Reservoir Sandstones Robert R. Berg Texas A&M University Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632Library of Congress Cataloging in Publicatwon Data Berg, Robert R. ‘Reservoir sandstones. Includes bibliographies and indes 1. Sandstones. 2. Sandstones—United States. 3. Oil reservoir engineering. I, Title. (QEATLAS.S25B47. 1986 352'.S 85-6537 ISBN 0-13-774373-4 Editorial/production supervision and interior design: Maria McColligan Cover design: Diane Saxe Manufacturing buyer: John Hall © 1986 by Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632 Alll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or. by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 0987654321 ISBN O-23-774373-4 OL Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo Prentice-Hall of Southeast Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro Whitehall Books Limited, Wellington, New ZealandContents PREFACE ix CHAPTER 1 SANDSTONE PROPERTIES 7 Classes of Properties 1 Primary Properties 2 Composition 2 Texture 8 Sedimentary Structures 12 Morphology 18 Secondary Properties 21 Porosity 21 Permeability 26 Saturation 30 Core Analysis 31 Tertiary Properties 33 Types of Well Logs 34 Log Examples 38 Summary 41 References Cited 42 CHAPTER 2 SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES 45 Channel Flow 4s Effects of Flow 47 Grain and Flow Interaction 50iv Contents Definition of Forces $2 Velocity Equations 33 Settling Velocity 53 Transport Velocity 55 Erosion Velocity 55 Effect of Cohesion 58 Bed Form 61 Flow Regime 62 Sedimentary Sequence 64 Density Flow 65 Wave Motion 67 Wave Velocity 67 Bottom Velocity 69 Sand Erosion 70 Bed Forms 71 Summary R References Cited 2 CHAPTER 3 INTERPRETATION OF RESERVOIR MORPHOLOGY 75 Depositional Environments 15 Modern Environments 77 Ancient Environments 79 Interpretation of Sequence 81 Common Sequences 81 Evaluation of Criteria 84 Interpretation from Well Logs 88 SP and Gamma-Ray Logs 88 Facies Change 91 ‘Supplemental Data 93 Shales 93 Microfossils 94 Stratigraphic Sequence 97 Core Analysis 97 Morphology 98 Methods of Study 98 Full-diameter Cores 98 Sidewall Cores 99 Core Study 100 Summary 101 References Cited 101 CHAPTER 4 EOLIAN SANDSTONES 104 Wind Transport 105 Modern Dune Sands 107 Classification of Dunes 107 Sedimentary Structures 109 Composition and Texture 112Contents Ancient Eolian Sediments 113 Norphlet Sandstone, Hatters Pond Field, Alabama 13 Geologic Setting 114 Drilling History 115 Description of Sandstone 116 Dig Log Interpretation 123 Morphology 124 Summary 126 References Cited 126 CHAPTER 5 FLUVIAL SANDSTONES 129 Stream Transport and Deposition 129 Modern Fluvial Sediment 133 Stream Patterns 133 Stream Sediment 135 Sediment Morphology 140 Ancient Fluvial Sediments 144, Robinson Sandstone, Fry Area, Illinois 145 Geologic Setting 145 Drilling History 147 Description of Sandstone 148 Morphology 153 Conclusions 154 Bartlesville Sandstone, Chetopa Area, Southeastern Kansas 154 Geologic Setting 154 Drilling History 157 Description of Sandstone 158 Morphology 165 Conclusions 169 Lower Tuscaloosa Sandstone, Mallalieu Field, Mississippi 170 Geologic Setting 171 Drilling History 171 Description of Sandstones 172 Morphology 177 Conclusions 180 Fall River Sandstone, Coyote Creek and Miller Creek Field, Northeastern Wyoming 180 Geologic Setting 181 — Coyote Creek Field 182 Miller Creek Field 184 Description of Sandstone 185 Morphology 192 Conclusions 194 Summary 195 References Cited 196 CHAPTER 6 DELTAIC SANDSTONES 207 Delta Processes 202 Modern Deltaic Sediments 206 Delta-Front Sequence 206 Delta Morphology 211vi Contents. Ancient Deltas 213 Fall River Sandstone, Coyote Creek Area, Northeastern Wyoming 215 Geologic Setting 216 Drilling History 217 Description of Sandstones 218 Morphology 224 Conclusions 224 Morrowan Sandstone, South Empire Field, Southeastern New Mexico 225 Geologic Setting 226 Drilling History 227 Description of Sandstones 228 Morphology 237 — Porosity and Permeability 239 Conclusions 240 Dakota Sandstone, Lone Pine Field, Northwestern New Mexico 241 Geologic Setting 241 Drilling History 243 Description of Sandstones 245 Morphology 255 Oil and Gas Column 257 Conclusions 259 Menefee Sandstones, Fairway Field, Northwestern New Mexico 260 Geologic Setting 260 Drilling History 262 Description of Sandstones 263 Interpretation 265 Conclusions 268 Summary 268 References Cited 269 CHAPTER 7 COASTAL SANDSTONES 272 Shoreline Processes 22 Modern Coastal Sands 215 Barrier-Island Sequence 275 Strand Plain Sequence 281 Other Coastal Environments 282 Ancient Coastal Sandstones 284 Muddy Sandstone, Recluse Field, Northeastern Wyoming 285 Geologic Setting 285 Drilling History 290 Description of Sandstones 291 Morphology 