The Most Likely Way For The World To Be Destroyed

The most likely way for the world to be destroyed, most
experts agree, is by accident. That's where we come in;

we're computer professionals. We cause accidents.
further information on navigating the course, go to our Help
WELCOME AND INTRODUCTION
pages.
Welcome to the DO IT Course! DO IT provides a stimulating
For a systematic path through the course, go to the Contents
environment for students and teachers to learn about
pages. Otherwise,
Information and Communications Technology today. An exciting
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
and interactive experience is delivered through the use of the
latest technology.
DO IT is intended both for those without an IT background as

HARDWARE - contains information on the physical parts of a
well as those with some knowledge. Even quite experienced
computing system, including electrical and mechanical
people will gain new insights.
components.
DO IT covers the most important topics in the current
SOFTWARE - covers the use of popular programs such as word
Information and Communications Technology areas in an
processing, spreadsheets, databases and DTP.
informative and enjoyable way. There are many possible routes
COMPUTER LANGUAGES - explains the development,
through the course and topics can be selected or ignored to suit
different conventions, and basic terminology used within
individual interest or examination syllabus requirements. DO IT
programming languages.
includes study support materials which can be printed out and
DEVELOPING AN INFORMATION SYSTEM - contains
photocopied, and are suitable for individual home study or
information on how to create a system to organize, catalogue,
group use in schools and colleges.
store, retrieve and maintain information.
To use the course to its best advantage you need to understand
the different ways you can navigate your way through it. For
INFORMATION REPRESENTATION - highlights the different
ways that information is represented covering topics such as
binary, hexadecimal, octal and other number systems.
NETWORKS - explains the different ways in which information
systems are connected together.
INTERNET - describes the basic functions of the largest Hardware
network of computers called the Internet.

Peripherals
In computing a peripheral is a device, under the

control of the central processing unit, that performs
an auxiliary action in the system.
This section covers some of the basic peripheral
devices used for:
 Input  Output  Storage
Hardware - Peripherals
Input Devices
2)
You use input devices to put information into the

computer.
Typical input devices are listed below. The Mouse is a popular input device. You move it
Input Devices across the desk and its movement is shown on the
screen by a marker known as a 'cursor'.
• Keyboard • Optical Mark Reader You will need to click the buttons at the top of the
• Mouse (OMR) mouse to select an option.
• Joystick • Image Scanner
• Digitising Tablet • Bar Codes
• Touch Sensitive Screen • Magnetic Reader A computer mouse
• Light Pen • Smart Cards Hardware - Peripherals - Input Devices
• Space Mouse • Voice Data Entry Input Devices - Mouse (2 of

• Sound Capture 2)
• Digital Stills Camera
• Magnetic Ink Character • Video Capture
Recognition (MICR)
A mouse contains a rotating ball with two rollers
held at right angles to each other which touch the
ball. The rollers register the x and y axis movements
of the ball.
A selection of input devices
How a mouse works
Input Devices - Mouse (1 of
Each roller is attached to an optical encoder, a disc A Digitising Tablet is a pointing device that
which has gaps in its surface. The rotation of the facilitates the accurate input of drawings and
encoder interrupts two beams of light between the designs.
LEDs and their detectors.
These pulses of light are fed to the computer and
A digitising tablet with pen
are used to determine the speed and direction of the
mouse's movement. A drawing can be placed directly on the tablet,
and the user traces outlines or inputs coordinate
positions with a hand-held stylus.
Input Devices - Joystick
The joystick is a rotary lever. Similar to an aircraft's
control stick, it enables you to move within the Input Devices - Touch
screen's environment, and is widely used in the Sensitive Screen
computer games industry.
A Touch Sensitive Screen is a pointing device that

enables the user to interact with the computer by
touching the screen.
A joystick
Hardware – Peripherals
Input Devices - Digitising A touch sensitive monitor

Tablet There are three forms of touchscreen: pressure-
sensitive, capacitive surface and light beam.
Input Devices - Light Pen

A space mouse
A Light Pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen Input Devices - Digital
and is connected to a VDU. Stills Camera
The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive
element which, when placed against the screen,
detects the light from the screen enabling the
computer to identify the location of the pen on the Digital Stills Cameras capture an
screen. image which is stored in memory
within the camera. When the memory
A light pen
is full it can be erased and further
images captured.
Light pens have the advantage of 'drawing' directly A digital stills
onto the screen, but this can become uncomfortable, The digital images can then be camera
and they are not as accurate as digitising tablets. downloaded from the camera to a
computer where they can be
displayed, manipulated or printed.
Input Devices - Space Mouse
The Space mouse is different from a normal mouse Input Devices - Magnetic Ink
as it has an X axis, a Y axis and a Z axis. It can be Character Recognition
used for developing and moving around 3-D
environments.
A computer can read numbers and letters printed
with ink containing magnetic material.
Scanners allow information such as a photo or text
to be input into a computer. Scanners are usually
either A4 size (flatbed), as shown below, or hand-
held to scan a much smaller area.
A cheque detailing the MICR number
MICR is used by banks to process cheques. The If text is to be scanned, you would use an Optical
account details at the bottom of the cheque can be Character Recognition (OCR) program to recognise
accurately read in this manner since MICR is not the printed text and then convert it to a digital text
affected by dirt. file that can be accessed using a computer.
Input Devices - Optical Mark

Reader (OMR) A flatbed scanner used for digital image input
Input Devices - Bar Code

The Optical Mark Reader (OMR) can read information Reader
in the form of numbers or letters and put it into the
computer.
The marks have to be precisely located as in
You might have seen bar codes on goods in
multiple choice test papers.
supermarkets, in libraries and on magazines. Bar
codes provide a quick method of recording the sale
of items.
A sample multiple choice answer paper
A bar code
Input Devices - Scanners An infra-red bar code reader
A bar code is a pattern printed in lines of differing
thickness. The system gives fast and error-free entry
of information into the computer.
Hardware - Peripherals A store card showing the square microprocessor chip
Input Devices - Magnetic This method is used in store cards which

Reader accumulate points for the purchaser, and to store
phone numbers for cellular phones.
This input device reads a magnetic strip on a card. Hardware - Peripherals

Handy for security reasons, it provides quick Input Devices - Voice Data
identification of the card's owner. Entry
A Credit card showing the magnetic strip

This system accepts the spoken word as input data
This method is used to run bank cash points or to or commands.
provide quick identification of people entering Human speech is very complex, involving emphasis
buildings. and facial expressions, so complete voice
Hardware - Peripherals recognition will not be developed for some time.
Input Devices - Smart
Cards
A microphone used for data input
However, simple commands from one user can be

used to control machines.
This input device stores data in a microprocessor In this way a paralysed person can operate a
embedded in the card. This allows information, wheelchair or control heating and lighting.
which can be updated, to be stored on the card.
Input Devices - Sound A video capture card
Capture Peripheral Devices - Input
Input Devices - Exercises
With the addition of a sound card in one of the

expansion slots of your computer you can This multiple choice section will ask 10 questions to test your
"record" voice or music. knowledge and total your score. You will be given the
opportunity to try the quiz again once you have finished all the
questions.
1. Where would you find the letters
A sound card QWERTY?
Top of Form
The sound card digitises the information into a
form that the computer can understand. Mouse
Keyboard
Input Devices - Video Numeric Keypad

Capture Bottom of Form
With a video capture board in one of your
Output Devices
computer's expansion slots you can capture video
(photographic) images through a video camera.
The video capture board digitises the image.
These devices display information that has been
held or generated within a computer.
Some examples are shown below.
improves as the number of pixels is increased. Most
• VDU or Monitor • Ink Jet Printer monitors have a 4:3 width to height ratio.
• Printer • Robot Hardware - Peripherals - Output Devices
• Impact Printer • Machine Tool VDUs - Screen Resolution
• Dot Matrix Printer • Synthesized Voice
• Daisywheel Printer • Plotter
• Non-Impact Printer • Flatbed Plotter The standard user interface on the PC was originally
• Thermal Printer • Drum Plotter a text-only mode. With the increased resolution of
VDUs applications are now written in graphics mode
• Laser Printer • Electrostatic Plotter
using individual pixels. A recent standard has been
640 x 480 pixels on the screen (this is called VGA)
Hardware - Peripherals and the present standard is 800 x 600 (called SVGA).
Output Devices - VDUs
Visual Display Units (VDU) or monitors are used to

visually interface with the computer and are similar in
Diagram of different screen resolutions
appearance to a television.
This has enabled the use of an increasingly
sophisticated visual interface, utilising graphical
user interfaces (GUIs) such as Microsoft Windows
and MAC OS as well as more highly developed user
friendly software.
A cathode ray monitor A plasma monitor
Visual Display Units display images and text which are
Output Devices - Printers
made up of small blocks of coloured light called pixels(In
computer graphics, the smallest element of a display space that can be
addressed. A picture element (pixel) will have one or more attributes of
colour, intensity and flashing). The resolution of the screen
You can print out information that is in the computer
onto paper. By printing you create what is known as
a 'hard copy'. Characters are formed from a matrix of dots.
There are different kinds of printers which vary in The speed is usually 30 - 550 characters per second
their speed and print quality. (cps). This is the cheapest and noisiest of the printer
family. The standard of print obtained is poor.
The two main types of printer are impact and non-
impact.
Output Devices - Impact

A dot matrix printer
Printer
These printers are cheap to run and relatively fast.
They are useful for low quality carbon copy printing.
Impact Printers use a print head containing a
number of metal pins which strike an inked ribbon
Output Devices - Daisywheel
placed between the print head and the paper.
Printer
Molded metal characters like those in a typewriter

An impact printer showing detail of print head
are mounted on extensions attached to a rotating
wheel and are printed onto the paper by means of a
Some print heads have only 9 pins to make the dots hammer and print ribbon.
to build up a character; some have 24 pins which
produce a better resolution.
Output Devices - Dot Matrix

Printer
A daisy wheel showing detail of the characters
This results in a great deal of movement and noise Printers
during the printing of documents, so printing is slow
(less than 90 cps).
The standard of print is similar to that produced by
an electric typewriter. As the characters on the Characters are formed by heated elements being
wheel are fixed, the size and font can only be placed in contact with special heat sensitive paper
changed by using a different wheel. However, this is forming darkened dots when the elements reach a
very rarely done. critical temperature.
Output Devices - Non-Impact

Printers
A fax machine uses a thermal printer
Non-impact printers are much quieter than impact Thermal printer paper tends to darken over time due
printers as their printing heads do not strike the to exposure to sunlight and heat. The standard of
paper. print produced is poor.
Most non-impact printers produce dot-matrix Thermal printers are widely used in battery powered
patterns. equipment such as portable calculators.
Several different technologies have been used to
provide a variety of printers.
Output Devices - Laser
The main types of non-impact printer are:
Printer
○ Thermal Printer
○ Laser Printer
○ Ink Jet Printer Laser Printers use a laser beam and dry powdered
Hardware - Peripherals ink to produce a fine dot matrix pattern. This method
of printing can generate about 4 pages of A4 paper
Output Devices - Thermal
How a laser printer works
per minute.
Output Devices - Ink Jet

A laser printer Printers
The standard of print is very good and laser printers
can also produce very good quality printed graphic
images too.
Characters are formed as a result of electrically
Hardware - Peripherals charged or heated ink being sprayed in fine jets onto
Laser Printer - How It Works the paper. Individual nozzles in the printing head
produce high resolution (up to 400 dots per inch or
400 dpi) dot matrix characters.
A photoconductive drum is initially charged and

then a high intensity laser beam is used to discharge
selected areas on the drum. These discharged areas
correspond to the white areas of the printed Colour cartridge showing inkjet nozzles
document. An inkjet printer
Toner is attracted to parts of the drum with a high Inkjet printers use colour cartridges which combine
charge. The drum rotates and transfers the toner to magenta, yellow and cyan inks to create colour
the paper which has an even greater electrical tones. A black cartridge is also used for crisp
charge. Finally a heater fixes the toner onto the monochrome output.
paper. This method of printing can generate up to 200 cps
and allows for good quality, cheap colour printing.
Output Devices - Robots

the advantage over humans of high accuracy, and
Robots are able to perform a variety of tasks as a they never require a coffee break!
result of executing instructions contained within a
program. Hardware - Peripherals
We are still a long way from the science fiction Output devices - Voice
robots and androids portrayed by the film industry.
Voice synthesis has a robotic sound due to the

difficulties of replicating the complexities of human
speech and pronunciation.
A robot arm
Voice answer back (VAB) is used to respond to
Robots in a business sense mean automated
telephone enquiries, such as the speaking clock.
machines designed to perform mundane operations
which require accuracy, such as assembling cars.
They are seldom manufactured to resemble the
human form.
A speak and spell toy
Output Devices - Machine Educational applications include "Speak & Spell"
Tool and arithmetic trainers.
Output Devices - Plotters

Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) tools are used
to manufacture a variety of products.
Repetitive functions are controlled by sets of
computer instructions. Plotters are used to produce graphs or diagrams.
Plotters can be of two types:
Machine tools automate factory production and have
• Pen plotters
• Electrostatic plotters track and the paper itself moves on a cylindrical
drum to add the other axis or dimension.
Pen plotters have an ink pen attached to draw the
images, and electrostatic plotters work similarly to a
laser printer.
Output Devices - Flatbed A drum plotter
Plotter The size of the graph is therefore limited only by the

width of the drum and can be of any length.
This is a plotter where the paper is fixed on a flat Output Devices -

surface and pens are moved to draw the image. This Electrostatic Plotter
plotter can use several different colour pens to draw
with.
The size of the plot is limited only by the size of the
An Electrostatic Plotter produces a raster (Where the
plotter's bed. scanning beam follows a path back and forth across the screen in a
zig-zag shape in order to build up the picture.)image by
charging the paper with a high voltage.
This voltage attracts toner which is then melted into
the paper with heat.
Top view of a flat bed plotter
This type of plotter is fast, but the quality is
generally considered to be poor when compared to
Output Devices - Drum pen plotters.
Plotters
Peripheral Devices - Output
Output Devices - Exercises
In drum plotters the pen is moved in a single axis

• Optical Disk
This multiple choice section will ask 10 questions to test your
knowledge and total your score. You will be given the • Punched Cards & Paper Tape
questions.
1. Hard copy is a term used to describe...?
Top of Form
Writing on a hard board A variety of storage devices
Printed output
Storage Devices - Hard Disk
Storing information on the hard disk
The hard disk is a direct-access storage medium

Hardware - Peripherals with a rigid magnetic disk.
Storage Devices The data is stored as magnetised spots arranged in
concentric circles (tracks) on the disk.
Each track is divided into sectors.
The number of tracks and sectors on a disk is known
In many cases the information that has been as its 'format'.
processed is stored in machine-readable format so
that it may be accessed at a later time by a
computer. This data is stored in binary form in 'bits'.
This practice requires the use of storage devices.
Storage Devices: Hard disk showing internal mechanisms
• Hard Disk
High data rates demand that the disk rotates at a
• Magnetic Tape
high speed (about 3,600 rpm). As the disk rotates
• Floppy Disk read/write heads move to the correct track.
The disk is sealed and lubricated and the head within magnetic tape. This characteristic has
hovers on a cushion of air just above the disk to prompted its use in the regular backing up of hard
avoid damage. These are therefore called floating disks.
heads.
The storage capacity of a hard disk can be
Gigabytes (Gb), i.e. thousands of Megabytes
(1000Mb), of information. Storage Devices - Floppy
Disk
Storage Devices - Magnetic

Tape
A floppy disk is a thin magnetic-coated disk
contained in a flexible or semi-rigid protective jacket.
A recording medium consisting of a thin tape with a Data is stored in tracks and sectors.
coating of a fine magnetic material, used for
recording analogue or digital data. Data is stored in
frames across the width of the tape. The frames are
grouped into blocks or records which are separated
from other blocks by gaps. A 3.5" floppy disk
Magnetic tape is a serial access medium, similar to The floppy disks are usually 3.5" in size. However,
an audio cassette, and so data (like the songs on a older floppy disks may be in use; these would be
music tape) cannot be quickly located. 5.25" in size.
Double sided high density 3.5" disks can hold 1.44
Mb of data.
Once data is stored on a floppy disk it can be 'write
A JAZ drive with cartridge -
TM protected' by clicking a tab on the disk. This
one of the many types of magnetic storage devices available
prevents any new data being stored or any old data
However large amounts of information can be stored being erased.
Storage Devices - Optical

Disk
These are media which were popular in the past but
their use required large storage space and was time-
consuming.
An optical disk is impressed with a series of spiral With the development of hard disks and other
pits in a flat surface. storage devices their use has practically
A master disk is burnt by high-intensity laser beams disappeared.
in bit-patterns from which subsequent copies are
formed which can be read optically by laser.
A strip of paper tape
A CD-ROM Peripheral Devices - Storage

