Biology

(14 - 16)

Respiration - 1 An Introduction
SSER Ltd.

Obtaining the Energy from Glucose

Glucose molecules contain energy. If glucose is set alight in the presence of oxygen, it burns vigorously. Large amounts of heat energy are released as the glucose molecules combine with the oxygen molecules to form carbon dioxide and water, and the energy from the glucose is transferred to heat energy.

This is an oxidation reaction (combustion). It has one step and occurs very rapidly.

Aerobic Respiration
This reaction can be represented by the following equation: glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + ENERGY

C6H12O6

6O2
glucose and oxygen Energy in molecules

6CO2

6H2O

energy lost as heat CO2 + H2O

Time

Aerobic Respiration
A similar overall process takes place in every cell of plants and animals (including humans), but in a much more controlled way. The process is aerobic respiration and it occurs in the mitochondria of every cell. CARBON DIOXIDE:
GLUCOSE is transported by the blood system and excreted by the lungs or used in photosynthesis by green plants

OXYGEN

Enzymes in mitochondria

WATER: is non toxic and contributes to the bodys water supply

ENERGY: drives general metabolic processes such as contraction of skeletal muscles, heart beat, peristalsis, etc.

mitochondrion

Aerobic Respiration
A similar overall process takes place in every cell of plants and animals (including humans), but in a much more controlled way. The process is aerobic respiration and it occurs in the mitochondria of every cell. CARBON DIOXIDE:
GLUCOSE is transported by the blood system and excreted by the lungs or used in photosynthesis by green plants

OXYGEN

Enzymes in mitochondria

WATER: is non toxic and contributes to the bodys water supply

ENERGY: drives general metabolic processes such as contraction of skeletal muscles, heart beat, peristalsis, etc.

mitochondrion

Aerobic Respiration
Inside every mitochondrion, glucose molecules are dismantled steadily, in a series of reactions catalysed by enzymes.
glucose and oxygen Energy in molecules

CO2 + H2O

Time

The energy in the glucose molecules is released in small stages, and most of this energy is used to make a compound called ATP (adenosine triphosphate) which is an energy rich molecule which can drive other chemical reactions in the body.

The Structure of a Mitochondrion

A single mitochondrion

fluid matrix

cristae

outer membrane

Inside the mitochondria, glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen and enzymes to make the energy which keeps us alive. Inside each mitochondrion are numerous folded membranes called cristae, upon which the enzymes are found. The cristae increase the surface area for the enzymes to act upon.

Cells and Respiration - How The Energy Is Used

SYNTHESIS: of proteins, enzymes, glycogen, fats, hormones, etc. MECHANICAL WORK: contraction of skeletal muscles, heart beat, peristalsis, etc. Enzymes in mitochondria Oxygen

Food

Respiratory energy

Cells and Respiration - How The Energy Is Used

SYNTHESIS: of proteins, enzymes, glycogen, fats, hormones, etc. MECHANICAL WORK: contraction of skeletal muscles, heart beat, peristalsis, etc. Enzymes in mitochondria Oxygen

Food

Respiratory energy
CHEMICAL WORK: in the liver and kidneys, nerve impulses, movement of chemicals in and out of cells, etc. GROWTH AND REPAIR: cell division for growth of new tissues and repair of old and damaged tissues.

Cells and Respiration - How The Energy Is Used

The energy produced by the mitochondria is used for many reactions in the cells of both plants and animals... For example: Synthesis: of proteins - including enzymes and some hormones...

Insulin

Catalase

Pepsin

Maltase

Amylase

Cells and Respiration - How The Energy Is Used

The energy produced by the mitochondria is used for many reactions in the cells of both plants and animals... For example: Synthesis: of glycogen (animals), starch (plants) and fats/oils...

Glycogen

Fat

Respiration - How the Human Body Uses Energy

Mechanical work: contraction of skeletal muscles, heart beat, peristalsis, etc.

Respiration - How the Human Body Uses Energy

Chemical work: in the liver and kidneys, nerve impulses, active movement of chemicals in and out of cells, etc.

Liver

Respiration - How the Human Body Uses Energy

Chemical work: in the liver and kidneys, nerve impulses, active movement of chemicals in and out of cells, etc.
Active transport

Nerve impulse at a synapse

Liver

Respiration - How the Human Body Uses Energy

Growth and Repair: cell division for growth of new tissues and repair of old and damaged tissues.