299 Oil Column 302 Conclusions 303 Muddy Sandstone, Bell Creek Field, Southeastern Montana 304 Geologic Setting 304 Drilling History 305 Description of Sandstones 306 Conclusions 315 Muddy Sandstone, Hilight Field, Northeastern Wyoming 316 Local Stratigraphy 316 Drilling History 317 Description of Sandstones 317 Interpretation 325 Conclusions 330Contents Summary 330 References Cited 330 CHAPTER 8 SHELF SANDSTONES 334 Shelf Processes 334 Wave Motion 335 — Tidal Currents 337 Storm Currents 338 Turbidity Currents 339 Other Currents 341 ‘Modern Shelf Sands 341 Sabine-Heald Banks 342 U.S. Atlantic Shelf 344 North Sea Sand Ridges 346 Other Shelf Sands 348 Ancient Shelf Sands 349 Woodbine Sandstone, Kurten Field, Southeast Texas 351 Geologic Setting 351 Drilling History 355 Description of Sandstones 356 Morphology 362 Interpretation 364 Conclusions 367 Sussex Sandstone, House Creek Field, Northeastern Wyoming 367 Geologic Setting 367 Drilling History 368 Description of Sandstone 371 Interpretation 378 Conclusions 381 Marchand Sandstone, East Binger Field, Oklahoma 382 Geologic Setting 382 Description of Sandstone 385 Interpretation 390 Morphology 391 — Conclusions 394 Summary 394 References Cited 395 CHAPTER 9 BASIN SANDSTONES 400 Basin Processes 400 ‘Turbidite Sediments 402 Modern Basin Sands 404 Ancient Turbidites 406 Submarine Fans 406 Constructional-Channel Systems 406 Erosional-Channel Fill 406 Reservoir Examples 407 Canyon Sandstones, Val Verde Basin, West Texas 407 Geologic Setting 407 Drilling History 410 Reservoir Section 410 Interpretation 418 Morphology 421 Conclusions 423viii Contents Canyon Sandstones, Midland Basin, West Texas 423 Geologic Setting 423 Drilling History 425 Reservoir Section 425 Morphology 431 Conclusions 436 Stevens Sandstone, San Joaquin Basin, California 436 Geologic Setting 436 Stevens Oil Production 439 — Yowlumne Field History 439 — Description of Sandstones 440 Interpretation 447 Conclusions 448 Bell Canyon Sandstone, Delaware Basin, New Mexico 449 Geologic Setting 450 Drilling History 451 Description of Sandstones 453 Morphology 462 Conclusions 467 Summary 468 References Cited 468 Index 473,Preface ‘Sandstones are important as reservoirs for oil and gas, and it has been estimated that 50% of the world’s petroleum will be produced from sandstones. Sandstones are also important as aquifers for the production of water, for underground storage of natural gas, and disposal of liquid waste. The purpose of this book is to describe the character and origins of sandstones that are reservoirs for oil and gas and, es- pecially, to promote a better understanding of reservoir properties. A knowledge of sandstone properties can be valuable to geologists and engi- neers who are employed in exploration for, and development of, subsurface fluids or other mineable resources. The morphologies of reservoirs and aquifers are of special importance. The size and shape of sandstone bodies largely determine the amount of fluid that can be stored in the subsurface; composition, texture, and sedimentary structures control the production of fluids. A knowledge of funda- mental rock properties, therefore, is important to the prediction of occurrence and behavior of sandstone reservoirs. Many of the properties of sandstone reservoirs are determined by depositional environment, and therefore, the descriptions are organized by environment. Inter- pretations of environment are made from rock properties in vertical sequence, and from these interpretations a prediction can be made of the local size and shape of sandstone bodies. The interpretations may be aided by a knowledge of regional stratigraphy, the nature of adjacent rocks, fossil content, and a host of other facts commonly available to the geological interpreter. The sandstones themselves, how- ever, provide the keys to interpretation. From composition, texture, and sedimen- tary structures in vertical sequence, reliable interpretations can be made of depositional environment and local morphology.x Preface This book can form the basis for a one-semester course on the origin of sand- stones for upper-level undergraduate and graduate students in geology, geophysics, and petroleum engineering. Basic knowledge is presented on sandstone properties, transport mechanisms, and modern depositional environments so that this book alone provides the necessary background for advanced study. This presentation should be supplemented, of course, by readings from the technical literature, but there is no other book currently available that describes in detail those properties of sandstones most important to subsurface geological practice. The approach used here is the study of oil and gas fields where sandstone properties