The optical disk is a random access storage Storage Devices - Exercises
medium; information can be easily read from any
point on the disk. A standard CD-ROM can store up
to 650Mb of data, with 14,500 tracks per inch (tpi).
CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk - Read Only knowledge and total your score. You will be given the opportunity
Memory. It is now possible to have CD-ROMs where to try the quiz again once you have finished all the questions.
extra tracks of information can be written onto them 1. The amount of data that a disk may contain is known as the
by the user. These are called read/writable CD-ROMs Top of Form
and these are becoming a popular and cheap

method for storage. Volume
Hardware - Peripherals Size

Storage Devices - Punched
Cards & Paper Tape Storage capacity
the input states using different rules depending on
the type of gate. The different types of gates have
Bottom of Form
different shaped circuit symbols.
INPUTS OUTPUTS
Hardware
Computer Logic Voltages at the inputs can be set to +5v (called 'logic
1' or 'high') or to 0v (called 'logic 0' or 'low').
Hardware
Logic circuit components are called 'gates'. Logic Computer Logic - 'OR' Gate
circuits are used to perform all the internal
operations of a computer. Computer logic is based
on a branch of mathematical logic called Boolean
Algebra (named after the mathematician George The output of an OR gate is a 1 if one or the other or
Boole). both of the inputs are 1, but a 0 if both inputs are 0.
In this section you will learn about: A B C
• 'OR', 'AND' and 'NOT' Gates 0 0 0
0 1 1
• the half adder as an example of a logic circuit
1 0 1
• the 'NOR', 'NAND' and 'Exclusive OR' Gates 1 1 1
Truth
Hardware
Table
Computer Logic - Gates Click on the inputs to see how changing
their logic state affects the output. All the
possibilities are shown in the table called a
'Truth Table'.
A logic gate is a general purpose electronic device
Hardware
used to construct logic circuits. All logic gates have
inputs and outputs. The state of the output is set by Computer Logic - 'AND' Gate
0 1
1 0
Truth
The output of an AND gate is only 1 if both Table
its inputs are 1. For all other possible inputs
Click on the inputs to see how changing
the output is 0.
A B C possibilities are shown in the table called a
0 0 0 'Truth Table'.
0 1 0 Hardware
1 0 0
1 1 1 Computer Logic - The Half
Truth Adder Circuit
Table

possibilities are shown in the table called a The Half Adder shown below is an example
'Truth Table'. of a group of logic gates connected to
produce a logic circuit. The Half Adder has
two inputs (the bits to be summed) and two
outputs (the sum bit and the carry bit).
Hardware
Computer Logic - 'NOT' Gate
The NOT gate, also known as the Inverter,

outputs the opposite state to its input. With Hardware
an input 0, the output is 1 and with an input Computer Logic - Example
1 the output is 0.
A B
Below shows a half adder circuit. Click on Note: The NOR is like an OR gate combined
the input buttons to switch between states with a NOT gate.
0 and 1. Try and predict the output.
A their logic state affects the output. All the
CD
B possibilities are shown in the table called a
00 00 'Truth Table'.
01 10
10 10 Hardware
11 01 Computer Logic - NAND gate
Truth Table
* Column C is the sum and D is
the carry

their logic state affects the output. All the The output of the NAND gate is a 0 if both
possibilities are shown in the table called a inputs are 1 but a 1 if one or the other or
'Truth Table'. both the inputs are 0.
Hardware A B C
Computer Logic - NOR gate 0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Truth
The output of the NOR gate is a 1 if both
Table
inputs are 0 but a 0 if one or the other or
both the inputs are 1. Note: The NAND is like an AND gate
A B C combined with a NOT gate.
0 0 1 Click on the inputs to see how changing

0 1 0 their logic state affects the output. All the
1 0 0 possibilities are shown in the table called a
1 1 0 'Truth Table'.
Hardware
Computer Logic - Exclusive 1 What is the output state of an OR gate if
OR (XOR) gate . the inputs are 0 and 1?
Top of Form
0
The output of the XOR gate is a 1 if either
but not both inputs are 1 and a 0 if the 1
inputs are both 0 or both 1.
2
A B C Bottom of Form
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
Hardware
1 1 0
Truth Processor and Memory
Table

possibilities are shown in the table called a This section describes the components
'Truth Table'. within the architecture of a Central
In an ordinary OR gate the output can be 1 Processing Unit (CPU). We will illustrate the
if both A and B are 1. The XOR does not do operations performed by the CPU, and
this. examine computer memory, considering
the various types of memory found within a
Hardware - Logic computer.
Logic - Exercises Modern computer architecture
is accredited to John Von
Neumann. This was first noted
in his paper criticising the
This multiple choice section will ask 8 questions to methods used in computing at
test your knowledge and total your score. You will be that time. Von Neumann
given the opportunity to try the quiz again once you
have finished all the questions. suggested that programs for John Von Neumann
the computer could be data width increases the speed transfer of
represented in digital form in data.
the computer's memory along
with the data.
Hardware
Processor and Memory - CPU

Hardware
Processor and Memory -

System Buses The Von Neumann architecture is based on
a single computing element, the Central
Processing Unit (CPU).
A PC passes data between the CPU, internal

memory, and Input/Output controller (The
input/output controller or I/O, controls the input and output of data to
and from a computer.)(I/O) via a data highway
The underside of a Pentium processor
called a bus. The top of a 486 CPU chip showing pins
processor chip
Processor chips vary slightly in look

depending on which company has made
them. They are all made up from the same
elements except some work faster and more
efficiently than others. The above examples
Several types of buses transmit power, are Intel® processor chips, a popular brand.
data, address and control signals. Hardware - Processor and Memory
Collectively these are known as system
buses.
CPU - Architecture
System buses are classified by their data
bandwidth (8 bit, 16 bit, 32 bit...). A higher
The CPU architecture executes instructions
one after another. It consists of a single
control unit(A part of the central processing unit that holds
the instruction code of a computer), an arithmetic logic
unit (ALU)( Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). In computing, the
memory unit in which arithmetic, logic and related operations are Hardware - Processor and Memory
performed), and registers.( A memory device, usually high
speed and of limited specified length, used for special purposes CPU - Control Unit
such as arithmetic operations)
Tasks carried out by a CPU are listed below:

1. decoding the instructions within a
Units of a processor chip (CPU) computer
2. sequencing the reading and writing of
Hardware - Processor and Memory data within the CPU and externally on
the data bus
CPU - Program Execution
3. controlling the sequence in which
instructions are executed
4. controlling the operations performed
The CPU is responsible for acting as the by the ALU
'brain' of the computer.
The function of the CPU is to execute
programs stored in the main memory by
fetching instructions, examining them, and
executing them one after the other.
Hardware - Processor and Memory
CPU - ALU
The arithmetic logical unit (ALU) is

responsible for performing arithmetic and
logical operations and comparisons of data.
CPU - Registers (2 of 2)
• Accumulators - serve the purpose of

holding data used in calculations.
Hardware - Processor and Memory • Address Registers - are used for
CPU - Registers (1 of 2) storing the memory location of data or
instructions to be used by a program.
• Stack Pointer - this register is used
during sub-routine nesting and stack
The CPU also contains a small high speed based arithmetic.
memory which is used to store temporary • Status Register - this register provides
results and control information. a service to the CPU by maintaining
This memory consists of a number of the status of the last operation carried
registers, each performing a specific out by the ALU.
function. • Instruction Pointer - sometimes
referred to as the program counter,
the pointer is responsible for retaining
the memory address of the next
instruction to be executed.
Fetch and Execute (1 of 2) Hardware - Processor and Memory
Fetch and Execute (2 of 2)
The following pages illustrate the

operations performed within a computer The next step involves the CPU decoding
during a fetch and execute cycle. the instruction.
The control bus performs a read operation: This instruction is then executed. For
example, if the instruction is for the Control
Unit to load the contents of the memory
location 112 into the accumulator:
The control unit in the CPU prompts memory

to put the instruction onto the data bus
enabling the CPU to read the instruction
onto its instruction decoder which is part of
the control unit:
computer system.
The memory of a computer is constructed
from microchips. Memory can be thought of
as a set of pigeon holes or cells with each
one having a unique address. Each pigeon
hole can store 8 bits of data.
Hardware - Processor and Memory Older memory chips have 30 pins
Performing a write operation connecting the memory to the computer. It
is more usual to have 72 or 128 pins now.
A computer contains two types of memory,
Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read
The control unit sets the address bus to Only Memory (ROM).
location 112 and puts the value of the
accumulator onto the data bus.
Finally the control bus performs a memory
write operation: A module of RAM showing 30 pins.
A ROM chip
Hardware - Processor and Memory Hardware - Processor and Memory - Memory
Memory Random Access Memory
This section discusses the physical Random Access Memory (RAM) is

arrangement of memory, along with the responsible for storing the instructions and
various types of memory found in a data that the computer is using at that
present moment in time. Hardware - Processor and Memory - Memory
Static RAM
A module of RAM showing 30 pins.
It is described as volatile memory as the Static memory is more expensive to produce

contents of RAM chips can be lost when the than Dynamic memory, but because of its
computer is turned off or when new data is lower power consumption it is often used in
being written to RAM while other data is small to medium sized systems.
being processed.
Static memory retains data within a cell
until the data is overwritten or lost as a
Hardware - Processor and Memory - Memory result of power being shut down.
RAM - types
Hardware - Processor and Memory - Memory
Dynamic RAM
RAM chips are produced on pieces of silicon
in a manner similar to that of
microprocessors.
Dynamic Memory is often referred to as
Semiconductor RAM memory can be divided volatile memory.
into two major groups, Static Ram and
Data is stored within the capacitance of a
Dynamic Ram .
transistor. The capacitor (A device designed to hold
electrical charge in an electrical circuit)is unable to
prevent the charge from slowly discharging.
This would result in the loss of data. A
solution to this problem is the introduction
of additional circuitry which performs a
'memory refresh' by periodically restoring
the charge.
Dynamic memory is cheaper than Static
memory and is used in larger memory microprocessor is dedicated
systems. to a particular task.
In these instances ROM has
Hardware - Processor and Memory - Memory provided a cost effective
Read Only Memory (1 of 2) way of storing software to
be used by the
microprocessor.
Washing machines use
In this example ROM is used ROM chips to store progam
ROM is responsible for storing permanent to store the various information
data and instructions. programs that may be run

Developments in the storage capacity of under a microprocessor
ROM chips have enabled their use in the dedicated to controlling a
storage of systems software.( Software written to washing machine.
operate or add basic utilities to a system.) Previously
systems software was stored on floppy Hardware - Processor and Memory - Memory
disks.
ROM - Types
ROM can be divided into several types:

Mask programmed, PROM, EPROM, FLASH
EPROM and EEPROM.
Floppy disks were once used to store systems software
Read Only Memory (2 of 2)

A selection of ROM chips
The majority of ROM chips are mask-

Other applications of ROM programmed (the programs are set during
can be found where a manufacturing).
We will focus on two frequently
encountered types of ROM chip - PROM
(Programmable Read Only Memory) and
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only A PROM chip
Memory).
PROMs have a low access time which has
Hardware - Processor and Memory - Memory led to their use as a logic element rather
PROMs than a program memory storage medium.
They are used to store data that may then
be referenced as a look-up table.
PROMs are chips manufactured with no
Processor and Memory -
predefined program.
Exercises
A PROM chip In this multiple choice section you will be asked 10

questions to test your knowledge and total your
PROMs have a low access time which has score. You will be given the opportunity to try the
led to their use as a logic element rather quiz again once you have finished all the questions.
than a program memory storage medium. 1 Who is accredited with developing the
They are used to store data that may then . architecture of the modern computer?
be referenced as a look-up table. Top of Form
Sir Clive Sinclair

PROMs Bill Gates
John Von Neumann

Bottom of Form
PROMs are chips manufactured with no
predefined program.
Hardware
Range of Computers Hardware - Range
Microcomputers
There are several ranges of computers in

use today: RANGE: Microcomputers use
1. embedded system computers single chip processors and are
2. microcomputers
known as PCs (personal
computers).
3. minicomputers
APPLICATION: The rapid increase
4. mainframe computers in the speed and memory of the A personal
computer
5. supercomputers PC has extended its use from
single applications to multi-
Hardware - Range
tasking(The execution of a number of tasks
Embedded Systems simultaneously.) applications. The
general trend has been to have
several PCs linked together in a
network(A system enabling two or more
RANGE: Embedded systems computers to communicate with each other ) in
contain microprocessors pre- order to share peripherals such
programmed to perform a as printers. This practice is
dedicated task required by the reducing the popularity of mini-
device they control. computers and mainframes.
APPLICATION: Examples are PRICE: between $700 - $2000
dedicated word-processing Hardware - Range
machines, chips in washing A washing machine
machines, laser printers and uses pre- Minicomputers
programmed
hand held calculators. microchips
PRICE: Prices depend on the

application.
RANGE: These perform multi-
tasking and allow many terminals
(An input/output device for transmitting and receiving industry.
data on a communication line) to be
connected to their services. PRICE: $ millions
APPLICATION: The ability to
connect minicomputers to each
other and mainframes has
popularised them among larger A VAX
minicomputer
businesses. This use is being
challenged by the developments
in the microcomputer range and
A ViON mainframe computer manufactured by Hitachi*
the practice of sharing resources ©ViON Corporation
of microcomputers under a
Hardware
network. Minicomputers are still
recognised as being able to Supercomputers
process large amounts of data.
PRICE: between $15,000 -
$150,000
*Photo credit to IBM
RANGE: Supercomputers operate very fast
and have multiple processors. There are
Hardware - Range very few of these machines in existence due
Mainframe Computers to their cost.
APPLICATION: This type of computer has
been developed for scientific applications
usually involving complex arithmetic and
RANGE: Mainframe computers are large mathematical operations. One such use is in
general purpose computers. weather forecasting.
APPLICATION: Mainframe computers PRICE: $ millions
generally require special attention and are
kept in a controlled atmosphere. They are
multi-tasking and generally used in areas
where large databases are maintained e.g.
government departments and the airline
Generations of Computers
The computer has experienced five

generations, with the fifth generation still
very much in development.
A CRAY T90 Series supercomputer*
First Generation
Second Generation
Hardware Third Generation
Fourth Generation
Range of Computers - Fifth Generation
Exercises
Hardware - Generations of Computers

This multiple choice section will ask 5 questions to
test your knowledge and total your score. You will be First Generation
have finished all the questions.
1 An example of an embedded
. system is ...? This generation of computers was
Top of Form
developed at the University of Manchester,
England. It was described as a vacuum tube-
A calculator based electronic computer.
The Univac 1 in 1951 was one of the earliest
A machine tool versions.
A CD-ROM
Bottom of Form
The vacuum tube equivalent of a transistor

Hardware
Hardware - Generations of Computers Fourth Generation
Second Generation
This generation of computers is founded on

The second generation of computers used microprocessors.
solid state components to replace vacuum
tubes.
The reduction of cost and size was made
possible by the development of transistors.
They originated in the late 1950s. A modern microchip
Fourth generation computers have been
made readily available to us because of the
development of the microchip.
Large-scale integration technology allowed
thousands of transistors to be constructed
A solid state transistor on one small slice of silicon material. This
technology originated in the mid 1970s.
The majority of computers you will come
Third Generation into contact with today are of this
generation.
In this generation, integrated circuits Fifth Generation

replaced several individually wired
transistors.
This development provided computers that
were smaller and more reliable. These This generation of computers represents a
originated in the early 1960s. unification of four separate areas of
research:
• knowledge-based expert systems
• very high-level programming
languages
• decentralised computing
• very large-scale integration
technology (VLSI).
Computers of this generation make use of
parallel processing and they are capable of
performing multiple, simultaneous
instructions using more than one
microprocessing chip.
Hardware
Generations of Computers -
Exercises

test your knowledge and total your score. You will be
1 Vacuum tube based electronic
. computers are...?
Top of Form
First generation
Second generation
Hoover generation
Bottom of Form
Software
Word Processors
Word processors
provide a very flexible
way of creating and
editing documents. • Keyboard to input data
They have greatly • Computer Base Unit to process the
contributed to the data
popularity of the • Monitor to display documents
Personal Computer (PC)
and its acceptance as • Printer to produce a hard copy
an essential piece of Software - Word Processors
office equipment.
Applications
Created documents can
be stored and used
again, modified as
necessary for the new People who use Word Processors:
job.
• Authors and playwrights who write
books and scripts for films or plays
• Lawyers who produce legal documents
and contracts
Software - Word Processors • Secretaries who write letters
Hardware • Mail order companies who send out
the same letters addressed to
different customers
Below is the hardware required for a word Software - Word Processors

processing system:
Overview Inputting Text
There are many word processing packages available. EachThe Insertion Point(The point within a document where
package has its own way of manipulating text, but they allthe cursor is positioned to manipulate text characters) is
follow the same basic steps: indicated by a flashing cursor bar or an
• Creating your document underscore.
This can be moved by clicking with
• Editing the text
the mouse at any point within the
• Page Layout document, or by using the keyboard.
• Advanced tools (spell check, mail merge, etc.) • The up and down arrows move
• Saving, retrieving and printing documents the insertion point up or down
one line.
Software - Word Processors • The left and right arrows move
the insertion point left or right
Creating a Document one character.
• Page Up or Page Down move
the insertion point up or down
several lines at a time,
A document is a word processor file which
contains text. It can be any size (one word • Home moves the insertion point
or 200 pages). to the beginning of a line, and
End moves the insertion point
To create a document you must first type in
to the last character in a line.
some text.
Using the keyboard, text is typed onto the You have a choice of either writing over
page of the document which is seen on the existing text at the insertion point or
monitor screen. inserting new text .
Software - Word Processors
Software - Word Processors Selecting a Text Block
Once text has been written into a • Cut
word processor document you may • Copy
wish to alter it. To do this the text to
• Paste
be altered must first be selected.
• Clear
You can select text in two ways:
Mouse: You can select text with the
mouse by clicking with the left button Glossary Entry :- Buffer
at the start of the block, holding the It is often possible to move selected text by
button down as you drag it over the dragging the text to the required position in
text and then releasing it at the end a document (not necessarily the same
of the block. document), by using the mouse. To copy
Keyboard: You can also select a block selected text do the same actions as
using keyboard keys, e.g. Shift + End described above, but hold down a control
or Shift + Page Down to select a line key on your keyboard e.g. Ctrl key (for
or block of text. Windows®) or Alt key (for Mac)

Editing Text
Find and Replace
A selected block of text can be moved to a

different part of the document, copied a You can use the Find and
number of times, moved to another Replace option (under the
document or permanently deleted. Edit menu) to select a
The tools to do this are located under the particular word every time it
Edit menu. They are: occurs. You can then replace
it with a different word of
your choice.
For xample: You may wish to
replace the word
'transferred'ith 'moved'. The font is the way the characters are
written.

