time," I sai . .e on&t ha)e to rush. 3ou are 4ust at the *eginning of your work. 3ou ha)e e)ery right to *e comforta*le with your super)isor. $his right may not *e recogni5e in our system, *ut it is your right ne)ertheless. 2et me see what I can o as far as getting you a ifferent super)isor. .hich professor woul you like to work with/" I ga)e him my home phone

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Page 140 number. Just call me and let me know. I assure you I will go about your transfer in a proper manner. He became more and more agitated as e !e emently protested my suggestion. "re you sick# I asked. $o% no% I am tired. I t ink I&ll go ome to 'ans(ra now% get some rest% and t ink about it. 'ans(ra is about a two) our bus ride from *airo. +ne week elapsed before e called me. Ha!e you come to a decision# I asked. $o% I would like to come and meet wit you again% e said. He came% and I took im on anot er walk around t e campus. I didn&t want im to be sitting in my office. I felt it would be less formal and a lot less t reatening to " med if we went somew ere ot er t an my office. I didn&t a!e a pri!ate office% but s ared space wit many ot er people. I was oping% too% to make " med feel a little special. "s we walked% e said% Professor "bu ,aid% I would like to work wit you. I was somew at surprised. +-% if t at is w at you would like. .ut% I must be up)front wit you. Please understand t at it&s not my /ob to con!ert you or sway you from your own con!ictions. 'y /ob is to make a sc olar out of you. I e0plained to " med t at I took no issue wit w ate!er religious or political con!ictions e eld. He ad e!ery rig t to come to is own conclusions. .ut under my super!ision% I would e0pect im to do researc . I e0plained t at a researc er does not c oose standpoints to begin wit . +nly a missionary does t at. " researc er begins by asking 1uestions based on is or er scientific researc . 2esearc ers are uman beings. "ll uman beings percei!e knowledge t roug a particular lens. "s t e researc er looks t roug t at lens% gaps become e!ident% and t is is w ere a focus of study can emerge. 3cientific researc means a!ing an effecti!e met od of s1uee4ing information from references and sources% categori4ing and arranging it according to its importance% analy4ing it in its istorical and social conte0ts in order to disco!er meaning. "ny conclusions t e researc er comes to are by no means final. 'et ods of researc and tools of analysis and criticism constantly c ange and rapidly e!ol!e. 3tagnation in a society appens w en knowledge free4es. 5 at&s w y it&s so important to train new generations of researc ers w ere knowledge can always be reforming and e!ol!ing.

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Page 141 I will not accept a thesis in which you make Ibn Taymiyyah a hero or an inspired genius, I continued. I know hes a source o inspiration or people who think as you do. I belie!e Ibn Taymiyyah is a great thinker, but he is not the best thinker in the world. I youd like to be a scholar, then great, Ill agree to be your super!isor, but i youd like to be a preacher, ind somebody else. I would like to be scholar, "hmed assured me. #e worked hard. $ust as I had been taught to do by "bd al%"&'& al%"hw(n', the pro essor who super!ised my theses, I brought tons o )uestions to our meetings and plopped those )uestions down in ront o "hmed. I ne!er answered those )uestions. "hmed would read, think about what he read, discuss it with me, and come to some tentati!e conclusions about Ibn Taymiyyah. *!er time, "hmeds &eal or this scholar ebbed. +e reali&ed that the man had no brilliant, inno!ati!e, or original ideas. Ibn Taymiyyah brought nothing new to the study o Islam. +e knew Islam well, but like most traditionalists, there was nothing creati!e about his work. "hmed inished his thesis. I was )uite pleased with it. #hat made me e!en happier was that much o "hmeds biased thinking melted away as a result o applying critical and rational thinking to his study. The ne,t step in!ol!ed choosing a committee to discuss the thesis. -In .gypt, we ha!e adopted the /rench system to e!aluate 0.". and Ph.1. candidates.2 I rounded up a pro essor who speciali&ed in linguistics and theology. 3raduation 1ay came. The ceremony is public. The uni!ersity prepares a large hall to accommodate the huge crowd that comes to the e!ent. 1uring "hmeds graduation ceremony, the hall bulged with undamentalists. The men sported long beards. The women completely co!ered themsel!es4e!en hid their aces behind !eils. 5ome o my colleagues, noting the makeup o the audience, made 6okes about the scene, e!en asking me, 1id you bring us here to be assassinated or what7 #hats this all about7 I reminded my colleagues that they had read "hmeds thesis. 8ou know he is a scholar. It shouldnt matter what he looks like. 9ut, rankly, as I looked out o!er the audience, I thought the scene strange. "ll those beards and all those !eils: The only woman in the audience who did not co!er was .btehal. "hmeds wi e sat behind .btehal. 5he cradled her newborn baby in her arms. 1uring the program, .btehal reali&ed that "hmeds wi e wanted to eed her baby. ;o way could she take her breast out and

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Page 142 feed the baby in public. So Ebtehal asked her, Would you like to find a room in the department here you can feed your baby!" #s Ebtehal escorted her to a suitable room, she asked Ebtehal, $ou are Professor #bu %aid&s ife, right!" 'o did you kno !" Ebtehal asked. (f course, Ebtehal as the only oman at the graduation ceremony ho as not co)ered. *t could not ha)e been difficult to guess. $es, * am." #hmed&s ife began talking nonstop, telling Ebtehal ho much #hmed talked about me to his family and ho truly happy #hmed had been orking ith me. #hmed&s parents ould like )ery much to meet your husband," she added. +ean hile, in the ceremonial hall, some of my colleagues ere making fun of *bn ,aymiyyah right there in front of the hole audience, asking #hmed -uestions such as, .o you think that *bn ,aymiyyah as really all that good in #rabic! /ook at his riting style. *t&s a ful. What do you ha)e to say about this style! 0ertainly looks like somebody ho has not mastered the #rabic language." #nd they&d laugh out loud. #hmed stumbled about, attempting to gi)e a coherent ans er. * ish he had said that hat e ha)e in the te1t is not the actual riting of *bn ,aymiyyah. *bn ,aymiyyah lectured hile other people took do n his ords. 'o can e 2udge the man&s #rabic based on the documents e ha)e, since all e ha)e is his recorded speech! *n spite of this, #hmed as gi)en a grade of E1cellent. * as )ery proud of him. * met #hmed&s father after the ceremony. 'e as elderly3seemed -uite pleasant. #hmed is your son," he said. 4o," * replied. #hmed is your son. 'e is my student. $ou are his father." ,he elderly man disagreed. 4o, he really feels as though he is your son. * am grateful to you and +rs. Ebtehal for taking such good care of him. ,hank you." We ere happy to do so," * said sincerely. 5ut tell me, hat do you think about all that has been said here today!" * as referring specifically to my final comment during the ceremony here * commended #hmed&s ork, reiterating for the sake of those in the audience that scholarship is not about agreement or disagreement ith any particular point of )ie 3e1actly hat * had told #hmed at the outset of our ork together. #hmed," * continued, is a serious scholar, researched his material meticulously, and reached certain conclusions * don&t think he really anted to reach."

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Page 143 My Teaching Journey 143 By the time Ahmed earned his M.A. degree, the case against me had become public. ell, Pro!essor Abu "aid,# Ahmed$s !ather said, a lot o! people don$t understand %here you are coming !rom. They thin& you are against 'slam. A!ter today, ' can see that is not the case. (ou are not against 'slam at all.# A!ter Ahmed had been a%arded his M.A. degree, he had to ma&e a proposal !or his Ph.). *e %anted to continue studying the %or& o! 'bn Taymiyyah and do some %or& %ith the ahhabis. Muhammad ibn +Abd al, ahhab -1./301.123, the !ounder o! ahhabi ideology, established %ith the collaboration o! Muhammad ibn 4a+ud, the prince o! )ar+iyya, a theocratic state in central Arabia. ahhabism became 4audi Arabia$s o!!icial state ideology. 't$s the most conser5ati5e o! all the schools o! thought %ithin 'slam. ' %asn$t thrilled %ith his direction. ell,# ' said, there has been a lot o! research done about ahhabism. '! you %ere to 5isit 4audi Arabia, you %ould see thousands o! theses about the ahhabis. ahhabism is a good topic, but ' thin& it$s more appropriate !or an M.A. thesis.# ' suggested some topics !or him to consider and then said, ' do ha5e a topic in mind that might %or& %ell !or you, but '$m not sure you %ould agree.# hich topic6# he eagerly as&ed. *ermeneutics o! the 4hi+i,# ' replied. *e %as 5isibly shoc&ed. *e began to tremble. ' thought he might e5en start to %hisper 5erses o! the 7ur$an to himsel!, as he had done 8ust be!ore meeting me !or the !irst time. A!ter he gathered himsel! together a bit, ' said, 9:, you are not my student. ;o search !or another pro!essor to super5ise your Ph.). thesis.# ' %as serious. '! you react to a topic<8ust a topic<by !alling apart at the seams, you are thin&ing about 4hi+i in terms o! de5iation. (ou do not demonstrate that you are able to thin& about 'slamic tradition in its totality regardless o! your o%n personal con5ictions. =o, ' %ill not super5ise your Ph.). thesis on ahhabism.# Both 4hi+i and 4unni, the t%o ma8or branches o! 'slam, anchor themsel5es !irmly in the 7ur$an. =e5ertheless, each branch, because o! speci!ic historical e5ents surrounding succession o! leadership a!ter Muhammad$s death, interprets the sacred te>t di!!erently. ' thought Ahmed %ould bene!it tremendously !rom loo&ing at ho% the 4hi+i community does its hermeneutics or interpretation o! the 7ur$an. 4hi+i compose only about t%enty percent o! all Muslims. 'ran is

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Page 144 predominantly a Shii state. There are some Shii communities in India and Pakistan as well. Muslims have always struggled with the question o who should rule the umma !community o "elievers#. Muhammad$s charisma ena"led him to uni y the people in the %ra"ian Peninsula& "ut a ter he died& a crisis developed. Muhammad$s close companions succeeded in putting %"' (akr !c. )*+,-.4# up as the irst khalfa !caliph& a successor or deputy# rom -./ until his death in -.4. The term khalfa has a strong religious connotation. The 0ur$an re ers to 1ing 2avid as someone whom 3od made a khalfa !or vicegerent# on 4arth !Sura .56/-#. 7e cannot pinpoint a speci ic date or the emergence o the Shii as a separate group. Shii ideology developed over time. The political con lict "etween the two houses o the Prophet$s tri"e& the 0uraysh& is convoluted and di icult to ollow. 7ithout getting too mired within the story& we can "egin with the third caliph& 8thm9n i"n % 9n& who held the o ice rom -44 to -)). 8thm9n made the irst canonical edition o the 0ur$an:he "elonged to the cousins$ "ranch o the Prophet$s tree. 8thm9n$s nepotism eventually got him killed& and then %l; i"n %"' T9li" !the Prophet$s cousin and son<in<law# "ecame the ourth caliph !-)-,--1#. =on lict emerged "etween the supporters o 8thm9n and the supporters o %l;. 8thm9n$s ollowers accused %l; o "eing involved in 8thm9n$s assassination. (ut at this point& there was no Sunni and Shii division. Mu$9wiya i"n %"' Su y9n ! rom 8thm9n$s amily# ought %l;$s claim to rule the Muslim community& resulting in the creation o three distinct camps6 the Shii& literally >the supporter o someone?:in this case %l;@ the Mu$9wiya camp !Mu$9wiya ruled rom --1 until -5+& esta"lishing the 8mayyad 2ynasty& headquartered in 2amascus#@ and the 1haw9riA& literally >the outsider.? The 1haw9riA eBcluded themselves rom "oth o the other actions. Cot all Muslims accepted Mu$9wiya$s leadership. To many Muslims it elt as though the caliphate had "een hiAacked and trans ormed into a monarchy. The %""asids& headquartered in (aghdad& later succeeded the 8mayyads& taking on the monarchical trappings Aust as their predecessors had done. 7hen %l; "ecame caliph in -)-& he moved his headquarters to 1u a& Iraq. De and his ollowers continued to ight or their right to assume power within the Muslim community. %l; eventually "ecame recogniEed as the irst imam !leader# o what came to "e known as the Shii "ranch o Islam.

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Page 145 Al had two sons. Al-Hasan, the elder son, succeeded Al, but Muwi a, the !irst "#a ad cali$h, $re%ented hi# !ro# assu#ing $ower. &n his atte#$t to 'ee$ things on an e%en 'eel and a%oid bloodshed, al-Hasan ga%e u$ his right to the cali$hate. Al-Hasans ounger brother, al-Husa n, was ne(t in line to lead the co##unit . Al-Husa n and so#e o! his !ollowers tra%eled to &ra), a strateg intended to con!ir# al-Husa n as the new leader o! the Musli# world. *hile en route, the were a#bushed b an "#a ad !orce that annihilated the#. Al-Husa n beca#e a #art r. +ou can see his shrine in ,arbala. -he .hii co##unit co##e#orates his death b torturing the#sel%es and chanting, /*e le!t hi# alone, we did not su$$ort hi# and we are now $a ing the $rice.0 -he real traged here is the !act that the Pro$hets grandson had been 'illed b !ellow Musli#s. Perha$s this can be called the beginning o! the .hii #o%e#ent. 1ro# a $olitical stand$oint, we begin to see the e#ergence o! two distinct !actions, su$$orters o! Al 2.hii3 and su$$orters o! Muwi a 2.unni3. -he .hii co##unit graduall de%elo$ed a s$eci!ic ideolog . According to .unni understanding, the Pro$het did not lea%e an indication as to who should succeed hi#. -he cali$h should be !ro# the tribe o! 4ura sh, but not !ro# a s$eci!ic house. According to .hii understanding, the Pro$het no#inated Al as his successor. Al was initiall de$ri%ed o! his right to succeed the Pro$het b the usur$ation o! Ab5 6a'r, "#ar ibn al-,hattb 2the second cali$h3, and then "th#n. -his is a #a7or ideological di!!erence between .unni and .hii. Another #a7or di!!erence deals with a theological understanding. According to the .hii, the Pro$het had two 'inds o! 'nowledge8 the 'nowledge that he deli%ered to the $eo$le in se%enth-centur Arabia, and a dee$ reser%oir o! 'nowledge that he could not con%e because the $eo$le were unable to recei%e it. -his dee$ le%el o! 'nowledge has been inherited b the imams. Al was the !irst one to inherit this gi!t, !ollowed b his son, and !ro# then on, all the imams who ha%e belonged to the house o! Al ha%e inherited this dee$ 'nowledge. -hats wh in .hii theolog the imam has authorit . -his authorit co#es !ro# an inner 'nowledge inherited !ro# the s$irit o! the Pro$het. According to .unni understanding, there is no inherited 'nowledge. ,nowledge is ac)uired, and the co##unit o! belie%ers $la s an i#$ortant role in selecting those who rule. -he .hii belie%e in what is 'nown as the disa$$earing imam. *hether this is the se%enth imam or the twel!th %aries a#ong the .hii. -he .hii ha%e what we can call a #essianic %ision, but o! course, the

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Page 146 do not use this terminology. When the imam returns, the worldcurrently bogged down with injusticewill suddenly be made right. Justice will seep into every corner o the world. !n the meantime, the "hi#i community needs to do nothing but wait or the imams appearance. $ctivity on the part o human beings to bring about complete justice would be ine ective anyway. %est to &eep hands o . 'iven this theology, the (homeini revolution in !ran becomes understandable. (homeini gave authority to jurists )those who determine laws based on the *ur+an and the sunna, to act as wilayati faqh )vice imam,. %etween the tenth and ourteenth centuries, -gypt was a "hi#i state. ! ind it .uite unny when ! hear that a secret "hi#i organi/ation has been uncovered or discovered in -gypt. ! li&e to say that the -gyptians are "unni by ideology and "hi#i by emotion. 0hat+s why we have so many shrines or both males and emales o the #$l1 amily. !n -gyptian society, on a popular level there is no distinction between "unni and "hi#ithe distinction e2ists on an ideological plane. We all love the Prophet+s house. 0he "hi#i have a uni.ue theory o hermeneutics because o their view o the imams unctionan in allible guide and intermediary between 'od and the believers. $ ew wee&s a ter ! spo&e rather brus.uely with $hmed, he came to me with a Ph.3. proposal that was .uite good4 the hermeneutics o the 5ahirites. When interpreting the *ur+an, the 5ahirites relied e2clusively on a literal understanding o the te2t. 0hey believed the te2t su iced to e2plain itsel . ! thin&, though, that by saying, 6! don+t need &nowledge e2cept or the sayings o the Prophet and ! don+t need rational thin&ing,7 the job o interpreting te2t becomes much more complicated than it is or those who use a variety o methods and theories to understand the te2t. ! the *ur+an says everything, a scholar must ind everything within the te2t, without help rom other sources. 0he te2t becomes its own source. 8y assumption was that the 5ahirites used a comple2 linguistic method to interpret the *ur+an. 0he moment you begin with an autonomous te2t, you need a sophisticated linguistic methodology in order to derive meaning rom that te2t. 9ltimately, ! don+t &now what happened with $hmed+s academic career. ! le t -gypt shortly a ter our brie discussion about his proposed Ph.3. dissertation topic. ! li&e to thin& that he made a thorough investigation. :ertainly the e2amples he presented to me initially re lected the comple2ity o the 5ahirites+ linguistic method. $hmed+s job was to research and study in order to determine the coherence o the particular linguistic method they used.

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Page 147 Working with a student who shared my vision and ideas would have been a breeze. Rarely do those kinds of winds blow in an academic setting. I m not convinced that working with such a com!atible student would necessarily be a good thing. I see the challenge of education like this" #ow do I convey to my students that academic scholarshi! is not about agreement or disagreement$ It has everything to do with research and the creation of knowledge. I firmly believe that this is the heart of education. %ducation involves being a troublemaker&!erha!s 'gadfly( e)!resses the idea better&as I challenge my students* !ushing them to think hard and dee!. %ducation does not mean a!!lying a more so!histicated language to old ideas* a common !ractice in the +rab world. I don t believe in secluding myself in an ivory tower&something many !rofessors do. ,here they sit* !ristine and !retty* never thinking or caring about what effect their ideas might have on !eo!le s lives. ,hey are convinced that the world of ideas can easily be se!arated from the world of e)!erience. ,his is nonsense. When -od decided to reveal #imself to human beings* -od humanized #imself* breaking through a barrier in order to have contact with ordinary !eo!le living on the +rabian Peninsula during the seventh century. ,he .ur an* -od s s!oken Word* gives us instruction on how to go about this business of living. /ollowing -od s e)am!le* 0uslims have traditionally broken through societal barriers and im!ediments in their 1uest to establish a 2ust and e1uitable society here on %arth. 3ne of my students said* 'Professor +bu 4aid* you stay in this !olemic mode of discussion by always talking about the te)t&about how the .ur an is our reference* our only reference.( '5ou are right*( I said. 'We cannot disclaim our sacred te)t* the .ur an. It s our !aradigm. What s im!ortant to kee! in mind is that the .ur an is 2ust that&our !aradigm. We have no business claiming it to be absolute truth.( I a!!reciated this student s critical observation. I ho!e succeeding generations of scholars will be able to create their own !aradigms. +re we ever able* though* to get out from under any kind of model in order to get our ideas across$ I m not sure. I suffered when the %gy!tian court handed down its verdict declaring me an a!ostate. I m still e)!eriencing fallout from that verdict. I live in e)ile. I ve missed my family back in %gy!t. ,he heaviest loss* though&the loss that causes me untold agony&is that I no longer can

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Page 148 teach Egyptian students. At this point, no compensation would be possible. Even if there would be the unexpected department apology filtered down from the top authority of Egypt, it wouldn t be enough. ! ve lost years. "ometimes Ebtehal, trying to ease my feelings of loss, will say, #$ou are not being fair to yourself. ! visit Egypt. $ou don t. !t s evident to me that you have students whom you have never even seen. %hey &now you from your boo&s.' "everal people have told her as much. ! m happy that students have access to my ideas through my writing. (ut the admiration of students is not the same thing as wor&ing to develop a school that opens the way to the future through the creation of &nowledge. ! m not the first one by any means to have suffered such a loss. ! m thin&ing especially of Professor al)*h+l,, but there have been others who have gone before me-others whom the system has tried to silence. ! m concerned about the future of !slamic "tudies. At the present time in Egypt, there is no research in !slamic "tudies being done. !t s all about preaching. .ow to as& a /uestion, how to /uestion something before accepting an answer, how to loo& at the answer in a critical way-all of these things need to be part of the modus operandi of a scholar. "cholarship is not something we find much of in Arab countries these days-especially in Egypt, where the situation has gone from bad to worse. 0owadays in Egypt, there is no discussion about the 1ur an except within the established or orthodox framewor& of al)A2har. Al)A2har as an institution was founded in the tenth century by the 3atimides, a "hi4i dynasty which reigned in 0orth Africa and then in Egypt from 565 until 1171. !t has evolved into the most important !slamic university in the "unni world. %here are no symposia unless al)A2har sponsors, supervises, and controls the gathering. 8utside the orthodox box, there is no thin&ing officially allowed. Education in Egypt remains stagnant. !f new thought pee&s out through the academic soil, the old guard pluc&s it from that ground before it has any chance to ta&e root. Education in the university consists of lecturing students about what has been already said. "ometimes the language is a bit different, perhaps a couple of new vocabulary words are thrown in here and there in an attempt to spice things up, but fundamentalist and traditionalist thin&ing don t become useful in contemporary society by merely varnishing the vocabulary of emerging disciplines on them. %his is a huge problem throughout the Arab and 9uslim world.

