K-L.

S7W
THE

HERITAGE

OF

INDIA

SERIES

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE

BY

F. E.
(Church

KEAY,
Author
of

M.A.

Missionary

Society, Jubbulpore)

"Ancient

Indian

Education"

75

3'

ASSOCIATION
5, RUSSELL
LONDON:
NEW

PRESS
CALCUTTA
.

STREET,

OXFORD YORK,

UNIVERSITY TORONTO, MELBOURNE,

AND MADRAS

PRESS

BOMBAY,

CALCUTTA

PRINTED AT THE WESLEYAN MISSION

PRESS,

1920.

MYSORE

CITY,

CONTENTS

Page

Preface
. . . . . . . . . . . .

viii

Map
..

(Inset)
.. .. .. ..

I.

The

Hindi

Language

and

its

Neighbours
..

II.

General

Survey

of

Hindi

Literature
.. ..

III.

Early

Bardic

Chronicles

(1150-1400)
.. ..

12

IV.

Early

Bhakti

Poets

(1400"

1550)
.. ..

19

V.

The
in

Mughal Hindi

Court Literature

and

the

Artistic

Influence

(1550"1800)

VI.

Tulsi

Das

and

the

Rama

Cult

(1550"1800)

VII.

The

Successors

of

Kabir

(1550"1800)
..

VIII.

The

Krishna

Cult

(1550-1800)

IX.

Bardic

and

Other

Literature

(1550"1800)

X.

-The

Modern

Period

(from

1800)

XI.

Some

General

Characteristics

of

Hindi

Literature

100

XII.

Present

Position

and

Prospects

of

Hindi

Literature

104

Bibliography
.. .. .. ..

..108

Index
.. .. .. .. ..

..110

PREFACE

The

purpose

of
on

these

volumes

of

The

Heritage
is to outline

of

India in each

Series
case,

the

vernacular and

literatures

provide,
of
more

clear

trustworthy Necessarily,
a

the

history
can

of

the

literature. into

nothing
;

be of

compressed
the

hundred

pages

and,

when it the
to

one

greater
within this

literatures
the

comes

under
to

review,
to

is

impossible,
In the

limits,
great
care

do

justice
been
to

whole. sketch

volume,

has down

taken time
to

historic
;

movements

the made

of

Harischandra
a

but

no

attempt
more

has
recent

been

give

detailed

account

of
many

literature. who have

Amongst
or

the

persons

supplied

formation in-

given

other

help,
;

I must

especially
G. J. offered

thank who

the

Editors read
;

of the
and

thisxoeries book
the

the

Rev.
and

Dann,

kindly
criticisms
Mr. M.

in

manuscript
Dr. have much

valuable
and

Rev. who also

W.

C.

Macdougall
read
to

T.

Kennedy,
I Mr.
am

carefully
indebted
masters

through
Mr.

the

proofs.
and

Kallu
own

Singh school,

Sakhawat in

Masih,
some

of
the

my extracts.

for

help

translating

of

Frank

E.

Keay.

Jubbulpore

August

1920.
"

I.

THE

HINDI

LANGUAGE NEIGHBOURS.

AND

ITS

The

Indo-Aryan form
one

Languages."
branch of which
the
are

The

Indo-Aryan
Indo-European

guages lan-

great
now

family
Europe
Somewhere lived which One
the

of
and

languages,
a

spoken
Southern
and

over

large
near

part
the

of

Western of

and

Asia. Asia from derived.

borderland

Europe

people
class eastwards further

who

spoke
this towards

the

original
have called

language
been
the but

these

various of

languages people,
the
up

great

Aryans,
as

migrated
advanced their One of

Oxus,
two

they
and lines.

were

split
developed
of of
other

into
on

sections,
different
the

language
of
these
two

also

two

forms

language languages
branch of the
The

became

parent

the

Iranian

family
The
the North

(Medic,
of the

Pahlavi, people
into these
Those The thence

Persian, pushed
the
on

etc.).
into of

Aryan
and of

valley

Kabul,

plains
was

India.
over are a

migration period
as

peoples
who
came

spread
into India

long

of

time.

known
a

Indo-Aryans.
culture in known
became

Indo-Aryan
ancient times

language
and

received its

literary
form

quite
as

literary
became which is

Sanskrit, polished
of speech "natural,"

that

is

the

"purified"
fixed,
called

language.
but the

This

literary
the

dialect

ordinary
that

people,
"

Prakrit,

is

or

unartificial,"
combinations like
areas

gradually
were

changed.
but

Diphthongs
the

and

harsh

softened,

language
dialects
more

still
of
one

remained,
another.