There are many different fonts to choose
Formatting Text from, but it should be remembered that a
single document should contain only one or
two font styles - too many styles can
confuse the document.
Selected text can have its appearance
Fonts can be changed using the menu bar or
changed to several formats, (The defined structure
the options may be available in a tool bar.
in which the information is to be displayed)e.g. bold, italic,
underline, or any combination of these, e.g.
bold-italic-underline!
The size of the text can also be changed to
very large or very small . © Microsoft Corporation
If a font is known as TrueType or Postscript

We can also print characters above or below each character is stored as an outline
the normal text line. We call these drawing instead of as a bitmap(A display technique
characters superscript (e.g. X2) and on a VDU/monitor in which the image is represented by an array of
subscript (e.g. H2O). pixels, and the properties of the pixels are stored in the computer
memory). This means that the characters
should never become distorted when they
are resized or printed.
Fonts Software - Word Processors
Page Layout - Orientation

• Left justify means that the selected
Documents can be laid out either text is lined up against the leftmost
border of the document.
portrait (tall) or landscape (wide)
• Right justify means that all the
selected text is lined up against the
right hand side of the document.
• Justify means that the selected text is
left AND right justified.
Software - Word Processors • Center means that the selected text is
positioned centrally to the document.
Page Layout - Margins
The margins determine the

amount of space between the
text area and the edge of the A long word at the end of a line is
page. A small margin would automatically moved onto the next line, so
therefore allow more room for you do not have to press Enter or Return at
the text. Each margin (top, the end of each line.
bottom, left and right) can be Software - Word Processors
defined individually. © Microsoft Corporation
Page Layout - Spacing
Page Layout - Justify

The spacing between lines can also be
altered. This is called the inter-line spacing.
Justification is the alignment of text on the

page.
The standard value is 1.0, but
you can increase this to 1.5 or
2.0 between each line if you A paragraph is a section of text terminated
wish. by a hard return (the Enter key).
Each paragraph can

have its own
formatting.
Page Layout - Indents
© Microsoft Corporation
To lay a document out in a
professional way sections of
the text can be indented Software - Word Processors
(moved in from the left hand Page Layout - Columns
border of the text area).
Important points can be
highlighted by the addition
of a bullet (a mark - black © Microsoft Corporation
dot, asterix, square, etc.) at Many word processors allow
the beginning of the line. you to format the page into
Alternatively, points may be separate columns of text.
numbered.
Page Layout - Paragraphs

• Headers are text which
Page Layout - Show Codes appears at the top of
every page of the
document.
In most word processing packages an option • Footers are text at the
is available which allows you to observe the foot (bottom) of every
formatting information that has been page of the document.
applied to the text. • Page Numbers can also
This can be done by selecting Reveal appear on every page.
Codes(In word processing, the facility to produce formatting These functions
information on the screen previously concealed.) or clicking automatically apply to every
on the button new page created within a
document.
Advanced Tools
Spell Check - The words in the document

Software - Word Processors can be checked against the word
processor's built-in dictionary for correct
Page Layout - Final Touches spelling.
Thesaurus - There is also a Thesaurus
feature, which gives a word with a similar
meaning to the selected word.
Word Count - This gives the total number of
words you have written, which can be useful
for writing that 1,000 word essay!
• Spell Check
• Thesaurus
• Word Count
Advanced Tools - Mail

Merging
Mail merging is a powerful tool which allows

the user to send a similar letter to many
people. This is achieved by writing a main © Microsoft Corporation
letter as usual but the normal address
details are replaced by labelled spaces
ready to take the addresses of the Advanced Tools - Importing
individuals to be contacted. Objects
The table below contains a list of the
people, their addresses and other relevant
information.
Many word processors allow
pictures, drawings etc. to be
inserted (or embedded) into
the text document.
Embedded objects in this
word processed page include
sound and video clips which
can be replayed by a © Microsoft Corporation
multimedia computer. © Microsoft Corporation

You will need to give your document a file
name and select the folder you wish to keep
it in.
Saving Your Work The next time you save the document you
will only need to click on 'Save' in the File
menu.
Your document should be saved at regular Software - Word Processors
intervals, since there could be a power cut, Returning to Your Work
your PC may crash, or the network you are
on could go down while you are working on
it. If any of these did happen, the document
you were working on would be lost forever
The documents that you have previously
unless you had saved it first to a floppy disk
saved can be opened at any time by
or the hard disk.
bringing up this dialog box using the 'Open'
The first time you 'save' a document you option in the File menu:
will be presented with a 'Save As' dialog box
as shown below:
for?
Software - Word Processors Top To analyse figures
of
Printing Your Work Form
Botto
m of
Form
Before printing your document you can view
it (or 'Print preview' it), which shows how Creating and editing
the document will appear when it is printed. documents
Storing information
The printer can be set up to
the required page
orientation, printing quality,
etc.
Software
© Microsoft Corporation Speadsheets
Word Processors Exercises Spreadsheets were one of the first

application software packages to become
widely available.They are used for a number
of purposes.
The following pages of this module describe
have finished all the questions. the applications of a spreadsheet along
1. What is a Word Processor used with the basic principles of working with a
spreadsheet.
• Origins of spreadsheets The most common use of a spreadsheet is
to analyse figures. Spreadsheets allow
• Applications of spreadsheets users to manipulate numerical information
• What spreadsheets do and immediately see the effect of their
manipulations.
• Spreadsheet lesson
Spreadsheets allow a user to work on a "
What if " basis, that is, to see what the
Software - Spreadsheets effect would be if some of the spreadsheet
Origins figures were to change.
Software - Spreadsheets
Applications Example (1 of 2)
Spreadsheets earned their name before the
period of computers. Paper-based
spreadsheets were used by businesses to
plan for the future. They consisted of The sales manager for Rossi's Tile Plant
numbers "spread" over a grid on the paper. wants to see the effect of a possible
increase in sales of their 'Delux' tiles on
The planning activity involved frequent their profits.
amendments and laborious recalculation Using a spreadsheet the sales manager
every time there was a change in the data could increase the projected sales figure
used to do the planning or forecasting already present on the spreadsheet and
activity. view the effect on his company's profit
Traditionally the columns of the grid column.
represented a time period of a day, week,
month or year.
Applications Software - Spreadsheets
Applications Example (2 of 2)
The sales manager could ask:
"What if I increase sales of 'Delux' tiles from There are many types of functions that
10,000 to 13,000 units ?" accompany spreadsheets. Many of these
functions serve as useful tools in
performing everyday calculations.
For example the SUM (number1,
number2,...) function is a standard function,
found in many spreadsheet packages, used
for adding numbers together:
What they do
Spreadsheets can be used to:
As you can see the SUM function has
Calculate data: Many spreadsheets come automatically added the values together in
with formulas built-in. Spreadsheets the cell C2.
calculate data through functions.
Analyse data: Spreadsheets make data easy
to analyse. Analysing Data
Present data: Spreadsheets are able to
show data in a variety of formats.
Spreadsheets are used for analysing data.
Software - Spreadsheets This application of a spreadsheet makes use
of the spreadsheet as a decision-making
Calculate Data tool.
Presenting Data
Spreadsheets are useful for presenting data

as they allow a user to control the layout
and look of data in different ways: © Microsoft Corporation
• Numerical Software - Spreadsheets

Displays
Rows & Columns (1 of 2)
• Scientific
Notations
• Currency Format
The worksheet consists of columns and
• Pie Charts
rows.
• Bar Charts etc... © Microsoft Corporation
Worksheet
Rows are usually numbered down the left

The working area of the spreadsheet where border and can extend several pages
the user enters text, figures, and formulas downward, allowing the numbering of rows
is known as the worksheet. to run into the thousands if necessary.

Columns are usually labelled alphabetically
along the top border. When all the letters in
the alphabet, A, B, C .. Z are used the
column labelling continues as AA, AB, AC © Microsoft Corporation
..AZ, then BA, BB, BC ..BZ etc.
A cell must be selected in order to write in
it. The cell pointer or cursor is used to
activate a cell, highlighting the cell and
making it recognisable to the spreadsheet
user. As seen below, a worksheet cell can
contain text, numbers and formulas.
This method of labelling the rows and
columns gives you an idea of the possible
size of the worksheet. At any one time only
a small portion of the worksheet is visible
on a computer screen.
Cells
In the example, the values in the cells B3
and C3 will be added by a formula and the
result put into cell D4.
The most basic unit of the worksheet is the Software - Spreadsheets
cell. A cell is a box at the intersection of a
Moving about the worksheet
column and a row.
Each cell is referred to by its cell address.
The cell address is its column letter
followed by its row number e.g. A1 or D4. There are a number of ways in which you
can move around a worksheet:
• Arrow keys: Pressing an arrow key
once moves the cell pointer one
position in the worksheet in the
direction indicated by the arrow.
• Page Up/Page Down keys: The Page Up
and Page Down keys are used to scroll © Microsoft Corporation
the worksheet up or down.

• Home key: The home key moves you to Software - Spreadsheets
the first cell in the worksheet. Ranges
• End key: The end key used with an
arrow key takes you to the final
position of the worksheet in the
direction of the arrow key chosen. A 'range' is a group of cells which form a
• Go to key: Many spreadsheets have a rectangular block.
function key reserved as the 'goto A range can be selected by dragging the
key'. The function key 'F5' is defined mouse over the cells.
as the goto key for many
spreadsheets. The goto key is pressed
followed by the address of the cell you
• In Range
wish to go to.
• Not in
• Mouse: The mouse lets you point and
Range
click on the cell you wish to select.
Spreadsheets will also make use of scroll
bars that enable you to manipulate the
worksheet in the direction you wish to The selected values that we see in the "In
move. Range" example above are contained within
a range defined as B3:D4. Ranges are
defined with the address of the first
selected cell and the address of the last
selected cell.
Selecting a range allows you to apply
changes that affect all the cells contained
inside the range.
• A range might be selected in order to
enter the same value in all the
selected cells. © Microsoft Corporation
• A range might be selected in order to • Inserting a Row
print out a defined area of the In this example a row is inserted after
worksheet. row 2 and all the entries below row 2
Software - Spreadsheets move down a row.
Spreadsheets allow you to insert and delete

columns and rows within a worksheet.
These operations might be performed in
order to improve the layout of your Software - Spreadsheets
worksheet.
• Deleting a Column
In this example the entries in column A
are deleted and the entries to the Changes to the columns and rows of a
right of column A shift left to fill the worksheet can usually be executed through the
deleted column. 'Format' menu after selecting the columns or
rows to be altered.
• Bar Chart:-
The separate categories are
organised vertically and the
numerical values horizontally
• Column Chart:
The categories for column
charts are organised
horizontally and the
numerical values vertically
• Line Chart:
These are mainly used to
illustrate the changes in data
Changes in width of a column and height of a over a period of time.
row can also be achieved through dragging the • Pie Chart:
appropriate boundary of a column or row with Pie charts are used to show
the mouse cursor. the relative proportions
Software - Spreadsheets making up an overall
category.
Graphs
Macros
Most spreadsheet computer programs can
draw graphs from the data in the
worksheet.The graphs or charts can be:
Macros enable you to record a sequence of
keystrokes and mouse actions which can
then be replayed when the user initiates the
macro.
Macros are mainly used to avoid manually
performing repetitive activities within a
spreadsheet. Macros can be used to: the year (Jan-April).
• insert predefined text into a cell Software - Spreadsheets
• create a weekly printout of reports Example - Layout
• set a standard column width for every
new worksheet you open
We tell Sam that we have decided that the
Example first step in creating Sam's spreadsheet will
be to create the layout. This involves
entering text within cells and formatting the
width of columns.
The following example provides you with an We have decided that the spreadsheet
incomplete worksheet. By entering the should look as follows:
required text, numbers, and formulas you
are guided through the steps necessary to
complete the worksheet.
We have to remember to change the column

width where required.
Example: Example - Enter Data
Sam's Sport Shop sells a variety of sports
equipment throughout the year. In order to
keep track of his inventory requirements
Sam asks us to prepare a spreadsheet for Now that we have the initial layout of the
predicted sales over the first four months of
spreadsheet, we can enter the predicted
sales for each item over the following four
months.
This is done by clicking on the cell we
require, typing the data into it and pressing
the Enter key when we have finished. © Microsoft Corporation
The same can be done for trainers and

accessories by selecting cell F3, copying it
and then selecting cells F4 and F5, and
pasting into them (Copy and Paste are
found under Edit in the menu bar). The
formulas for the new cells are adjusted
automatically so the formula for cell 'F4'
would become '=B4+C4+D4+E4' and the
We can see cell 'B3' selected and the value same would apply to cell 'F5.'
15 has been typed in.
Example - Formulas
Now that the data has been entered into the

spreadsheet, we can enter a formula into Software - Spreadsheets
cell F3 to calculate the total number of Example - The Result
tracksuits Sam hopes to sell in the first four
months.
The formula is '=B3+C3+D3+E3' and when
the Enter key is pressed the result 50 is We can also use a formula to total the
shown. values vertically in the columns to find the
We could have used the alternative formula number of items Sam hopes to sell each
'=SUM (B3:E3)'. month, and the overall total for the first
four months. Top of Form
Analyse data
Calculate data
© Microsoft Corporation Create forms

The formula for cell B6 is copied across to Bottom of Form
total all the columns:
Software
Databases (1 of 3)
Finally we can see that Sam predicts a total
sales value of 190 by the end of the first A database is an organised way of storing
four months. We could change the data in information about a set of similar things. It
the table and the formulas would could be a sort of address book, a catalogue
automatically recalculate the results in the of someone's stamp collection, information
affected cells. about football teams, details of a building
company's projects and equipment in use,
etc.
Spreadsheets Exercises If we were making a database to store
information about a group of students, what
kind of information would we want? Let us
look at some of the data that might be
test your knowledge and total your score. You will be related to two students called Sue and
given the opportunity to try the quiz again once you Wayne:
1 What can you NOT do with a
. spreadsheet?
© Microsoft Corporation The data displayed has been extracted from
a Table containing the data for the whole
Software group.
Databases (2 of 3) Software
Databases (3 of 3)
The data about the whole class could be

used for several purposes. We might use In order for a database to serve a useful
the database to produce a listing of all the purpose the information which is stored as
students... data must be correct.
• Who are girls?
Here we have a listing of all the
students who are female.
• Whose surname starts with the letter
'J'?
Here we have a listing of all the
students (male and female) whose
surname starts with 'J'. © Microsoft Corporation
• Who are the girls whose surname Here the data is being entered into the table
starts with the letter 'J'? using a Form containing all the data for one
Here is a listing of all female students line across the table.
whose surname begins with the letter Software - Databases
'J'. There is only one student matching
our request. Example Applications (1 of 2)
In businesses, databases are used to store

information on subjects such as:
• Customers Software - Databases
• Suppliers Key Terms

• Products
• Personnel
© Microsoft Corporation Key database terms...
Software - Databases • Entities • Forms
Example Applications (2 of 2) • Tables • Reports
• Fields • Primary Key
• Records • Foreign Key
Once all the data has been entered into the • Queries
database we can request a search through
the data to answer specific questions. For
example, if a food processing company buys Software - Databases
many different items of food from different
Entities
suppliers, and they wanted to know which
ones supply them with nuts, the search
might produce:
Entities are subjects that the database has
In our example three
data on. In the case of a company the
suppliers are found
entities could be:
that satisfy our search.
Next Supplier
columns. The columns in a table are
referred to as fields. Each row in a table
• Employees represents a record.
• Inventory
• Customers Software - Databases
• Payments Fields (1 of 2)
Each entity needs a separate table within

the database Each field column in a table stores
information about one of the characteristics
Software - Databases
of the entity or subject area covered by the
Tables table. For example, the Employees table
could have fields for the employee's ID,
surname, forename, department, salary,
date of birth. Further fields of the
The data within the database is stored Employees table may be the employee
within one or more files. These files can be address, telephone number, etc...
referred to as tables (as shown below).
Databases use tables to store data about an
entity.
© Microsoft Corporation Software - Databases

A table is made up of one or more rows and Fields (2 of 2)
A record is one row of the database table. In
When we design a database we can choose this example it contains all the data about
what type of data is to be stored in a one employee, entered in each field column
particular field. This is done using a field across the table:
design table: All of the employees' records can be
displayed in the table.
Forms
Forms are used to customise the display of

information in the database. Many of the
© Microsoft Corporation fields existing within a table will feature in
a form. Forms are used to display only one
• Number fields are used when the data
record at a time.
to be stored is a numerical value.
• Date fields are used when data is to be
stored as a date.
• Logical fields store 'true' or 'false'
values.
• Graphical fields can store data which is
held in a graphics format. © Microsoft Corporation
• Currency fields store data in a Forms are also designed for ease of data
currency format. entry. Data is typed directly into the boxes
in the form, one record at a time.
Records
Forms
Reports allow users to extract
and present the information
they require as hardcopy
Forms are used to customise the display of
(printed output).
information in the database. Many of the
fields existing within a table will feature in
a form. Forms are used to display only one
record at a time.
Primary Key (1 of 2)
A primary key is a field which contains data

which is unique for each record in a
particular table.
For example, a library may have a database

to store information about its stock of
© Microsoft Corporation books:
Forms are also designed for ease of data
entry. Data is typed directly into the boxes
in the form, one record at a time.
Reports
Considering each column in turn we can see