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Page 149 How do we integrate the modern world with our spiritual values? Reformers and political leaders have struggled with this question for years. Muhammad !"duh #1$49%19&'( attempted to "ring new insights into the meaning of )slam while integrating modernity #democracy* scientific agricultural practices* women+s suffrage and education( into ,gyptian society. How can some -ind of fusion ta-e place without compromising our identity as Muslims? .hat+s the question. Muslims came to view the /est0first ,urope and then !merica0li-e this1 /e need modern science and technology to live in an everchanging world. 2cience is a pure -ind of -nowledge* devoid of any spiritual or ethical values. )mporting technology is all well and good* "ut when it comes to those values that define our humanity* we cannot accept what we see offered from the /est. .he 3ur+an and the sunna* our sacred te4t and traditions* are more than sufficient to show us how to live good and decent lives. Muslims made a clear distinction "etween the products and technology that emerged from the /est+s application of scientific thin-ing and the scientific thin-ing itself. )t was li-e saying* 5) can "orrow your technology* ) can "orrow your science* "ut )+m not interested in the thin-ing "ehind that science and technology* and )+m certainly not interested in the way you live your life0your lifestyle.6 7ut it wasn+t quite that simple. ,urope was a pu88le to Muslims. Most of the time* Muslims came into contact with the /est "y way of foreign occupation. 7y the end of the nineteenth century* the 7ritish had successfully coloni8ed much of )ndia. .he 9rench* under :apoleon 7onaparte* occupied ,gypt in 1;9$. 9rance then went into !lgeria in 1$<& and occupied .unisia in 1$$1* and 7ritain marched into ,gypt in 1$$=. .here were many other e4cursions as the /est+s program of coloni8ation unfolded throughout the Muslim world. 2ome ,gyptian reformers and political leaders thought it feasi"le to "ecome part of ,urope. >thers "al-ed at such an idea. !ll this upheaval in a traditional society too- its toll. )magine what it must have "een li-e to see a group of 9rench soldiers0all dressed strangely* oddloo-ing as well* pu"licly -eeping company with women. ,gyptians #and other coloni8ed people( were impressed with much of what the /est could offer1 li"raries* printing presses* and machines that wor-ed with precision. ,urope was advanced and strong. 7ut the ever?present downside was that ,urope consisted of the occupiers0the enemy to fight against. 7ut how do we go a"out fighting something that we "enefit

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Page 150 from? Can we not be devout Muslims and still enjoy the fruits of scientific technology? Abduh tried to come to terms with this arado!" #hen came a tremendous change" #ur$ey %&ttoman 'm ire( had been the head)uarters of the *slamic world+ the cradle of the cali hate+ ever since the fourteenth century" #he cali hate is a system of government,office and institution,that governs all Muslims" #he cali h was first and foremost a olitical and military leader" -owever+ to be considered a legitimate ruler+ the cali h was res onsible to safeguard sharia and those trained to inter ret sharia law" #ur$ey+ under the leadershi of Mustafa .emal Atatur$ %1//10112/(+ ado ted a secular state based on a nationalistic ideology" #ur$ey abolished the cali hate in 1134+ sending shoc$ waves throughout the Muslim world" 'ven though the cali hate no longer functioned as it had in *slam5s earlier history+ the institution was still a symbol of unity in the Muslim world" *ts abolition created an emotional reaction among Muslims" Muhammad Abduh had des erately tried to balance tradition with modernity" Muslims+ though+ after losing that symbolic seat of ower,the cali hate,felt stri ed of their identity" Many blamed the 6est for this loss" 6ithout the cali hate+ it felt li$e they were returning to the age of jhiliyyah+ commonly understood as the Age of *gnorance+ although Age of *gnorance does not cover the term ade)uately" Jhiliyyah refers to the re7*slamic era,a time when the tribal code of behavior too$ recedence over acting according to one5s own conscience and a lying rational thin$ing to a situation" -asan al78anna %110901141( also attem ted to bring a solution to this tension between tradition and modernity" As noted earlier+ he founded the *slamic :ociety of Muslim 8rotherhood in 113/" #his organi;ation a ealed to ordinary citi;ens" 8y 114/+ the membershi was in the millions" Al78anna saw the value of 6estern science and technology" -e was well aware that 'gy t5s institutions were in dire need of reform" -e believed that s iritual renewal+ based on *slamic heritage+ was an essential art of the whole e)uation of reform" 6ith this in mind+ al78anna instituted many social reforms,built schools+ factories+ and hos itals+ and even founded a modern scout movement" Most significant+ though+ was that the 8rotherhood loo$ed for ways to reestablish the cali hate" #here were olitical leaders who believed that the Muslim world had no chance to catch u with modernity as long as Muslims held on to *slam" :ince *slam seemed to be such an im ediment to the moderni;ation rocess+ just get rid of it" Abduh res onded by say

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Page 151 ing, Yes, Muslims are backward, but we are not backward because we are Muslims; we are backward because we dont understand Islam. If we look at our heritage, we could reca ture what Muslims did during the se!enth, eighth, and ninth centuries, when Muslims ruled the world." #he roblem, as $%bduh saw it, was one of understanding Islam ro erl&. 'ater on, as the modern world ke t encroaching on Muslims, traditionalism took hold. % shift in thinking came about. Yes, we are backward, but not because we are Muslims; it is because we are not Muslims an&more. #his makes a difference. #he solution, then, is to return to the real Islam. (ow can we get back to this real Islam) Man& factors la&ed a art in sha ing the ath Muslims took in their attem t to regain their identit& as Muslims. % big factor was the disco!er& of huge reser!oirs of oil in *audi %rabia, bringing wealth and ros erit& not +ust to *audi %rabia but to the hordes of eo le , rofessors, intellectuals, teachers, and others- who flocked to the %rabian Peninsula in search of a better wa& of life. I belie!e one of the reasons for .g& ts stagnation has much to do with the e/odus of thousands of .g& tians who went to the Persian 0ulf region to work in order to afford an a artment, a house, e!en a car once the& returned home. 1hile the& labored in the 0ulf area, the& became ac2uainted with 3edouin Islam, an Islam that teaches &ou not to think. 4o need to think. 1h&) 3ecause underneath Islam5our heritage5we ha!e reser!oirs of knowledge. 6il7 roducing countries throughout the %rab world ha!e become e/traordinaril& rich. (ow) 4ot through work, but b& digging. 8igging brings wealth. If &ou are not able to dig, hire somebod& to do it for &ou. %nd wealth comes5its as eas& as that. Mone& ours in as long as oil s outs out. 1h& work) In much of the Muslim world, thinking is too much like labor, and folks +ust dont make the connection between work and ros erit&. 9ust dig into the ast. :nco!er those solutions that la& buried. #he sheikh or some other authorit& will inter ret the find. 4o need for &ou to ut forth an& effort. #his is not the legac& of Islam. 1e ha!e a long histor& of theologians and hiloso hers, concerned with olitical issues, going to the ;uran to find solutions for resent7da& roblems. 1e dont do this an&more. 1e find our solutions not in the ;uran or in the sunna, but from digging u the understanding our ancestors had of the ;uran and the sunna. %nd it doesnt work. .!er& generation needs to bring the sacred te/ts to bear on current roblems and disco!er their own

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Page 152 solutions. Today, to think something different from the conclusions our ancestors made is blasphemy, heresy, and apostasy. This is where we Muslims find ourselves today. ur teaching institutions no longer function as places to debate ideas!one of the ways human beings go about the business of creating knowledge. "ithout new knowledge, new perspectives, a culture cannot go forward. "hen # contemplate $gypt%s future, it causes me no small degree of anguish.

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Page 153 10 A Decent Return Every Egyptian I know longs to be buried in Egypts soil. Ive told Ebtehal, though, that if I were to die while still in exile, not to return y body ho e for burial. !s a result of having been offi"ially de"lared an apostate by the Egyptian "ourts, I feel as though y other has re#e"ted e. $ow "an I rest pea"efully in her boso after she has treated e so un#ustly% &hortly after going into exile, I visited an ! eri"an university in the state of 'ashington. !n Egyptian attending the sy posiu asked e, (!re you serious% )id you really tell Ebtehal not to return your body to Egypt for burial%* (+es,* I answered. (Every Egyptian ust be furious with you,* he said. (+ou are thinking of Egypt as a graveyard,* I i ediately responded. (I think of Egypt as ho e.* I have never wavered fro y initial position,not to return y body to Egypt should I die outside her borders. -y de"ision was reinfor"ed in 1../ when 0i12r 3app2n4, one of the great &yrian poets, died. !lthough he died in 5ondon, he had been living in se i6exile for the last thirty years of his life in 7eirut, 5ebanon. In 1../, the -usli world was "elebrating the eight hundredth anniversary of the death of Ibn 8ushd 911:;<11./=, known as !verroes in the 'est. $is books were burned and he suffered the indignities of being "onde ned as a hereti". Ive always thought of !verroes as a an of enlighten ent, a an who found fertile soil for his own growth

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Page 154 in the West, not in the Muslim world. The first paper I published after leaving Eg pt was about !verroes. To whom does !verroes belong" Who is his biologi#al mother" M point was that he was born Muslim and perhaps he is the #hild we abandoned, having for#ed him into e$ile. When %app&n' died, his bod (as is the #ustom(was #arried to the mos)ue for funeral rites, but the entourage was for#ed to a #omplete stop before the #ould enter the building. Islamists stood shoulder to shoulder *ust outside the mos)ue, blo#+ing the wa , not allowing his bod inside the sa#red spa#e be#ause he was de#lared Kfir , or atheist. %app&n' #ould perhaps be des#ribed as the )uintessential poet. ,e wrote about love, about women, and about ph si#al beaut . -e#ause he wrote in the #ommon, ever da language of the people, his poetr was easil understood b fol+s, and therefore widel read. ! boo+ of his poems #ould be found under the pillow of ever girl(at least that.s the popular legend. /ome Muslims #onsider poetr to be antitheti#al to religion. 0or Islamists, poetr (espe#iall %app&n'.s poetr (is obs#ene. When I saw all this #ommotion around %app&n'.s death, it reinfor#ed m de#ision not to have m bod returned to Eg pt should I die outside her borders. !fter all, %app&n' had been labeled an apostate. /o had I. I would not want Ebtehal to fa#e a situation similar to the #ir#umstan#es surrounding %app&n'.s burial. 1f #ourse, barring m bod from the mos)ue ma not be something that would even happen in Eg pt, but somebod might write an arti#le as+ing, 2Wh was the bod of this man 3!bu 4aid5 allowed to return to Eg pt" ,e is an atheist.6 I want to spare Ebtehal this indignit . I +now how hurt she would be. Even though Ebtehal has traveled freel ba#+ and forth between Eg pt and the 7etherlands ever sin#e 1885, I have not been home at all(even for a brief visit(e$#ept *ust re#entl , a two9wee+ period during :e#ember ;<<; and =anuar ;<<>. Ironi#all , I am still a professor at ?airo @niversit , having re#eived the title of full professor two wee+s before the final verdi#t that de#lared me an apostate. 3In 188A, divor#e pro#eedings were suspended b #ourt order. M apostas #onvi#tion remained.5 /o, offi#iall , I am a professor in the :epartment of !rabi#, 0a#ult of !rts, ?airo @niversit . Ever ear, I renew m leave. Ever ear, I pa into m pension fund.

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Page 155 In spite of my official title giving me the status of full professor, all of my books have been removed from Cairo Universitys library. n !gyptian "ournalist contacted me, not long after Id gone into e#ile, $hen he discovered that my books $ere missing from the librarys shelves. %&hat do you make of this development'( he asked. )y response $as one of disbelief. %I dont believe you. *ou are lying "ust to get some kind of statement from me. I dont believe that Cairo University $ould do this.( +y accusing him of lying to me, I thought I had insulted the "ournalist. ,ortunately, he did not take my initial, knee-"erk response to his probing personally. .e actually seemed /uite appreciative of my reaction, taking it all in stride, assuring me that he $as grateful for such an honest response. s the story unfolded, he told me that he had gone to Cairo University specifically looking for my books in the library, but did not find them. .is attempts to intervie$ the dean of the faculty $ere unsuccessful. 0he "ournalist published the conversation he had $ith me. 0he title of his article $as % bu 1aid has full confidence in his university. .is university has none in him.( !btehal $as furious that my books had been removed from Cairo Universitys library. 2uring her ne#t visit to !gypt, she $ent to the university, insisted on a meeting $ith the dean of the faculty, and confronted him $ith the fact that my books $ere no longer available on the librarys shelves. %&hat is going on here'( she asked. %Its appalling, but I have no idea $ho did this,( he lamely confessed. %34, you have no idea $ho did this, so you order an investigation,( !btehal said. 0he dean refused to order an investigation. % re you telling me,( asked !btehal, %that even though you dont agree $ith such action, you refuse to order an investigation' If books are removed from the library, you shouldnt "ust say, 5I dont kno$ $ho did this and leave it at that.( !btehal $as not shy about applying some pressure. %6et me tell you something about bu 1aid,( she continued. %&e are not talking about my husband. &e are talking about Professor bu 1aid. &hy dont you "ust fire all the professors that gave him his ). . and Ph.2. degrees' nd $hile you are at it, $hy dont you "ust shut do$n the department from $hich he graduated'( 0he dean stared straight ahead. 7ilence filled the room.

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Page 156 Frankly, I was delighted that Ebtehal had engaged the dean in such a conversation. If I had phoned people at airo !niversity about the disappearance of "y books, I wouldn#t have known how to say what I wanted to convey. Ebtehal succinctly got to the point. $y books were re"oved fro" airo !niversity#s library in 1%%5. Even though "y books are not banned in Egypt&you can easily purchase the" in any nu"ber of bookstores&they re"ain out of circulation at airo !niversity, and officially, nobody knows anything about how "y books disappeared into thin air. ' few years ago, so"e intellectuals started to write letters and articles in the newspaper asking (uestions such as )*hen will 'bu +aid be back,- 'nd then adding, )*e need so"eone like 'bu +aid. ensoring hi" like airo !niversity did is a cri"e against the institution.- .his renewed effort by the people to incorporate "e back into the acade"y ca"e after I had been on a nu"ber of ./ progra"s in 0ebanon as well as in Egypt. .he Egyptian people were beginning to (uestion the charges leveled against "e. 'pparently, on ./ I did not co"e off like an apostate at all. 1eporters fro" newspapers and periodicals interviewed "e as well. $y colleagues and friends would often say, )*e need you. *hy don#t you co"e back to Egypt,- I responded to this renewed interest in "y case in a published interview.1 )I#" ready to go back,- I re"e"ber telling Ebtehal, )but I need to "ake a decent return.- I e2plained to the Egyptian people that "y first visit back to Egypt after such an e2tended absence didn#t warrant any fanfare, nor was I asking for a change in the court#s ruling. .hat was beyond anybody#s authority at airo !niversity. 3ut why couldn#t I be invited to be a "e"ber of the 4ury to evaluate the $.'. and Ph.5. theses of students who" I had supervised, .his would be an official recognition that I a" still a professor of 'rabic and Isla"ic 6tudies at airo !niversity. I needed the university to act in a way that reflected this reality. I have "any friends in the 5epart"ent of Philosophy at airo !niversity. I told the", )I a" willing to pay "y own way. If you invite "e to participate in so"e official function, I will co"e. 'll I need is twenty7four hours# notice. 8ust "ake "y first visit back so"ething that will "ake "e proud to say that "y university invited "e to take part in an i"portant public function. 'fter this first visit, then we#ll see. 3ut isn#t it ti"e to break the ice,-

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Page 157 Four years have passed since I made this offer. I know there was some effort on the part of certain people within my department to reconnect me with the university. Nothing came of this effort. The hard truth that I need to face is that airo !niversity doesn"t want me. ertain individuals within the department# of course# have $een friendly and supportive. The present chairman of the department is a close friend. %e recently spoke on the phone. &e told me# '%e have e(tended your leave.) This is the eighth year that I"ve $een given an e(tension. *ccording to the law# five years is the limit. '+es# yes# this is all very nice# thank you very much#) I offered. &e continued $y telling me how appreciative many ,gyptian people are of my refusal to keep silent a$out the effects of corruption running rampant throughout the government-especially as that corruption evidences itself at the university level. '%e are so pleased with all of your accomplishments while in e(ile.) './# I understand#) I said. '0ut why is it impossi$le to invite me to $e a 1ury mem$er of a thesis committee2) 'No# it is not impossi$le#) he 3uickly asserted. 'It 1ust so happens that there is no thesis that $elongs to your field.) 'Is that right2) I asked. '.ne of my students 1ust graduated two weeks ago.) &e acted shocked. '4eally2) '+es# really#) I replied. 5he had recently contacted me-even sent me her thesis# telling me# 'I am very ashamed to send you my thesis. It is not the thesis I was hoping to write# $ut you were not there. 6et"s pretend it is a draft. I"m ready to rewrite it.) I said to the chairman of the department# 'This is my student. The least the department could have done is to invite the e(7supervisor-me-to $e a mem$er of the 1ury. This is the normal academic tradition. I reali8e that it would $e difficult to have me come to airo right now# $ut you are telling me that it is not impossi$le. I would like you to $e up7front and honest with me. 9on"t make things look nice to me $ecause we are friends.) :y friend replied# 'I"m sorry. This is a terri$le university. This is a terri$le department. +ou should $e very happy that you are not here.) I get weary and frustrated when people o$fuscate the truth. 0e honest with me. 9on"t give me e(cuses. 9on"t give me this nonsense# saying# 'There are security precautions and it is not possi$le for you to return to the university at this time.) ,$tehal travels to airo every

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Page 158 couple of months. Sometimes she visits her mother, but she also takes part in symposia and conferences at Cairo University as ell as sitting as a !ury member evaluating ".#. theses. $t makes me sad to look do n the road and see hat seems to be an inevitable truth. $ ill never set foot again on Cairo University%s campus unless it is absolutely necessary for administrative reasons&signing documents, for instance. $%ve stopped thinking that $%ll ever have a decent invitation to take part in some aspect of academic life at Cairo University. #fter all, $%m si'ty years old, the age most (gyptians are hen they retire and start receiving their pensions. #s time goes by, $ find myself more and more angry. Cairo University, an academic institution&one of hose purposes is to discuss and debate ideas&has failed in its mission. )his sacred space no longer e'ists. $t has evaporated, steamed a ay by a corrupt system of government. #s a result, the (gyptian people suffer. $%ve al ays guarded against playing a victim%s role. So $ as surprised to reali*e, not too long ago, that $%d been slipping little by little &imperceptibly&into the role of victim. $ found myself depressed. $ as aiting for +eiden University to decide hether or not it ould offer me a permanent chair. $ as aiting for Cairo University to incorporate me back into its academic life. ,aiting...!ust aiting. #nd then it da ned on me. #ll this aiting around as siphoning off huge amounts of psychic energy&energy $ could put to better use regaining a sense of control over my life. $t as high time to maneuver a U-turn and begin to reclaim that po er hich $ had allo ed to slo ly ebb a ay. .uring /une 0110, (btehal and $ traveled to $stanbul to attend a orkshop. $t felt good to get a ay from the routine of ork. (btehal asked me ho $ ould like to celebrate my birthday. 2"y birthday is in /uly.3 4$ don%t ant anything, no present, nothing,5 $ ans ered, surprising myself ith my o n irritability. 6ut (btehal ouldn%t take no for an ans er, and $ 7uickly earied of her persistence. 4.on%t you understand8 $ don%t ant a present,5 $ lashed out. $mmediately, $ felt ashamed. 9ere she as, trying to do something nice for me, and $ reacted in such a foolish and stubborn manner. 4,hat is rong ith you85 (btehal asked. 4$%m not sure. $%m fed up ith things. )he future looks bleak. $ feel as though my life is not in my hands. (ver since turning fourteen, $%ve felt as though $ had a degree of control over my life. :ot anymore. ,hat has happened85 $t all came pouring out of me. $ had never spoken such ords aloud before.