Repair of damaged tissue needs to occur after a cut

The production of new cells requires a lot of energy

Respiration - How the Human Body Uses Energy

Growth and Repair: cell division for growth of new tissues and repair of old and damaged tissues.

Repair of damaged tissue needs to occur after a cut

The production of new cells requires a lot of energy

A Very Specialised Cell - Sperm Structure

Sperm cells are the male sex cells.
Nucleus in head piece tail piece

They are specialised in several ways:

The nucleus contains chromosomes which carry the genetic information that will fertilise the ovum. They have very long tails to allow them to swim to the egg cell.
acrosome mid piece

Ovum

The mid piece contains many mitochondria to provide the energy for swimming. The acrosome in the head of the sperm contains digestive enzymes that can digest the ovums membrane, allowing the sperm nucleus to enter and fertilise the ovums nucleus.

Anaerobic Respiration
During strenuous exercise, such as running as fast as you can, you cannot breathe in enough oxygen for just aerobic respiration to supply all the energy needed by your muscles.

Oxygen has become a limiting factor for aerobic respiration.

Therefore, the muscle cells also use anaerobic respiration (which does not use oxygen) to produce more energy, and to supplement that which is still being made by aerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration releases less energy per glucose molecule than aerobic respiration, and it produces lactic acid (toxic) as a waste product: Glucose Lactic acid
+

ENERGY

A Closer Look at Yeast

Yeast is a single-celled organism belonging to the kingdom Fungi.

Viewed through the low power of a microscope, yeast cells can be seen to consist of a mass of spherical cells.

A Closer Look at Yeast

Viewed through the high power of a microscope, yeast cells can be seen to consist of the following structures.
Yeast cells produce an enzyme called zymase.
membrane

cell wall

nucleus
cytoplasm

vacuole

Yeast Respiration
Yeast cells can carry out respiration in two ways:

If oxygen is present the cells respire aerobically producing carbon dioxide and water.
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

If oxygen is absent, or in low concentration, the yeast cells respire anaerobically producing carbon dioxide and alcohol. glucose carbon dioxide + alcohol

Aerobic respiration provides more energy per glucose molecule than anaerobic respiration, and is necessary for the yeast to grow and reproduce.

The Use of Micro-organisms in the Food Industry

People from many different cultures have known for thousands of years how to use micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi (e.g. yeast) to make various types of food and drink. For example: yeast is used in the production of bread and alcoholic drinks.

bacteria are used in the production of yoghurt and cheese.

Bread Making

Bread Making
In yeast an enzyme called zymase catalyses a major part of the anaerobic break down of sugar. Zymase is therefore critical in providing the yeast cells with the energy they need to live. Carbon dioxide and alcohol (ethanol) are also produced as waste products. sugar zymase carbon dioxide + alcohol

C6H12O6(aq)

2CO2(g)

2C2H5OH(l)

When yeast is added to dough, fermentation occurs.

The bubbles of carbon dioxide gas that are produced cause the dough to rise.

Dough

Risen dough (20 minutes later)

Bread Making
When the bread is cooked in the oven, the high temperature evaporates the alcohol, kills the yeast, denatures the zymase enzyme and therefore fermentation stops. The resulting bread has a light texture and desirable flavour.

Yeast, Fermentation and Bread

1. Water added

2. Flour added

3. Sugar added

4. Salt added

5. Yeast added

6. Fat added

7. Mixing

8. Kneading

The enzymes made by the yeast ferment the sugar and produce CO2 as a waste product.
9. Rising 10. Baking

The CO2 causes the bread to rise.

Enzymes and Beer

Enzymes and Beer

Brewing also involves fermentation with yeast. Carbohydrates are used as an energy source for the yeast to respire. This time, retaining the alcohol is also an important part of the process. Beer is made from barley. The starch in barley grains is broken down into a sugary solution by enzymes inside the germinating barley grains, in a process called malting. The malted barley is then squashed and heated in water to extract the sugary solution, and hops are added for flavour. The liquid (wort) is now ready to ferment. Cultivated yeast is then added, and fermentation will produce the beer.

Enzymes and Wine

Wine Making
Wine is made from grape juice which is rich in sugar. Wild yeast, seen as grey dust, grows on the skin of the grapes and can perform alcoholic fermentation on the sugars present in the juice.

As the grapes are crushed, the juice and yeast cells combine, and the yeast multiplies and ferments the sugar into alcohol.

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