Many databases will support that an author can have written more than
the creation of reports. one book, two different books may have the
same title, a publisher can have published Foreign Key
more than one book, and a year will have
more than one book published in it.
Software - Databases A Foreign Key is the occurrence of the
Primary Key (2 of 2) primary key of one table as a non-primary
key in another table. The foreign key can be
used to link together the separate tables
constructed for different entities or subjects
Each box in the ISBN column contains a contained within the database as a whole.
reference number which can apply to only For example, if the library had another table
ONE particular book written by ONE author, in its database with data on all the
published by ONE publisher. This number is publishers, the field with the publishers'
unique because it can only appear once in names in it could be the primary key for
the table; for this reason we would take that table:
this column to be the Primary Key of this
table:
The primary key field must be filled for © Microsoft Corporation
every record in a table. If several unique The foreign key in the table 'Books' is the
identifier fields exist in a table they are field 'Publisher' and it is the primary key for
known as candidate keys. (No candidate the table 'Publishers'.
keys exist in our table above).
Queries The Query has used the common factor of
"Publisher" to generate a new table with
data on book titles and publishers'
telephone numbers, which were fields in
You can use Queries to analyse, and change the two separate tables.
data in different ways. You can also use Software - Databases
them as the source of records for reports
Example - Setting up tables
and forms. They can be used to bring
together data from two or more different
tables in a database by linking the Primary
Key of one table with the Foreign Key of
The first step towards creating a database
is to set up the relevant tables of
information.
We will create a database that stores the
names and examination results of a group
of students. This will require two tables: a
another: 'Student' table and a 'Subject/marks' table.
First we need to create the fields for our
The upper half of the Query form above tables, then we need to enter the data.
shows the fields in the two tables to be
linked, and the links which are to be used.
The check boxes in the lower half are for
selecting the fields from the separate
tables which are to be included in the new
combined table to be created by the Query:
Example - Creating a query (1
of 3)
We can build all kinds of queries. We might

© Microsoft Corporation want to build a query to find out all the girls
We need to make sure to provide a primary who scored higher than 70% in Physics and
key for each table - we have made the then list them in order of merit. To perform
'student ID' fields the primary keys in our this query we need to use both of our
tables. tables:
Example - Creating forms
Now we have two tables to work with, we © Microsoft Corporation

can create a form for each of the tables. The
forms allow data to be entered one record
at a time in a way which is more user-
friendly than entering it directly into a
table:
© Microsoft Corporation Example - Creating a query (2
of 3)
In this example we will need to link the
tables by a common field. The "Student ID"
is common to both tables and will be used
to link the tables:
Here are the results of our query displayed

in a table.
Example - Creating a Query © Microsoft Corporation
(3 of 3)
Example - Creating a report
We want to find out which girls had exam
marks over 70% in Physics. So we need to
tell the database we are interested only in
students who are girls - in the Sex field we In many cases we perform queries in order
add 'F'. We need to tell the field 'Physics' to to print out the results in a Report. Here is
display exam results better than 70%, and the first page of our report showing the
then we have to display the highest exam student Pauline Bennet as the girl having
results first: the highest exam result in Physics:
This stage of database design involves
identifying the nature and use of data in the
organisation. Performing a database
Software - Databases investigation for a library system will
require the investigator to note facts about
Database Development books held in the library.
The following section covers Database Data Investigation (2 of 2)
Development.
Two key stages are identified in the
development of a database:
Facts that should be noted when
 Data investigation
investigating books for a library system
 Data modelling
include:
Title
Data Investigation (1 of 2)
Author
Publish
er
ISBN
Software - Databases Relationships - One to One
Data Modelling
An example of this type of relationship is

This stage involves shaping the facts 'book' to 'title'. A book can have only one
gathered by the investigation process and title and a title will belong to only one book.
turning them into a conceptual model. This A common method of representing this
modelling process will be the main task of information is shown below.
the database designer. There are three
components of data modelling:
 Relationships
 Entities Software - Databases - Data Modelling
 Attributes
Relationships - One to Many
This relationship can be illustrated when a
Data Modelling -
student borrows several books from a
Relationships library at the same time, but a book can be
borrowed by only one student at a
particular time.
Relationships are used to show how
different objects in a database system
relate to each other. There are three kinds
of relationships: Software - Databases - Data Modelling
 One to one Relationships - Many to Many
 One to many
 Many to many
Software - Databases - Data Modelling
This type of relationship can be illustrated
when we consider that a student can study entity. The entity 2 Acacia Avenue
several subjects and each subject will have 'student' may have 01245 673246
many students. attributes such as: Sarah Stephen
 Names 156 Birch Tree Walk
 Addresses
01718 489729
Software - Databases  Telephone
numbers James Treggar
Data Modelling - Entities Flat 4, High Road
0171 347 8734
Entities are objects or concepts meaningful
to the organisation about which data needs Data Modelling - Library
to be kept. Model Example
Entities can be:
Students The previous pages described the

components that must be investigated
Staff before a database model is created.
A full diagram for creating a library
Subjects database showing all the entities,
attributes, and relationships can be
Books represented as follows...
Data Modelling - Attributes

and Fields
Fields are John Baron

characteristics of an
The tables above represent entities and the
lines represent data linking. Data linking is
either on a one-to-one or one-to-many Desk Top Publishing (DTP)
basis, depending on the relationship data. packages are used to produce
high quality documents without
Software - Application going to a professional printer.
Databases Exercises DTP can be used to produce
pages that combine text and
pictures for leaflets, posters or
magazines.
This multiple choice section will ask 5 questions to Software - Desk Top Publishing
given the opportunity to try the quiz again once you Features of DTP - Frames (1
of 2)
1 What is a Database?
. Top
of
A way to analyse and manipulate
Form numerical information
DTP packages usually

have a floating 'toolbox'
Botto
m of which allows you to
Form create and edit your
A tool to produce high quality document. One of these
documents 'tools' allows text and
An organised way of storing graphics to be placed in
information about a set of similar boxes called 'frames'.
things The frames can be
moved and resized
around the document.
© Quark, Inc
A DTP page layout showing
Software 'toolbox' in top left-hand
corner, and page objects
Desk Top Publishing within different 'frames'
automatically
around it. The
position of the
picture can be
moved within a
frame too.
With some DTP
© Quark, Inc packages, if
A DTP page layout showing frames
required, text can
being dragged and resized
be repelled away
from a frame's
Software - Desk Top Publishing
boundary or it
can flow under
Features of DTP - Frames (2 the frame.
of 2)
Features of DTP - Columns

and Snaking
Frames allow you
to place text and
pictures in
different areas of In word processors you work in pages. In
the page. For DTP you will need to be able to work in
instance, a pages, frames and columns.
picture in one With DTP you can produce newspaper type
frame can be columns and allow the text to flow freely
repositioned (as from one column to the next. This is known
shown in the as 'snaking'.
illustration) and © Quark, Inc
A DTP program showing a picture
the text in the within a frame which has been
surrounding repositioned on the page
frame will reflow

applied - 'To'.
Another feature of many DTP applications
is a floating control palette which allows
quick adjustments to the page.
Advantages of DTP
© Adobe Systems Inc.
A DTP program showing text 'snaking' into columns
DTP and word processing are in many respects
Software - Desk Top Publishing similar but there are a number of
Features of DTP - Kerning distinct advantages of using DTP.
Here are some:
1. There is more control over the
way text is arranged and
Better DTP systems use fonts with in-built formatted.
tables specifying the space necessary 2. DTP can be used to bring lots
between each specific pair of letters. This of different files together on the same
special treatment of spacing between document.
specific letter pairs is known as "kerning".
You can import images into a DTP document
Kerning is the process from a scanner, graphics from a drawing
of adjusting the package, frames from a video camera and text
spacing between the from a word processor .
characters. Some
letters fit well against
others and some fit Software
poorly. For example, a Systems Software (1 of 2)
'T' followed by an 'o' © Quark, Inc
is ungainly if the Floating tool bar with 'kerning'
option highlighted
standard spacing is
Click on the diagram to jump to the area of interest or continue with the navigation
Systems software was developed in order to arrow above.
automate the following routine tasks: DBMS=Database Management Services
1. Allocation of various programs to main

memory Software - Systems Software
2. Loading of programs that perform routines Operating Systems
to control peripheral devices.
3. Execution of programs.
Systems software provides a means of The development of operating systems has freed the
standardising the various activities performed programmer from the chore of writing routines for
during the execution of these tasks. commonly used functions and provides a uniform
means for all application software to access the
Software same resources.
Systems Software (2 of 2) Many operating systems are closely related to the
type of machine in which they reside.
Systems software has been categorised into  Personal

Operating Systems and Systems Services. Computer
 Mini/Mainframe*
*Photo Copyright Cray Research.
Software - Systems Software

Operating Systems - PCs Examples of operating systems for Mini and
Mainframe computers are UNIX and VMS.
NOTE: IBM mainframe operating systems are designed
Personal Computer's (PCs) employ an operating specifically to suit each of their individual machines and its
use.
system that performs the tasks of:
Software - Systems Software - Operating Systems
1. Initialising the system
2. Providing routines for handling input/output
Mini & Mainframe - Batch
requests
Processing
3. Memory allocation
4. File handling system This requires the operating system to work through
a series of programs that are held in a queue. The
Examples of operating systems for PCs are MS-DOS
®
operating system is responsible for scheduling the
, UNIX, Microsoft Windows 95® and Microsoft
jobs according to priority and the resources they
Windows NT®.
require.
NOTE: Operating systems such as UNIX that were normally
associated with minicomputers are now able to run on the new Example:
and more powerful PC ranges. A large company would use batch processing to
Software - Systems Software automate their payrolls. This would find the list of
employees, calculate their monthly salary (with tax
Operating Systems - Mini &
deductions) and print the corresponding payslips.
Mainframe
Batch processing is useful for this purpose since
these procedures are repeated for every employee
Mini and mainframe computers make use of: each month.
• batch processing Software - Systems Software - Operating Systems
• single workstation multitasking Mini & Mainframe - Single

Workstation Multitasking
• time-share processing and
• real-time processing .
This results in a number of programs residing in compared to that of the VDU and terminal is so much
main memory. The processor time is shared rapidly faster that it gives the user the impression that they
among several programs which gives the are the sole user of the system.
appearance to the end user that all programs are Turn the terminals on and off by clicking on their VDU screens
running simultaneously. The operating system is and note how the response time declines as the number of
responsible for switching the resources of the terminals increases.
various programs back and forth.
Mini & Mainframe - Real-time

Processing
Real-time operating systems are designed to

respond to an event within a predetermined time.
These types of operating systems are found within
environments where computers are responsible for
Monitor showing programs multitasking
controlling systems.
Software - Systems Software - Operating Systems For Example:

Mini & Mainframe - Time- Robotics, manufacturing, special military
share Processing applications.
This involves the CPU allocating individual slices of Operating Systems - Services
time to a number of users on the computer system.
As the number of users increases the response time
for each terminal declines. The speed of the CPU
Operating systems are responsible for providing
essential services within a computer system: wants the PC to perform
• Initial loading of programs and automatically when it is booted.
transfer of programs between
secondary storage and main Software - Systems Software - Operating Systems
memory
MS-DOS® - config.sys
• Supervision of the input/output
devices
• File management
The CONFIG.SYS file contains commands that are
• Protection facilities
used to instruct MS-DOS® to install devices, set the
number of possible open files, set the number of
Software - Systems Software - Operating Systems logical drives available, etc. The CONFIG.SYS file has
Services - Initial Loading certain commands that are exclusive to it.
Example:
The DEVICE command is used to load an installable
device driver into the operating system.
When a computer system is switched on, or 'booted',
an operating system is automatically loaded. e.g. DEVICE = C:\MOUSE\MOUSE.SYS
installs the mouse driver into memory.
For Example:
A PC running under MS-DOS® loads the following
programs:
IO.SYS controls input/output devices
MSDOS.SYS loads MS-DOS®
MS-DOS® - command.com
CONFIG.SYS configures the device drivers
COMMAND.COM loads the command line interpreter
AUTOEXEC.BAT sets the procedures the user
The COMMAND.COM file automatically loads MS- Software - Systems Software - Operating Systems
DOS® commands into the computer's memory when Services - Loading
the system is booted. These commands (such as dir, Applications
del, time, type, etc.) are held together under the
COMMAND.COM file and are referred to as internal
commands.
Operating systems are responsible for managing the
MS-DOS® consists of internal and external
transfer of programs from the hard disk into main
commands. External commands are held on a disk
memory.
and are loaded to memory only when they are being
used. External commands are held in the DOS Advanced operating systems, such as UNIX, use
directory and have .COM or .EXE as their extension. virtual memory(Virtual memory uses management controllers to
increase the system memory by mapping sections to the hard disk
For example FORMAT.COM and PRINT.EXE. using an LRU (least recently used) algorithm. This fools the
application into believing that it has a lot of memory available.) to
Software - Systems Software - Operating Systems run large applications. MS-DOS® applications
overcome the same problem by using overlays(The
MS-DOS® - autoexec.bat limited size of the memory provided noticeable limitations on
hardware of computer systems in the past, when attempts were
made to load programs into the main memory that were too large.
This resulted in the programs being divided manually into smaller
segments that were then individually fed into the main memory.
path instructs MS-DOS® to look for program files in the current directory,
Theseand then
smaller any other
sections directories
are called 'OVERLAYSthat
). are
specified in the path.
e.g. SET PATH=C:\;C:\DOS;C:\WINDOWS
Services - I/O Supervision
prompt determines the appearance of the DOS
prompt
e.g. prompt $p$g shows the prompt as Operating systems provide a supervision of the
C:\DOS> ($p shows the current directory input/output devices that are connected to a
and $g shows ">") computer system. They do this by incorporating
specialised input/output routines for the various
types of devices. • delete <filename> etc) interfacing.
Device drivers accompany operating systems and
enable a computer system to be configured for
specific hardware. Most hardware peripheral devices Services - Protection
have their own device drivers which need to be Facilities
installed for the operating system to communicate
with these devices.
Example: Operating systems provide protection policies that
The MS-DOS file config.sys configures the device ensure privacy and prevent damage to information
drivers. contained within the computer system. This is
achieved through the use of passwords and access
rights.
Services - File Management
Systems Services - Utilities

Operating systems provide a file management
service which allows the user to locate and
manipulate the various programs and data files
Utility programs do not originate from operating
which are stored on the hard disk.
systems such as MS-DOS®. They are in fact
programs that are added to the operating system to
It supports these operations by providing low- enhance the services that are available to the user of
level(Low level facilities arise through an application (such as a the system. Utility programs found under MS-DOS®
word processing package) making use of MS DOS® to seek a text would include:
file to be loaded.) and high-level (High level facilities allow the edit a text editor
user to manipulate files. Simple command line arguments can be
called, such as: qbasic the programming
language 'quick basic'
• copy <filename>
debug a simple debugging utility provides a system for searching the data and
selecting subsets of the data.
Systems Services -
Languages Software - Systems Software
GUI Operating Environment

(1 of 2)
Language processors comprise assemblers,

compilers and interpreters.
GUI (Graphical User Interface) environments have
The service provided by each of these is discussed
proven a popular manner in which to provide an
under the topic Compilers and Interpreters.
interaction between users and a computer system;
they have become possible with the development of
Software - Systems Software high resolution monitors.
Systems Services - Database GUI environments use a pointing device (mouse) to
Management Systems select pictures (icons) which represent files and
(DBMS) application programs. 'Drop-down/pop-up' menus
remove the need for the user to memorise specific
command language operations
Database Management Systems provide a standard

interface between stored data and the application
programs which use it. A DBMS allows multiple
users to access the same data, auditing any changes
which have been made and by whom.
The DBMS maintains the data; the applications
which access the data interpret it. The DBMS also
DOS®.
Microsoft Windows® supports multitasking.