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Page 159 Look at it this way, Ebtehal said. You are angry because Leiden Uni ersity has not gi en you a !er"anent chair, but you are a !ro#essor. You are known all o er the world. $idn%t you see the &oy on the #aces o# the !eo!le you &ust s!oke to in the worksho!' (!en your eyes. You are "aking yoursel# a icti". )e are doing well. Your health is good. You% e lost weight. *hings are going well #or us. )hy are you so angry' You used to be so"ebody who acce!ted his li#e. + had to ad"it that + #elt as though the circu"stances in "y li#e had been !ushing "e around. + need to be "aking decisions about what to do with "y own li#e, + said. +n s!ite o# that assertion, + #elt "ysel# s!iraling down into the orte, o# a dee! de!ression. -#ter returning to the .etherlands #ro" +stanbul, Ebtehal went to Egy!t, returning a "onth later with her "other. /oon a#ter that, Ebtehal headed o## to 0airo Uni ersity to teach #or the #all se"ester. -#ter she le#t, + beca"e scattered1e en des!erate. + ke!t looking #or the strong "an + used to be. + grew #ear#ul, a#raid to be alone and sure that death stalked "e at e ery turn. + went to the doctor and told hi" as "uch. + called Ebtehal two or three ti"es e ery day. You are waiting #or so"eone to take o er your li#e, she said, and you are the one who needs to take back your own li#e. Yes, o# course, that was it. +t was ti"e1ti"e #or "e to take the !ro erbial bull by its horns. + would start by !lanning "y own decent return to Egy!t. *he idea had begun to take root e en be#ore Ebtehal le#t #or her se"ester o# teaching in -ugust. )hy had + waited around, stewing about it, #or so long' +n s!ite o# ha ing taken hold o# the bull%s horns, + acillated with "y decision to isit Egy!t throughout the #all o# 2332. Esther e4"ailed "e in $ece"ber1the day be#ore + was scheduled to lea e #or Egy!t1sending "e a dra#t o# this book. + res!onded i""ediately, telling her about "y tra el !lans. + a" lea ing to"orrow #or Egy!t, and + a" 5uite ner ous. 6esides Ebtehal and "y i""ediate #a"ily, nobody knew. *elling Esther hel!ed gi e "e the courage + needed to #ollow through. + did not wait #or 0airo Uni ersity%s in itation #or a decent return a#ter all. )hat a relie# to act on "y own and !lan the sha!e o# "y #irst isit to Egy!t since going into e,ile in 1995. 7y initial isit to Egy!t has renewed "y strength, allowing "e to better #ocus on the !resent. + returned in 8uly 2339 to clai" "y !ension and other rights "y Egy!tian citi:enshi! entitles "e to. Li ing in e,ile has been debilitating1it%s as though one o# "y eins had been slit. +% e lost a lot o# blood. + was unable to kee! abreast with the children in the sa"e way as i# + had been in Egy!t watching

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Page 160 them blossom into maturity and middle age. But this visit did reconnect my slit vein with the circulatory system. The leaking has stopped. My last evening in Cairo ! attended a dinner with many other guests one o" whom is a government o""icial with considerable status. #"ter talking with this o""icial it became $uite clear to me that Cairo %niversity will never invite me back to participate in the academic culture. ! did have a reunion with some o" my close "riends colleagues o" mine. &isiting them has helped to connect me with the li"e ! le"t eight years ago. 'e(t time !)ll be able to see more o" my "riends. This was a short visit. ! spent three days in my boyhood village *uha"a+ "ive or si( days alone with ,btehal along ,gypt)s northern coast+ one day with her "amily in Cairo+ and two evenings at semi-o""icial dinners. ! wanted to be alone when ! visited *uha"a. ! didn)t know it at the time but ,btehal was terri"ied when ! le"t "or *uha"a leaving her behind in Cairo. .hen ! returned to Cairo three days later ,btehal let it all out. /0or the past two years you have been talking almost nonstop about death. Then you decide it)s time to visit ,gypt. 1nce in ,gypt you o" course want to visit *uha"a but without me2 .hat should ! think3 The only answer ! could come up with is that you wanted to die in peace in your home village.4 5he was visibly shaken. /'o 4 ! assured her sorry that she had gone through a wringer o" sorts. /6ou came to an inaccurate conclusion. ! 7ust wanted to visit my village in peace8alone. That)s all.4 ! had hoped to visit my elderly cousin 5ayyid. 9e)s the man who became a "ather "igure to me when my own "ather died. ! didn)t arrive home in time. 5ayyid died on 5eptember : ;00;. ,btehal was in ,gypt about to start her semester o" teaching at the time. 5he called me in <eiden the ne(t day. ! knew by the sound o" her voice that whatever news she had to tell me was not good. /! hate to tell you this but 5ayyid passed away yesterday morning.4 ,btehal became concerned when ! didn)t respond immediately. /#re you 1=34 she asked. /6es ! suppose 4 ! responded. #nd ! le"t "or my o""ice at <eiden %niversity. <ater well past midnight ! phoned ,btehal. /!)m tired.4 That was all ! could manage. /!)ll come back to <eiden. !)ve not started work yet 4 she said. 'o ! couldn)t ask her to do that but something had happened to me. /! miss you very much 4 ! told ,btehal. /'asr it)s not that you are missing me so much. There)s something more going on here. 6ou)ve been orphaned "or a second time 4 she said. #"ter ! hung up the phone ! reali>ed she was right. 9ere ! was a grown man pushing retirement age and "eeling deep inside like an

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Page 161 orphan. Anger tinged the sadness I feltanger toward my mother, Egypt. If she had not abandoned me, perhaps I would have been able to help Sayyid as he helped me and my family! so many years ago. Sayyid"s daughter told me on my re#ent visit, $%on"t feel sorry. &is last days were filled with pain. If you #ould have seen him, you would feel nothing but relief that he had finally been released from his suffering.' It was small #omfort. I did visit with my brothers and sisters my #hildren! in (uhafa. )e had set this up to be a private reunionno spouses* even Ebtehal was absent. I +ust felt as though I wanted to gather the #hildren around me li,e a mother hen with her #hi#,s, hold them in my arms, stro,e them, and begin to fill in the gaping holes #aused by our long separation. I was espe#ially moved by Ayat and her ongoing marital diffi#ulties diffi#ulties I ,new nothing about until this re#ent visit. Ayat married in 1-.1not long after I returned to Egypt from the States. She and her husband soon had three #hildren. /wo of them are #urrently studying in the university. 0n#e Ayat and her husband de#ided to marry, they pushed full steam ahead. I remember suggesting to Ayat that they wait1 $2et"s see how things develop between the two of you.' 3either one of them, though, wanted to dillydally. /hey went forward with their plans enthusiasti#allythat"s how it seemed to me. 4ran,ly, though, I was uneasy with Ayat"s #hoi#e. I felt that her soon5to5be husband insisted on having his own way all too often* he or#hestrated every aspe#t of their lives. I remember telling myself at the time, $%on"t +udge your brother5in5law by your own standards.' So here I was in Egypt after an e6tended absen#e. Almost immediately, Ayat began to pour out her heart while #rying on my shoulder. $0n my first va#ation ba#, to Egypt from Saudi Arabia 7Ayat"s husband wor,ed for years in Saudi Arabia8, I really thought about divor#e.' Ayat returned to Egypt in 1-.9, some time after our mother died. Although I phoned her husband in Saudi Arabia, as,ing him to tell Ayat about our mother"s death before they arrived ba#, in Egypt that summer, he never found a way to #onvey the message. So she was not aware that our mother had passed away when her plane landed. As we sped away from the airport in the ta6i, she as,ed me, $&ow is my mother:' $Ayat,' I said. $;our mother was very, very si#,. She died.' I too, her in my arms while in the ta6i as she wept. As Ayat #ontinued with her story, she told me she felt she #ould not follow through with her wish to divor#e her husband ba#, in 1-.9

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Page 162 because her mother had just died. Where could I have gone? she wailed. A at returned to !g "t #rom $audi Arabia #or good some ears ago% and her husband sta ed on in the Arabian Peninsula to continue his wor&. $he wanted the children to attend !g "tian schools. $he #elt uneas with how intolerant $audi schools were toward non'(uslims. A#ter moving bac& to !g "t% her son came home #rom his #irst da o# school terri#ied. What has ha""ened? A at as&ed. )er son had sat ne*t to a +o"tic child. In $audi Arabia% a catechism is taught to children in school% beginning with the ,uestion and answer% Who is our -od? ( -od is Allah. A at.s son had as&ed his new seatmate% the +o"tic child% Who is our -od? /he child answered% ( -od is 0esus. In $audi Arabia% o# course% this is blas"hem . $o% A at.s son didn.t want to go bac& to school% telling his mother% I sit ne*t to a kfir % an atheist. As I re#lect on it all% it seems to me that A at used her desire to have her children educated in !g "tian schools as an e*cuse to get awa #rom her husband. $he could not bring hersel# to directl tell her husband how disa""ointed and dissatis#ied she was with their marriage. Ironicall % he le#t $audi Arabia soon a#ter A at brought the children to !g "t because o# the countr .s "olic o# $audi'i1ation2the o##icial "ush toward incor"orating $audi citi1ens into the man jobs that #oreigners have #illed since oil began s"outing u" through the sand. A at% at this "oint% cannot see her wa clear to brea& #ree #rom what she "erceives to be the shac&les that bind her to her husband. As a result% she #eels hel"less and des"erate. I.m encouraging her to come bac& to the #amil and e*ercise a little more inde"endence2not necessaril to get divorced. I let her &now that we are read to su""ort her% whatever she decides to do. I thin& that ultimatel she needs to ma&e some s"ace #or hersel# and learn to rel on hersel#. /hat.s what I have in mind when I encourage her to be a little more inde"endent. )er husband continuousl hovers over her. I had no idea how miserable she.d been #or so man ears. I was glad I had insisted on meeting alone with the children. /he all had their stories to tell. As I listened% I began to #eel more in touch with what has ha""ened in their lives. A at.s stor % though% touched me in a vulnerable "lace. I could identi# with m sister.s #eelings o# hel"lessness and des"air. Wasn.t I going through a similar "eriod m 'sel#? 3idn.t I #eel as i# I had no control over where m li#e was going? 4 telling A at about the im"ortance o# ta&ing res"onsibilit #or the direction her li#e too&% I was in #act telling m sel#.

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Page 163 Shereen, the daughter who chose me, didnt seem all that pleased when she realized that I had met with the children alone in the village. What was the wisdom in going at this alone ! she demanded. Wh" didnt "ou ta#e $%tehal &nd would the meeting have included me i' I had %een there I get the 'eeling that "ou are treating me li#e a metaphor. (emem%er that I am still "our daughter)a real 'lesh*and*%lood daughter, li#e it or not.! Shereen had wanted to meet me on m" arrival at the airport. With the e+ception o' $%tehal, I wanted no%od" there to welcome me home. I wasnt sure how the whole scene would pla" out a'ter m" eight*"ear a%sence. ,his has nothing to do with metaphor,! I assured Shereen. -' course, "ou are m" daughter. I wouldnt have it an" other wa".! &rriving at .airo airport 'elt rather odd. &s soon as the plane landed, it seemed as though I had le't $g"pt onl" the da" %e'ore. Surprisingl", I e+perienced no strong emotions o' an" #ind. In spite o' $g"pts reputation 'or %ureaucrac", going through passport control and customs too# onl" a 'ew minutes. & customs o''icial as#ed me, /o "ou have an"thing to declare ! I simpl" answered no. 0e then produced a hint o' a smile %e'ore sa"ing, Welcome %ac#, Pro'essor.! I li#ed the sound o' it. I do %elieve that one da" Ill %e %ac# in $g"pt 'or good. Ill pro%a%l" wor# at m" home, receiving students who would li#e to communicate with me. I certainl" do not 'oresee wor#ing in tandem with .airo 1niversit" in an" capacit". I thin# Ill 'ind it di''icult even to have a 'riendl" chat with some o' m" 'ormer colleagues. 2ut m" recent trip home was all I had hoped it to %e)a decent return.

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Page 165 11 The Nexus of Theory and Practice When I do research as an Islamic Studies scholar, I painstakingly look for those things initiated by the Quran !ays of being and doing that did not e"ist before #uhammad recei$ed the re$elation% When I find such phenomena, I take note% I del$e into the te"t at this point, using this &uncture to de$elop and steer Islamic thought% In so doing, I !ould say that I am mo$ing in the same direction as the Word of 'od% Im con$inced that folks !ho think that e$erything mentioned in the Quran is binding, should be obeyed, and should be follo!ed literally are going against 'ods Word% Its important for me to ha$e a handle on the direction my research takes% So, for e"ample, !ith regard to punishment for crime, the destination !e are after is &ustice% In order to establish &ustice, a society needs to punish people !ho commit crimes against that society% (ut the form of punishment mentioned in the Quran is a historical e"pression of punishment carried out by a specific society in a specific time and place it is not a di$ine directi$e% Punishment for crime is a principle that, !hen carried out, establishes &ustice% )ustice is a principle reflected in the di$ine, uni$ersal Word of 'od% Punishment is part of constructing a &ust society, but the form punishment takes is historically determined it is not fi"ed% *eading classical Islamic thought should be a critical e"ercise% What did our ancestors accomplish+ What can !e add or de$elop as a result of their accomplishments+ ,hrough my research and study, I$e concluded that the Quranic ob&ecti$es that &urists long ago agreed upon

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Page 166 were deduced from the penal code alive and well during the seventh century on the Arabian Peninsula. The objectives were not deduced from looking at the paradigm of the entire Qur an. The first objective!protection of life!emerged from the penal code s prohibition of illegal killing. "etaliation# according to the Qur an# is sanctioned only to maintain life itself. Protection of sanity was deduced from the Qur an s directive to abstain from alcohol. Protection of property was lifted from the penal code s condemnation of theft and then incorporated into the Qur an. Protection of progeny can be traced to sanctions already in place against committing adultery. "egarding the protection of religion# the Qur an doles out no earthly punishment for people who turn their backs on $slam. Those who reject the faith after once accepting it# and remain defiant# will suffer in the life hereafter. %ater on# the death penalty for turning one s back on $slam became established as a way to maintain political authority in a region. The Qur an contains the penal code. &e call it the hudd!all the verses that indicate specific punishment for certain crimes. $ came to the conclusion that we need another reading of the Qur an in order to make this particular manifestation of the &ord of 'od meaningful in our present(day circumstances. $f we look at the hudd in a historical conte)t# we find that these particular passages reflect a historical reality. They do not reflect *ivine imperatives. +or e)ample# the killing for killing# the eye for an eye# stoning for adultery# the amputation of the hand for stealing# and death for changing religion!all this was in effect either before the Qur an came along or instituted after Qur anic revelation. The Qur an did not establish this kind of punishment. $f the Qur an did not initially establish a punishment# we cannot consider it to be Qur anic. The Qur an adopted particular forms of punishment from pre($slamic cultures in order to have credibility with the contemporary civili,ation. Punishment for crime is a Qur anic principle# but should a form of punishment# integrated into the body of the te)t from another source# be considered Qur anic and therefore binding on the community of believers- &e can say that the Qur an leads us to understand that those who commit crimes should be punished. True enough# but the Qur an conte)tuali,es itself within accepted practices during a particular time. .ontemporary society has every right!even an obligation!to institute more humane punishment for crimes. To do so in no way violates 'od s &ord.

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Page 167 The Quran took a particular shape so that people in seventh-century Arabia would get it ! "# we elevate historical aspects o# the Quran to divine status$ we violate the %ord o# &od &ods %ord beco'es twisted when we #ree(e it in a speci#ic ti'e and space The absolute %ord o# &od goes beyond its historical conte)t*this is what we want to get hold o# "# anything spoken about in the Quran has a precedent in pre-"sla'ic tradition*whether +ewish$ ,o'an$ or anything else*we need to understand that its being 'entioned in the Quran does not auto'atically 'ake it Quranic$ and there#ore binding on -usli's %hat about slavery. /lavery as a socioecono'ic syste' is 'entioned in the Quran*its a historical reality 0u'an beings have developed their thinking since the seventh century /lavery is no longer an acceptable socioecono'ic syste' in 'ost parts o# the world 0ow can we use the %ord o# &od to legiti'ate a heinous syste' that hu'an beings no longer generally practice. "# we do legiti'ate such a thing$ we #ree(e &ods %ord in history*but the %ord o# &od reaches way beyond historical reality /lavery is so'ething that is not Quranic +urists$ those #olks in the "sla'ic world responsible #or developing law$ need to apply a healthy dose o# critical thinking to their 1ob as they go about the business o# #or'ing a 1ust society*one that 'oves in the direction o# the %ord o# &od Another thing " have in 'ind when " do 'y research deals with discovering 1ust what the ulti'ate ob1ectives o# the Quran really are %e learn$ o# course$ #ro' our ancestors 0ow did they go about deducing the 'eaning o# the Quran. 0ow did they read a te)t. To their acco'plish'ents we add our 'odern disciplines o# te)tual analysis$ historical analysis$ and her'eneutics 2ets dig deeper into the sub1ect o# 1ustice This concept in#iltrates all the passages o# the Quran +ust! is one o# &ods beauti#ul na'es The Quran$ when it ad'onishes people to avoid #raudulent practices$ uses the i'age o# a scale as a 'etaphor #or 1ustice %oe betide the un1ust who$ when others 'easure #or the'$ e)act in #ull$ but when they 'easure or weigh #or others$ de#raud the'3 4o they not think they will be raised to li#e upon a #ate#ul day$ the day when all 'ankind will stand be#ore the 2ord o# the 5niverse.! 6/ura 7891:6; <ven the paradig's o# the li#e herea#ter are based on the concept o# 1ustice The entire universe$ the whole cos'os$ is built on 1ustice9 %e shall set up 1ust scales on the 4ay o# ,esurrection$ so that no 'an shall in the least be wronged Actions as s'all as a grain o#

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Page 168 mustard seed shall be weighed out. Our reckoning shall suffice (Sura 21: !". #ee$ing things balanced%establishing &ustice%is s$oken about o'er and o'er again throughout the (ur)an. *'er+ stor+ and each commandment are there with the intention to establish &ustice in a societ+. ,ustice easil+ emerges as one of the ma&or ob&ecti'es of the (ur)an. -he (ur)an took sha$e within .eccan societ+%an un&ust societ+ in man+ wa+s%where wealth+ $eo$le o$$ressed $oor $eo$le b+ charging them rib (usur+". /h+ did the language condemning usurious $ractice ha'e to be so strong0 .ecca was smack dab in the middle of trade routes between the southern ti$ of the 1rabian Peninsula and northern destinations such as *g+$t2 ,ordan2 S+ria2 and -urke+. .eccan citi3ens who en&o+ed $ri'ilege and status became e4tremel+ wealth+ as a result of trade. 5f $oor citi3ens could not $a+ their debts2 the+ were forced to borrow mone+ from the wealth+ (through usur+" in order to sa'e their own skins. -here are man+ stories showing how the wealth+ took ad'antage of the 'ulnerable in cities that dotted the trade routes in the .iddle *ast. -he (ur)an as a te4t emerged from the midst of this concrete and harsh realit+. 6sur+2 within the conte4t of this $articular realit+2 was used as an instrument that $er$etuated in&ustice. /h+ is the (ur)an so concerned about the or$hans2 the weak2 and the $oor0 .uhammad himself was an or$han and $oor. 7is father died before he was born. 7is uncle took him in after his grandfather died. 7e lost his mother when he was si4 +ears old. 8ecause his uncle was so $oor2 .uhammad went to work earl+ in his life. 7e belonged to the class of 9ha'e:nots in a societ+ where the 9ha'es flaunted their wealth2 not caring an iota about the li'es of $eo$le li'ing on the brink or2 as we sa+ in more modern times2 falling through the cracks. -he o$$osition to and harsh criticism in the (ur)an of the $ractice of rib stand in shar$ contrast to the gi'ing of alms%something the (ur)an commands as a $ath toward achie'ing socioeconomic &ustice. -he two issues2 alms and usur+2 are connected. -he (ur)an gi'es us a nice image of those who gi'e charitabl+2 $ro'iding for need+ folks without e4$osing them to embarrassment. -his image stands in &u4ta$osition to the image of those who $ractice rib. ;od has laid his curse on usur+ and blessed almsgi'ing with increase. ;od bears no lo'e for the im$ious and the sinful. -hose that ha'e faith and do good works2 attend to their $ra+ers and render the alms le'+2 will be rewarded b+ their <ord and will ha'e

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Page 169 nothing to fear or to regret. Believers, have fear of God and waive what is still due to you from usury, if your faith be true; or war shall be declared against you by God and His a ostle. !f you re ent, you may retain your rinci al, suffering no loss and caus"ing loss to none. !f your debtor be in straits, grant him a delay until he can discharge his debt; but if you waive the sum as alms it will be better for you, if you but #new it. $%ura &'&(6)&*+, -uring the ast three decades, !slamic ban#s have been established all over the world, claiming to run on an economic system that ractices no rib. But when it comes right down to it, these ban#s don.t o erate any differently than the e/isting ban#ing system based on charging interest. 0any 1urists $those res onsible for enacting !slamic law, have ignored the circumstances surrounding the rohibition of usury. By ignoring the conte/t of the 2ur.anic osition, the debate about rib has ta#en on a wooden character. 3he 4uestion has become focused on whether or not the financial transaction in the modern ban#ing system, based on a fi/ed interest rate on both savings and loans, is actually rib. 3his misses the oint. 3he 2ur.an forbade rib because it was used to o ress the oor. Rib has entered as ects of !slamic law as an acce table ractice under some circumstances. 0odern 0uslim scholars do not consider interest, used today by the modern ban#ing system, to be rib. 5urists who tightly gras those solutions more a ro riate to another age $seventh"century 0eccan society, believe that interest of any sort is rib, and therefore inherently wrong. 6o matter what sub1ect the 2ur.an tal#s about7the universe, the cosmos, nature, God and His activities, social life, or the life hereafter 71ustice is at its core. 5ustice gives sha e to all of them. !n light of the 2ur.an.s em hasis on 1ustice, it.s sur rising to me that the rinci le of 1ustice is absent from the list of agreed"u on ob1ectives in classical !slam. 5ustice should be right there on to . !f there were to be a conflict between 1ustice and freedom, 1ustice ought to revail. ! thin# that.s why we find the rinci le of freedom in the 2ur.an somewhat limited. 8ven with our more modern understanding of freedom, freedom as a 2ur.anic ob1ective must be couched within the rimary ob1ective of 1ustice.1 Jhiliyyah is commonly #nown as the 9ge of !gnorance in the :est. 3he hrase ;the 9ge of !gnorance< does not convey an accurate meaning of the term. Jhiliyyah s ecifically refers to the re"!slamic eriod, a time before 0uhammad received -ivine revelation. !t refers to behavior based on the tribal code. 3he 2ur.an condemns this code,