and morphology are known with some assurance. With the aid of these examples, other sandstones may be interpreted by similarity or contrast with the reservoirs described. The fields illustrated herein represent only a select number of the possible morphologies for sandstones. Undoubtedly there are many more, and ‘equally well known, examples that could be documented. The fields described here, however, represent basic morphologies that can be expected to occur most com- monly in sequences of different ages. Although the field examples represent specific reservoirs and their properties, some general principles emerge that may have wider application, both in future geologic studies as well as in exploration and develop- ment of subsurface resources. ‘The reservoir descriptions will also be of interest to professional geologists and petroleum engineers. All the sandstones exhibit inhomogeneities, to a greater or lesser degree, depending on origin. These variations in rock properties, both lat- eral and vertical, pose problems for fluid flow and recovery. Variations impose a degree of antisotropy with regard to flow, and these variations must be considered in planning for future recovery of oil, especially by tertiary methods. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ‘Support for these studies has come from many sources. Foremost among them are the companies and persons that supplied the cores, and in many cases, financial assistance. Most are identified only as the operators of the wells from which the cores were recovered. Although corporate names appear prominently, these names represent many individuals who supplied materials as well as enthusiasm and en- couragement for geologic interpretations of cores. Many persons also have participated directly in these studies. Faculty members and students at Texas A&M University have provided, over a period of more than 15 years, analyses and descriptions that have contributed substantially to the final interpretations. These persons are credited individually as analysts or as authors of theses and publications, and their part in these interpretations is gratefully acknowl- edged. The manuscript was improved by the critical reading of David G. Kersey, and others who commented on individual sections. RRB.Sandstone Properties Sandstones are common reservoirs for oil and gas, and thus they are a class of sedimentary rocks of great economic importance. A knowledge of their properties is essential in the exploration for, and the production of, subsurface fluids. The primary properties of texture, composition, sedimentary structures, and morphol- ogy are determined largely by the source materials and by the environment of dep- osition. These properties, in turn, control the production of fluids through a borehole. All the properties, then, have economic significance, and knowledge of sandstone properties is essential to understanding the reservoir and its capacity for oil or gas production. CLASSES OF PROPERTIES Many reservoir studies require that geologic variables be handled in a quantitative manner. For the purpose of analysis it is important to categorize reservoir rock properties so that interrelationships among the variables may be recognized. Three main classes of rock properties can be established (Berg 1970). The first group of properties may be called primary or definitive properties (Table 1-1) because these are the fundamental characteristics of the reservoir. The definitive properties are mineral composition, texture, sedimentary structures, and morphology, or size and shape of the reservoir body. These fundamental properties exert a primary control on other reservoir properties, which may therefore be thought of as secondary or dependent properties. The dependent properties include porosity, permeability, fluid saturation, and bulk density.2 Sandstone Properties. Chap. 1 TABLE 1-1. SELECTED RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES, SYMBOLS, AND CUSTOMARY UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Primary Secondary Tertiary (definitive (dependent) latent) ‘Composition (9%) Porosity, & (%) Resistivity, R (fm) ‘Texture (mm) Permeability, k (md) Spontaneous potential, SP (mV) Sedimentary structures (m) Saturation, S (%) Radioactivity, y (counts/see) Morphology (descriptive) Bulk density, pp (g/cm) __Sonie travel time, At (ysee/ft) ‘The dependency of secondary properties on the primary properties is illus- trated by porosity. The storage capacity of a reservoir is controlled by the mineral composition, primarily the cementing materials, and also by the textural properties of grain size, sorting, and grain packing. Therefore, a knowledge of the primary properties for a given