Users are able to run several windows on a
computer screen and choose the application that
they wish to run at their discretion by clicking on the
required window.
Windows 95® Desktop environment showing menu and icon

systems
Software - Systems Software Software - Systems Software
GUI Operating Environment Systems Software Exercises

(2 of 2)
Applications software has been developed which

incorporates a graphical user interface. These
applications provide a user-friendly interface to
operating systems such as UNIX and MS-DOS®.
Example:
XWINDOWS® is a windows environment that runs
under UNIX and MS WINDOWS® runs under MS-
knowledge and total your score. You will be given the
questions.
1. Software can be divided into two areas:
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Network software and security software
System software and application software
Business software and games software
Computer Languages
Introduction (1 of 3)
Computer Languages
This unit of the course is divided into five modules: Introduction (2 of 3)
Language
Elements
 1st & 2nd A computer is a machine. Like all machines it can

Generation only do what it is designed to do when given
Languages suitable instructions.
 A machine might be designed for flying...
Compilers
or driving...
and
Interpreters or communications.
 3rd to 5th
Generation Computer Languages
Languages Introduction (3 of 3)
 Stages of
Program
Developmen
t Whether playing a game, printing a letter, drawing a
Each module deals with a specific topic relating to picture or keeping track of the payroll of a large
computer languages. organisation, if a computer is to do these things it
It is important to understand that the word must first be programmed.
"generation" in this context refers to the order in Computer programs, commonly
which the types of computer languages have
referred to as 'software', are made
appeared, and does not imply that the earlier
up of a series of individual
generations of languages are no longer in use.
instructions. These instructions all work together,
systematically telling the computer exactly what to
do in a language it can understand.
Computer Languages
Elements
Computer Languages
Elements - Statements and

Keywords
This section of the
course covers the
basic elements in
programming
A Statement is a description of
languages.
an action or condition.
The following elements can be found in most For example, the 'do/while'
programming languages: statement directs program flow
to repeat a particular line or
• Statements & Keywords: related lines of code
block of code while a given
form a statement. Each statement has a
condition does not apply.
beginning and an end. Instructions within the
statement are called keywords. A keyword, such as do, while,
for, next etc, is a word the
• Variables: these store data for the program to
compiler understands.
work with. A variable could contain text or
Depending on the keyword the
numerical values.
compiler will look for certain
• Subroutines: group parts of a program structures in the code.
together.
The following example shows how a do/while
• Conditional Statements: such as 'if/then/else' statement could be used in a computer program:
or 'case/switch', make decisions in the
program. Program Description
• Loops: such as 'do/while', 'for/next' or counter := 0; sets a counter to 0 to start with
'repeat/until' repeat parts of a program. while (counter < 3)do loops the code below until the coun
greater than or equal to 3
counter := counter + 1; Adds 1 to the value of the counter, m
then 2, then 3 aboveNinety + 1;
print("Hello"); Prints 'Hello' to the screen while the counter isif (RussianScore > 90) then from 1 to 2
less than 3 aboveNinety :=
aboveNinety + 1;
Computer Languages
if (SpanishScore > 90) then from 2 to 3
Elements - Variables aboveNinety :=
aboveNinety + 1;
print aboveNinety , prints "3 Language(s)
Variables store data for the program to work with. A "Language(s) above 90% "; above 90%"
variable is a name that represents a piece of data
with many possible values; it can be used in the Computer Languages
entire program (Global variable) or just in one part
(Local variable).
Elements - Subroutines (1 of
2)
For example, if a program has a variable called
'aboveNinety' which is to be used as a counter to
evaluate a student's overall performance in
examinations, while the variables 'FrenchScore', Subroutines group together parts of a program
'RussianScore' and 'SpanishScore' represent the which will be used several times. A subroutine is a
values of their results in the individual examinations, named section of a program that can be repeatedly
then the program might read as follows. called up to perform a given function by other parts
Program Explanation of the program. Subroutines are also known as
'Functions', 'Modules' or 'Procedures'.
aboveNinety := 0; this sets the initial
value of the counter This saves writing the repeated section out several
to zero times in the program.
Individual subroutines can be tested in isolation to
if (FrenchScore > 90) then this changes the
check that they correctly perform their function.
aboveNinety := counter to 1
It is easier to work on small sections of a large
programming project by breaking the design down
into individual subroutines.
Computer Languages
Elements - Subroutines (2 of
2)
If...Then...Else statements allow decisions to be
made in a program. This includes deciding which
statements are to be executed. In the example
In the C programming language subroutines are below the variables 'aboveNinety' and 'belowNinety'
known as functions. A function is a group of are first set to the value zero. The value 1 is added
statements that perform a specific task and often to 'aboveNinety' or 'belowNinety' for each 'Score'
return a value to the statement that calls it. that is over or below 90 using the If ... Then ... Else
'C' functions allow you to write well organised statement. The results are then printed to the
programs that perform different tasks in separate screen.
parts of a large program. e.g.
aboveNinety := 0;
Computer Languages belowNinety := 0;
Elements - If .... Then .... Else IF (Score > 90) THEN
(1 of 2) aboveNinety := aboveNinety + 1;
ELSE
belowNinety := belowNinety +1;
print aboveNinety , "Language(s) above 90%";
print belowNinety , "Language(s) below 90%";
Computer Languages
Elements - If .... Then .... Else

(2 of 2)
Loops are useful for repeating
parts of a program. An example
The 'IF' key word is used to check a condition. The of a loop is the 'do/while'
result determines what to do next in the program. structure. This will repeatedly
Below is the part of a program which changes the execute a section of program
value of a variable called 'toggle'. IF toggle is '1' until the end condition is
THEN toggle is given the value '0' or ELSE toggle is satisfied.
given the value '1'. In the pseudo code below, 1 is added to the value of
'counter' continuously while the value of 'counter' is
IF toggle = 1 THEN
less than 2000.
toggle = 0 do
ELSE counter=counter+1
toggle = 1 while(counter<2000)
In effect the value of toggle changes between 'true' This could be used for putting a simple time delay in
(=1) and 'false' (=0) every time this piece of code is your program. The delay would be increased by
used. The syntax of the code will vary between increasing 2000. Other looping structures can be
programming languages so this general purpose used, such as 'for/next' or 'repeat/until', to achieve
example could be called 'pseudo code'. the same results.
Computer Languages Computer Languages
Elements - Loops Elements - Cases
Case statements are used to

define several possible
versions of variable that
could be input to the
computer.
'Switch' is a keyword that
tells the compiler that what
follows will be a list of these 'Machine language' or 'machine code' was the first
different possibilities. generation of computer languages.
For example, a program might ask the user to make The first machine code involved inputting a
a decision: sequence of binary numbers directly into the
"Press 1 to save, 2 to load or 3 to exit". program memory through simple toggle switches.
The program code below responds accordingly: This method of 0 and 1 programming was very
SWITCH userInput laborious. With the introduction of keyboards,
CASE 1: save individual letters could represent single
CASE 2: load instructions.
CASE 3: exit Although this saved time the code was not easy to
DEFAULT: print("Please press 1, 2 understand and so other methods of programming
or 3") were needed. New 'higher level' programming
The syntax of the code will vary depending on the languages have developed.
programming language.
The pseudo code above checks the response of the Computer Languages
user and carries out the appropriate action. If the Second Generation
user presses any other key then the message
"Please press 1,2 or 3" is displayed.
Computer Languages
First Generation
Assembly Language formed the second generation
of computer languages. Assembly makes use of a The LOAD instruction tells the microprocessor to
list of simple operations that a computer can put in the register the contents of:
perform. These operations are contained within the
• a constant
Instruction Set.
• a word or byte from memory
The basic Instruction Set includes several types of
instructions written using short words called • or the contents of another register
'Mnemonics' which are recognisable abbreviated Computer Languages
versions of English words.
Memory Addresses
Computer Languages
Mnemonics
Memory addresses direct the computer to where
data is located or where it is to be transferred.
Assembly language makes use of easily identifiable Assembly Language uses easily identifiable
operation codes called mnemonics, instead of the symbolic addressing and allows the programmer to
numeric operation codes used in machine code. work in the more familiar base ten number system.
Operational codes or Data Transfer Instructions, In the example below the variables TOTALSCORE,
make up the computer's instruction set and tell the FRENCHSCORE AND ENGLISHSCORE are
microprocessor what operation to perform. addressed by their names (symbolic addressing),
not by their physical address in memory.
This may involve moving binary numbers from one
temporary memory store, called a 'Register', to Example Code:
another, or storing a number in a specific memory MOV AX, TOTALSCORE puts the value of
location. TOTALSCORE into AX
Computer Languages MOV BX, FRENCHSCORE puts the value of
Data Transfer FRENCHSCORE into BX
ADD AX, BX adds the value in BX to the
value in AX space on the extreme left is filled
ADD AX, 50
by a 0. The syntax differs
adds 50 to the value in AX
depending on the particular micro-
MOV TOTALSCORE, AX puts the value in AX back into processor the program is going to
TOTALSCORE run under.
MOV AX,10110111B Puts the
AX and BX are registers.
binary value
So if to begin with TOTALSCORE equals 15 and 10110111 into
FRENCHSCORE equals 20 then TOTALSCORE AX
would become 15+20+50=85 after this part of the
code has run. SHR AX,1 1 logical right
The decimal number 50 is an example of the base shift is
ten number system being used in assembler. performed on
the number
Computer Languages In the example code above, the

result would be that AX would
Shift Mnemonic store the binary value 01011011.
Note that the B after the number
confirms that it is a binary number.
This procedure could be used to
The SHIFT instruction provides a examine the least significant bit of
logical shift of one or more places the number. Similarly SHL could
to the right, or to the left, of a be used to find the most
string of binary digits. significant bit.
Computer Languages
In the SHR instruction the least
significant bit (the furthest to the Jump Mnemonic
right) is moved into a separate
place as a carry bit. The empty
In the example below JMP (jump) The example below stores the
causes the program control to go content of register BX in a variable
to the marker 'A10' within the called 'TOTALSCORE'.
program. We can see code which
MOV TOTALSCORE,BX
loops continuousy, adding 1 to the
value in AX:
Program Explanation
Computer Languages
A10: Names the marker for the
program so it knows where to Assembly Language Program
go to
ADD AX,01 adds 1 to the value in AX
JMP A10 the program goes to the A10 Assembly Language is described as a low-level
marker and executes the code language because, for every assembly language
below it. command there will be one corresponding machine
code instruction. For example, to add decimals 566
Jump may have to be replaced by 'branch' for some
and 678 together:
processors used to run the code.
Machine Assembly
Description
Code Code
Load the hexadecimal value 0236H to the
B8 0236 MOV AX, 0236H
register AX.
Computer Languages
Load the hexadecimal value 02A6H to the
8B D8 MOV BX, 02A6H
Store Mnemonic register BX
Add the contents of the register AX to
03 D8 ADD BX, AX
register BX
Higher-level languages, such as 'C' combine several

machine code instructions to make one 'C'
command.
Computer Languages
Compilers & Interpreters
Compilers are programs which are
used to implement a high level
This section introduces compilers and interpreters. language. They translate the program
code of the high level language (the
Programmers write software in a variety of 'source code') to machine code.
languages. Compilers and interpreters translate
these programming languages into instructions that This operation produces a program code (the 'object
are understood by the computer at machine level. code') which can be understood by a machine and
executed. The translation of one high level language
Compilers and Interpreters are contained within the
statement may result in many machine code instructions.
'Systems services' category of software and they
provide a facility for the execution of high level
programs (programs such as C and BASIC). High Level Language Compiler Machine Code
A compiler converts the whole of the higher level 010101011
main (void) 011101110
program code to machine code in one step while an { 011010110
interpreter does the conversion line by line as the printf("Hello World"); 011011101
program is run. }
Computer Languages
Compilers (1 of 2) Computer Languages
Compilers (2 of 2)
The operation of compilers is more complex than

that of assembly languages; they provide the bridge
between machine code and higher level languages
which incorporate a more complex language
structure than that employed by assembly
languages. languages to execute source programs directly.
Source codes which are executed a line at time
through an interpreter are less efficient than source
Diagram showing how compilers create a program
codes which have been compiled in one step. This is
1. The programmer will write a program.
2. Once complete he will put his code into a software program called a
because the compiled code is more easily handled
compiler which will check his code and either: by a computer since it has been converted to
a. show a list of all errors, or machine code ready for execution.
b. create the finished program
Interpreters are useful to program developers
because the code can be rewritten just for the
There are three stages in the compilation process:
problem areas they are working on, avoiding the
• Lexical Analysis need to recompile the whole program.
This involves reading the code as a
series of characters and transforming
the program into a series of symbols.
• Syntax Analysis
This checks the syntax of the source
program. Computer Languages
• Code Generation Third Generation (1 of 2)

This involves generating the equivalent
machine code instruction for every
statement of the source program.
Computer Languages
Interpreters
The languages that preceded this generation were

Interpreters are programs that are used by high level referred to as 'low-level' languages. Third generation
languages were the first ones to be referred to as
'high-level' languages. The benefits of this FORmula TRANslation is a compiled general-
generation of languages are: purpose language providing very efficient execution,
1. It became less time consuming to produce especially for number-crunching operations. It has
code and, as a result, less costly to produce therefore gained considerable popularity among the
programs. scientific and technical communities.
2. Programmers did not have to familiarise

Computer Languages
themselves with the internal architecture of the
computer, making programming available to a C
wider range of individuals.
Originated at Bell Laboratories

Computer Languages
in 1972, C is a programming
Third Generation (2 of 2) language with many features
that support structured
programming. This has made it
very attractive in systems
Programming Languages classified in programming and other
this generation were... applications where high-speed
• FORTRAN execution is important.
• C C is significantly faster than many other compiled

languages and also has the advantage of machine
• BASIC independence.
• COBOL
FORTRAN BASIC
Beginner All
Purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code
(BASIC) has been
classed as a general-
purpose teaching
and hobbyist
language. The increasing use of computers in business led to
the need for the development of new programming
It is suitable for small to medium sized programs. methods that could quickly satisfy the needs of
BASIC has been shunned in professional users.
applications because of its slow execution time.
General areas that had to be addressed included:
• the need to speed up the software
Computer Languages
development process
COBOL
• the need for user friendly programming
languages enabling less technical people to
Common Business-Oriented become involved in the programming process
Language (COBOL) has found very
extensive use in most areas of Computer Languages
business computing, typically Fourth Generation (2 of 4)
commercial, government, and
accounting systems.
It is a compiled language and intended mainly for
applications involving comparatively simple In theory, Fourth Generation Languages are
calculations and manipulations of large quantities of 'non-procedural' languages, meaning that the
data. programmer says what they want done rather
than how to do it.
Computer Languages
A 'procedural' language requires each step in
Fourth Generation (1 of 4)
the process of making a cup of coffee to be
defined.
e.g. Instructions for making a cup of Coffee: 4GLs contain the following advantages and
1) Pour water in the kettle.
disadvantages:
2) Boil the water. Advantages Disadvantages
3) Add a teaspoon of coffee to a cup.
• They possess friendly • The downside of a
4) Fill the cup 3/4 full with boiling water.
interfaces 4GL is that the
5) Add milk
programs run slower
6) Stir the contents of the cup with a teaspoon. • They are easier to use
than those of earlier
than previously used
Computer Languages language generations
high level languages
because their
Fourth Generation (3 of 4) • The programming machine code
language contained equivalent is
within a 4GL is considerably longer
closely linked to the and more complicated
English language to execute
The 4GL programmer would only have to be
structure
concerned with what quantity of coffee should be • The recent popularity
prepared and if milk and sugar should be added. of 4GLs is closely
linked to the
Non-procedural languages state the goal to be development of fast
achieved, but not the steps required in order to microprocessors
achieve the goal. Note:
Having said all of this it is not easy to identify languages that
Using a 4GL to create an application that it was not
are in the purest sense 4GLs.
intended for will create problems for a programmer.
Computer Languages
e.g. Instructions for making a cup of Coffee:
Fifth Generation
1) Make a cup of coffee.
Computer Languages
Fourth Generation (4 of 4)
inputs. For example, if we pose the
question "Is John the father of Sam?"
The database then searches its list of
Fifth generation languages are normally associated facts and returns an answer.
with the field of artificial intelligence. Artificial Prolog query Database Result
Father(Terry, Sue)
intelligence, built up through logic programming, father(Terry, John)
? father(John, Sam) Yes
models a real world environment or situation. father(John, Sam)
female(Sam)
Artificial intelligence aims to support flexible and
informed patterns of behaviour within a computer.
The main contenders within the fifth generation
language category are:
Computer Languages
• Prolog 2
Prolog (2 of 3)
• Expert Systems
• Knowledge Based Systems
Prolog supports 'symbolic processing'
which is based on applying rules of
Computer Languages thumb that manipulate symbols in
Prolog (1 of 3) order to achieve a program goal.
The fact that Sue likes John can be
represented in Prolog as:
"likes(Sue,John)".
Prolog is a non-procedural logic based
language. Prolog involves building up a
knowledge base (database) where Computer Languages
relationships are represented. Prolog Prolog (3 of 3)
then uses a built-in facility in order to
draw logical conclusions from a user's
representing the way in which an expert would
Summary: proceed.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Interface Engine: The mechanism which controls the
• Logic based languages • It can be very difficult to reasoning process performed upon the knowledge
are able to represent the design a database that
real world more accurately represents
base.
accurately. relationships. Computer Languages
• Prolog is able to derive • Prolog is not best
Expert Systems (2 of 2)
new rules from the suited to solving
existing rules contained complex arithmetical
within the knowledge computations.
base. • Prolog programs are
Expert systems are
not best suited to the
current PC architecture designed to apply
(sequential execution) facts and rules of
and are best optimised thumb obtained from
on parallel architectures an expert in the
(fifth generation
types of problems
computers).
addressed by that
expert.
Rules are formulated on an IF...THEN...basis.
Computer Languages An example of a successfully developed expert
system is MYCIN. This expert system was developed
Expert Systems (1 of 2)
to provide medical diagnosis and prescription.
The system contains rules that associate symptoms
with diseases. For example,
Expert Systems are models of human expert "IF Redspots THEN Measles".
behaviour and are made up of two components:
Computer Languages
Knowledge Base: Interelated set of rules
Knowledge Based Systems
Program Development -
System Analysis
Knowledge Based Systems
are essentially the same as
Expert Systems.
A major difference between System Analysis involves
the two systems concerns the creating a formal model of the
quality of the information problem to be solved. The
stored within the knowledge model is created by:
base, and whether it is in fact • talking to the users to
'expert knowledge'. assess
their needs
Computer Languages
• understanding the
complete problem
Steps
to be solved
• making a formal
representation of the
Steps to Program Development are... system being designed
• System Analysis
• Specification and Design
Computer Languages
• Program
• Debug
Specification and Design
• Alpha Test
• Beta Test
• Deliver the Software
Computer Languages
Programmers use the
At this stage a detailed design is specification to write the code
written which defines the following: necessary to fulfil all the
requirements of the program. The
code is a text based file which
• Data Structures: defining the format and type when compiled creates the
of data the program will use. program.
• User Interface: the design of the screen the A good programmer will
user will see and use to enter data or display consider:
data. • Future Maintenance: any code that may be
• Inputs: defining the kind of data to enter into modified in future and should be allowed for
the program. when writing the code.
• Outputs: the possible data displayed from the • Code Readability: this enables programmers
system. to identify areas of code quickly and easily.
• Algorithms: the methods of calculating • Documentation: a document showing how the
outputs depending on the inputs. program works.
Program Development - Program Development -
Program Debug
Virtually all programs have defects specification will be corrected at this
in them called 'bugs' and these stage.
need to be eliminated. Bugs can
arise from errors in the logic of the Computer Languages
program specification or errors in Program Development - Beta
the programming code created by a Test
programmer.
Special programming tools assist
the programmer in finding and
This is a more wide-ranging trial where the
correcting bugs.
application is given to a selection of users with
Some bugs are difficult to locate different levels of experience.
and fixing them is like solving a
complex puzzle. This is where we hope that the remaining bugs are
found, but some may remain undetected or unfixed.
Computer Languages
Alpha Test
Computer Languages
This is a small scale trial of the
Software Delivery
program. The application is given to
a few expert users to assess
whether it is going to meet their
needs and that the user interface is
suitable.
Bugs and missing features due to
the application being unfinished will
be found. Any errors in the code and
Variables receive data and messages
The completed software is packaged enabling two or more computers to
with full documentation and delivered communicate
to the end users.
When they use the software, bugs that