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Page 170 a code insisting that members of the tribe comply with the group no matter what. (Its similar to the American expression !y country" right or wrong.#$ According to the tribal code of conduct" the indi%idual has no %oice. &he indi%idual is expected to follow the leader and obey blindly. &he 'uran condemns this" admonishing us to follow our own conscience" built not on the tribal code but on right and wrong" (ust and un(ust" good and bad. )ere we see the 'uran coming up with something different" something in contradiction to the tribal code. &he 'urans language in reference to the *edouin (tribal people who inhabited the Arabian Peninsula$ is harsh. &he word Arab# is not e%en used in the 'uran+(ust the word arb+a word synonymous with *edouin# and always used negati%ely. ,e can conclude from this that the 'uran espouses a set of %alues and rules that is in direct contradiction to the *edouin tribal code- therefore" the 'uran considers the *edouin tribal code jhiliyyah. 'uranic %alues are built on the concepts of freedom and (ustice+freedom of thought in order to bring about a (ust society. .o your tribes going to war is no reason to thin/ that you" the indi%idual" must automatically go with them. In this way" Islam established a community" not a tribe+a community that went beyond the strictures of the tribal system. &his was part of Islam0 to establish a sense of community based on another set of %alues" another code. In order to establish this community" freedom is understood as a way to get out from under the stultifying practice of blindly following tradition" copying the past. If you loo/ at Arab and !uslim societies" you will see that most of the time no go%ernment has come to power by the choice of the people. 1oull often find a military system in place" an archaic royal family at the nations helm" or somebody who inherits power from his predecessor. .ometimes the new go%erning body ta/es a new name and puts on a modern appearance" but all you ha%e to do is scratch the surface and youll see its the same old thing underneath. &he tribal mentality is ali%e and well. &he code is obedience. All our institutions+political" social" economic" and academic+ha%e an authoritarian structure. Intellectuals ha%e their own form of tribal beha%ior. 1ou either belong to the right or belong to the left+youd better not disobey the code of whate%er intellectual tribe you belong to. Its a terrible situation. 2or example" when the peace tal/s which led to the 3slo Accords began in 144561447" many intellectuals were in fa%or of establishing communication and cooperation between the Palestinian territories and Israel. People from the intellectual tribe+both the left and the right+

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Page 171 said they were in favor of peace. But, when two groups say they are in favor of peace, does that mean that both groups have identical views about a situation? Not necessarily. In spite of that, some members of the intellectual tribe believed that here was an opportunity to spea from a united front. No way did this happen. !he group in favor of the "slo tal s called those fol s who e#pressed some reticence about the tal s stupid, retarded, and belonging to the old world. !he reticent group shot bac by calling their accusers traitors, using peace as a way to conspire with the $enemy% in order to wield influence and power. I was appalled. &hat ind of discourse is this? If we all claim that we are loo ing for peace and we, those of us within the intellectual tribe, are not able to tolerate different opinions among ourselves'well, it(s very easy to despair. I was about to write against this ind of tribal code of discourse'it was )ust before the *upreme +ourt decided on a verdict in the case where I was accused of apostasy. ,ona, my lawyer, advised me, $I am not going to censor you. I now you are against any ind of censorship. -ou certainly have the right to write anything you want, but if you write something that has a political opinion, let me first have a loo . I don(t want anything to be used against you in court.% ./li *hala0ani, ,ona(s husband, an intellectual +ommunist, thought it best if I not publish my article. 1e had gone through a lot of misery after he became a supporter of the peace accord. &ith the use of political language, he endured the accusation of political apostasy hurled at him from those in the political arena, no different in principle from being accused of apostasy in the religious sphere. If you disagree with the tribe, you are e#pelled from the tribe. I called ,ona when all of this was happening to and around her husband. $2oo , ,ona,% I said, $I am not defending your husband or any member of his group in my writing. I am defending the integrity of our intellectual life. I may or may not agree with your husband or his group, but I cannot condemn them as political apostates. *o I(ll send you an article on this ind of cra3y goings4on in the intellectual community.% $2isten,% she said, $you are already condemned as pro4&estern. /re you sure you want to ma e yourself even more vulnerable to name4calling?% I thin it was somebody in 5ordan who said, $If you loo to this man 6Nasr /bu 7aid8, maybe you(ll find that his mother was 5ewish.% I replied to this $accusation% with a huge amount of indignation. $-ou do not now what a mother is. 9ven if my mother had been

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Page 172 Jewish, she is still my mother. There is nothing wrong with being Jewish, but there is everything in the world wrong with being a stupid Muslim. I re use to play the tribal game. !onse"uently, I am one o those marginali#ed $rab intelle%tuals. &ran'ly, I ta'e some %om ort in being marginali#ed. I don(t try to vote with the %enter be%ause it(s only rom the margins that I eel I am able to threaten the %enter. I I were to be integrated into the %enter, I would not have mu%h impa%t on the development o Islami% thought, and )od 'nows, the $rab and Muslim world desperately needs to see the relevan%e o modern s%holarship on individual lives and on so%ieties. *hen I applied my %riti%al s%holarship to the sub+e%t o women, I saw how well this sub+e%t nestled into the %on%epts o +usti%e and reedom, two essential ob+e%tives o the ,ur(an. The ourth %hapter o the ,ur(an is simply titled -*omen. The opening verse tells us that )od %reated a human being rom one single soul, and rom this one single soul, )od %reated its mate, and rom there, )od %reated all humanity. -.ou people/ 0ave ear o your 1ord, who %reated you rom a single soul. &rom that soul, 0e %reated its spouse, and through them 0e bestrewed 2s%attered3 the earth with %ountless men and women 45ura 6718. &rom this verse, we see the unity o human beings, o the human ra%e. Male and emale are %reated rom one single soul. The !hristian understanding o 9ve, %reated rom $dam(s rib, has been integrated into Islami% thought:into the e;egesis o the ,ur(an:and so it be%ame part o Islam. I am aware that )enesis gives two a%%ounts o the %reation o humanity, one o them being more in line with ,ur(ani% understanding 4not the a%%ount where 9ve emerges as a produ%t o $dam(s rib8. <ut in the ,ur(an, the %hapter on women begins by establishing the unity and e"uality o human beings. There was one soul, and this one soul )od divided into two, and rom them, the whole human ra%e %ame orth. 1et(s %onsider polygamy, a sub+e%t not well understood even by most Muslims. Polygamy, histori%ally spea'ing, was a popular pra%ti%e in human so%ieties long be ore the advent o Islam. It is a mista'e to thin' o polygamy as part o the Islami% revelation. .es, the ,ur(an does address the issue o polygamy, but the verse so o ten used to legitimate polygamy is really addressing the issue o orphans who needed prote%tion and %ustody a ter losing their parents in the

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Page 173 battle of Uhud (625). Muslims lost ten percent of the arm !se"ent #arriors!lea"ing man children orphaned. $he historical conte%t& as #ell as te%tual anal sis& sho#s that permission #as granted to marr a #ido# or a female orphan so that she #ould be protected and pro"ided for in this particular societ & a societ that pre ed upon #ido#s and female orphans!often stealing their inheritance from them. $herefore& the 'ur(an admonishes) *i"e orphans the propert #hich belongs to them. +o not e%change their "aluables for #orthless things or cheat them of their possessions, for this #ould surel be a grie"ous sin. -f ou fear that ou cannot treat orphans #ith fairness .gi"ing them their inheritance/& then ou ma marr other #omen #ho seem good to ou) t#o& three& or four of them. 0ut if ou fear that ou cannot maintain e1ualit among them .#ithin a marital relationship/& marr one onl or an sla"e2girls ou ma o#n. $his #ill ma3e it easier for ou to a"oid in4ustice. (5ura 6)3) $he s nta% of the third sentence is conditional!if ou are not sure that ou(ll be able to treat orphans #ith fairness& then ou are allo#ed to marr t#o& three!e"en up to four other #omen. 7hat is the te%t tal3ing about8 9ustice is the goal& and the means to reach that goal in these particular circumstances comes through the practice of pol gam . Pol gam is used as a solution to establish 4ustice. $he plural :orphans; here is feminine. $he focus is on doing 4ustice for orphans. -f that is not possible& there is a solution. 7here does the solution come from8 <rom pre2-slamic practice. $he =rabs li"ing in the =rabian Peninsula of the se"enth centur mistreated orphans& den ing them their rights. $he too3 the orphans( inheritances and made them "irtual sla"es in the household. $his #as common practice. 5o the 'ur(an as3s& :>?& if ou =rabs are so greed & #h don(t ou marr them8; Marriage brings about a #hole ne# relationship. Marriage #ould be a means to bring about a more 4ust societ . $he solution established b the 'ur(an is not the same thing as establishing pol gam . -t is using pol gam as a solution to a real problem in the se"enth centur & the problem of orphans. Pol gam #as #idel practiced alread . 5o #e cannot sa that pol gam is 'ur(anic la#. -t is not a la#. -t is a practical solution to a pressing& historical problem. 9ustice is the broader issue.

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Page 174 Ive concluded through my research that the Quran does not favor polygamy. The Quran, in its attempt to establish ustice, reali!es that even if the "rabs chose the path of marrying orphans, the goal of ustice remained out of reach. I dont believe I can conclude that the Quran is against polygamy#that $ould be umping over history. The Quran recommends polygamy as a solution to a social problem. %ince the Quran is not in favor of the practice, urists in the business of establishing modern la$ $ould be $ise to put tight restrictions around its use. This $ay, Islam $ill be developing societies in the same direction the &ord of 'od ta(es) establishment of ustice. 'iven our present*day social circumstances, polygamy is insulting to $omen as $ell as to the children born into the family. Im appalled that there is no discussion in modern Islamic thought about $hat effects polygamy might have on children. The +uestions have remained the same over centuries) Is polygamy allo$ed in the Quran, Is it legal, Its time $e as(ed, -&hat about the children, &hat impact does the practice have on them,. &e have to consider this first and foremost) The Quran is all about establishing ustice in society. &hen $e loo( at other verses in the Quran about $omen, $e should envelop them in the same conte/t# ustice. If certain practices in the Quran appear to be contrary to this concept, the conte/t can usually e/plain it. 0or e/ample, the beating of $ives. It is mentioned in the Quran#it cannot be ignored. %o the thin(ing goes li(e this) If beating is mentioned in the Quran, I have the right to beat my $ife. I remember hearing a professor from the Islamic 1niversity in 2otterdam say in an intervie$ that the Quran allo$ed a husband to discipline his $ife by beating her. Its not only the fundamentalist or radical people $ho thin( li(e this. %omeho$, if something is mentioned in the Quran, people thin( it is permissible. It is possible to state from a supposedly academic position that the Quran allo$s a husband to beat his $ife in order to discipline her. If everything mentioned in the Quran is to be literally follo$ed as a divine la$, 3uslims should be consistent and reinstitute slavery as a socioeconomic system. Its mentioned in the Quran, isnt it, &hen $e spea( of something being Quranic, $e are tal(ing about that $hich $as initiated by the Quran and therefore is binding on 3uslims. There is a distinction bet$een the historicity of the Quran and the &ord of 'od in its absolute form. &ere bac( at the double nature of the Quran, human and divine. 4"ccording to 5hristian doctrine, not everything that 6esus said $as said as the %on of 'od. %ome

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Page 175 times Jesus behaved just as a man.) The Quran is a mode of communication between God and humanit . !hen we ta"e the historica# as$ect of that communication as divine% we #oc" Gods !ord in time and s$ace. !e #imit the meaning of the Quran to a s$ecific time in histor . &ar better'and more faithfu# to the !ord of God'to ferret out that d namic within the Quran which has been ab#e to sha$e the #ives of (us#ims over centuries as the have wrest#ed with the )uestion *+ow can , be a good (us#im in a changing wor#d-. !h is it% then% that when we read $assages in the Quran dea#ing with women% the reading has concentrated on the historica# as$ect% not on the objective of estab#ishing justice- Going bac" to the subject of $o# gam % the Quran te##s us% *Tr as ou ma % ou cannot treat a## our wives im$artia## . /0ura 12134). ,f ou thin" that ou wi## not be ab#e to be fair with our wives% this verse confirms that fear. The $rob#em comes as $re5,s#amic socia# traditions have mi6ed with ,s#amic juris$rudence. This mi6ture has found itse#f woven into the fabric of (us#im societies% and then enforced there. The name of the cha$ter'*!omen.'is itse#f mis#eading. (us#ims tit#ed it according to its subject matter rather than the #arger $rinci$#e it encom$asses% justice. The subject matter is women. The subject cou#d just as easi# have been war or the $oor. Justice is the #arger issue under which $ressing socia# issues can easi# be subsumed. 7 $rob#ematic verse reads2 (en have authorit over women because God has made the one su$erior to the other% and because the s$end their wea#th to maintain them. Good women are obedient. The guard their unseen $arts because God has guarded them. 7s for those from whom ou fear disobedience% admonish them% forsa"e them in beds a$art% and beat them. Then if the obe ou% ta"e no further action against them. 0ure# God is high% su$reme. /0ura 1281) The 9ng#ish trans#ation of this verse needs to be addressed. The 7rabic word qawwmn is trans#ated in some 9ng#ish te6ts as *$rotectors.. (us#ims genera## understand this word to mean *su$eriors%. meaning that men are financia## res$onsib#e to maintain their fami#ies. The )uestion comes down to this2 ,s the Quran here descri$tive% mere# describing what is going on% or $rescri$tive% admonishing be#ievers to carr on the $ractice- (an fo#"s argue that it is $rescri$tive. Going to the conte6t% though% gives us ama:ing insight. 7 woman came to Pro$het (uhammad% com$#aining that her husband had s#ashed her

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Page 176 face. Muhammad simply said, Slash him back.2 What we !te he"e is that Muhammad is g!i g bey! d the hist!"ical "est"ai ts placed up! w!me . #$his a ecd!te always c"eates a l!t !f egati%e "eacti! f"!m Muslim me .& $he W!"d !f '!d c! ti u!usly emphasi(es e)uality betwee w!me a d me . $he"e is ! disti cti! made "ega"di g the "ewa"ds !" pu ishme ts b!th w!me a d me "eap i the life he"eafte". *f the"e is e)uality i the spi"itual "ealm, d!es it make se se that '!d w!uld smile up! i e)uality i s!cieties i the he"e a d !w+ $he"e is e)uality i c"eati! itself a d e)uality whe Muslims pe"f!"m "eligi!us duties a d "ites. We ha%e see h!w the ,u"-a d!es !t fa%!" p!lygamy a d h!w the e ti"e th"ust !f the ,u"-a is t!wa"d .ustice. /!w d! we u de"sta d the ,u"-a -s di"ecti%es "ega"di g fi a cial supp!"t, wife0beati g, a d i he"ita ce+ Me ha%e a supe"i!"ity !%e" w!me because !f thei" c! t"ibuti! t! the e1pe ses !f life. *t has !thi g t! d! with huma w!"th. /uma s!cieties, th!ugh, ha%e e)uated fi a cial wealth with huma w!"th, a d this has shifted the bala ce !f p!we" betwee w!me a d me u fai"ly. Me , as a "ule i pat"ia"chal s!cieties, ha%e m!"e ea" i g p!we" tha w!me . * u de"sta d this supe"i!"ity that the ,u"-a "efe"s t! as "esp! sibility. $his same te"m2"esp! sibility2is a w!"d used ab!ut '!d i "elati! t! '!d-s w!"k i h!ldi g the u i%e"se t!gethe". P!we" is ce"tai ly i %!l%ed, but the emphasis is ! "esp! sible acti! . We talk ab!ut '!d as bei g qayyn i "ega"d t! the hea%e s a d ea"th. /e keeps watch. /e keeps thi gs i !"de". /e keeps the w!"ld f"!m dest"ucti! . $he ,u"-a uses the same w!"d with "ega"d t! me 2they a"e qawwmn. $hey a"e "esp! sible f!" the family2they keep the family i !"de". *t has m!"e t! d! with "esp! sibility tha auth!"ity. 3f c!u"se, "esp! sibility c!uld imply s!me auth!"ity. * m!de" times, because !f the cha ges that ha%e affected all !u" s!cial i stituti! s, a d the"ef!"e !u" s!cial st"uctu"e, w!me ca be c! side"ed qawwmn. *f the w!ma is the ma.!" s!u"ce !f family i c!me, the she is supe"i!". $e1tual a alysis sh!ws that '!d c! side"s s!me pe!ple t! be supe"i!" #"esp! sible&, depe di g ! thei" fi a cial c! t"ibuti! . $he p"! !u used c!uld "efe" t! eithe" w!me !" me . *t keeps !pe the p!ssibility !f i te"p"etati! , but ce"tai ly if the w!ma is the ! ly s!u"ce !f i c!me, a d the"ef!"e "esp! sible t! p"!tect the family, the she is defi itely qawwm. $he c! te1t !f wife0beati g "e%!l%es a"!u d i sta ces whe"e a wife-s beha%i!" th"eate s the stability !f the family, a d the"ef!"e the

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Page 177 survival of the community. The expression nushz, means going way out of bounds. The ur!an says that if a woman goes way beyond the boundaries, she should first be admonished about her behavior. "f this is not successful, she opens herself up to punishment. #er husband may refuse to share their bed or may beat her. $The ur!an also mentions a case where a husband goes beyond the boundaries%in the mode of nushz.& 'gain, are these particular punishments mentioned the (ord of )od or do they only reflect history* " believe these punishments were a historical solution to current social problems. +f course it is entirely possible that some women would not have considered desertion from the marital bed to be punishment. (e are dealing with the ur!an, a historical text, coming into existence at a time when patriarchy was well established in cultures throughout the world. Patriarchy, literally meaning rule by the fathers, is a social system with domination over somebody or something $men over women, masters over slaves, ,ings or -ueens over sub.ects, elite over commoners, human beings over nature& at its core. ' patriarchal perspective sees things through a male/centered lens, and even though women can $and do& replicate the patriarchal order as their lives unfold, the gender roles that a society enforces on both women and men ensure that a male perspective remains dominant. Products of any given culture $and the ur!an is a product of a specific culture& reflect the way things are in a society. The language of the text situates itself within a specific material reality%one that expresses itself through a patriarchal bent. 0evertheless, the absolute (ord of )od transcends the text. Part of my research has to do with distinguishing between the human and divine aspects of the ur!an. 1efore "slam made its appearance on the 'rabian Peninsula in the seventh century, women inherited nothing. The eldest son received everything. "slam changed this. )od has thus en.oined you concerning your children2 ' male shall inherit twice as much as a female. "f there be more than two girls, they shall have two/thirds of the inheritance3 but if there be one only, she shall inherit the half. Parents shall inherit a sixth each, if the deceased ha4s5 a child3 but if he leave4s5 no child and his parents be his heirs, his mother shall have a third. "f he ha4s5 brothers, his mother shall have a sixth after payment of any legacy he may be be-ueathed or any debt he may have owed. 6ou may wonder whether your parents or your children are more beneficial to you 4nearer to you in benefit5. 1ut this is the law of )od3 surely )od is all/,nowing and wise. $7ura 8211&

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Page 178 If you accept the reading that this verse establishes changewomen have a right to be included in inheritanceand stop at that level, thats O ! "he direction is toward #ustice! $owever, a deeper reading shows that this te%t is not about establishing the rights of womenit is about limiting the rights of men! "he &uran here is moving in the direction of e'uality between women and men! Its a step in the right direction! (omen should have a share in an inheritance #ust as men do! )* male shall inherit twice as much as a female!+ "he structure of the verse concentrates on the share of the male, not the share of the female! ,uppose the structure were different- ,uppose the te%t read, )* female shall inherit half of what a male inherits+- "his gives us a different semantic reading! If the &uranic verse began, )* female shall inherit,+ we would .now that the &uran is busy defining the share of the female! /ut it begins, )* male shall inherit!+ (e see that the &uran busies itself defining #ust what the males share is to be! 0emember that before Islam, the male received all of the inherit1ance! "he &uran here is limiting the share of the male, not defining the share of the female! I believe the &urans intention is limitationits the semantic focus of the te%t! Placing a limitation on what the male receives is not absolutely defining what he should get, but by saying )no more than this,+ it leaves open the good possibility that he could receive less! 2en should not go beyond that which the &uran entitles them to! 3rammatically spea.ing, the &uran limits the share that men inherit! "he &uran does not give an absolute share to either women or men! "he structure of the &uran clears the way for societies to enact inheritance laws that reflect e'uality between the se%es! Its structure doesnt bo% us into absolute numerical amounts! $ow should we understand )4ou may wonder whether your parents or your children are more beneficial to you+- 5ust because the conte%t reflects the jhiliyyah code of behavior, this does not necessarily imply that the &uran is trying to guide the believers to go beyond the blood bonds on which the inheritance passages rest! 6onetheless, reading the whole &uran in terms of its strong opposition to the tribal code would suggest such an implication! If we add the fact that Prophet 2uhammad clearly indicated that his inheritance was to be distributed for charity, we can suggest that the whole inheritance system is really historically determined! 2uch wor. begs to be done in the field of Islamic ,tudies! "he nineteenth century saw a movement of revivalism in the *rab and