Sanskrit, began
to

synthetic.
differ older became
more

The
and

different

from Prakrits

Some like

of

the

forms fixed

of

the

meanwhile,

Sanskrit,

HISTORY

OF

HINDI
such

LITERATURE
for

and In

received
the last

literary culture,
stage
of
the

instance

as

Pali.

Indo-Aryan
known of
the
as

languages Apabhrams'as.

the modern Prakrits, before from developed them, they are These
are

the

direct

parents
tence exis-

modern

vernaculars about
the

of
1000
case are no

North

India, namely,
came

Hindi, Punjabi, MarathI,

somewhere
differs

etc., which

into

considerably in
modern

though the date a.d., of different languages. longer

to

These

languages

synthetic

but

analytic.
Hindi."

It is most
mean

what
loose

we

by
It is the

important Hindi, as
often,
the

understand

clearly
used

the

word

is often

ambiguously.
sense

for

to

vernacular

instance, applied in a of speech of the whole

and But

North

India and

between

Punjab

Sindh
the

on

the

philological researches Sir George Grierson, that there have shown are really four chief languages in this Hindi, Rajasthani, Western namely, area, different Eastern a Hindi, and Biharl, each having Biharl guages of lanreally belongs to a group parentage.
West,
of

the East. on Bengal of scholars, such as

Hindi
The

member. Bengali is another is closely connected in origin with

which

ern West-

Panjabl.
modern
; but

word

Hindi

is also in

often

used

to

denote
to

literary High Hindi and both High Hindi

developed
the from
a

contradistinction
were,
as

Urdu

Urdu

will be shown
Hindi.

below,
to denote

dialect of Western is also of

all and
mean a name

Hindustani is the

(or Hindostanl)
vernaculars
the used between

used

sometimes
that

Hindustan,
Sindh
the and

country

Punjab
to

sometimes
the

Bengal, but is also is simpler speech which

lingua franca
and

of

modern
are

Urdu

High

Hindi
Book."

of this Scope will be described

both India, and of which literary developments. The literature whose history
book

in this
Eastern It
may

will
and

include Biharl

Rajasthani,
literature

Western but
not

Hindi,
Urdu.

Hindi,
seem

at

first

sight somewhat

of these literatures the together arbitrary to group distinct in been believed to have are languages which Western and when Hindi, for instance, is development,

THE

HINDI

LANGUAGE

and

ITS

NEIGHBOURS

more

in origin with Punjabi, and closely connected the other with languages with Bihar! Bengali, than Moreover whose them. with Urdu, here grouped from is here a dialect excluded, is developed literature of Western
these Hindi. But the literatures and

together
and
are

justificationfor grouping lies in this, that whereas

have

Punjabi
the

Bengali
which
have

Urdu

developed

modern

literatures

languages
book

whose

lines, proceeding each on its own in literary history is contained closely

connected in their

this

become

where In the they are areas literary development. be has to come accepted as a "High Hindi" spoken do who all those not use literary language by almost still used vernaculars the older are Urdu, and though is developof them ing for poetical compositions, not one of its own. literature Moreover, a separate prose are distinct, they as by scholars though considered have enced which mutually influlanguages closely related of of literature the each one other, and any understood is to a large extent vernaculars these by These others. of the who those languages speak one million people. a hundred spoken by over are As the literature connected
more

dealt with

with

in

the

following

pages

is

really

distinct
to
"

it is

accurate
as

guages lanthough cognate describe it,as Sir George Vernacular sake of

Grierson
and
to

done, of Hindostan."
avoid
as

has

the But

Modern the

ture Litera-

for

convenience
of it

to

circumlocution

it will

generally be referred
The

here

"Hindi
Western is not
very

Literature."
Hindi
or

bulk Hindi.