were not found during testing may
appear. As these new bugs are
reported an updated version of the
software with the reported bugs
corrected is shipped as a replacement.
Computer Languages
Computer Languages -
Exercises

knowledge and total your score. You will be given the
questions.
1. What is the definition of a variable?
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Variables store data for the program to work

with. A variable could contain text or
numerical values
Variables allow decisions to be made in a
program
The steps involved in
developing an
Information System are:
• Analysis
• Feasibility Study
• System Design
• Testing
• Implementation
• Documentation
Developing an Information System
Analysis (1 of 3)
This is a very important

part in the
development of an
Information System
and involves looking at
Developing an Information System an organisation or
system (such as a
Developing an Information nursery school) and
System finding out how
information is being
handled at the
moment.
Developing an Information System Developing an Information System
Analysis (2 of 3) Feasibility study (1 of 2)
If there is no computer system then the first The aim of a feasibility study is to see whether it is
task will be to look at existing manual possible to develop a system at a reasonable cost.
systems. At the end of the feasibility study a decision is taken
It is possible to find out about existing whether to proceed or not.
systems in a number of ways:
A feasibility study contains the general requirements
• Talking to the people who work with of the proposed system.
the system.
Let us consider the task of setting up an Information
• Questionnaires to existing users.
System for a nursery and seeing how Information
• Observing how people use the system. Technology can help it run more efficiently.
• Reading existing manuals.
Feasibility study (2 of 2)
Analysis (3 of 3)
The study might identify the following general

If the aim is to improve an existing requirements for the system:
computer system the methods of analysis
previously mentioned are still important. • To be simple and easy to use.
The analysis phase often includes a • To store all relevant details of the members.
feasibility study. • To produce membership lists, membership
At the end of this phase a decision needs to cards and mailing labels.
be made as to what software to use.
• To produce posters, flyers and similar material
advertising the nursery.
children.
Design
Mrs Mr Mrs
Mr Smith
Jackson Timms Fogett 12 Fields
87 Colly 9 Shaw Road
9 Man Gdns
Row Street Todthope
Todthope
The areas that need to be considered in the design Todthope Todthope TD3 7HJ
TD3 5TT
process are listed below: TD3 8DE TD3 3HG
1. Outputs
2. Inputs
3. File Design
4. Hardware Design - Inputs
5. Software
Design - Outputs To work out the inputs required for a

system several questions need to be
addressed:
• What data needs to be entered into
Some of the outputs for a system for a nursery might the computer system?
be: • How much data needs to be input, and
a) Details of the children looked after within the how often?
nursery. • Where does the data come from?
Address Telephone Membership • How will the data be entered into the
Name
Smith, Tony 12 Fields Rd No. No. system?
Jackson, Jake 9 Man Gdns 0543 3445545 001342 Developing an Information System
Timms, Tony 87 Colly 0563 9545752 001234
Fogett, Carol Row 0543 8653653 001789 Design - File Design
9 Shaw St 0563 9657564 001455
b) Address labels for parents of the

being analysed.
How many files are needed and what will
If the system needs to be on a network,
their structure be? A nursery membership
details would be specified here.
file might have the following structure:
Lengt Developing an Information System
Field Type Example
h Design - Software
Membership
Numeric 6 352600
No.
McSweene
Surname Text 20
y A decision will have to be made as to what
First Name Text 15 Jane software to use.
Address line The most common software packages are
Text 25 3 Longlane databases, spreadsheets and word
1
Address line
processing packages.
Text 25 London
2
Alpha Developing an Information System
Post Code 10 N1 1TH
numeric
Testing (1 of 2)
Telephone Alpha 0181-366-
10
No. numeric 1234
Fees Paid Text 1 Y
Fee Date Date 8 22/04/97 Any new system needs to be thoroughly
tested before being introduced.
First of all the system should be tested with
normal data to see if it works correctly.
Design - Hardware Secondly, the system is tested with data
containing known errors to try and make it
fail ('crash').
Thirdly, the system is tested with very large
This section covers the types of computers amounts of data to see how it can cope.
and printers thought suitable for the system It is important that processing time and
response rates remain acceptable with • Parallel Running
varying amounts of data.

Implementation - Direct
Testing (2 of 2)
With this method of implementation the

A test plan should be designed before users stop using the manual system and
testing commences. start using the computer system from a
given date.
Part of
Expected Actual The advantage of this method is that it is
system Purpose
result result less costly in effort and time than any other
tested
method of implementation. The
Members Add new New member on New member disadvantage of this method is that if
File member members list appeared
problems occur the users do not have any
Member alternative apart from returning to a
Members Remove a Member not on
deleted from manual system which may prove difficult if
File member membership list
list
it has been discontinued.
Implementation - Parallel
Implementation
Running
Implementing or introducing With parallel running, the new system is

a new system can be done in introduced alongside the existing system.
two ways: With parallel running both systems (manual
• Direct Implementation and computer, or old computer and new
computer system) will be in operation at the The guide should cover how to run the
same time. This has the advantage that the system, how to enter data, how to modify
results from the new system can be data and how to save and print reports.
compared with those of the old system.
The guide should include a list of error
However, it has the major disadvantage messages and advice on what to do if
that each job is done twice and therefore it something goes wrong.
means a lot of extra work for the users.
Documentation - Technical
Documentation
Technical documentation is used to explain

A number of documents are produced during
a system to a specialist i.e. an
the development of a new computer
analyst/programmer.
application.
Essentially there are two types: This document will be used if any changes
have to be made to the system.
• User Guides
It is a very important document which
• Technical Documentation
needs to be fully up-to-date.
Developing an Information
System - Exercises
Documentation - User Guides

User guides are written in plain English
1 Name three steps involved in developing
rather than technical language.
. an information system.
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Specification, Design, and Testing
Programming, Design, and Testing
Analysis, System Design, and

Information Representation
Implementation
This section of the course will examine how

the computer handles and processes the
input generated when a key on the
keyboard is pressed.
How can the computer tell the difference
between the key 'e' and the key '#'? How
does the computer add numbers like 29 and
7? It does this using special number
systems and codes to convert the data into
a form which it can handle.
Information and Data
Computers process data in order

to produce information. The
methods by which this data is
generated, stored, and processed
must be accurate in order for the
information to be of any value to
the end users. Information - Ticket Example
(2 of 2)
Information - Ticket Example

(1 of 2) Data is entered by keyboard, stored in the
computer and ultimately used to produce
the train ticket.
One example of coded information is a train Information Representation
ticket. The various numbers on the ticket Number Systems
represent:
• a code for the station where the ticket
was purchased To understand how
• the classification of the ticket (eg. first computers manipulate data,
class) we must first understand
how computers represent
• your destination data. To do this it is
• the payment method for the ticket. necessary to understand
some key concepts:
• Number Base
• Binary
• Octal
• Hexadecimal has a radix of 10. Decimal uses different
combinations of 10 symbols to represent
Information Representation any value (i.e. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9).
Number Base Computers work using electronic circuits
which can only be switched to be on or off,
with no shades of meaning in between.
When a key is pressed the keyboard
We are used to dealing with numbers in characters and numbers have to be
the decimal system, where we use a converted into a sequence of 1's and 0's so
base of 10, counting up from 0 to 9 and that the computer can open or close its
then resetting our number to 0 and electronic switches in order to process the
carrying 1 into another column.This is data. Because only two possible symbols
probably a result of having ten fingers. can be used this is called a Binary system.
The alien shown here has only eight This system works to a base of 2.
fingers, so it would most probably work Information Representation
in base 8, counting from 0 up to 7 and
then resetting to 0 and carrying 1. So Number Base - Example
the number 10 in this system would
mean 8 in the decimal system.
Confusing isn't it? Base 8 is called the
Octal system. Here we have eleven dinosaurs. It is
possible to represent the amount of
dinosaurs using different number base
Number Base or Radix systems:
Decimal In the Decimal
system (base 10) we
The base (or radix) of a number system is would write the
the number of different symbols available number 11.
to represent any digit within that system. Octal In the Octal system
(base 8) the alien
For example, the decimal system (Base 10) would write 13.
Binary In the Binary system column.
(base 2) the
computer would use We could add to this table the numbers
1011. 0,1,2,3 to number the columns according to
their power, and we could also add the
Hexadeci In the Hexadecimal
value of the number base raised to that
mal system (base 16)
power. Again, see the table below.
the number would
be B ! Weight 103 102 101 100
Digit position no. 3 2 1 0
More confused? You will see Column value 1000 100 10 1
later how these numbers are
Value multiplier 5 8 3 7
arrived at.
Number Base - Weights So the value of a number expressed as a

sequence of digits is dependent upon the
number base being used, the symbols used
in that system and the base raised to the
In the Decimal system, when we write a power of the digit's position number.
number like 5837, we know it means "five When we count in the Decimal system we
thousand, eight hundred, and thirty-seven" count 0,1,2,3.....9, then we reset the units
The first digit is the number of thousands value to 0 and carry 1 to the tens column. In
(103), the second is the number of hundreds the Octal system we count 0,1,2,.....7, then
(102), the third is the number of tens (101), we reset to 0 and carry 1. In the Binary
the last is the number of units (100). We system we count 0,1 then we reset to 0 and
could put our number 5837 in a table with carry 1. In the Hexadecimal system we
each digit in a column under its power of count 0,1,2 ..... 9,A,B,C,D,E,F, then we reset
ten. See the table below. and carry 1. Here the letters allow us to
count up to 15 in our first column without
103 102 101 100
having to carry.
5 8 3 7
The powers of ten indicate the 'weight' of a Binary - Bits
Internally, computers represent all
information by one of two states, on or off.
One on/off state is known as a Bit. Think of
a simple light switch as one Bit of Information Representation
information. When the light is on the Bit is
said to be 1. When it is off the Bit is said to Binary - Weights
be 0.
Press the button below to change the state

of the Bit between 1 and 0. The individual values (weights) of the 8 bits
in the byte can be shown in a Binary
weighting table.
Weig
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Binary - Bits, Bytes and ht
Nibbles Digit
bit bit bit bit bit bit bit bit
positi
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
In computers, bits are grouped to form binary on
numbers. Binary is a counting system using Colum
base 2 (decimal is base 10). 12
n 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
8
value
A group of 8 bits is known as a byte (e.g.
10001010).
A group of 4 bits (half a byte) is known as a Information Representation

nibble (e.g. 1101).
Binary - Binary & Decimal
Numbers
4 Continuing to the right, focus on the next

. value in your weighting table. If it is binary weighting table increase in powers
greater than the value remaining from of 2 from 1,2,4,....128. The position 7
your subtraction, place a zero in that bit value of 64 is less than 69 so we need all
weighting position. eight columns to cover 138 decimal.
Binary - Decimal to Binary

Conversion (3 of 6)
Click the buttons below to create a binary
number. Note its decimal equivalent and the 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
way it is calculated. 1 0 - - - - - -
Information Representation …since 64 is greater than 10.
Binary - Decimal to Binary

Conversion (1 of 6) 5 Place a zero in each weighting position
. until a weighting value is encountered
that is less than or equal to the value
remaining from your subtraction.
It is often necessary to convert decimal to 64 32 16
binary. The following pages provide a step 12
8 4 2 1
by step example. 8
In order to convert the decimal number 138 1 0 0 0 - - - -

into its binary equivalent we first...
...since all are greater than 10
1 Create a binary weighting table making
. sure that the leftmost value is greater
than or equal to half the decimal value to
be converted. Binary - Decimal to Binary
So to convert decimal number 138 we Conversion (4 of 6)
halve it to give 69. The values in the
a
6 If the next weighting value is less than r
. the remaining value, subtract this y
weighting value from the remaining value -
and place a 1 under that weighting D
position. e
10 c
-8 i
2 m
a
l
12
8
64 32 16 8 4 2 1 t
o
1 0 0 0 1 - - -
(2 remaining, a '1' is placed under value B
8). i
7 Place a zero in each weighting position n
. until a weighting value is encountered a
that is less than or equal to the value r
remaining from your subtraction. y
12 C
64 32 16 8 4 2 1 o
8
1 0 0 0 1 0 - - n
v
e
r
Information Representation s
i
B
o
i
n
n
( Information Representation
5 Binary - Decimal to Binary
o Conversion (6 of 6)
f
6
)
You've done it!!!
8.If the next weighting value is less than the
1 This concludes the operations required
remaining value, subtract this weighting
0. for converting a decimal value to binary.
value from the remaining value and place a 1
under that weighting position.
So decimal 138 equals binary 10001010.
2
-2 (We can check this by reversing the
0 process giving the sum 128+8+2 = 138)
...Now, wasn't that easy?

12
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
8 Information Representation
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 - Binary - Decimal to Binary

Conversion, a summary:
(0 remaining, a 1 is placed under value 2)
And finally... 1 Create the binary weighting table. Make

9.when the remaining value is zero you must . sure the left most number on the table is
complete your binary number by filling the greater than half the decimal number.
remaining positions with zeros. Start at the left most weighting value.
12
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
8
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
Binary - Binary to decimal

2 If the decimal number to be converted is conversion (1 of 2)
. smaller than the current weighting value,
place a 0 in that weighting place. If the
decimal number is greater than the
weighting value, then place a 1 in that If you enjoyed converting from decimal to
weighting position and subtract the binary, then you're going to love this one. It
weighting value from the decimal number is also important to be able to convert from
and replace the decimal value with the binary to decimal. But, seriously, this is
remaining value. MUCH easier!
3 Repeat step 2, moving from left to right,
The steps that follow illustrate how the
. comparing the remaining values with the
binary number 00101001 can be converted
weighting values as above. Repeat this
to decimal.
until you have filled in the entire
weighting table. 1 Create a binary weighting table making
. sure that it has the same number of items
as the number of bits in the binary
number.
Decimal to Binary
Conversion Exercise:
Click the buttons below to select a

binary number that matches the decimal:
64 32 16 B
12 i
8 4 2 1
8 n
a
r
(8 Bits) y
Information Representation -
B
Binary - Binary to decimal i
conversion (2 of 2) n
a
2. Write the binary digits under the
r
column values
y
t
12 o
64 32 16
8 8 4 2 1
D
e
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 c
i
The list of bits that are 1 starts with 32
m
Finally... a
l
3.< add the numbers in the list that are
a
> marked with a 1
s
In the list these are: 32,8,1 u
These, when added give:32 + 8 + 1 = 41 m
The result is the decimal value 41. m
a
r
y 5 5
: 6
7
6
7
10 8
11 9
1.Create a binary weighting table. 12 10
2.Look at each bit in the number and, if it is a 13
14
11
12
1, then write its bit weighting in a list. 15 13
16 14
3.Add the values in the list to calculate the 17 15
decimal number. Chart comparing Octal values with Decimal values
Example: In a weighting 8 8
12 weights: 83 82
64 32 16 8 4 2 1 table: 1 0
8 position
3 2 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 number:
51 6
Hence: 128 + 8 + 2 = 138 value: 8 1
2 4
Number Systems - Octal So the octal number 1743 would mean:

(1x512)+(7x64)+(4x8)+(3x1) = 512 + 448 +
32 + 3 = 995 decimal
The octal number system has a
base of 8 using 0 to 7 as its Number Systems -
symbols.In this system we would Hexadecimal
count from 0 to 7 and then carry 1
to the next position:
Oct Decim The Hexadecimal number system

al al
has a base of 16 using 0 to 9 and
0 0
1 1 the letters A to F as its symbols:
2 2
Hexadeci Decim
3 3
4 4 mal al
0 0 use coding systems. It
1 1
2 2
focuses on the coding
3 3 systems that
4 4
5 5 represent characters
6 6 and numbers inside a
7 7
8 8 computer.
9 9
A 10 There are three ways of Representing
B 11
C 12 Characters:
D 13
E 14 • ASCII
F 15
• EBCDIC
Table comparing hexadecimal values with decimal
values • BCD
There are two systems of codes for
In a weighting 16 16 16 Representing Numerical Values:
weights: 163
table: 2 1 0
• Unsigned integers
position • Signed integers
3 2 1 0
number:
409 25
value: 16 1 Codes - Representing
6 6
Character Sets
So the hexadecimal number A15B would
Coding systems are employed by computers
mean:
in order to represent various characters,
(10x4096)+(1x256)+(5x16)+(11x1) = 40960
numbers, and control keys that the
+ 256 + 80 + 11 = 41307 decimal
computer user selects on the keyboard.
Information Representation Three of the more popular coding systems
are:
Codes
1. ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange)
This section explains 2. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded
the reason why we Decimal Interchange Code)
3. BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)
They differ in how many digits or bits they BCD is a system for storing decimal
use to represent a character. Below are numbers in a binary form. Each digit of the
some examples: decimal number is converted to a 4 bit
binary number:
Decim
BCD 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
ASCII EBCDIC al
4
7 bit 8 bit
bit 000 000 001 001 010 010 011 011 100 100
BCD
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1000001 = A 11000001 = A All numbers in decimal can be represented
1000010 = B 11000010 = B 0000 = 0
1000011 = C 11000011 = C 0001 = 1
in BCD with the four bits easily able to
1000100 = 11000100 = 0010 = 2 represent numbers from 0 to 9.
D D 0011 = 3 For example: To represent the decimal
1000101 = E 11000101 = E 0100 = 4
etc. etc. etc.
number 312 in BCD form:
Decimal 3 1 2
In each system the character or number is BCD 0011 0001 0010
represented by a sequence of binary digits
which can only have values of 0 or 1. The Note: Each digit of the decimal number
ASCII system uses seven 0 or 1 digits or bits (3,1,2) is separately converted to a binary
to represent the letters of the alphabet, number instead of converting the number
while EBCDIC uses eight bits. BCD uses four 312 as a whole to the binary number
bits to represent the numbers 0 to 9. 100111000.
You can see that the pure binary number
takes up 9 bits while the three BCD
numbers take up 12 bits, requiring more
computer memory space.
Codes - Representing
Characters (BCD)
Information Representation - Codes
Representing Numerical less bit available to represent the value of
Values - Unsigned integers the number, so the maximum size of the
number is reduced.
e.g. An unsigned 8 bit integer could go up
to 255 while the 7 bits of a signed integer
As you go from right to left in a binary could only go up to 128; the remaining bit
number each bit of 0 or 1 represents an of 0 or 1 must indicate the sign.
ascending power of 2. So a 4 bit number can
go up to a maximum of 1111 = 15 decimal, If we take 0 to represent a plus sign and a 1
an 8 bit number can go up to 11111111 = to represent a minus sign then 01111111 =
255, and a 16 bit number can go up to +128 while 11111111 = -128
65535. Any larger numbers than this would In this would
need 32 bits. Computers will have a limit as 00000111
system +7 be
to how many bits they can handle. would
and -7 10000111
be
So far we have only worked with whole
numbers that are also positive numbers. Adding we decim 10001110 binary = -14
We could call them Unsigned Integers. get 0 al, decimal!
This is not really satisfactory.
Representing Numerical Representing Numerical

Values - Signed integers (1 of Values - Signed integers (2 of
2) 2)
Signed integers are positive or negative A system which works better is where we
whole numbers. The first bit of the binary evaluate negative numbers by counting
representation of a signed integer is used down from zero to the negative number. So
to represent the sign (positive or negative) -1 decimal would be 11111111 (check this
of the number. This means that there is one by adding decimal 1 or binary 00000001 to
it). 24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2 2-3
Looking at some numbers above and below 16 8 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8
zero using this system:
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
00000100 =4 in decimal 8+1+1/2+1/8 = 9+4/8+1/8 =
00000011 =3 9+5/8 or 9.625
00000010 =2
Note: It is beyond the scope of this course to cover
00000001 =1
real numbers in more detail.
00000000 =0
11111111 =-1
11111110 =-2 Information Representation
11111101 =-3
Computer Arithmetic
11111100 =-4
Now pairs of positive and negative numbers
of the same integer do add up to zero.
Negative numbers represented this way are Computers perform arithmetic functions
said to be in Two's complement form. working at the bit level (in a binary system).
Binary addition
Representing Numerical follows the same
Values - Real Numbers basic rules for
decimal addition,
except only 1 and 0
are the allowed
Real numbers are any number in the digits.
number system, including fractions of whole
numbers. They can either be represented Binary subtraction is
using fractional (fixed point binary) or more complicated as
floating point binary. it involves using two's
complement and
Example: binary addition.
A fixed point binary number
Information Representation Information Representation
Computer Arithmetic - Binary Computer Arithmetic - Binary

Adddition Subtraction
The basic rules for binary addition are To perform a binary subtraction you first
shown below. have to represent the number to be
subtracted in its negative form. This is
0 1 1 known as its two's complement.
+0 +0 +1
0 1 10 The two's complement of a binary number is
obtained by:
(10 in binary = 2 in
decimal) 1. Replacing all the 1's with 0's and the
To add two bytes 0's with 1's. This is known as its one's
(two 8 bit numbers) complement.
the individual bits of 2. Adding 1 to this number by the rules
each byte are added of binary addition.
and any carry bits Now you have the two's complement.
generated are added
in the same way as a
carry operation in Example:
decimal arithmetic. The decimal subtraction 29 - 7 = 22 is the
same as adding (29) + (-7) = 22
Example: To add the decimal numbers 29
1. Convert the number to be subtracted
and 7 we convert them to binary and add
to its two's complement:
the bits following the rules above:
000001
29 00011101 (decimal 7)
11
+7 00000111 111110 (one's
00 complement)
36 00100100
+
000000 (add 1) 59
01
111110 (two's
01 complement)
60
11111001 now represents -7. 61

Bottom of Form
2. Add
0001110
29
1
+- 1111100
7 1
(1)00010
22
110
Note that the final carry 1 is ignored.

Information Representation -
Exercises

1 How many single digit numbers/symbols, Networks
. excluding zero, would be needed for a
number system with a base of radix of
60?
Top of Form
Networks - What is a Networks typically allow computers to share
network? files, share printers and send messages to
each other.
Networks
Networks - Types of Network
There are two types of networks:

• Client/Server Networks
• Peer-to-peer Networks
Networks
Types of Network -
Client/Server (1 of 2)
Client/server networks
consist of two kinds of
computer. The clients
are usually computer
workstations sitting on
the desks of employees
A network is a system that sends and in an organisation. The
receives data and messages enabling two or servers are usually
more computers to communicate with each more powerful
other. computers and are held
in a central location or can be accessed by another workstation.
locations within an
organisation. Peer-to peer networks are often much
simpler to set up than client/server
Networks networks. However, they lack some of the
Types of Network - advantages normally associated with
Client/Server (2 of 2) networks such as centrally managed
security and ease of backing up files.
Peer-to-peer networks would really only be
set up among a few computers within an
There are several types of servers, for office or single room.
example file servers which store and
Networks
distribute files and applications, and print
servers which control printers. Networks - Local Area and
Client/Server networks need client software Wide Area Networks
which is installed on the workstations and in
addition, they also need server software
such as Windows NT® Server or Novell
Netware®. A network contained within one building or
site is called a Local Area Network (LAN).
Anetwork that spans several sites across a
Networks city, country or even the world is called a
Types of Network - Peer-to- Wide Area Network (WAN).
peer A Client/Server network may be a LAN or
WAN, however a peer-to-peer network can
only be a LAN.
The most famous and widely used Wide
Peer-to-peer networks have workstations Area Network is the Internet which contains
connected to each other but do not have many thousands of servers and many
servers. millions of clients right across the world.
Files can be shared between workstations,
Networks
and a printer connected to one workstation
Networks - Servers server. The computer is thus a file server
and print server together.
A server is a computer Networks
that performs a service for Servers - File Servers
other computers on the
network.
A network may have
several types of servers. File servers store the files that are created
LANs and WANs have file by the network users. They also store
servers and print servers. applications such as word processing
The Internet has other programs, spreadsheets etc.
types of servers such as Users can access parts of a file server's
web servers and mail hard disk which will appear as an extra
servers. drive on their own computer. Applications
can either be run from the fileserver, or
Networks
they can be downloaded to the user's
Servers - Print Servers workstation.
In addition, the fileserver often runs the
network software which controls the
network.
Print servers control the printers on the
network. When a file is printed, the file is Networks
sent to the print server which assigns it to Networks - Security (1 of 2)
the printer that has been requested by the
user.
A print server may be a dedicated computer
or a user's workstation. It may also be a Most companies and organisations have
small control box or card that slots into the computer files that are critical to their
printer itself. business. The files may be technical
Alternatively the print server may actually specifications of products, customer
reside on the same computer as the file accounts etc. Military organisations and
industries will have files that are important When a workstation wishes
to the defence of the country. to send data, it uses the
This makes it vitally important to ensure client network software to
that the files are secure. enclose the data in a
'packet' containing a
Networks 'header' and a 'trailer'.
Networks - Security (2 of 2) The header and trailer contain information
for the destination computer. For example,
the header contains the address of the
destination computer.
Networks store their files centrally on a file The exact form the packets take is
server. This makes it much easier to determined by the protocol the network
maintain security than with a large number uses.
of stand-alone computers with the files
saved on their own hard disks. Networks
Security is maintained by ensuring that Networks - Data Packets (2 of

users have login names and passwords and 2)
are restricted to files and directories for
which they have clearance. One important
aspect of security is the regular backing-up
of important files. This can easily be done When a data packet is put onto the network
when files are centrally stored. by a workstation, each computer on the
Networks
network examines the packet to see who it
is intended for. The packet quickly
Networks - Data Packets (1 of dissipates if it is not recognised, allowing
2) other packets to be sent.
The rate at which packets can be sent is
called the 'bandwidth' (this has a somewhat
different meaning to how bandwidth is
normally used).
As an example, a bandwidth of 10 Megabits
per second means that ten million individual Electrical Cables - Coaxial
1s and 0s can pass through the network in cables
one second.
Networks
Networks - Physical Coaxial cables have a copper wire running

Connections through the middle encased in plastic
insulation.
The plastic insulation is itself encased in a
metal braid which is covered by an outer
Data packets are transmitted between layer of plastic insulator.
computers on the network either as The electrical signals run through the
electrical signals in electric wires, as light central wire and the metal braid acts as
signals in fibre optic cables, or as both an earth and as a shield against
electromagnetic waves through space. electromagnetic interference.
Networks
Physical Connections - A BNC connector on a network card

Electrical Cables Coaxial cables are connected to devices by
means of a special plug with a bayonet
connection. This is called a BNC plug.
Networks - Physical Connections
Electrical cables are the usual means of
connecting the computers in a LAN and in a Electrical Cables - Twisted
WAN on one site. pair cables
Cables can either be coaxial cables or
twisted pair cables.
Networks
Twisted pair cables come in two types, sheath.
either as an unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
which is common in telephone cables, or as Networks
a shielded twisted pair (STP). Physical Connections - Fibre
Unshielded twisted pair cables have pairs of Optic Cables (2 of 2)
insulated copper wires twisted round each
other to cancel out electromagnetic
interference.
Shielded twisted pair wires have a metal The light pulses are initially put into the
sheath encasing the twisted pairs, shielding optical fibre by means of light emitting
them further from outside electromagnetic diodes (LEDs)
interference. Fibre optic cables are more expensive than
Networks
electrical cables but have higher
bandwidths and can transmit over longer
Physical Connections - Fibre distances. Fibre optic cable is often used to
Optic Cables (1 of 2) connect several buildings within a site.
Networks
Physical Connections -
Fibre optic cables have a Electromagnetic Waves (1 of
thin strand of glass in the 2)
centre that carries the
light pulses.
Data may be sent over further distances via

The central strand is encased in glass
either microwaves or radio waves.
cladding of lower density than the central
strand which ensures that the light signal is Microwaves have a higher bandwidth than
kept within the central strand by total radio waves and can thus send more data
internal reflection. per second.
However, microwave transmitters and
The glass cladding may then be surrounded
receivers have to be aligned more
by strengthening wires and a plastic outer
accurately than radio wave transmitters and packets.
receivers and, in addition, microwaves are
easily weakened by fog and rain.
Networks
Physical Connections - A network card showing the BNC connector
Electromagnetic Waves (2 of A Network Interface Card has one or more

2) sockets for network cables and the type of
socket depends on the type of network it
will be used in. The network card is usually
a circuit board with a back plate which slots
Radio waves on the other hand can travel into one of the expansion slots at the back
long distances around the world as they are of the computer.
reflected by the earth's ionosphere. Networks
The computers in a WAN will be connected
by cables within a site, but the sites will be Physical Connections -
connected to each other either directly by Modem
radio or microwaves, or by the international
telephone network.
The international telephone network itself Modems are used to connect separate sites
uses electrical or fibre optic cable and radio via the telephone network.
or microwave communication. The modem fulfils the function of a Network
Networks Interface Card and transmits and receives
data. An employee away from his site, on
Physical Connections - NIC business for example, would be able to
attach his laptop to his network via a
modem and a telephone socket.
All computers within a network need to be A fileserver may have an NIC for connection
physically connected to the network. This is to other computers within the site and also
achieved by a Network Interface Card (NIC) a modem to connect to other servers within
which transmits and receives the data the WAN. Alternatively the modem on a
server may be used for an employee to called a
connect into the network when he is out on central
business. backbone
with
short
Networks cables
(drop
Networks - Topology
cables)
attached
to it via
cable
The physical topology of a network is the
taps
way in which the cables and computers are
which
connected to each other. The main types of
split the
physical topologies are:
electrical
○ Bus signal.
○ Star The drop
cables
○ Ring are then
Networks connecte
d to the
Topology - Bus (1 of 2) Network
Interface
Card.
This type
An alternative way of connecting the
of
computers is to use a number of shorter
configura
lengths of cable attached to T-connectors at
tion uses
regular intervals to make up the backbone.
coaxial
Each T-Connector is then attached directly
cable. It
to the Network Interface Card of a
has one
computer.
long
cable Networks
Topology - Bus (2 of 2) create further nodes.
Networks
Topology - Star (2 of 2)
Both ends of the backbone must be
terminated with resistive end connectors to
absorb the data packets and stop them
being reflected. The cables used in star topologies are either
A bus topology is easy to install but difficult shielded or unshielded twisted pair wires
to reconfigure. It should also be noted that (STP or UTP).
a fault along the bus will be difficult to Star topologies are difficult to install, but
locate and will affect the whole network. once installed are easy to maintain and
Networks expand. A fault in a cable only affects the
computer or node it is attached to and is
Topology - Star (1 of 2) easy to locate.
Networks
Topology - Ring
With a star topology, the

workstations, fileservers, At the moment, the ring
printers etc. are attached via topology is the least used.
drop cables to a central hub However, it is likely to
or multiport repeater. become more widespread
with the use of fibre optic
The hub is central to a star topology and the cables.
network cannot function without it. Other
hubs may be attached to the first hub via Networks
drop cables, creating nodes. These other Technologies - Ethernet (1 of
hubs can themselves have computers 3)
attached to them or even further hubs to
The most widely used LAN technology is An important Ethernet specification is the
Ethernet with approximately 80% of all way in which the network handles collisions
installed LANs using it. that occur when two computers transmit
Ethernet networks can be configured either packets at the same time.
with physical bus or physical star A computer will send a packet if it thinks
topologies. the network is free; if another computer
The bus configuration was the original sends a packet at the same time a collision
configuration using coaxial cable. However will occur.
the star configuration using UTP is now the The first computer sends a jamming signal
dominant configuration due to the ease in to ensure that all the other computers on
which it can be expanded and maintained. the network detect the collision and then,
after a random time delay, it tries to send
Networks the packet again.
Technologies - Ethernet (2 of Networks
3)
Technologies - Fast Ethernet
The Ethernet standard has been defined by

The Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) is
the UK Institute of Electrical and Electronic
an extension of the Ethernet standard
Engineers, an Institute which lays down the
increasing the network speed to 100
standards for electrical equipment in a
Megabits per second.
specification known as IEEE 802.3.
The specified speed of an Ethernet network Networks
is 10 Megabits per second. Technologies - Token Ring (1
Networks of 3)
Technologies - Ethernet (3 of
3)
Token Ring networks are usually built on
physical ring topology. This packet continues to travel around the
The Token Ring is defined by the standard network until it arrives back at the
IEEE 802.5, as laid down by the Institute of computer that originally sent it.
Electrical and Electronic Engineers, and This computer checks that the message was
specifies two speeds, either 4 Megabits per received, removes the packet and generates
second or 16 Megabits per second. a free token which is passed to the next
computer.
Networks
Unlike Ethernet, where collisions are taken
Technologies - Token Ring (2 into account, Token Ring technology
of 3) prevents collisions altogether.
Networks
Technologies - FDDI
Token Ring networks work by passing a
special packet called a 'token' from one
computer to the next. When a computer
receives a token and wants to transmit FDDI (Fibre Distributed Data Interface) uses
data, it keeps the token and sends a data fibre optic cable in a physical dual ring
packet. topology.
The packet travels in turn to each computer It is intended for large organisations with
which re-transmits the packet. When the large traffic and high speed requirements.
computer to which the packet is addressed Packets travel in opposite directions along
receives the packet, it copies the data and the two rings so that a fault in one ring will
re-transmits the packet with a 'received' not bring down the network.
notification. Like Token Ring, FDDI uses a token passing
Networks system to prevent collisions.
Technologies - Token Ring (3 Networks
of 3) Technologies - ATM
(Asynchronous Transfer
Mode)
different standards which allow computers
ATM is an emerging to communicate with each other.
technology and has been A protocol defines how computers identify
designed for the each other, the form the data packets
international should take, and how data is processed
telecommunications once it reaches its destination.
industry.
Networks
It provides a way of
linking a wide range of Networks - Protocols (2 of 2)
devices such as
telephones and computers
into one seamless
network and removes the Common protocols are:
distinction between LANs from Novell
IPX
and WANs. Netware®
ATM is very fast, with NetBios/NetB from Windows
speeds up to several EUI® NT®
Gigabits per second, and
is used for transmitting TCP/IP from Unix
video and sound. The network protocols operate through the
network cables, therefore the above
protocols and others can operate through
Ethernet or Token Ring networks.
Networks
Networks - Protocols (1 of 2)
Networks
Networks - Internet (1 of 4)
Network protocols can be likened to
languages which have structures and rules.
Different protocols will therefore have
The Internet has become so ingrained in
today's world that people forget it has
really only come about in the last few years.
The Internet started as an American Any company or individual can set up a Web
defence project in the 1970s to try and Server to distribute material ranging from
make the military computer network atomic physics to the latest ski conditions in
infrastructure resistant to a Russian nuclear the Alps.
attack. The main purposes of the Internet are to
allow people to search for and obtain
Networks
information on any number of subjects via
Networks - Internet (2 of 4) the World Wide Web and to send and
receive electronic mail.
Networks
The Internet as we know it today did not Networks - Internet (4 of 4)

come into existence until the early 1990s.
Today the Internet has many thousands of
servers and many millions of users
throughout the world and it has The number of uses to which the Internet is
revolutionised communication and being put is continuously expanding. For
information retrieval. example, companies are now using the
Information is kept on special servers called Internet to advertise and sell products, and
'Web Servers' which contain pages of video conferencing is becoming available.
information written in a language called For more information about the Internet,
'HyperText Mark up Language'(HTML), that see the section on the Internet in this
allows them to be viewed by any computer course.
with special 'Web Browser' software.
Networks
Networks - Intranet
Networks
Networks - Internet (3 of 4)
Recently it was realised that Internet Other Network Elements -
technology could be harnessed within a Repeaters
company or organisation, allowing network
users to use web browsers to access
company information.
The 'Intranet' was thus born. Because a signal on a wire degrades after
some distance, a repeater captures the
The advantages are obvious: technical signal and rebuilds it. It then transmits the
information, manuals, etc. can be placed on rebuilt signal.
an internal web server to be accessed by A repeater can therefore extend the length
employees within the company. It is of a network.
probable that within the next few years
most organisations will have Intranets in The central hub in a star network is an
place of, or in addition to, the more example of a repeater.
traditional networks. Networks
Networks Other Network Elements -
Networks - Other Network Bridges (1 of 2)
Elements
Bridges connect different physical network

As well as fileservers, print servers, types together, e.g. Ethernet to Fast
workstations and printers, networks have Ethernet etc.
devices that control the data packets while A bridge can also separate a network into
they are travelling between computers. two segments. This can be useful for
Data packets interact with these devices in example when two departments share a
a similar way to cars interacting with a network and the network traffic is heavy.
traffic system. If the majority of the packets generated
within each department are for that
These devices are repeaters, bridges, department, then traffic can be reduced by
routers and gateways. preventing the packets reaching the other
Networks department.
Networks router that will prevent the IPX packets
Other Network Elements - travelling beyond a certain segment.
Bridges (2 of 2) Networks
Other Network Elements -

Gateways
This can be achieved by putting a bridge
between the departments thus creating
segments or subnets.
Packets transmitted by one computer that A gateway is hardware or software that
are intended for another computer within provides a bridge between two otherwise
the same segment will be filtered out by the incompatible networks. Once a gateway is
bridge and will be prevented from crossing established then data can flow seamlessly
over into the other segment. Of course a between the network segments. Software
packet that is intended for the other routers are sometimes referred to as
segment will pass through. gateways.
Networks
Other Network Elements -

Networks
Routers
Networks - Advantages (1 of
2)
Whereas a bridge
filters out packets
according to their • Files can be stored on a central
physical address, computer (the file server) allowing
routers filter out data to be shared throughout an
traffic according to organisation.
their protocols.
• Files can be backed up more easily
As an example, an Ethernet network with when they are all on a central
TCP/IP and IPX protocols on it can have a
fileserver rather than when they are have finished all the questions.
scattered across a number of
1 Give a definition of a network
independent workstations.
. Top of Form
• Networks also allow security to be Bottom of Form
established, ensuring that the network A system to allow the user to make
users may only have access to certain requests for information from the
files and applications. central computer
Networks An organised way of storing
information about a set of similar
Networks - Advantages (2 of things
2)
A system that receives data and
messages enabling two or more
computers to communicate
• Software and resources can be

centrally managed.
• Network versions of software often
allow for their speedy installation on
workstations from the file server.
• Expensive devices such as laser
printers or scanners can be shared.
• Users can access their files from any
workstation
Networks
Networks - Exercises

the loss of communication in
the event of any single
installation being
inaccessible due to war or
natural disasters.
Even if a main centre is not functioning,
data can take a different route through
the Internet to reach its final
destination.
It was not until the end of the 1980s
that the Internet really began to grow.
The National Science Foundation (NSF)
set up five supercomputer centres for
university research so information could
be shared between universities
throughout the USA.
Internet Internet
What is the Internet? (1 of 2) What is the Internet? (2 of 2)
The Internet is a global

network of computers As computers became more widely used, so
connecting individual did the Internet, with universities and the
computers and networks government connecting first, then large
together into one huge businesses, followed by smaller companies,
network. and finally individuals using their home
computers.
The Internet was first
developed in the 1960s by The number of Internet users continues to
the U.S. military to avoid increase faster and faster, and at the same
time its uses and possibilities also increase. and sent to a specific computer just like
The Internet is now accessible from almost a postal address specifies a building.
every country in the world, which makes it
very hard to govern. Nobody is in charge of
how the Internet develops or what Internet
information is available; this is the choice of IP and TCP/IP (2 of 2)
the users.
Internet
IP and TCP/IP (1 of 2) Computers have a DNS (Domain Name

System) entry which is a name associated
with the IP address. It is the DNS entry
which allows you to call a computer
Data is transferred 'www.nasa.gov' or 'darwin.epcc.ed.ac.uk'.
around the Internet in
Information does not take a direct route
packets using the
though the Internet but goes through many
Internet Protocol (IP).
computers to reach its final destination.
The Internet Protocol
Below is a print-out of the route taken to
sets the standard for
send data between ORT in London and ORT
communication over the
Uruguay (via the USA). You can see that all
Internet.
of the computers have DNS entries as well
On top of the Internet Protocol is TCP/IP as IP numbers, except for '38.1.2.12'.
(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol) which makes sure that data is
not lost in its long journey from one
ci1.london1.uk.psi.net [154.32.18.1]
computer to another.
ip1.dmz106.ne.us.psi.net [204.6.106.1]
Each computer that is connected to the 38.1.2.12
Internet has an IP address composed of core6-hssi1-0.Washington.mci.net
four numbers, each between 1 and 255, [206.157.77.169]
e.g. 193.117.1.9 This unique address core1.WestOrange.mci.net [204.70.4.181]
allows information to be retrieved from border3-fddi-0.WestOrange.mci.net
[204.70.64.19]
theta.adinet.com.uy [206.99.44.5]
seciu.adinet.com.uy [206.99.46.29]
Home users use telephone lines or cable
tacuabe.edu.uy [164.73.128.1]
connections to access the Internet. They
www.ort.edu.uy [164.73.96.2]
connect to an Internet Service Provider
(ISP) who will charge them a flat monthly
From London to Uruguay
rate or according to the time they spend on-
line. As well as paying the service provider
the home user may have to pay the
telephone or cable company for the cost of
Internet
the telephone calls, usually charged as a
Connecting to the Internet (1 local call.
of 2)
Once connected to the Internet it is possible
to access a wide range of services from
around the world. In the next section we
In general there are two ways to connect to will look at just some of the services
the Internet: one is to have a permanent available to the user.
connection to the Internet, and the other is Internet
to use the telephone line to connect,
whenever the user wish to gain access. Internet Services - Telnet
Businesses that need constant access to the
Internet, or provide information for others
to access, have permanent connections to
backbone providers. These backbone Telnet allows the user to run programs that
providers have very fast permanent are loaded onto another computer. One has
connections to various sites around the to log in to a remote computer in order to
world. manipulate files, run programs, read mail
etc. Some libraries allow Telnet access to
Internet
their on-line catalogues so that one can look
Connecting to the Internet (2 for a book anywhere in the world to see if it
of 2) is available.
Internet
Electronic Mail is the
Internet Services - FTP most important part
of the Internet as it
allows people to
communicate almost
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a method of instantly with others
transferring files between computers around the world.
without concern for incompatible
architecture on the different machines (e.g. E-mail is an asynchronous method of
transferring files from a PC to a UNIX communication because the mail takes time
server). There are a few simple commands to be sent from one place to another, unlike
in FTP such as GET (to get a file from a the telephone, but it allows very fast
remote computer), PUT (to put a file on a communication of ideas around the world; it
remote computer), as well as normal style allows people to send a message to more
commands to move between directories or than one person.
view the contents of the directory. E-mail messages are simple text messages.
Programs like Fetch or numerous Windows However, it is possible to send files as
based FTP programs make File Transfer attachments to the e-mail message. In this
much more user friendly, so rather than way formatted documents and other large
using commands such as PUT and GET, the files can be sent from one Internet user to
files on the remote server can be seen as if another.
they were on your own computer.
Internet
Internet Services - E-mail (2

of 3)
Internet
Internet Services - E-mail (1

of 3)
E-mail messages are stored on servers in
mailboxes and then accessed by individuals
from other computers. This means that you
In many ways do not need a permanent connection to the
Internet to send and receive mail, as long as
(Carbon Copy) field in the header of the e-
the server has one. Sometimes servers will
mail message. There are also a large
not respond to e-mail being sent from
number of automated mailing lists that
another computer; the sending server
allow closed groups of people to mail each
automatically knows to try again for a
other without having to remember the
couple of weeks before giving up.
addresses of everybody on the list.
If e-mail messages are not received by Mailing lists also save time when sending
another system the sender will receive messages since, rather than sending a
returned mail, so one can always tell when a message to many addresses, it is sent to
message has been sent successfully. one address from where it is then
Unfortunately one still has to depend on the forwarded to everybody in the list.
recipient checking their e-mail. Internet
Internet
Internet Services -
Internet Services - E-mail (3 Newsgroups
of 3)
Newsgroups and mailing lists

There are two parts to an Internet e-mail are discussion forums that
address, one before and one after an @ anybody can read and write
sign. The second part of the address (after to. They allow people with
the @ sign) is the name of the server that similar interests to create
will receive the e-mail, and the part before specialised discussion groups
the @ sign is the name of the user. So an and allow others to ask
address could be any of the following. questions of the experts.
p9207566@newton.brown.edu Newsgroups are organised by threads so
straw.berry@jam.com that you can watch a particular discussion
president@whitehouse.gov develop while other discussions also
E-mail messages can easily be sent to a continue in the same newsgroup. Messages
large number of people using the Cc: are e-mailed to newsgroups and these are
stored on a server for people anywhere in
the world to read. Gopher has virtually been wiped out now by
Mailing lists are sent directly to your email the World Wide Web, which we will be
account and popular lists often generate studying next. Gopher pages can either be
large volumes of mail. listings of documents and files, or they can
be text files. Gopher pages were used
Internet widely by the academic community before
Internet Services - IRC the expansion of the World Wide Web as it
was an easy way to access academic texts
very quickly.
Gopher has a search facility called Veronica
Internet Relay Chat is a text-based (Very Easy Rodent-Oriented Net-wide Index
conferencing facility. Groups of people can to Computerised Archives) which can search
log in to IRC servers and choose a channel through resources on different sites and
to join. IRC is synchronous, which means find relevant material for queries. There are
that people can have real time still some gopher sites around but most are
conversations. The major problem with IRC not well maintained since the World Wide
is trying to make sense of the conversation Web has far better facilities.
on a channel when many people are
Internet
speaking at once.
Internet Services - WWW (1 of
Some IRC based programs (i.e. Microsoft 3)
Comic Chat) allow the users to specify who
they wish to speak to, and using a graphical
format they can show emotions (happy, sad,
angry etc.). These programs make IRC much The World Wide Web is accessed through a
more fun and easier to use. web browser, an application that runs on
Internet
the user's computer. The Browser allows the
user to receive text, graphics, sound and
Internet Services - Gopher animation. Using special additional software
called 'plug-ins' it is possible to do even
more sophisticated things like listen to live
music, watch videos, move around three http://www.server.org/directory/sub_di
dimensional worlds, and the list continues rectory/filename.html
to grow all the time.
The HTTP at the beginning stands for
A basic web page is written in HyperText HyperText Transfer Protocol (most new web
Markup Language (HTML) which uses simple browsers do not need this included in the
tags to format text and make links to other URL).
resources. Below are some simple examples
Internet
of HTML tags:
Internet Services - WWW (3 of
<b>makes the text between the tags 3)
bold</b>
<i>puts the text in italics</i>

Just using HTML tags can make web pages
<img src="picture.gif"> inserts an look far more exciting than gopher pages
image from the source file picture.gif but the real success of the Internet is due to
HTML also allows the user to jump from one the interaction that is possible between the
web page to a related web page somewhere web page and the user. Web pages can also
else in the world by clicking on specific allow the user to run programs on remote
words. servers. Some Internet servers use CGI ,
Internet Java and ASP . These facilities can interact
with remote databases to provide particular
Internet Services - WWW (2 of information requested by the user or to
3) completely control the look of the web
page.
The World Wide Web has the ability to

Each web page has a unique address or change very rapidly and include new
Uniform Resource Location (URL) which technologies to make it even more exciting.
includes the name of the server (DNS or IP The only way to really begin to understand
address), the name of the file and the the web is to see what is out there! It is
directory it is in. Here is an example below.
probably the easiest way to use a computer have finished all the questions.
and the large number of search engines and 1 Which do you NOT need to connect to
directories should help you to find your way . the Internet?
Top of Form
around the massive amount of resources
that are available.
Modem
Internet
Other Internet Technologies CD-ROM
Telephone line
Bottom of Form
There are many ways to use the Internet

other than those previously discussed.
People can join interactive games groups
and compete against each other, talk to
each other using Internet Telephony, use
video conferencing to see each other, share
applications on each other’s computer, or
broadcast radio or television live on the
Internet. In short anything that can be done
with computers can be done over the
Internet; the only limit to the amount of
data you can transfer is the connection
speeds at both ends.
Internet
Internet - Exercises


The Most Likely Way For The World To Be Destroyed

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The most likely way for the world to be destroyed, most

experts agree, is by accident. That's where we come in;

DO IT is intended both for those without an IT background as

ways that information is represented covering topics such as

binary, hexadecimal, octal and other number systems.

NETWORKS - explains the different ways in which information

systems are connected together.

INTERNET - describes the basic functions of the largest Hardware

network of computers called the Internet.

In computing a peripheral is a device, under the

You use input devices to put information into the

• Digitising Tablet • Bar Codes

• Touch Sensitive Screen • Magnetic Reader A computer mouse

• Light Pen • Smart Cards Hardware - Peripherals - Input Devices

• Space Mouse • Voice Data Entry Input Devices - Mouse (2 of

A selection of input devices

A Touch Sensitive Screen is a pointing device that

Input Devices - Digitising A touch sensitive monitor

Input Devices - Light Pen

Input Devices - Optical Mark

Input Devices - Bar Code

Input Devices - Magnetic This method is used in store cards which

This input device reads a magnetic strip on a card. Hardware - Peripherals

A Credit card showing the magnetic strip

However, simple commands from one user can be

Capture Peripheral Devices - Input

Input Devices - Exercises

With the addition of a sound card in one of the

Input Devices - Video Numeric Keypad

Visual Display Units (VDU) or monitors are used to

Output Devices - Impact

Molded metal characters like those in a typewriter

Output Devices - Dot Matrix

Output Devices - Non-Impact

A fax machine uses a thermal printer

Output Devices - Ink Jet

A photoconductive drum is initially charged and

Output Devices - Robots

Voice synthesis has a robotic sound due to the

Output Devices - Plotters

Output Devices - Flatbed A drum plotter

Plotter The size of the graph is therefore limited only by the

This is a plotter where the paper is fixed on a flat Output Devices -

Output Devices - Exercises

In drum plotters the pen is moved in a single axis

Writing on a hard board A variety of storage devices

The hard disk is a direct-access storage medium

Storage Devices - Magnetic

Storage Devices - Optical

A strip of paper tape

A CD-ROM Peripheral Devices - Storage

and these are becoming a popular and cheap

Hardware - Peripherals Size

Click on the inputs to see how changing

Computer Logic - 'NOT' Gate

The NOT gate, also known as the Inverter,

Click on the inputs to see how changing

0 0 1 Click on the inputs to see how changing

Click on the inputs to see how changing

Processor and Memory - CPU

Processor and Memory -

A PC passes data between the CPU, internal