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Page 179 Muslim world that for a variety of reasons lost its momentum. The process of reforming Islamic thought by looking at the ur!an and trying to differentiate between what is history and what is the absolute "ord of #od has continued since then in spite of that loss of momentum. I do not consider my work e$ceptional. I do not come out of a vacuum. I count myself among those few who have been trying to keep the ur!an relevant to life in the modern age. "e e$perience heavy resistance. There are reasons for this resistance. %ne of the reasons stems from the absence of what I call a &free market of ideas.' The acceptance of the economic free market in Muslim societies does not include the acceptance of this free market of ideas. In the (rab and Muslim world) the media are totally controlled by the government. There is no space for free thinking to flourish. *+suf Idr,s) one of our contemporary -gyptian writers .playwright and novelist/) said that all the freedom in the Muslim and (rab world is not enough for a single person. I agree with him. Political authority in -gypt is oppressive authority. %n my recent visit to -gypt) I spoke with a male lawyer0one with considerable standing and clout in -gyptian society0about the recent appointment of a woman 1udge) Tahani -l2#ebali) to the 3upreme 4ourt. &*ou know I!m really liberal)' he noted) &but I!m not happy at all about a woman being appointed as a 1udge.' I looked at him askance. &"hy not5' &6ecause a 1udge must be somebody with e$perience0a 1udge needs to go from state to state and into the villages) e$amining evidence0it could be dangerous. *ou know the routine.' I!d heard it all before. 7nder the guise of protecting women) we restrict their activities) a climate that perpetuates ine8uality between the se$es. Many Muslims are liberal and open2minded) but when it comes to the sub1ect of women) they take refuge in an outdated ideology. "ith the advent of cloning) the possibility e$ists that one single woman can reproduce life on her own. Men0especially (rab men0feel threatened. Many Muslims point to the verse that shows life springing forth from a pair) and then refuse to discuss the issue further) claiming that the ur!an settled that issue long ago. 9emocracy) rationalism) and freedom are not instilled in our consciousness. (ll too often) as in the case of the lawyer who is unhappy with the recent appointment of Tahani -l2#ebali to -gypt!s 3upreme 4ourt) these concepts skim along the surface of our understanding. "e have not incorporated these values into the way we go about living our lives. That!s why it!s easy to find refined) intellectual men talking

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Page 180 about women and the rights of women, but treating their own wives with scorn and contempt. An acquaintance of mine invited me to his home to have dinner with his wife and family. I had ust met him and felt somewhat uncomfortable with the invitation. !o I said, "#ou cannot ust surprise your wife by bringing home a guest for dinner.$ "%o, no, don&t worry about it,$ he assured me. "'y wife is gracious and hospitable.$ I still was uncomfortable with the situation. I wouldn&t surprise (btehal in this way. I reluctantly accepted his invitation, thin)ing that perhaps he and his wife had some sort of understanding about bringing guests home for dinner. *hen we entered his home, his wife graciously received us. +he husband too) off his ac)et, flung it across the room, not caring where it landed, and then clapped his hands three times as a signal to his wife that he wanted some service. "-igarettes, get me my cigarettes.$ .is cigarettes were in his ac)et poc)et/the same ac)et that he had ust thrown across the room. *hat )ind of freedom is this0 *here is the respect, especially in front of a guest0 Perhaps a man might behave li)e this when he is alone with his family, showing how spoiled he is/but to do this in front of a guest01 2ut the man was not staging a scene. +his was ordinary, everyday behavior. +his showed me what a wide gap e3ists between people&s tal) about freedom and ustice, all that tal) has yet to ma)e a dent on the way many people live. -learly, we have not integrated our tal) into our wal). 4r, to put it in academic terms, theory has not made its way into practice.

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Page 181 12 Looking Ahead As I watched with sickening horror that sad sight of the Twin Towers going up in smoke against New Yorks skyline on that bright and sunny eptember day in !""1# my immediate thought was $This must be a mo%ie&' The scene slowly began to sink in# and gradually it dawned on me& The world# because of this attack# was going to turn upside down& (eaction would be strong& This was white blood& Year after year# Palestinian carnage has continued)no big deal& *ife goes on& Now# Im certainly not without criticism of the Palestinian leadership& Im con%inced Yasser Arafat is at the helm of a corrupt system of go%ernment& +ut somehow# Palestinians who die day in and day out dont command the same kind of attention from the world that an attack on the Twin Towers and the Pentagon demands& In the wake of eptember 11# !""1# I%e been deeply concerned)e%en depressed)about the future of our world& I lost friends# both Americans and ,uslims# trapped in the burning Twin Towers& -%en in the middle of all the many crises I%e li%ed through with my family# my uni%ersity# and my country# I ha%e ne%er felt so down as I do these days& A couple of years ago# a famous -gyptian actress# u./d 0usny# committed suicide in *ondon)at least it appeared that suicide was the cause of her death& he was popular when I was a youth1 I remember her as a cultural icon of sorts& In -gypt# she was known as 2inderella& (ecently -btehal and I were talking about 2inderella# and I asked her# $3o you think depression could lead somebody to commit suicide4'

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Page 182 There had been considerable speculation in the tabloids that Sud was depressed. She did have some health problems and was taking cortisone. She had gained a lot of weight and no longer looked like inderella. !s a result" her career suffered. #btehal took a long look at me. $%es"& she answered simpl'. (eali)ing that * was +uite depressed" she added" $but there is no danger that 'ou will go that deep.& $,hat makes 'ou think that-& * asked. $.ecause 'ou love to be with people/even if 'ou are sick or angr'" 'ou love talking with people. * believe this will protect 'ou from sinking ver' deep"& she assured me. * know that isolating 'ourself from the compan' of other people can e0acerbate depression. *1m not about to go into isolation. ,hat * have noticed is that when * initiate some kind of change in m' life" it works well as an antidote for depression. * find *1m alwa's looking for wa's to change this or make something else a little different. * recentl' shaved m' beard. *1m presentl' tr'ing to lose weight. *f * lose some weight" *1ll feel lighter. ,ho knows- This might revive m' spirits. 2ne of the reasons * decided to go to .erlin had to do with change. 3uring the fall of 2442" * worked at the *nstitute for !dvanced Studies in .erlin. * had a fellowship/an honorar' award/given to me in 1556. The hope was that * would be at the *nstitute in .erlin in 1557. The timing was somewhat awkward because the initial invitation e0tended b' 8eiden 9niversit' after m' e0ile was a three:'ear assignment/155; <the first 'ear of m' e0ile= until 1558. * didn1t think it appropriate to leave a three:'ear commitment in order to pursue a one:'ear fellowship in .erlin. The folks at the *nstitute in .erlin understood. >rom 1556 until the present" we1ve been in close contact. *1ve attended their s'mposia and conferences. *n 2441" * ?oined the committee hard at work on a pro?ect about *slamic and @ewish hermeneutics. The pro?ect had taken off" and it seemed like the right time to go. *n spite of m' discouragement about the world situation/specificall' the wa' that situation has impacted on *slam/* plan to forge ahead with m' work even though m' optimism about the future has suffered a severe blow. >rom the seventh centur' until the nineteenth centur' <when contact between #urope and the *slamic world began in earnest=" the idea of *slam as a meld of religion and state <dn wa dawla= was absent. This melding is a modern concept. *slam has alwa's made a distinction between the ruler/for e0ample" the sultan or caliph/and the law

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Page 183 maker or faqh. Beginning in the ninth century, though, literal interpretation of the Quran became the dominant trend throughout the Muslim orld. !his as unfortunate. "iteralism easily leads to a fundamentalism that manipulates religion in order to ield po er, and e see political leaders throughout much of our history doing #ust that. $f course, using %od to sei&e po er is nothing ne 'this is a common practice'but in spite of that, for most of our history, there as a clear differentiation bet een political and religious authority. ( sultan, a ruler, a caliph, a king'these ere not religious authorities. )hat the Quran presents to Muslims is neither the *slami&ation of life nor the absolute separation of religion from life. +eparating religion from the state, though, is essential for protecting the integrity of religion, but this does not mean relegating religion to a backseat in society. !he Quran, in the original te,t, gi-es us no political theory'it espouses no political principles. .ertainly, there are accounts of ho politics played out on the (rabian Peninsula during the se-enth century. !he Quran does gi-e us some -i-id, descripti-e accounts of ho the ne community of belie-ers go-erned themsel-es, but the Quran does not mandate any particular form of go-ernment. !his is open to Muslims to choose for themsel-es. * firmly belie-e that separation of the state and religion is essential for protecting religion from political manipulation. )hen the state identifies itself ith a certain religion, folks ho belong to another religious tradition ine-itably are discriminated against. *n addition, those folks ho belong to the religion officially sanctioned by the state, but dont hold orthodo, -ie s /the right ay to think about religion, according to those ho ha-e the po er to say so0, become sub#ect to persecution on the grounds of apostasy or heresy. ( secular state'one that gi-es no official sanction to any particular religion'gi-es religion the space it needs to meet the needs of the people. $ther ise, religion easily becomes a eapon in the hands of those in po er. )hen 1urope /and later the 2nited +tates0 fle,ed their muscles in their attempt to con3uer countries through coloni&ation, a trap as set. 1urope as con-inced that *slam as to blame for the back ardness of Muslim societies. .oloni&ed countries reacted to this accusation in a -ariety of ays. $ne reaction has been imitation. !hinking that the )ests political system must be #ust as good as its technology, some non4)estern countries ha-e superimposed an imported political system on their people hile at the same time using the )ests technology to compete

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Page 184 in the world economy. Professor Senghaas, from the Institute for Intercultural and International Studiesthe man with whom I dialogued in 1996uggested that Korea est e!em"lifies this res"onse to coloni#ation. In the $ra world, we ha%e &uhammad $li, the founder of modern 'gy"t. (e attem"ted to imitate the )est y setting u" a modern state in 'gy"t during the mid*18++s which included de%elo"ing a strong military. )e ended u" em racing the enefits of 'uro"ean technology without understanding the critical, scientific thin,ing that ga%e this technology its oom"h. In fact, we didn-t gi%e two thoughts to that. )e li,ed the fact that technology ga%e us more of a standing in the modern world while ma,ing our li%es somewhat easier. $n intellectual res"onse to the encroachment of modernity came from the 'gy"tian scholar &uhammad .$ duh /1849019+12. (is oo, Islam Is the Religion of Science and Civilization1 s"earheaded this intellectual mo%ement. .$ duh elie%ed that "eo"le who wanted to rid themsel%es of their religious heritage misunderstood religion. If religious tradition had lost meaning for the "eo"le, then religion had to e understood in a fresh way. 3his rational thin,ing a out religion had een neglected in the $ra world for se%eral centuries. .$ duh-s contem"orary, 4ash5d 4ida /1861019612, ad%ocated a return to tradition and an Islamic state ased on an u"dated understanding of sharia law. 3his fresh understanding would "a%e the way for &uslims to ecome "layers in the modern world while still holding on to their identity as &uslims. $nother res"onse to coloni#ation, according to Professor Senghaas, has een for a culture to dress u" or "ut a modern face on its traditional laws and "olicieslaws and "olicies that ha%e long since sto""ed eing useful. $ su""osed golden era in the distant "ast ecomes the model. 3he &iddle 'ast tends to res"ond in this manner. Sometimes the reaction of coloni#ed "eo"le can e summed u" li,e this7 8)ell, let-s moderni#e in the technological9scientific field, ut let-s steer clear of anything foreign in the cultural s"here.: 3his e!"lains why in much of &uslim society, there is such animosity toward literature /no%els, "oems2 and the arts /"aintings, films2. 3here is this fear that religious commitment will somehow e com"romised y im"orting these s"ecific cultural artifacts. ;ccasionally, the coloni#ed res"ond with creati%ity and inno%ation. Social reform ne%er ha""ens in a straight line, though. 4eform mo%ements are messy. &any traditionalists today fear "ossi le change in their society as a result of a""lying creati%e and inno%ati%e solutions

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Page 185 to problems in their present circumstances, believing that Islam will be obliterated in the process. In addition, because Arab culture stresses obedience at the expense of critical thinking, when creative solutions do emerge as one wa to go forward, all too often these movements are s!uelched. "he #re much too threatening to those who hold power. As a result, $uslim societ stagnates. $uslim identit , more often than not, wraps itself tightl around a narrow understanding of religion. It is the $uslim, though%not Islam%who resists moderni&ation. "his resistance has not been the case for most of Islamic histor . 'ur ancestors did their best to think creativel , integrating available knowledge with (ur#anic principles and then appl ing appropriate solutions to modern problems. )hen we look at what the Islamic *eformation $ovement of the nineteenth centur initiated and then follow its course up to the present, we can see some progress. I#m thinking specificall about what we presentl call the dialogue of civili&ations or the dialogue of cultures. )e do have within Islamic discourse a liberal understanding%a liberal interpretation of the (ur#an based on modern knowledge. "he essential part of this modern knowledge we owe to +urope#s +nlightenment. )hen the Arab world first encountered the )est ,+urope-, it made a distinction between intellectual +urope with its ideas of progress and development and imperial +urope with its occup ing forces that were resisted. "he Islamic *eformation focused on incorporating +urope#s ideas of progress and development within Arab societ . )e have this legac . I place m self within this legac . $ research in the field of Islamic .tudies is all about tr ing to find a wa of incorporating modernit and progress into Islamic thought. +ver since .eptember 11, /001, a large number of radical Islamic groups, most notabl 'sama bin 1aden and his cohorts, have attempted to hi2ack Islam b claiming to be the representatives of Islam, speaking for all of Islam. 'f course, other groups have tried to do so as well%the )ahhabis of .audi Arabia, the $ahdis in .udan, and the .unusis in 1ib a. 3one of these groups with its specific ideolog has succeeded in establishing itself as the onl vision or understanding of Islam. Islam has alwa s expressed itself in a variet of wa s%wa s that have been present, recogni&ed, and respected since its inception. It seems to me that in spite of an initial valiant attempt on the part of the 4ush administration to differentiate between radical Islamic groups and Islam as it has been expressed in its various forms since the seventh centur , America still perceives Islam as a monolithic

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Page 186 enemy. Immediately following September 11, 2001, I heard President Bush tal about the need for the !meri"an people not to e#uate Islam$one of the ma%or world religions$with radi"al groups within Islam. It ga&e me pleasure to hear him say this. I thought he was right on target. 'ringe elements, powerful though they may be, ought not to be "onsidered representati&e of Islam. (y initial pleasure e&aporated #ui" ly as Bush "ontinued to tal . I am not an Islamist, but I felt "ompletely e)"luded as Bush spo e about *our "ulture, our &alues, our freedoms, and our demo"rati" ideals+ as he %u)taposed *our+ with *other,+ implying that the *other+ is not "i&ili,ed. I belong to this *un"i&ili,ed+ world. I-m "riti"al of my "ulture, to be sure, but I still belong to it. .his "ategori,ation of *our+ &alues and *other+ &alues is merely a "onstru"t manufa"tured in the heads of people in the /est and is ta ing shape in the heads of Islamists as well. It-s the same e)"lusi&eness$Bin 0aden tal ing about infidels 12hristians and 3ews4, and Bush tal ing about *our+ "ulture, *our+ &alues, *our+ freedoms, and *our+ demo"rati" ideals. /hat does he mean by *our+5 'reedom and demo"ra"y do not belong e)"lusi&ely to one so"iety. 6e-s tal ing about human &alues$&alues we all share$and if Bush had addressed the de&astation of September 11, 2001, eeping in mind that his so"iety has no monopoly on freedom and demo"ra"y, I thin he would ha&e garnered mu"h respe"t in the !rab world. ! rational and farsighted poli"y would ha&e first found a way to separate and disso"iate these radi"al, terrorist groups from the mainstream, thus lea&ing them without any ind of publi" support. I belie&e the politi"al administration in the 7nited States wanted to ease the emotional pain of the !meri"an people, many of whom had suffered painful losses. 8e&enge seemed the way to go. /ithout mu"h understanding about how this strategy would be per"ei&ed throughout the (uslim world, bombs began e)ploding o&er !fghanistan. I understand, respe"t, and sympathi,e with the feelings of the !meri"an people. But should we "arry out politi"al strategies %ust to retaliate, or should we ha&e a more measured strategy, one where we gi&e more thought to what was an a"t of terror that affe"ted the whole international "ommunity$in"luding (uslims5 I thin the de"ision to atta" al9:aeda was made in haste. .his atta" allowed ;sama bin 0aden, in a taped message, to %ust sit there and tell the whole world that he was defending Palestine. I was s"andali,ed. ;sama bin 0aden, who had ne&er spo en publi"ly about Palestine before this, was able to lay "laim to this &ery thing. ;f "ourse,

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Page 187 he got a lot of support from the Arab world because of this speech. The whole scene made me deeply depressed, and I cannot ignore the fact that all this was given to him on a silver platter by the nited !tates because of its government"s hasty, unstudied decision to retaliate. This decision was a pragmatic one#a political decision that, in my opinion, was not in the interest of the American people, although no doubt in the interest of the elite and powerful in the nited !tates. Al$%aeda remains in Afghanistan. &e 'now this. p until this point, (sama bin )aden had not been able to bend the meaning of Islam to suit his purposes. !uddenly, here it was#given to him as a gift. The effects are far$reaching. *ecause a powerful country, the nited !tates, fought against Afghanistan, an Islamic country, (sama bin )aden was able to reinforce to the young#teenagers from Pa'istan to Palestine#that the American foreign policy toward Palestine is absolutely un+ust. There is this sense in the Arab world that the &est generally, and America in particular, is against Islam, and part of this being against Islam is being against the Palestinian people and in favor of Israel. As long as the Arab,Israeli issue remains unsolved, there is no way we can e-pect any further reformation in Islamic thought. *ecause resolution of the Arab,Israeli conflict has ta'en low priority on the agenda of &estern political leaders, this feeling that .uslims have of being under attac' continues. /ran'ly, it terrifies me. It"s as though the positive gains by the Islamic 0eformation .ovement of the nineteenth century came to a grinding halt in 1128. !ystems of thought#especially those reflecting radical or fundamentalist ideology#remain alive and well because to a large e-tent they are claiming to solve the problem between Palestine and Israel. If any change is ever to come about in the Arab world, and therefore in the Islamic world# whether the sub+ect is politics, democracy, human rights, or Islamic 0eformation#solving the Palestinian,Israeli conflict has to come first. I"m not +ust tal'ing about what the Arab world e-pects, I"m tal'ing about establishing +ustice in this world of ours that over the past decades has become a small village. 3ever before in my life have I been so determined to show my political affiliation as I am these days. 4ven though I have studied opinions about certain things, I"ve always ta'en the staid, intellectual route to protest what I perceive as in+ustice, not the route of public demonstration. I"ve undergone some 'ind of change#a change that began to happen even before !eptember 11, 5661, as I watched

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Page 188 Palestinian children being killed for throwing rocks at Israeli tanks. These images appeared on the Cable News Network (CNN), the ritish roadcasting Compan! ( C), and the "#tch media$not %#st the &rab media, which might be critici'ed for e(aggerating. )f co#rse, children$for lots of reasons$o#ght not to be throwing rocks at tanks. #t kill them for s#ch acti*it!+ The first Intifada (1,8-)$the effort b! the Palestinians to shake free from Israeli occ#pation$led to the signing of the )slo Peace &ccord in 1,,.. Negotiations between Israel and Palestine p#t into motion concrete plans that had the potential to e*ent#all! bring peace between the two sides. The second Intifada (/000) sho#ld ha*e led to f#rther positi*e de*elopments in the 1iddle 2ast. 3hat began to gnaw at me was that most of the world didn4t care$all this fighting, killing, and d!ing fit right into the backdrop of people4s li*es. Two or three !ears ago, I serio#sl! considered packing m! bags and heading back to 2g!pt. 3hat am I doing here in 2#rope+ "e*eloping Islamic tho#ght+ That goal grows more and more el#si*e. 5ometimes I feel as tho#gh all the effort 1#hammad 6&bd#h made in the direction of integrating Islam and the 3est has been wasted. 3e seem to be heading back toward e(cl#si*eness$the 3est as the oppressor, the 3est as the in*ader, the 3est as the occ#pier. 6&bd#h was able to make a distinction between the coloni'ing aims of the 3est and the beneficial *al#es the 3est offered. 7e fo#ght against the 3est4s e(ploitation of 1#slim people while embracing the #sef#l and *al#able parts of 3estern c#lt#re. Toda!, this distinction is not being made. 8or the most part, the !o#nger generation in the &rab world hates &merica. #t it4s a parado(. The! hate &merica beca#se the! are e(cl#ded$the! are not part of it. 1ost of these !o#ng people wo#ld %#mp at the opport#nit! to obtain a green card allowing them access to &merica. 3hat does &merica mean+ Is it paradise+ No, of co#rse not. #t on some le*el, in the minds of these !o#ng people, &merica is a c#rsed paradise beca#se the! are e(cl#ded. There is some tr#th to the e(pression 9The! hate #s beca#se the! en*! #s,: b#t when &merica wraps all political, economic, and social problems between the 1#slim world and the 3est in s#ch a simplistic statement, its na;*et< shows #p big time. 5o in going abo#t m! work (as part of a long line of reform), I was (and still am) growing increasingl! fr#strated. The press and e*en some intellect#als within the academ! want me to parrot their ideas abo#t Islam, which #s#all! means casting Islam in a negati*e light. &nd