is

written literature

in
of

Eastern

Bihari

extensive
not very

lyrics

Vidyapati,
mostly
as a

the for and, except important. Rajasthani

literature

consists Hindi

of bardic has the and

chronicles.
an

Urdu
of These

literary language
from in

important
it the

point
of

difference follow

metres

employs.
themes.
are

Persian
is The chief

models,

substance

Urdu

poetry
Dialects."

largely influenced
dialects
and

by Persian
of

Raj asthani
Of
also

MewatI,
Marwari

Marwarl,
is the

Malvi. Jaipurl, It is chief literary dialect.

these called

HISTORY
and the in
name

OF this

HINDI

LITERATURE is

Dingal, Pingal,
dialect
area as

connection
in

given

distinguished from Rajputana to the Braj Bhasha

was

of Western
a

Hindi, which
has the
as

also

used

in

this

literary dialect.
Hindi of Muttra

Western
to

the

west

principal dialects, Bangaru, in the Ganges highlands of the

;

its

South-Eastern

Panjab
and dialect similar

Braj
Western

Bhasha,
Hindi Doab
in the

spoken
is
the

in

the of
to

surrounding

language district, which

for is

the

chief
lower north

poetry

Kanauji (very
in the
to

Braj Bhasha), which

central in and the and Bundelkhand

spoken
country
a

part
;

of the

the

Bundell,

good
;

portion of the
and
Delhi another and

Narbada

dialect
Meerut. of the from of

valley in the spoken

Delhi

Central

Provinces
the

being
of

for

neighbourhood a long time

district that

of

headquarters India, it was

Muhammadan the

conquerors

of North the

dialect
the of Persian
as

this

lingua
A

franca
many

Mughal
and

camp

great

words
and The
was

Arabic
as

originated. origin were

of
was

introduced
and for

into

this dialect
the

well

those

Panjabi
used
means

Rajasthani,

Persian

character

writing

it. Urdu

word
the

"Urdu"
camp

literally
far
and

"Camp."
it

language.
use

madan Muham-

influence

extended
a

its

wide, and
Modern

eventually
Hindi"
of

became
was

literary language.
from Urdu

"High
exclusion

developed
and

by
and

the the

Persian

Arabic

words

substitution

of those
name

Hindi.

The

of pure Indian or origin, Sanskrit Khari Boli {i.e. "pure speech")

is sometimes

used

by

Indian and

scholars

both and

for for Lai

;

the the but

a

original
modern

dialect

of Hindi

Delhi

Meerut,

developed not identical, as will they are the when subsequent chapter
formation
The
are

High

by
be

Lallii shown

Ji

later of

in

circumstances
are

the

of modern

literary Hindi
Hindi,

related. North
to South

dialects

of Eastern

from

the Of these Avadhi, Bagheli, and Chhattisgarhi. chief literary dialect is Avadhi, spoken in the country of is also known Avadhi as (Oudh). Ayodhya

Baiswari.

THE

HINDI
Bi/iarlhas

LANGUAGE
three

and

ITS

NEIGHBOURS

principal dialects, namely

Maithili
the

Maithili,
literary
come

Bhojpurl,
dialect, and
down
to

and

Magahi.
in

is the which
It

chief
have

practically all
are

works

us

this
the

dialect.
old

region which
in Bihar
The

formed of the

kingdom
Written

in the is spoken of Mithila, that is

Character."

north
Hindi

Ganges.
and

alphabet used
with
is

Alphabet for Hindi

in One in the
or

The

and

the
same

other
as

it in this book

is the
same

arranged
however
is also used. in

way,

languages included that of Sanskrit, and that is on phonetic

letters
are

principles.
used

two

of the The the

Sanskrit written

not

Hindi. called

character

is

generally what
which
also used

is the used

Devanagari
But and other

(or Nagari),
forms
are are

for Sanskrit.

Mahajani
business.