reservoir is often an indication, at least in a qualitative way, of the secondary properties. A third group of properties may be called tertiary or latent properties. These are the properties measured in the borehole by geophysical logs. The most important of these properties are resistivity, spontaneous potential, radioactivity, both natural and induced, and sonic travel time. The latent properties are determined, to a great extent, by mineral composition, porosity, and the nature of the fluids in the rock. For this reason, the rock type and its fluid saturation often can be determined quite accurately from log measurements, but it is more difficult to interpret the latent properties in terms of primary rock properties. ‘The categories of rock properties (Table 1-1) indicate the difficulty of pre- dicting the dependent properties in the subsurface without first knowing as much as possible about the primary properties. There are gaps in our knowledge of res- ervoir rocks and their contained fluids that prevent us from estimating the amount of fluids stored within the reservoir and the ability to recover these fluids. It is quite likely that further studies of the geologic variables will yield relationships that may make the prediction of reservoir properties more quantitative. The next section de- scribes the primary rock properties, especially as they may be observed and mea- sured in sandstone cores. PRIMARY PROPERTIES Composition Sandstones are composed of mineral particles, called grains, which consist large! of quartz, feldspars, and rock fragments [Figure 1-1(A)). The finer mineral material between the grains is called the matrix and commonly consists of clay minerals but may also contain very fine particles of quartz and feldspar. Both the grains and matrix represent the products of weathering that were carried as sediment to theitPrimary Properties 3 igure 1-1 Diagrams showing relationships among some compositional and textural elements of sandstones: (A) detrital grains and matrix shortly after despasition (Q = quartz, F = feldspar, R = rock fragments); (B) altered grains and matrix includiag silica as overgrowth on quartz grains and calcite as intergranular cement and as a replacement of feldspar grains. Note reduction of pore size in altered rock site of deposition and are referred to as detritus. After deposition and burial, the grains and matrix are commonly altered by the physical effects of compaction and by chemical changes. These changes are broadly referred to as diagenesis, and early chemical changes are called authigenesis. A third major component, in addition to the grains and matrix, is the cement introduced between the particles during diagenesis [Figure 1-1(B)]. The term cement refers to any mineral that is precipitated after the grains and matrix have been de- posited. Thus, the cements are formed after deposition and burial, in contrast to detrital components that were carried to the sites by currents. As the term implies, cements are responsible for lithification, or joining grains into a competent mass. This brief description of the principal compositional elements serves to em- phasize that many, if not most, sandstones may be highly complex mixtures. The detrital particles give important clues to the source materials and, in some cases, indicate the degree to which the original materials have been changed by the effects of transport. Composition, then, may be important in environmental interpreta- tions. The nature of particles also determines, to a large extent, the degree to which these materials may be altered, either physically or chemically, by diagenesis. These changes may greatly affect the reservoir properties of porosity and permeability, generally in a deleterious manner. The mineral particles and cements may be con- sidered to be in equilibrium under subsurface conditions of temperature, pressure, and adjacent fluids. Any change of these conditions, such as by deep burial or by the withdrawal or injection of fluids, may promote some change in the character of grains and matrix. Thus, sandstones must be thought of as chemically complex mixtures that may become unstable under long- or short-term changes in the phys- ical and chemical environment. Quartz. Grains of quartz. are the major components of many sandstones, and quartz is generally regarded as the common mineral most resistant to weathering and abrasion during transport. There are two distinct types of quartz, however, that apparently react somewhat differently during transport of sediment. Monocrystal- line grains are those composed of part of a single quartz crystal, and polycrystalline grains are composed of parts of two or more crystals and may properly be consid-