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Page 189 then it dawned on me. Im not supposed to say what I think. Im supposed to say what people want to hearhere in the Netherlands, of all places. hat difference, then, does it make where I am!gypt, "yria, "audi #ra$ia, or e%en &olland' If thats the case, I might as well pack my $ags and head $ack to !gypt. It was around this time that I had to prepare my lecture for the (hair in )aw *esponsi$ility, +reedom of *eligion and (onscience at )eiden ,ni%ersitya chair named after Professor (le%eringa. Professor (le%eringa -189./19801 taught at )eiden ,ni%ersity in 19.0, a time when the Na2is occupied the Netherlands. 3he Na2is, in their attempt to lea%e all 4ews unemployed, asked e%ery 5utch person to declare his or her religion. 3he 5utch resisted, $ut in the end, all of them compliedincluding professors at the uni%ersity. 3he Na2is then dismissed all 4ews from their positions, and that included a 4ewish professor at )eiden ,ni%ersity, !. 6. 6ei7ers. 8n the day 6r. 6ei7ers was to gi%e one of his regular class lectures, (le%eringa took his place. 5uring his $eautiful and well9prepared speech, he spoke out against the Na2i decision to sack all 4ews from their teaching posts at the uni%ersity. 3wo minutes of silence followed his talk. 3hen clapping $roke out in the audience, followed $y a demonstration and protests. (le%eringa and others were arrested. )eiden ,ni%ersity closed down until the end of the war, when (le%eringa returned and once again assumed his teaching responsi$ilities. #fter his death, )eiden ,ni%ersity esta$lished a chair to $e occupied e%ery year $y someone whose work furthers the cause of freedom and human rights. :ecause of my writing, I occupied this chair in ;000/;001. #s I was preparing my lecture, I found myself mo%ed $y Professor (le%eringas stand. ,sing (le%eringas speech as a $ackdrop, I $rought the Palestinian situation $efore the pu$lic 7ust as (le%eringa had $rought the plight of the persecuted 4ews li%ing under Na2i occupation into pu$lic scrutiny. I introduced my talk $y wrapping my su$7ect in the cloak of 7ustice as it is reflected in the <uran. hat kind of 7ustice do we see in this world of ours' I talked a$out Palestinian children in need of homes, schools, hospitals, and Palestinian children who are killed in cold $lood. (le%eringa, in his speech, spoke a$out the $rutality of the Na2is. I spoke a$out the $rutality of the Israeli military. (le%eringa suggested that the 5utch people put this Na2i decision under their feet, meaning to treat it as the nonsense it is, and to take heart from the radiant 4ewish professor, !. 6. 6ei7ers. I suggested that we put the Israeli military

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Page 190 under our feet and look up to the radiant Quran. The worlds indifference to the suffering of those caught up in this conflict had gotten to me in such a way that I could no longer work only within the intellectual arena. As some ody who identifies himself as a mem er of the oppressed!fighting against an oppressor!I feel ashamed to e li"ing in this world. I agree with #hinua Ache e$ the rilliant$ contemporary %igerian no"elist$ who said$ &The world is not well arranged.'( This sense of shame leads me to long for death at times. This is no e)aggeration. *hat kind of world am I going to witness in the coming years+ I elie"e that doing the right thing is ,uite clear at times. -ometimes$ in order to gain political ad"antage$ those with power lur the lines etween right and wrong to the point that I feel I must learn all o"er again what .ustice and human rights mean. In addition$ the *est /0urope and America1 does not seem to see how the gains made as a result of the 0nlightenment are threatened!all under the guise of security$ protecting themsel"es against real or imagined dangers. The "alues we cherish /human rights$ freedom$ democracy1$ esta lished since the se"enteenth century$ are melting away. If these "alues are already endangered in 0urope and the 2nited -tates$ how can we e)pect them to e esta lished in the world where they ha"e ne"er e)isted+ 3ow can any ody e optimistic in the face of this+ Its easy to gi"e in to despair. Its e"en difficult for me at this particular time to write a short article in Ara ic!my mother tongue. %e"er efore$ throughout my entire life$ did I e"er feel I had the lu)ury to e pessimistic a out the future. I"e used my critical scholarship to work on specific issues$ trying to ring reformation to Islamic thought$ to Islamic theology$ to the concept of the Quran$ and to Quranic interpretation. 4ut when all is said and done$ whate"er I write is addressed to people within a conte)t$ and no thinker!no writer!would write .ust for the sake of writing. I ha"e things to say and write a out the Quran$ a out the meaning of the Quran$ a out the humanity of the Quran$ and a out the Prophet. I want them to e recei"ed. %owadays$ though$ when I try to show how rele"ant and important these topics are for the future of Islam and 5uslim people$ most 5uslims frown at me and say$ &*hat are you talking a out+ *e ha"e a lot of trou le right now. *hat does the te)tuality of the Quran ha"e to do with us+ This does not concern us.' They do not see that Islam has ecome an instrument in the hands of political pundits. 6ack of application of critical scholarship to Islam

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Page 191 has allowed these pundits to twist the words of the Quran to fit their own purposesusually that purpose has to do with seizing powerand hold Muslims hostage. Muslims feel as though I want to strip them of their weapona wooden interpretation of Islam that gives threatened and oppressed people an illusory sense of control over their own livesand e pose them to their enemy. !hey either stare at me "lan#ly or get hot under the collar when I tell them$ %&o$ I am not ta#ing your weapon. I am giving you another weapona far "etter one.' (pplying theological and critical scholarship to social$ political$ and economic pro"lems does not seem relevant to Muslims at the present time. Its understanda"le. Many of them live in daily fear of annihilation. !heir needs appear to "e more immediate. I have no dou"t that reformation of religious thought was one of the reasons )urope and the *nited +tates progressed "y leaps and "ounds over the last three centuries. My goal$ through my writing$ has "een to impact the (ra" world with a new perspective$ a perspective that ultimately will "ring a"out reform of Islamic religious thought. ,ut I see )urope and the *nited +tates ta#ing a step "ac#ward$ entrenching themselves in a fundamentalist mind-set"oth religiously and politically. .ell-#nown religious leaders in the *nited +tates have "latantly declared Islam an evil religion. In addition$ ,ushs declaration to the world in response to +eptem"er 11$ /001$ %1ou are either with us or against us$' reflects simplistic political thin#ing which has had an enormous impact on (mericas foreign policy. (merican foreign policy when it comes to Israel is not "ased 2ust on political$ economic$ or even social e pediencies. (merican foreign policy is "ased on mythology. I use %mythology' in a classic sense. )very culture has stories or myths that seep into the consciousness of people "elonging to that culture. People live out these myths as they go a"out their day-to-day "usiness$ ma#ing decisions that emerge from having soa#ed up the truths inherently found in myths or stories. Im convinced that the roots of (merican foreign policy toward Israel are firmly planted in the myth of 3ionist 4hristianity. !he stories or mythology of a sacred te t "elong to a genre of literature or writing not intended to "e read literally. 5oing so invites disaster. ( literal reading of sacred te t gives myth the weight of fact$ legitimizing the carrying out of acts 2ust "ecause they are recorded in sacred te t. Interestingly enough$ whenever 6erusalem is mentioned$ the understanding of the .est$ generally$ is that 6erusalem "elongs to the 6ewsnot even to the 4hristians$ and certainly not to the (ra"s. ,ut

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Page 192 lets look at the story. The Jews lived in Jerusalem. They built a temple. They left Jerusalem in the first century. They lived other places. re the people who returned to Jerusalem the same Jewish people who left in the first place! "f so# does that history entitle them to take over a specific piece of real estate# especially when that entails displacing people living there already! The myth of $ionist %hristianity says yes# but this response comes only by giving myth the weight of factual truth. ccording to the story# &od promised the 'and(a specific piece of real estate defined in the )ible(to the descendants of braham through his son "saac. "f the myth is given the weight of factual truth# Jews have every right(even a sacred duty(to reclaim that 'and. nd as the story is interpreted# we find that time becomes of the essence. There would be no redemption for the Jews until they settled this 'and and then# through the redemption of "srael# the whole word would be redeemed. *ith this kind of vision# it is no wonder that "srael has gone about its task with such +eal. ,ere in the -etherlands# it has become more difficult to speak about "srael in a critical conte.t without feeling like a criminal. nd "m talking here about universities# about intellectuals(people whose very /ob is to wrestle with sub/ects within a critical conte.t. 0rdinary folks# the people in the street# may not be overtly religious1 nevertheless# they have absorbed the %hristian mythology that has shaped this 2uropean country. 3any do not reflect on what gives their ideology its particular shape. "t /ust seems right to them# having unreflectively absorbed the myths of their particular culture. )ecause of all the upheaval present in the world# sometimes " feel like a fireman putting out fires here and there as " address and try to write about the political tra/ectory that both *estern and 3iddle 2astern policy takes. "ts a different kind of work than what " had been doing with the 4uran. Putting out fires is not the same thing as creating knowledge. 5ecently# " had a couple of interviews with a reporter from one of the 6utch newspapers. The editors werent happy with one of the interviews# so the reporter called me to ask# 7%an you do this over again!8 7-o#8 " answered. The editor of the paper wanted simple answers to specific 9uestions about "slam. The reporter had posed thoughtless 9uestions in the first place(9uestions that " reformulated in order to

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Page 193 give an intelligent response. What the newspaper was actually looking for, I came to understand, were statements I had made at one time about the deterioration and backwardness of the uslim world. I remained firm. !"o, I don#t work for you. $ou are looking for a puppet. I#m not going to play the role.% ore and more, I hear the media talking about Islam as something outdated. Western media seem to be focusing on uslims&how dangerous they are' perhaps we#d better be rid of them. (ven if the government were to get rid of every uslim in this country, this would not solve the perceived problem of !the dangerous uslim.% )isruptive changes brought about by globali*ation have created social and economic problems that have nothing to do with Islam. +ut everybody needs a scapegoat. ,o the welcome mat for uslims is being pulled away in more and more areas. I#m trying to sound the alarm. I am not )utch, but I live in -olland. I#m concerned about what is going on around me. .olks seem to want to listen only when you talk about Islam in a negative sense. I refuse to play that game. /nd that#s why I came down so hard on the editor of the newspaper. +eing critical has become increasingly difficult. I often get the sense that I am respected in many places in the world because I have been so critical of Islamic thought. I#m not looked upon favorably when folks perceive that I am critical of certain things within their particular culture. I spent si0 years living abroad&two years in the ,tates and four years in 1apan. In addition, I#ve lived eight years in e0ile. I#ve immersed myself in three cultures different from my own. I#ve ac2uired wonderful tools from each of those cultures, tools I consider gifts. 3hey#ve broadened my worldview. -ow can I get across that I#m not critical of many of their values4 I see those values&values that I love and respect &being threatened, and I cannot be silent. "ot too long ago, I met up with uhammad /rkoun, a uslim scholar, at a conference in +erlin. -e currently lives in Paris, works at the ,orbonne, and is fluent in several languages. I spoke with him after he finished giving his lecture. -e commented on my work as well as the work of r. ,oroush, an Iranian scholar, who was also present at the conference. -e critici*ed both of us for discussing outdated issues in our writing and specifically referred to what constitutes a large chunk of my work, the doctrine of the created 5ur#an. (ven though my Iranian friend kept silent, I felt I had to address r. /rkoun#s criticism.

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Page 194 Yes, I said, I agree with you, I do focus on outdated discussionoutdated in European countries like rance, places like the !or"onne in particular, where you li#e and produce your discourse$ %ut people die in our countries for lack of what you call outdated discussion$ &e can learn fro' you and the work you produce in your i#ory tower, "ut that does not gi#e you the right to under'ine our work$ (r$ )rkoun apologi*ed profusely$ I+' sorry, I didn+t 'ean it$ You didn+t 'ean it, "ut you i'plicitly said it, I re'inded hi'$ You are the scholar who taught 'e that discourse is saying so'ething "eyond intention$ I a' not talking a"out your intention$ I+' talking a"out what you saidyour discourse$ I deal with fallout fro' issues you call outdated e#ery day$ (uha''ad )rkoun su"se,uently included a description of 'y work in an article pu"lished in The Encyclopedia of the Quran$ -asr .a'id )"u /a0i1d, the first (usli' scholar to face the )ra"ic world directly "y writing in )ra"ic while teaching at 2airo 3ni#ersity, tried to "reak the 'any ta"oos which prohi"it the application of the 'ost rele#ant achie#e'ents of conte'porary linguistics to the 4ur+an$ %efore hi', (uha''ad 5halafallah tried to apply literary criticis' to narrati#e in the 4ur+an, and in spite of its 'odest scientific span, his essay caused a 'a6or uphea#al$ 7he works of )"u /a0i1d contain nothing re#olutionary if one places the' within the scholarly production of the last twenty years, since they e8plain ,uite straightforwardly the conditions necessary for applying the rules of defining and analy*ing a te8t to the 4ur+an 9Mafhum al-nass:$ ;nce 'ore, the #iolent reaction to atte'pts intending only to populari*e knowledge long since widely accepted, underlines the area in conte'porary Isla'ic thought of what 0'any "elie#e1 cannot "e and has not "een thought$< (r$ )rkoun and I 'et again se#eral ti'es at conferences and sy'posia$ .e surprised 'e when he started to e#aluate 'y work positi#ely$ 7his has encouraged 'e to press forward$ )t the present ti'e, (r$ )rkoun and I are in#ol#ed with other )ra" intellectuals in a fledgling organi*ation called the )ra" oundation for (oderni*ing )ra" 7hought$ ;ur goal is to "ring 'odern scholarship to "ear on )ra" thought$ -ot too long ago 9199=:, scholars fro' all o#er the (usli' worldIndonesia, (alaysia, !udan, Egypt, Iranas well as represen

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Page 195 tatives from some Western countries gathered at Leiden University to discuss the future of Islam. A friend and colleague of mine, Dr. ico !. ". #a$tein, and I organi%ed this sym$osium, titled &'ur(anic )tudies on the *ve of the +1st ,entury.- .y conclusion at that time /as that any real reformation of Islamic thought /as going to come from the $eri$hery of the .uslim /orld. In the /a0e of )e$tem1er 11, +221, I(m not so sure. 3he .uslim /orld feels threatened 1y its $erce$tion that America is someho/ against Islam. In order to $reserve their identity as authentic .uslims, many have ado$ted /hat loo0s li0e e4tremism to outsiders. What they $erceive as having /or0ed /ell for their ancestors must 1e the ans/er. )o there is a regression to &those good old days,- and as a result, they go a1out im$lementing certain doctrines, certain dress, and s$ecific /ays of 1eing in the /orld they feel connects them to the tried5and5true certainties of the $ast. Iran is a good e4am$le. If you loo0 at some of the changes in Iran that /ere ha$$ening 1efore )e$tem1er 11, +221, li1eral thin0ers, intent on 1ringing Iran along as a $layer in the modern /orld, /ere having more and more of an im$act on Iranian society, gaining significant ground from those /ho resisted any 0ind of change. I felt o$timistic that, under the um1rella of Islam, a 1udding democracy had 1egun to s$rout. 3he authority of the imam 1egan to d/indle. A theological revolution6the counterrevolution of #homeini6also started to form. 7ne of the /ays #homeini /as a1le to dra/ such a follo/ing /as 1y esta1lishing the authority of the faqh or 8urist, 0no/n as wilayati faqh. Iranians, for the most $art, 1elong to that 1ranch of Islam 0no/n as )hi9i. Within )hi9i theological understanding, the .uslim community /aits for the a1sent imam to 1ring a1out 8ustice and ma0e things right in the /orld. 3he Iranian $eo$le /ere 1eginning to challenge this conce$t of the wilayati faqh as it moved into $olitics and eventually into $olicies that affected the $eo$le. )o Iran /as 1usy hammering a/ay at this /ithin its $olitical structure. :ree elections /ere looming in the not5too5distant future. 3hen, /hen President ;ush, in a $ost5)e$tem1er 11, +221, s$eech, declared Iran one of the $layers in the trio of the &a4is of evil- < orth #orea and Ira= /ere the other t/o>, the traditionalists6those against li1erali%ing Iran6immediately gained ground. It 1ecame easy for them to say, &?ou have 1een trying to o$en dialogue /ith the West and have 1een attem$ting to a$$ly some democratic $rinci$les garnered from the

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Page 196 Enlightenment, and now look what happens. This is the West for you. President Khatami was pressured to side with the traditionalists against the nited !tates. " had #een hoping for some time that something within !hi$i theology would influen%e !unni theologi%al thought. We&'e seen how the Khomeini re'olution influen%ed fundamentalist groups within !unni "slam. (e'olt in the name of )od #egan to e*plode throughout the world. !hi$i "slam had #een %oming up with some %reati'e solutions to the pro#lems +uslims fa%e in the modern world while still holding on to the 'alues inherent in their religious faith. What dire%tion %an +uslims take in the wake of ,ush&s de%laration- The path, to a large e*tent, has #een #lo%ked. .nd who #ears some of that responsi#ility- /ountries who meddle in other %ountries& affairs as a way to further their own interests. E*ternal interferen%e #lo%ks the internal dynami%s of a %ountry, a dynami% that in "ran was leaning toward openness, li#eral thought, and reformation. "n spite of that, "&m %on'in%ed that we are la0y. "&m talking a#out +uslims spe%ifi%ally. We are damn la0y. We think that what our an%estors a%%omplished is the #e1all and end1all. This is a#solute stupidity. Knowledge de'elops. .s we study and learn from the world in %on2un%tion with our sa%red te*t, the 3ur&an, new knowledge emerges. To glorify the past is to misunderstand the past. We #lo%k the way forward as we free0e in our tra%ks when we attempt to defend and 'indi%ate the past while %riti%i0ing the present. This gets us nowhere fast. 4ur propensity to stagnate is odd, gi'en our heritage. 4ur sa%red te*t admonishes against jhiliyyah 5the tri#al mentality of the pre"slami% era6. This tri#al mentality fosters fanati%ism and narrowmindedness. 4riginally, the +uslim %ommunity found the prin%iples e'ident in the 3ur&an to #e a %atalyst for intelle%tual growth, a growth that %hallenged the e*isting %ulture. There is nothing sa%red a#out our history. E'ents %ame to pass as a result of so%ial, e%onomi%, and politi%al fa%tors. +uslims7or anyone else, for that matter7ha'e no pure religious history, nor ha'e they e'er had a perfe%t politi%al system in pla%e. (eligion and politi%s ha'e always influen%ed one another. "t is folly to think that any %ountry e*ists where this has not #een the %ase. ,ut many +uslims today #elie'e that there is a pure form of "slam, one that is apart from the influen%e of %ulture, geography, and history. The sooner we understand that there is no su%h utopia, the more effe%ti'e we %an #e in the modern world.

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Page 197 Ever since September 11, 2001, the West (the United States in particular) has pressured the slamic !"rld t" change the !a# it teaches slam t" its pe"ple$ %he criti&ue "' religi"us disc"urse has been the '"cus "' m# academic career$ (m n"t as c"ncerned !ith the &uesti"ns that c"me t" us 'r"m "utside the )uslim !"rld as am !ith &uesti"ns that emerge 'r"m !ithin "ur "!n e*perience+the stu'' that c"mprises "ur "!n lives+&uesti"ns !e are reluctant t" address$ We have a l"ng hist"r# "' de'ensiveness$ We thin, !e have t" vindicate slam$ We d" need t" ta,e a l"ng, hard l"", at "urselves and as, the t"ugh &uesti"ns !e(ve d"dged "ver the last several centuries$ t(s the "nl# !a# !e(ll ever m"ve ahead$ %he slamic -e'"rmati"n )"vement in the nineteenth centur# began a '"r!ard thrust$ We need t" pic, up !here that le't "''$ What is the nature "' this rene!al. Shei,h /m0n al12h3l0, a t!entieth1centur# re'"rmist, de'ined it this !a#4 5-ene!al begins !ith a devastating en&uir# int" the past$$$ideas that 6!ere "nce7 '"rbidden $$$ma# later turn int" a d"ctrine, a re'"rm that ta,es li'e a step '"r!ard$89 -e'"rm "r rene!al happens this !a# in the p"litical realm as !ell$ n spite "' !hat traditi"nalists !"uld have us believe, rene!al is n"t a leap int" the dar,, l"",ing '"r s"me un,n"!n entit#$ t starts !ith criticall# evaluating the past and pr"ceeds 'r"m there t" determine !hat is !"rth ,eeping 'r"m the past and !hat is best le't behind$ We must care'ull# stud# !hat !e have inherited$ n "rder t" d" this, !e need a 'ree public atm"sphere !here !e can debate and discuss ideas$ :" idea "r d"ctrine sh"uld be "'' limits$ %here can be n" cens"rship i' rene!al and re'"rm are t" ta,e place$ ;ree s"cieties d" n"t stagnate$ <iberal slam deals !ith !"rds and reas"n$ ="! can !"rds and being reas"nable bring >ustice, man# )uslims as,, !hen )uslim pe"ple t"da# 'eel s" threatened b# '"rces "utside their b"rders. When '"l,s perceive a threat, the easiest and sa'est thing t" d" is return t" th"se !a#s "' being and d"ing that seem t" have !"r,ed !ell in the past$ <iberal slam has ever#thing t" d" !ith e*changing vie!s+dial"guing$ ;ighting d"es n"t re&uire rati"nal thin,ing and dial"gue$ )uch /merican '"reign p"lic# as !ell as 'undamentalist slamic p"lic# assumes a pugnaci"us stance rather than g"ing ab"ut the lab"ri"us pr"cess "' dipl"mac# that re&uires us t" c"nnect !ith each "ther$ am n"t g"ing t" give up tr#ing t" bring ab"ut change thr"ugh m# !riting$ )# !eap"n is m# critical sch"larship$ ?ut the climate at

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Page 198 the moment is not one in which many Muslims are of a mind to hear me. What is this man talking about? they ask. We are fighting against an enemy and he is talking about things that ha!e no rele!ance for us. "t#s difficult$if not im%ossible$to con!ince %eo%le ready to fight for what they %ercei!e to be their own sur!i!al that what they really need is knowledge. "t#s downright scary.