(or Sarrafi)
They
This
the of
are

Baniautl

only
of
or

both

modifications

KayathI
Kayasth,
Hindus.
from the

(or Kaithi).
the
name

word

is from

Kayath,
amongst

writer-caste
was

the

KayathI

character

originally

derived better is used

Devanagari
to

adapt it
we are

the

purpose

chiefly in

the

Eastern but

by slight alterations which It of writing quickly. with portion of the area

even

which
as

concerned,

there

is not

so

common

Devanagari.
Vocabulary."
The
are

vast

majority

of words

used

in the

have those which considering are down from the come original Indo-Aryan language the of centuries. the But through long development of to-day there in the language often found words are

languages

we

which
called

are

direct

borrowings
words

from
same

Sanskrit.
as

These
to

are

Tatsama them

("the
Tadbhava those of that

that")

tinguish dis-

from
are

words

("of
In

the

nature

of in

that"),
the

which

have
of such

undergone
many

change
cases

long
and co-exist

process

development.
forms the
as

Tatsama
root

Tadbhava in the

same

word and

or

language,
Words find
as

Yogy
been

Jog
the

("fit, worthy").
from Persian. We such

have
even

also

borrowed
of

these

in the and

works

great
modern

writers
authors

Tulsi
to

Das,

though

some

affect

write

"pure

Hindi,"

few

HISTORY be found

OF

HINDI
do

LITERATURE
not

books
of
many

can

which

contain
and

some

words into

Persian

origin. Some English words, have

Prosody."
There been

Portuguese,
also

nowadays
way

found

their

the

language.
Hindi

which
than

prosody
in Hindi.

has

Its system

probably no language in more elaborately developed is derived ultimately from the

Sanskrit

is

principles which govern like English, depend

poetry
of used the of Greece and

poetry.

It does the the

not,
classic

on

accent,

but, like
on

is based Rome, But syllables, long or short.

quantity
is
also

rhyme

a universally, and in Hindi poetry rhyme of the but that the last not means a line, syllable only those of last two with syllables at least, correspond A another line. in good deal of liberty is allowed of grammatical and even struction, conrespect of orthography

almost

but

the

rules

for

the

various in
of

metres

are

complicated.
skilful

The

result

however

the the

hands form

very of and

poet

is the

production

poetry

of which has a wonderful charm rhythm probably not in of metres The number language. surpassed any of Hindi recognized in books prosody is very large. be mentioned can principal ones doha A line of here. (or dohrd) is a couplet each contains which or twenty-four matras instants, divided again into feet according to a recognized plan. up the denotes A Mdtra occupied in length of time A

few

only

of

the

the

utterance
are

of

short
as

vowel.

Long

vowels

and

diphthongs
The
metres.

regarded
the
most

doha

is The

soratha of each half.

consisting of two matras. of all frequent popular and is an inverted doha, that is the
of
the doha ranks

second

half
the

line The

changes
with
the of

place
doha

with
in has the and the
sung.

first

chaupal
of four

popularity.
sixteen
the

It consists

lines, each

which
are

matras.

Other

much-used

metres

kundalzya,
kavitta.

the

chhappai, the metres Many

verses
same

kdvya, the savaiya are specially used in

are

composition
In these all the

of the

which

intended

to

be

rhyme
poem.

is

often

continued

throughout

lines of the

THE

HINDI

LANGUAGE

and

ITS

NEIGHBOURS

The

Family

of

Indo-Aryan

Languages.

(The

languages
in thick

whose

literature

is

described

in

this

book

are

printed

type). (Modern (Apabhrams'as)

Unknown Unknown Unknown

Languages)
Kashmiri Kohistani Lahndi

(Western
Vrachadi Sindhi

Panjabl)

Gaurjari
Prakrits
"......._."

Gujarat!
f
"

Panjabl
Western

Sauraseni ^auraseni

(Vernacular)

-J
Avanti

"

Hindi

Rajastham
Pahari

Ardhamagadhi Indo-Aryan Language "/

Eastern

Hindi

Magadhi

(Bihari
Bengali
Oriya
Assamese Marathi

Mahara"tri
Sanskrit

(Literary)

II.

GENERAL

SURVEY LITERATURE

OF

HINDI

After who
was

the built

death
up
a

of

King

Harsha
in

( 646
North

or

647

a.d.),
there

had
a

large
of

Empire
confusion
is
a

India,
Muhammadan

long
of

period

and until the

disorder.

The

unity

Indian

History
restored

lost

conquests
to

again
a

government

strong
this various destined These but

enough
the

become clans

paramount
came

power.