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Page 199 13 The Way Forward Islam, like any religion, speaks on several levels and from more than one perspective. Religious thinking in Islam, above all, is human expression about metaphysical reality. Islamic scholarship attempts to give a comprehensive and coherent understanding to the Qur an, !od s speech revealed to Prophet "uhammad by the angel !abriel. Islamic thinkers#scholars, $urists, and philosophers#have applied their o%n particular disciplines to the Qur an in order to ferret out meaning from the text. &uman effort, grounded in and informed by a particular historical and social setting, distilled 'and continues to distill( the material of revelation into a precise intellectual form. )he *rab+Islamic Reform "ovement, begun in the nineteenth century, has been sidetracked. ,nder the %ider heading of $ustice, %e had begun to address issues concerning human rights, %omen s rights, and the rights of minority groups. -e also started to deal %ith issues such as education, freedom, democracy, and progress. )oday %e must not let ourselves be defined by a phony identity that manifests itself in terms of back%ardness and resistance to progress, under the guise of defending Islam and our identity. .ur aborted Renaissance looked to the future as it attempted to break free from outdated structures of thinking. It s high time for us to pick up the ball %here it %as dropped, and carry on. )o carry on, %e need an orderly %ay to talk about religion#a discourse. Religious discourse is human discourse#it consists of people talking about religion. )herefore, religious discourse has the ability to

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Page 200 stimulate progress or defend the status quo. Discourse that envisions progress will be inherently critical. This criticism will be aimed at the past along with the present, and will encompass other cultures as well. Critical e amination of !slam digs deep. Pioneers of modern !slamic discourse, such as "uhammad #$bduh, T%h% &usayn, and #$li $bdel '%(iq, conte tuali(ed social and political issues within religious discourse, attac)ing the thoughtless imitation of the past as a way to move !slamic culture forward. These men called for religious renewal, yes, but their discourse integrated the whole public realm into their understanding of that religious renewal. &ow can we thin) of ourselves as good "uslims when in*ustice runs rampant+ ,hy is there such disparity -economic, social, political. between the so/called elite and ordinary citi(ens+ Conservative discourse, on the other hand, most often resists criticism and loo)s for pragmatic solutions to problems in the modern world that uphold the status quo. The 0gyptian mar)et became glutted with boo)s on $rab nationalism and !slamic socialism during the 1230s and 1240s in an attempt to superimpose a practical, political ideology on the 0gyptian people. These boo)s lac)ed any )ind of critical analysis. !n the 1250s, boo)s abounded that denounced mar)et/oriented policies. These authors tried to ma)e a case that agrarian reform, inheritance ta es, and interest rates were un/!slamic practices. $s a result, many citi(ens supported !slamic investment companies as alternative institutions to ,esterni(ed ban)s. These !slamic investment companies were later e posed as fraudulent pyramid schemes6too late for many 0gyptian people, who by this time had been swindled out of their life savings. Conservative, pragmatic religious discourse can generate alternative ways of interacting in the modern world, but does so without grappling effectively with changing circumstances. Conservative !slamic discourse merely spreads itself li)e a veneer over problems that emerge from the changes we e perience in the ebb and flow of a world that is in constant flu . 7ftentimes the phrase 8religious discourse9 becomes synonymous with sacred propaganda and the rhetoric of :riday sermons. That;s certainly not what ! have in mind when it comes to a conversation about religion. 'eligious discourse is not preaching6something in dire need of reform and moderni(ation in the "uslim world6but consists of a process that engages the intellect while grappling with the question 8&ow can ! hold on to <ur;anic values in a changing world+9 'eferring to words uttered by somebody, somewhere, at some time or

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Page 201 another and expecting those words to magically effect a solution just doesnt work. It is imperative for us to understand that in order to create a society ased on freedom and justice! we must change the way we think. " new religious discourse is part of the roader call for freedom. #or any endeavor$such as creating a just society$ultimately to e successful! citi%ens must e a le to think critically and express themselves freely. &nfortunately! most of the "ra world today remains shackled with chains of fear! chains that s'uelch free thinking and its expression. #or renewal of religious discourse to take root! we need to take a long! hard look at our own religious legacy. (here can e no safe doctrinal havens or sacred cows inaccessi le to criti'ue. )afe havens and sacred cows restrict the process of renewal and! ottom line! amount to censorship. *ensorship and stagnation go hand in hand. +ecause religious discourse is tied to pu lic discourse! all facets of society deteriorate as a result of censorship. ,nly confident and free societies have an a ility to repel stagnation and decay. *hallenging the status 'uo opens the pathway to progress. People must e free to hold what other folks deem to e erroneous opinions. People must e free to challenge opinions in the marketplace of ideas. Islam must protect this right. Its the only way to move forward with integrity. Its the only way to esta lish a just and free society. -ust what is it that fuels nothing less than panic nowadays when .uslims criti'ue esta lished Islamic thought/ 0hy does Islamic culture today consider criti'ue of our historical past and orthodox religious expression to e a crime/ 0hat do we make of the fact that the fifteenth1century encyclopedist -alal al12in al1)uy3t4 5d. 16067 forth1rightly stated that Prophet .uhammad received revelation 5the 8uran7 only in content! and that the actual phrasing of the 8uran came from the Prophet himself/ (oday! such an idea cannot e discussed! nor even mentioned! pu licly. People have lost their lives for speaking out in this manner. 0hat is it that offends so many people when historians speak of the failure of Prophet .uhammads preaching to win over .eccan society! forcing him to flee with his small and of followers to .edina/ 0hy is there such animosity toward the arts! particularly the performing arts/ "re not 8uranic recitals a form of vocal performing art/ Isnt the 8uran a work of literature/ 0hy do we prohi it the personification of historic! religious figures! thus impoverishing even further our

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Page 202 cultures theatrical expression? Are we not able to distinguish between the represented figure and the actor playing a part? Can we not sort out reality from fiction? More to the point, are we not able to find spiritual meaning for our li es through artistic expression? !s it possible that we are so dull? !t is as though !slamic culture has become incarcerated by literal and concrete thin"ing# $o distinction is made between language %a symbolic system& that a culture uses to express and create itself, and 'i ine reality# (his is an odd phenomenon, gi en our broad historic legacy)one based on the *uran, a boo" that opposes jhiliyyah %pre+!slamic tribal code of beha ior& while calling for the engagement of an indi iduals conscience in the ,uest for -ustice and freedom# !slam ga e birth to intellectual and philosophical structures that challenged the ways of the past# !ntellectual and philosophical structures, though, cannot by themsel es transform a culture# People must integrate these structures into the way they li e# (his is difficult to do# A cultures familiar ways of going about li ing in a society carry a momentum, and those familiar ways of being and doing ha e staying power# !t is at this -uncture %where thought and practice meet& that we can begin loo"ing for those fault lines that ha e led to ignorance, in-ustice, and tyranny in much of the Muslim world# (he faults lay within !slamic social history, not !slamic religious texts# Arab+!slamic culture, not !slam, showed no confidence or faith in democracy and critical thought# !slamic history is human history, a history based on social, political, and economic factors# .nderstanding the *uran and applying its message has de eloped through social, political, and economic forces# /eligion does determine and shape social life, but religion gets its shape, to a great extent, from factors present in that society# (here ne er has been any such thing as a pure, abstract !slam situated abo e the rough+and+tumble of geography and history# 0e cannot spea" of any one manifestation as being the true !slam, whether that manifestation ta"es form in the shape of the alA1har of 2gypt, the (aliban of Afghanistan, the 3aw1a in !ran, the 4ayt5na of (unisia, the 0ahhabi of 6audi Arabia, or the 'iyanat of (ur"ey# 0e can, though, spea" about two dimensions of !slam)the historical dimension that presents its particular teaching regarding belief and ethics in a se enth+century context, and the uni ersal dimension that presents alues transcending time and place# 6ome Muslim thin"ers emphasi1e the historical dimension, considering this interpretation es

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Page 203 sential to Islam. The field of jurisprudence emphasizes the historical dimension. Jurists deal with practical actions of individuals within their society. variety of political Islamist groups! "nown as fundamentalists! see the jurist view of the #ur$an as the only true and valid understanding of Islam. It follows then that sharia law%human law derived largely from the foundational te&ts of Islam 'the #ur$an and Prophetic Tradition( along with the consensus of earlier generations%must )e implemented in an Islamic society. Throughout most of Islamic history! the jurists$ understanding of religion has ta"en hold and often has )een held in place )y force. *eading the #ur$an from a different perspective suggests more universal and inclusive o)jectives. +or e&ample! creating a community of )elievers! rather than relying on )ehavior that a tri)al system of "inship dictates to the individual! ushered in what I call human rational conduct. *ational thought and conduct freed the individual from the mindless duty of su)mitting to the tri)al code of conduct. ,ne was e&pected to replace jhiliyyah with human! rational understanding. nother e&ample would )e esta)lishing the practice of almsgiving. -ocial justice )ecame an important facet of religious e&pression. +reedom to act according to one$s conscience and caring for the poor in a society go )eyond specific geographical )oundaries and ta"e us into a more universal understanding of religion. This )roader! more universal understanding of Islam! representing )asic human principles! remains politically and intellectually marginalized in the .uslim world. .odern .uslim intellectuals 'and I consider myself in this category( who try to perpetuate this )roader understanding of Islam through our writing and through pu)lic dialogue are in the minority. I$m convinced we need a )roader understanding of Islam if we are to )e effective in the modern world. The .u/tazilites! whom we met earlier! produced a rational theology a)le to cope with the demands of modernity in the ninth century. The .u/tazilites esta)lished the principle that "nowledge starts from this world. 0e can spea" a)out the unseen world only on the )asis of indications furnished )y the evident reality of the seen world. 1od and 2is attri)utes can )e "nown only )y reflection and ac3uired "nowledge! not necessarily )y direct or revealed "nowledge. I)n Tufayl$s twelfth4century allegory! Hayy ibn Yaqzn! illustrates this point well. This is a story a)out two islands. 5o human )eing ever lived on one of the islands until a child! "nown as 2ayy i)n 6a3z7n! comes

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Page 204 ashore one day, having floated there in a box. His name means The Alive, son of The Awake. A gazelle s !kles him ntil her death, at whi!h time he is left on his own to "rovide for his needs. His innate intelligen!e, feeble at first, develo"s. Thro gh the tedio s "ro!ess of observation and refle!tion, he a!# ires knowledge of the "hysi!al niverse. His thinking takes him into the realm of meta"hysi!s, and the existen!e of an all$"owerf l %reator be!omes obvio s to him. Thro gh as!eti! dis!i"line of his mind and body, he seeks nion with this &ne 'ternal ("irit)as he has !ome to nderstand the %reator. *ltimately, he arrives at a state of e!stasy where his intelle!t merges with the A!tive +ntelle!t and he is able to a""rehend those things whi!h eye has not seen, nor ear heard. ,itho t "ro"het or revelation, he a!hieves f ll knowledge and everlasting ha""iness in meta"hysi!al nion with -od. &ne day, while walking on his island, he.s astonished to dis!over a !reat re like himself. +t.s none other than a holy man named As/l, a re!ent arrival from the neighboring island, where the good king (alaman r les. 0ife on As/l.s island revolves aro nd a !onventional religio s system that ses rewards and " nishments to kee" "eo"le in line. As/l has rea!hed a dee" level of s"irit ality)dee"er than his "eers have been able to a!hieve)and has !ome to what he believes to be an ninhabited island in order to rea!h even more de"th thro gh as!eti!ism and solit de. As/l tea!hes Hayy lang age, and Hayy is amazed to dis!over that the " re Tr th he str ggled to attain in solit de is the same Tr th symbolized by the religion As/l "rofesses. ,hen Hayy learns abo t the !ondition of "eo"le on the other island, he is moved with !om"assion, and vows to go and offer them the benefit of his knowledge. As/l and Hayy set o t on this mission together. However, the mission is an abysmal fail re. 1ost of their a dien!es !annot gras" Hayy.s ex"osition of the Tr th. They !all it a dangero s innovation and be!ome hostile toward him. 2e!a se they are fettered by their senses, they !an res"ond only to !on!rete imagery. Their moral nat re res"onds only to a !r de system of rewards and " nishments. Hayy soon realizes that the Pro"het 1 hammad.s way with them, as ex"ressed in the 3 r.an, is the only effe!tive method for them. He a"ologizes for his intr sion, exhorts them to be faithf l to their religion, and ret rns with As/l to his home island. The name of the hero of this allegory is s ggestive. Hayy means 4alive56 ibn means 4son of56 Yaqzn means 4awake.5 4The awakened5 refers to the intelle!t. H man beings are alive only when their intelle!t

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Page 205 becomes activated. With intellectual reflection, a human being can acquire knowledge of God. Divine knowledge need not de end on revelation, although revelation need not contradict knowledge obtained through human intellect. !nlightenment, however, is not urel" an intellectual e#ercise. $ur hero, %a"", racticing asceticism in mind and bod" as well as develo ing his intellect, achieves union with God&something that ha ens onl" through this s"nthesis of rationalism and m"sticism. 'bn (ushd )**2+,**-./, known as 0verroes in the West, influenced both 1ewish and 2hristian hiloso hers )3aimonides, 4homas 0quinas, and 0lbertus 3agnus/ with his rationalistic thought. 0verroes argued that real knowledge took sha e in the form of hiloso hical, rational knowledge. $nl" a small, elite minorit" of societ" should be riv" to this knowledge&knowledge he thought would harmfull" affect the belief s"stem of most eo le. We saw this illustrated in our allegor". %a"" felt com elled to withdraw his message and insights from the eo le living on the other island. 5ecause the" strictl" followed religious teachings and adhered to their literal meaning, the" were unable to a rehend %a""6s 7higher8 discourse. 5efore 0verroes, 0bu %9mid 3uhammad al:Gha;9l< )d. ****/, a =ufi, wrote a book considered to be his master iece, The Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihy ulm al-Dn).* 4his work became e#tremel" o ular&onl" the >ur6an and the hdith )te#t based on the life of the Pro het/ sur assed it in o ularit". 0l:Gha;9l< em hasi;ed that m"stical knowledge is not meant for the ublic. =im l" stated, he believed sound knowledge )and to his wa" of thinking, sound knowledge took the sha e of m"stical understanding/ is revealed to a chosen elite. Des ite their different hiloso hical orientations, 0verroes and alGha;9l< agreed about the necessit" to kee ordinar" eo le distanced from true knowledge. 4his legac" has sta"ed with us in the 3uslim world, es eciall" since al:Gha;9l<6s writings dominated 'slamic discourse until the nineteenth centur". 4he nineteenth centur" ushered in a new age. 4he 3uslim world felt threatened b" !uro ean olitical aggression. 'slam became identified not ?ust as a nationalit" or an ethnicit", but as a re ositor" of s ecific characteristics of the collective 7self8 )3uslim/ o osed to the 7other8 )!uro ean/. 'ntellectuals res onded to this aggression b" defending 'slam and 'slamic culture against those who sim l" ronounced 'slam to be backward rather than looking at the social, economic, and

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Page 206 political realities of the Arab world in order to understand why Arab societies took on a particular configuration. Islam was put on the defensive. It felt it had to explain and interpret itself as a religion that encourages progress is rational as well as scientific and accepts modern institutions. I continuously struggle with where to place myself as I wrestle with creating a modern Islamic discourse. !oes modern Islamic thought have to start with Averroes"s philosophy and the rational understanding held by the #u$ta%ilites& I used to think so. 'oday I"m not so sure. 'he huge chasm that exists in Averroes" philosophy between the elite and the public will never help to achieve enlightenment(a free and )ust society. According to Averroes knowledge is not for everybody it is not open to all(it is an elite privilege. *nlightenment therefore can never be institutionali%ed in society. *nlightenment has never been a public movement in any #uslim country. +ur history is riddled with examples of how those who hold political authority have been able to impose their thinking on the ma)ority through the force of in,uisition. Ignoring the individual"s intellectual freedom only perpetuates this thinking and hence repressive societies abound. 'his notion of dividing people into the elite -knowledgeable. and the public -ignorant. the cultured and the commoner and the statesman and the ordinary citi%en dominates the #uslim world even though education is free and open to all. 'he ideals of the *nlightenment(freedom of speech and freedom of thought(values that have become part of my academic research are not fully embraced in the #uslim world. 'he fear of course is that Islamic values will be rendered null and void if freedoms as envisioned by the *nlightenment are unleashed. 'here is this sense that there should be security %ones places not accessible to intellectual discussion or academic investigation. Academic research freedom of thought and freedom of speech are guaranteed only as long as they do not impinge on what is known as absolute truth. +f course truth is the interpretation given to the /ur"an by the orthodox those who have the political power to enforce their views. +rthodox Islam it should come as no surprise emphasi%es obedience as a religious obligatory duty. Political rulers often combine political and religious authority and become known as 0od"s authority on earth. -1hristianity had this understanding for years something known as the divine right of kings..

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Page 207 Many Muslims are persuaded that freedom of thought and freedom of speech are products of Western culture and European civilizationa culture and civilization seen as antithetical to the essence of Islamic culture and civilization. In order to avoid eing s!allo!ed" controlled" and manipulated y po!ers that once sought to con#uer them" many Muslims elieve it cannot e in their est interest to adopt values associated !ith the West. Is there hope$ Is it possi le to envision Muslims em racing freedom !ithin a frame!or% of democracy$ &es" of course. 'o!ever" it is imperative that citizens in !hat are generally %no!n as democratic nations understand ho! their countries( o!n economic and political interests often su vert the very thing )democracy* they purport to !ant esta lished in Islamic states. It is also important to understand that it is not Islam that prevents Muslims from accepting democracy" ut rather a religious and political dogmatic trend of thought" ever prevalent" !hich claims that Islam and modernity contradict one another. Political regimes in the Muslim !orld to a large e+tent unfold in !hat I call modernity !ithout rationality. ,ince democracy is not ased solely on respect for the individual" ut ta%es into account through free elections the individual(s opinion" it seems that this lac% of rationality found throughout the Muslim !orld loc%s democracy at every turn. -ur%ey" the only Muslim country ever to claim to e a secular state" controls its so.called democracy through military censorship. Iran(s ayatollahs" upon seizing po!er" interestingly enough did not restore the caliphate" ut esta lished a repu lic. /ll the democratic accoutrementspopular election" a constituent assem ly" a parliament" a president" political factions" a constitution" and so forthemerged. 0ut can there e democracy !hen clerics !ield authority$ 1an sharia la! as interpreted y the ayatollahs yield a democratic society$ Would a secular party e !elcomed in Iran$ 2ou tful. 0oth countries" under different guises" reflect this idea of modernity !ithout rationality. -he West places an inordinate amount of pressure on the Muslim !orld in order to protect the West(s economic and political interests. -here have een a num er of puppet political regimes in Muslim countries )Iran" Ira#" /fghanistan*" held in place y Western po!ers against the !ill of the Muslim people. -his is democracy$ 3o !ay. In addition" ho! many times is Islam portrayed" especially y the Western media" as an inherently violent religion and antithetical to Western

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Page 208 values? How is it that in many developing countries a wider and wider gap exists between the haves and the have-nots? Modernity, human rights, and democracy seem to be the domain o the privileged, who, more o ten than not, turn a dea ear to underprivileged ol!s crying out or "ustice# $his cry or "ustice, when it goes unheeded by those with privilege and power, easily turns violent# $he seeds o violence are ound at this "uncture, not in %slam&or in any religion, or that matter# How do we go orward? % trace the con lict between secular and religious orces that we experience within Muslim cultures to an absence o a public orum or debate and dialogue# Many ideas and opinions circulate among us# % believe that de ending democracy unconditionally is the only way to crystalli'e these ideas and opinions# %t is imperative that we de end a democracy that does not shunt aside any o those opinions coming rom our perceived enemies# $he developed world navigated this ideological terrain by agreeing to organi'e its disagreements through the mechanism o democracy, relying heavily on reedom o speech&the ability to express one(s opinion# %t(s high time that we in the )rab world began to organi'e our disagreements# $he saying *% may disagree with you, but % am ready to give my li e to de end your right to express your opinion+ needs to seep into the marrow o our collective bones# $hose who are a raid o disagreement should loo! again at our history# ,hen did )rabs ever agree with each other about anything? Historically, there has always been a di erence o opinion among us# %n modern history, Muslims have managed to present a united ront in their struggle against ,estern imperialism and -ionism# $hese two threats have managed to s.uelch the establishment o civil, democratic society based on multiplicity, diversity, and the peace ul circulation o power# )t the same time, % believe that those democratic countries that have inherited the values o the /nlightenment& reedom o thought, reedom o expression&need to reclaim those reedoms and apply those eroding values in their own societies# $he ,est badly needs to put its own house bac! in order# Muslims need to ocus on creating "ust and e.uitable societies based on creatively ormulating and integrating thought ul religious and political discourse into daily li e# 0eeing in a new way&an act that enables us to create a better society based on a resh perspective&then becomes use ul in the modern world# %t(s high time we shed this jhiliyyah, blind obedience to the echoes o our ancestor(s voices#

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Page 209 Appendix FREEDOM OF WORSHIP AWARD SPEECHANNA ELEANOR ROOSEVELT On this eighth day of June 2002, the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Freedom of Worship edal is a!arded to "asr #$ %&u 'aid, !ho holds the prestigious (leveringa (hair at )eiden *niversity, as a defender of freedom of thought and +ons+ien+e$ )ike )eiden Professor (leveringa, !ho in ,9-0 spoke out against the dismissal of all Je!ish professors &y the "a.is, you/as a professor of 0slami+ 1tudies/have atta+ked &oth the 0slamists !ho advo+ate intoleran+e for those !ithin the uslim diaspora !ho do not a++ept their vie!s, and those in the West !ho in their ignoran+e and +ultural arrogan+e e2uate 0slam !ith terrorism$ %t great personal +ost, you have spoken the truth elo2uently and for+efully, a +hampion of intelle+tual freedom for professor and pupil, +leri+ and layman$ 3hrough it all you have remained firm in your +ommitment to the prin+iple that 4man is alive only !hen his intelle+t is a+tivated$5 For this +ourageous, if lonely, position you !ere e6iled from 7gypt &y a +ivil +ourt in ,998$ 3he +ourt pronoun+ed you a hereti+ and apostate, de+laring that you !ere no longer entitled to &e married to your dear !ife, Dr$ 7&tehal 9ounes$ "o! living in the "etherlands, a land

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Page 210 that in the seventeenth century was a refuge for religious exiles from England on their way to the New World, and that continues to embody the humanist spirit of free in uiry of the great Erasmus of !otterdam, you are in the right place to spea" to the world# $ hermeneutic scholar of the %ur&an, who understands with clarity the evolution, since the seventh century, of the ma'or interpretations of (slamic scripture, you have embraced the rational dimension of an enlightened tradition in (slam as well as the mystical tradition# )ritical of those militant anti*secularists+in $merica we call them fundamentalists+who 'ustify their righteousness and aggressive actions in the name of ,od, you both locate and affirm the spirit of tolerance, of nonviolence, and indeed of e uality among both men and women in the %ur&an# ,rowing up a peasant boy in %uhafa, a village in the Nile -elta, you had memori.ed the %ur&an by the age of eight, but, diverted from your love of such study by your father, you went on to become a technician, an interlude which allowed you to become intimately ac uainted with the /uslim 0rothers before returning to your %ur&anic studies# While fascinated by the /uslim 0rothers& commitments, you came to distrust the merger in their ideology of (slam and the state, a recent development in (slamic history, and one which you regard as leading inexorably toward totalitarian dictatorship, the worst "ind of despotism because it presumes to exercise authority on Earth in the name of a higher authority# $ serious scholar of (slam and of $rabic, you studied in Philadelphia and 1sa"a, as well as in )airo# While in 2apan, you wrote The Concept of the Text, interpreting the %ur&an in its historical context, a ma'or if fundamentally controversial approach in the eye of fundamentalist (slamists# $t the dawn of our new century, when religious intolerance looms as the most dangerous source of conflict+indeed of terrorism+among human beings, your courageous independence of thought, devotion to (slam, clarity of vision, and "een understanding of western European philosophy and religion, including modernism, as well as your Erasmian belief in humanity, ma"es your voice indispensable in the cross*cultural conversations so desperately needed to foster mutual respect and understanding# /ay this 3reedom of Worship /edal, cast in the spirit of 3ran"lin -# !oosevelt, give you renewed strength to persevere in your uest for true enlightenment among and between men and women of all religious faiths and classes, and an expanded audience for your wise teaching#

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Page 211 FREEDOM OF WORSHIP AWARD SPEECHNASR ABU ZAID Besmi Allahi Rahman Rahim In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful our Ma!est", our Ro"al #ighness, Miss $li%a&eth Roose'elt, Miss Margaret Roose'elt, Am&assador (illiam )* +anden #eu'el, Mr* +an Gelder, the ,ueen-s Commissioner in .eeland, our $/cellencies, 0adies and Gentlemen, Al12alamu ala"3um 4a rahmatu Allahi 4a Bara3atuh Ma" peace and the merc" of God and #is &lessings &e upon "ou* It is a great honor to recei'e the medal of 5reedom of (orship this "ear* 6his great honor implies a great responsi&ilit"* 6he histor" of Islam, as the last of the A&rahamic religions, has made it 'er" possi&le to ac3no4ledge and respect all pre'ious religions and to esta&lish 7freedom of faith and freedom of 4orship8 as an essential component of the faith* $'en the traditional concept, identif"ing non1Muslims as the 7protected people,8 reflects the e/istence of a sphere of freedom 4ithin the frame4or3 of traditional Islamic thought* Realit", ho4e'er, does not al4a"s reflect the ideal* #ence comes the responsi&ilit" of the intellectuals, the 4riters and the scholars in all cultures* 6he 7four freedoms89freedom of speech and e/pression, freedom of 4orship, freedom from 4ant, and freedom from fear9are meant for e'er" human &eing e'er"4here in the 4orld* 6he dream of 5ran3lin :elano Roose'elt has not "et, unfortunatel", &ecome true* ;ur 4orld of the third millennium is still a 4orld of fear, 4ant, oppression, and in!ustice* :estruction of houses of 4orship &" religious fanatics, militar" intrusion to altars &" politicians, genocide of others &ecause the" &elong to another faith, are still 4orld4ide phenomena* 6his ma3es the recei'ing of this great honor a 'er" hea'" responsi&ilit"* As a Muslim and a scholar of Islamic 2tudies, the first Muslim to recei'e such an honorar" a4ard, I feel o&liged to e/plicate 4hat I thin3 <is= the dou&le message implied in a4arding me the medal of 5reedom of (orship* 6he message is to address &oth the (estern 4orld and the Muslim 4orld as such* Islam is not static, nond"namic, or a fi/ed set of rules* It is not a 'iolent terrorist religion &" nature* An" religion could

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Page 212 be misused, politicized, and manipulated to serve certain ideology. The Quran, the holy book of uslims, is silent! it does not speak by itself but people speak it out. "s the #ord of $od to man, its understanding and interpretation reflect the human dimension of religion. %t is then unacceptable to ascribe to %slam &hatever problems uslims might have in their sociohistorical e'istence. (et me take this e'tremely e'ceptional occasion to greet the great man of our time, r. )elson andela, the man &ho suffered the utmost of human suffering for about thirty years to bring peace and e*uality in his country. ore than that, &hen he triumphed, he did not follo& the public emotional reaction of revenge! he insisted on propagating forgiveness and peacefully healing the &ounds of the past. +e also &illingly stepped do&n ,from- his political office to fight in another front, the front of human need all over the &orld. .ear r. andela, % hope the lessons you taught the &orld &ill not be forgotten. %t is also a great honor to me to have my name mentioned alongside your great name. $od bless you all, wa al-salam alaykum wa rahmatu Allahi wa baraktuh.

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Page 213 Notes PREFACE 1. Mary Anne Weaver, Revolution by Stealth, The New Yorker (June 8, 1 8!" #$. 2. Mar% 1&"1'(1&, Authori)e* +ing Ja,e- .er-ion. CHAPTER 1 1. /au)i M. 0a11ar, 2-la,i3 /un*a,entali-, an* the 2ntelle3tual-" 4he 5a-e o6 0a-r 7a,i* Abu 8a9i:*, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 2;, no. 2 (2$$$!" 1; . 2. 0a-r Abu 8ai*, Critique of Islamic Discourse (in Arabi3! (5airo" Ma*bouli Pre--, 1 2!. 3. 0a-r Abu 8ai*, 2n<ui-ition 4rial in =gy>t, Recht an de Islam 1' (1 8!" '2. #. 0a11ar, 2-la,i3 /un*a,entali-, an* the 2ntelle3tual-, 1 #. '. 2bi*., 1 3(1 #. &. 2bi*., 1 #(1 '. ;. 2bi*., 1 '. 8. 2bi*., 1 &. . Weaver, Revolution by Stealth, ##. 1$. Ay,an ?a%r an* =lliott 5olla, intervie@ @ith 0a-r 7a,i* Abu 8a9i:* about i*eology, inter>retation, an* >oliti3al authority. Silen3ing 2- at the 7eart o6 My 5a-e, Middle East Re!ort (0ove,ber(Ae3e,ber 1 3!" 2 .

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Page 214 11. Abd al-Sabur Shahin, My Father Adam: The Story of Creation Between the Myth and Truth (in Arabic) (Cairo: Dar al-Nasr for sla!ic Publica"ion, 1##$). 12. Na%%ar, & sla!ic 'unda!en"alis! and "he n"ellec"uals,( 1##. CHAPTER 4 1. )Al* Abdel-+,-i., Islam and the Foundation of Political Authority (in Arabic) (Cairo: /g01"ian Public 2rgani-a"ion for 3oo4s, 1#25). 2. 6,h, 7usa0n, Pre-Islamic Poetry (in Arabic) (Cairo: Dar al-8a9arif, 1#2:). ;. 6,h, 7usa0n, Pre-Islamic Literature (in Arabic) (Cairo: Dar al-8a9arif, 1#2<). 4. Nasr Abu =aid, The Trend of Rational !e"esis of the #ur$an: A Study of the Mu%ta&ilite$s Conce't of #ur$anic Meta'hor (in Arabic) (3eiru": 6he Arabic Cul"ural Cen"er, 1#$2). 5. bn )Arab*, The Meccan Re(elation (in Arabic) (Cairo: 3ula., 1$5$). :. Nasr Abu =aid, The Philoso'hy of )ermeneutics (in Arabic) (3eiru": 6he Arabic Cul"ural Cen"er, 1#$;). <. Nasr Abu =aid, The Conce't of the Te!t: A Rein(esti"ation of Classical #ur$anic *isci'lines (in Arabic) (Cairo: /g01"ian Public 2rgani-a"ion for 3oo4s, 1##>). CHAPTER 5 1. ?a@rence Arigh", &6he 8an behind 3in ?aden,( The +ew ,or-er (Se1"e!ber :, 2>>2): :2. 2. bid. ;. Nasr Abu =aid, Circles of Fear: Analysis of the *iscourse a.out /omen (in Arabic) (3eiru": 6he Arabic Cul"ural Cen"er, 1###). 4. 6he s1eeches of Anna /leanor +ooseBel" and Nasr Abu =aid, giBen a" "he 'ran4lin D. +ooseBel" 'our 'reedo!s A@ard Cere!on0 in Cune 2>>2, are in "he a11endiD. CHAPTER 7 1. na-o Ni"obe, Bushido0The /ay of the Samurai (Ne@ Eor4: F. P. Pu"na!, 1#>5).

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Page 215 2. Nasr Abu Zaid, The Concept of the Text: A Study of the Sciences of the Quran (in Arabic) (Cairo: Egyptian Public rgani!ation "or #oo$s, 1%%&). '. Nasr Abu Zaid, Critique of Islamic Discourse (in Arabic) (Cairo: (ar )ina, 1%%2). *. (ieter )eng+aas and Nasr Abu Zaid, ,-+e .sla/ic 0orld and t+e 1odern Age2 in Development, Cultural Diversity and eace: !isions for a "e# $orld %rder (#onn: (e3elop/ent and Peace 4oundation, 1%%5). CHAPTER 8 1. Nasr Abu Zaid, The Concept of the Text: A Study of the Sciences of the Quran (in Arabic) (Cairo: Egyptian Public rgani!ation "or #oo$s, 1%%&). CHAPTER 9 1. Nasr Abu Zaid, Critique of Islamic Discourse (in Arabic) (Cairo: 1adbouli, 1%%2). CHAPTER 10 1. .nter3ie6 6it+ 4at+i A/er. riginally publis+ed in t+e Cairo ne6spaper al&Ara'i (No3e/ber 7, 1*, and 21, 1%%%). A3ailable at 666.geocities.co/8lrrs.geo8Zaid8!aidarabiinter3ie6.+t/. CHAPTER 11 1. 4or a "uller treat/ent and de3elop/ent o" t+e concept o" 9ustice, see Nasr Abu Zaid, ,-+e :ur;anic Concept o" <ustice,2 (orum for Intercultural hilosophi)in* 2 (2&&1): 1=*'. Also a3ailable at 666.polylog.org8t+e/828"cs>en.+t/. 2. <alal al?(in )uy@tA, %ccasions of +evelations (in Arabic) (Cairo: (ar al?-a+rir, reprint edition 1%>%).

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Page 216 CHAPTER 12 1. Muhammad Abduh, Islam Is the Religion of Science and Civilization (in Arabic) (Cairo: Dar al-Manar, 192 ). 2. Chinua Achebe, !rod. and dir. "ail Pelle##, Public A$$air% &ele'i%ion, 199(, 'ideoca%%e##e. . )ane Dammen McAuli$$e, ed., The Encyclopedia of the Quran, 'ol. 1 (*eiden: +rill, 2,,1), (26. (. -a%r Abu .aid, /0ea'en 1hich 1a234 Al Ahram !ee"ly #nline no. 6, (5e!#ember 12617, 2,,2): . CHAPTER 13 1. All 8uo#a#ion% $rom #he 9ur:an #a;en $rom The $oran. &ran%la#ed <i#h no#e% b2 -. ). Da<ood. (*ondon: Penguin +oo;%, =e!rin#ed 1999.) Abu 0>mid al-"ha?>l@, The Revival of the Religious Sciences (in Arabic) (Cairo: Al-0alabi, n.d.).

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Page 217 Index Abdel-Rziq, Al, 49-50, 54, 200 Abduh, Muhammad, 3032, 5253, 14951, 1 4, 1 , 200 Ab! "a#$, 14445 Ab! %u&'(, Mu)*i'a ib(, 14445 A&&(, +,hm( ib(, 3, 14445 Ah*(, Abd al-Azz Al-, 55, 13-, 141 Ali, Muhammad, 1 4 al-.aeda, 1 - 7 A/01,a1', 12 , 137, 152, 171, 1 3 A/01,a,e, - , 10, 1114, 147, 154, 15-, 172 A$abia( Pe(i(1ula, 52, 57, 95, 144, 147, 151, 1-2, 1--, 1- , 170, 173, 177, 1 3 A$#0u(, Muhammad, 193 A,), 21il ib(, 55 A,a,u$#, Mu1,a&a 3emal, 150 A4e$$0e1, 5 , 15354, 205Azha$, al-, 9, 14 , 202 "a((a, 5a1a( al-, -9, 150 bi( 6ade(, 71ama, 1 5 7 8ai$0 +(i4e$1i,', 12, 4, 7 , 1415, 33, 454-, 50, 5455, 77, 5, 103, 105, 12123, 1252-, 12 , 131, 13 39, 155-0, 1-39 ea$(ed deg$ee, 31, 499 a(d :b,ehal, -, 91, 124, 129, 1329 e($0lled, 379 ,ea;hi(g, 5 , 135, 137, 154 8ali/h, 50, 55, 114, 144, 150, 1 2 3 8ali/ha,e, 49, 50, - , 145, 150, 207 8le4e$i(ga, P$0&e110$, 1 9 8le4e$i(ga 8hai$, 47 80/,i;, 19, 21, 39, 75, 1-2 80/,1, 20, 7-77, 1 :g'/,ia( 7$ga(iza,i0( &0$ 5uma( Righ,1, , 10 faqh, 14-, 1 3, 195 <a,imide1, 14 fatwa, 5, <$a(#li( a(d :lea(0$ R001e4el, =(1,i,u,e, 1 3 <$ee 7&&i;e$1 M04eme(,, 53, --- , 74, 7

>ebali, ?aha(i :l-, 179

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Page 218 hdith, 7, 10, 60 Hanbal, Ahmad ibn, 55, 99 Hasan, al-, 145 Heresy, 11, 5051, 53, 64, 152, 183 Hereti , 137, 153 hermene!ti s, 57, 95, 101, 107, 109, 129, 146, 167, 182 hijb, 12 hisba, 7 h"m"se#!ality, 8889 H!sayn, al-, 145 H!sayn, $%h%, 3132, 5055, 67, 124, 137, 200

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&bn 'Arab(, 5860, 124 &dr(s, )*s!+, 179 ijtihd, 2, 89 &nti+ada, 188 &slami ,e+"rmati"n -".ement, 185, 187, 197, 199 &slami /t!dies, 12, 4, 16, 26, 49, 5355, 115, 148, 156, 165, 178, 185 &slamist0s1, 49, 15, 77, 81, 128, 139, 154, 186 &srael, 74, 77, 81, 93, 170, 18788, 19192 &sraeli 2 !3ati"n, 7980, 188 jhiliyyah, 150, 16970, 196, 203, 208 jihad, 60, 70, 74, 138 4inn, 9, 23, 24 4!sti e, 63, 146, 165, 16769, 17378, 187, 18990, 197, 199, 2085 e "n"mi , 785 +reed"m and, 137, 170, 172, 180, 20125 6"d7s, 565 s" ial, 1, 20, 26, 60, 67, 7071, 76, 79, 110 8hala+allah, -!hammad Ahmed, 5254, 194 8hatt%b, 9mar ibn al-, 145 8h"meini, 146, 19596 8h*l(, Am(n al-, 53, 55, 148, 197 kuttb, 6, 18, 29, 63 -ahallala 8!bra al-, 32, 3738, 42, 71, 74 -ah+"!:, ;ag!ib, 8, 69

-a<d!di, Ab!l Ala, 6970, 11314 -e a, 51, 110, 168 -edina, 5051, 101, 201 -isr(, =h!-;!n al-, 20 -!bara>, H"sni, 9 -!hammad, Pr"3het, 3, 10, 25, 50, 59, 64, 68, 97, 109, 113, 138, 14346, 168, 17576, 178, 1905 ?!r7an and, 11, 57, 60, 9596, 165, 169, 199, 201 mushaf , 23 -!slim @r"therh""d, 21, 6771, 150 -!'ta:ilites, 4, 5558, 60, 98, 124, 203 ;asser, 6amal Abdel, 7, 6771, 76, 78 2sl" Pea e A "rd, 170, 188 Palestine, 74, 77, 93, 18688 PalestinianA am3, 795 3e"3le, 80, 83, 93, 181, 187895 s ar+, 82835 territ"ries, 170 P"lygamy, 17276 ?a33%n(, ;i:%r, 15354 ?!ha+a, 1719, 2124, 32, 37, 59, 63, 6768, 75, 16061 ?!raysh, 10, 14445 ?!tb, /ayyid, 6970 ,amad%n, 19, 63, 65, 104 ,ida, ,ash(d, 69, 184 /adat, An<ar, 89, 67, 71, 7679, 138 /aid, Bd<ard, 16

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Page 219 Salama, Mamun, 6 Samad, Muhammad Samida Abd al, 67 Saudi Arabia, 143, 151, 161, 162, 189, 202 Shahin, Abd al-Sabur, 23, 56, 9, 1416 sharia, 78, 10, 50, 60, 68, 78, 8990, 100, 150, 184, 203, 207 sheikh, 2930, 76, 151 Shi i, 14346, 148, 19596 Si!-"a# $ar, 7476 Sla%er#, 10, 167, 174 Su&i'm, 20, 58 sunna, 7, 10, 68, 78, 89, 138, 146, 149, 151 Sunni, 14346, 148, 196 ()lib, Al* ibn Ab+, 14446 (an,a, 17, 32, 45 (a#mi##ah, Ahmad ibn, 138, 14143 -'ur#, 5, 20, 101, 10910, 16869 $ahhab, Muhammad ibn Abd al-, 143 $ahhabi', 143, 185, 202 $i&e bea,ing, 174, 17677 .ahiri,e', 146 .i/ni'm, 74, 208 .i/ni', 0hri',iani,#, 19192

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Page 220 About the Authors NASR ABU ZAID is Professor of Arabic and Islamic Studies at Leiden Universit in t!e Net!erlands" #e !as $ublis!ed several boo%s in Arabic and man articles in &nglis!" In 2002 !e 'as a'arded t!e (reedom of )ors!i$ *edal b t!e (ran%lin and &leanor Roosevelt Institute" &S+#&R R" N&LS,N is Professor of Religious Studies at -irginia .ommon'ealt! Universit " S!e is also a freelance 'riter and !as $ublis!ed !er 'or% in a variet of mainstream $ublications"

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