During
and
were

period

Rajput

into

prominence
which

Rajput
to

principalities
an

took

shape
in
at

play doms king-

important
were

part
often

subsequent
war

history.
one

with

another,
the foe. West

the

roads in-

of united the hands of

the

Muhammadans
to
meet

from
common

frequently
Kabul,
into the

them

the

Although
fallen the real

Punjab,
of the did

and

Sindh

had

previously invaders,
1175

Muhammadan
not

conquest

India

begin
his induced
and called

till

a.d.

when
1191

Muhammad the
to

Ghori

commenced
progress

attacks. the
a

In

madan Muhamcompose

Hindu great
or

Kings
Rai The but

their

quarrels

form

confederacy
Hindus in the

under the
at

Prithlraj
Chauhan
first year
was

(also
ruler of in

Prithvlraj
and
at

Pithora),
were

Ajmer
a

Delhi.

victorious
were

battle in

Tarain,
same

following Prithvlraj
and Muham-

defeated and

the

place
was
soon

and

captured
Muhammadan

killed.
advance in

Delhi continued it

occupied

the

till, under
its

mad-bin-Tughlak
extent.
many

1340,
many

attained

maximum

But

though
in

Hindu

kingdoms
were

fell,

and the

strongholds
clans

Rajputana
themselves

captured,
and
were were
never

Rajput

reasserted

completely

subdued.

Many

new

Kingdoms

set

GENERAL
and later

SURVEY
Muhammadan
to

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE often
the

up,
more

sovereigns
alliances
them.

found

it

profitable
than
was

make

with

Rajput
naculars ver-

monarchs It

to attack

during
of
India

this
were

period that the taking shape, and

of Hindustan chronicles

modern the

earliest

modern the form

vernacular
of the in

literature bardic

of lived
the

stirring times
themes for the

which

they
and their

in appeared The Rajputana. produced ample

royal bards,
encouraged
embellished
be
a

liberal

patronage
full
and

of
of

monarchs

labours.
many

panegyric
not

and
to
are

with
sober record

Though legends,
the

therefore

taken

as

history, their
of

poems

nevertheless

stirring
the

desperate
and their

struggles
Muhammadan

between

Hindu

kingdoms

and chivalry invaders, and of the heroism such a period called forth. The which greatest name in the literature of this is that of Chand period of with Bardai, the bard Prithvlraj. Contemporary bard the Chand while famous of was Jagnayak, a middle of the fourteenth Sarang Dhar, century was of the who the valorous Hammir, sang prowess
t

Prince
The about another branch form been

of Ranthambhor.

rise of the
the

worship beginning of
impetus
and
to

of the

Rama,

which

took

place
gave

fifteenth

century,
literature.
under had

great
of of

vernacular

One
the

Vaishnavas Krishna

worshipped
this form of

Vishnu

worship

long

the to popular. Now, largely owing great of Ramananda, influence others made Rama their principal of A later due in object worship. development, to Muhammadan some influence, and in which measure Kabir the first great teacher, was in the direction was
a

of

non-idolatrous
were

theism.

All

these

various

ments move-

was use

part of a widespread amongst

the
on

great
the their

which religious revival people, and all began to literature.

From this

vernacular the vernacular

for

time

literature
almost

by religious ideals
which had been

and

mostly entirely on
was

dominated the

lines
such

laid down

by the
1400

Vaishnava
and

reformers. includes

This

period

begins

about

10

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE Mlra
of Bai and

poets
Malik
wrote
was

as

Namdev,
a

Kabir,
The

Vidyapati,
earlier bards

Muhammad.

in
of the

time of

of

still full
the

transition, using a Prakrit and forms,

of
next

Rajputana language which

this
was

the But

period
when

infancy
of this

Hindi

Literature.

poets

period
was

composed

their
the the

works,
same as

the the

language
vernacular
in this the
a

spoken speech

of

practically to-day ; and, as

had
to

earliest
way,

authors

language, they
vernacular

feel

their the of

for

in
the

they were period of

The

using making

for

their This
was

poems

great

venture.

youth of Hindi of the golden age

Literature. vernacular
The

literature

Hindustan
not

begins

about
a

1550.

only

established

strong
art.

Mughal rule, but

Akbar

sovereigns
were

liberal

patrons

of literature

and

Under
Jahan reached

(1556-1605),

Jahangir
Muhammadan outward

( 1605-1627
rule

)and Shah
in India

its

( 1627-1658) the highest point of

also the period of magnificence and this was often the It has literature. glory in Hindi greatest than been pointed out how it synchronizes with the Elizabetime age of English literature, and that at this very

England
each other. of
to
a an

and

India

first

came was

into
marked the

real

contact

with

This

period
in

by
and

the

tion introduc-

artistic influence

into

greater polish first attempts to systematize

writers
age
as

versification
the and of Das
stars

literature, leading form, and the of art by poetry

others.

such
the

Kesav

This well

was
"

of

the

greatest
Das

Hindi

literature
as

Tulsi
of

Das,
Kavi Sikh
were
a

Sur
and

and like

Bihari
the

Lai,

as

other

great

writers

Dev
the
sects

Senapati. It was Gra?ith was compiled

formed,
great
of the deal like the

Tripathi brothers, the period when

and

when of

many

new

Dadupanthls,
verse a

which

duced pro-

of

religious

The

end

period however,

during

the

high eighteenth
order.

century,

of the of the decay coinciding with the time of decline in the time high a Empire, was Mughal contain not many quality of Hindi literature, and does of first-rate excellence.

writers

GENERAL

SURVEY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE

11

At influence

the

beginning
came

of

the

nineteenth literature
In the

century

new

into

Hindi

through

contact

with
the

the

culture had but

of Europe.
been
now

eighteenth
with
been the

century
French and

English English
up

struggling
that
was

in India had

for mastery,
the break of
to

conflict
further

decided

supremacy

established and the

of

the

old

Mughal
and
more

Empire
English

by the weakening

the make

Maratha

power.
more

influence

now

began
with
the

itself
other

felt in Indian
contact

affairs, and

amongst
culture
new

things
West the had

the the

of of

India

of the

effect of

ideas, while
internal of

sense

stimulating many freedom security which

encouraged
the there in of this

from

disorder
to
a

gave,

native

genius
about

India time

reassert

itself.

Hence

began
India

this

mighty

which
Lallii and

is still in progress. Ji Lai laid the foundation created the

literary renascence At the beginning

of modern

period
prose

Hindi
was
now

also

principal medium. spread literature

poetry
also the The
was

literary The printing-press

and

dialect

which

to

be

its
to

began
of

far

wide.

The and

revival this

Hindi
saw

led

by

Hari^chandra,
Hindi
drama.

period
up

rise of the

principle adopted in this book literature into periods is as follows. infancy of Hindi literature, connected
chronicles,
dated from
to

in

dividing
of
the

the

First with
a new new

all the bardic

is described each

; and

after
an

that

period is
influence

point where
the

important
These

begins

modify
1400,
movements

literature. the

periods
influence

begin
of
the
;

(1)

about

when

religious
to

Vaishnava

began
when
a

affect

Hindi

literature makes

(2)
itself

about

1550,
be

new

artistic

influence
the

felt ; and
to

(3)
with
shows

about

1800,
modern
West.
new

when

literature

began
from

affected

by
the

the

influence

which

came

contact

In

each its

period
fulness forms

the

literature

that

the and

spirit in
then the other far
to

will

first of all be and each

described will
be

in turn,
group
or

something
writer

said

as

how
new

each

is influenced

by

the

ideas.

III.

EARLY

BARDIC

CHRONICLES

(1150-1400)
time
power,

The

Earliest

Poets."
were

During
with
the who their

the their

when
and

the

Rajput
they
every
were

clans

establishing
its bards of
to to

while

struggling
had and heroism

Muhammadan

invaders,
in and
were

court

celebrated

song

the
race.

valour
These and

patrons
which been

their also

bards there and

belonged
are

guilds,
have The descent.

castes,

said
Pancholis.

Charanas,
and

Bhatas,
Bhatas used

Sevagas
both
at

Charanas The been the into

are

claimed
first

Brahmanic
these bards the A
must

language
local the

by

have

Prakrit,
modern

but

gradually

Prakrit of

developed
bards
poems
are

vernacular.
tradition 1150
a.d.
as

number

mentioned
between 700

by
and

having
The chief

composed
of these

Pushy
Ali

(or
and

Punda),
Akaram and

Kedar,
Faiz.

Ananya
Their

Das, work,

Masaud, however,
to say
as

Qutub
has
not

survived
the
or as

it

is

therefore used

impossible
is to
A be reckoned

whether Prakrit
of the

language
modern of the
on a

they

the

vernacular.

poetic
the Khuman

chronicle

ruling
dates

family
from

Mewar,
sixteenth work of
Kumar the

called

Rasa,
to

which
been but In

century,
in the

is

said

have

founded
no

written

ninth
has

century,

fragment
a

original
Pal
at

survived.

1143

certain

became

king
In

of

Gujarat,
under he the became
wrote

his

capital
of and

being
the
at poem anonymous
a

Anhilwar.
scholar late Prakrit bardic

1159,

influence
a a

Jain
rather in

Hemachandra
date

Jain,

Hemachandra
Kumara

romantic
An
name,

entitled

Pala

Charitra.
the
same

chronicle,
of
the

called

by

in

the

early

speech

modern

vernacular

is

14

A
1192.

HISTORY
and

OF

HINDI fiction
The

LITERATURE mixed Prithi with

and

Legend in the Prithl Raj

in
to

are

up

history
Sultan

Raso.

repeated

conflicts related

have

taken
seem

place
to

between
be

Raj

the quite unhistorical, and before Mughals are brought on the stage thirty years It is therefore they really appeared in Indian History. in its entirety is a conthe document whether temporary doubtful is the but language used, which poem,

Shihabuddin

transitional which have

that

in character

and

abounds
to

in

strange
is
one

forms it
seem

likely
the

long since ceased the original core

of Chand
in Hindi

be the

used, makes
poem

of

certainly
of the

work
the read

Bardal, and
which

that

it is

earliest
to to

poems

have
it is

survived.
a

Owing
not

of the difficulty
even a

for

language scholars, but those

of its the

poem

who

have

easy studied

it have immense

high opinion
value
from

literary merits. of point of view

taken fair

It

is of

linguistic
twentieth

study.
The book of

following lines
Chand's Sen,
an

are

from

the

epic.

The

of Padam
the

opponent

of Prithi

nobility of Prithiraj, as he her marriage was when arranged with a message by a parrot to Prithiraj to to with an army her. Prithiraj came
bride
"

daughter PadmavatI, had heard of Raj, of her had beauty, and another, she
come

sent

and

rescue as

seize

her

his

"

Watching
Happy
The She
was

the road she when the news,

was

in the direction of

Delhi,

Hearing
tore

the parrot returned, her eyes ; glad were the tokens from her of

maiden

elated with

love,

off the

dirtyclothes

body,

Called

Purified, and anointed, and adorned herself with robes, for priceless jewels (for her person) from head to foot,

Arrayed with the tokens of the king of love. Fillinga golden tray with pearls, Lighting a lamp she waved it round, Taking her confidante with her, boldly the maiden Rukmini to meet^Murari ; Goes went as Worshipping Gauri, revering Sankar ; Circumambulating and touching their feet. Then on seeingKing Prithiraj, She smiled bashfully, hiding her face through shame. Seizingher hand, puttingher on horseback,

EARLY
The
The

BARDIC
the Lord of

CHRONICLES
took the her away.

15

King,
rumour are are

Delhi,

spiead that, outside

carrying off Padmavati
beat,
'

city,
force. horse and

They
Drums

by

there

is

saddling of
each and

elephant,

They
1

ran,

armed,

in all directions. warrior. their

Seize ! Seize !

shouted

Rage
When With There

the heroes possessed

king.

King

was Prithlraj

going

in front

King
When The The The The From A As On The

behind him, all his army the horsemen advancing arrived ; meeting King, the warriors
the King Prithlraj heavens chiefs and for blood let bows heroes
on

in joined

battle,

turns

rein,

stand still, the world-serpent shakes.

all look the

(awful)

as

death,

Eager

rushes draw

King,

fly countless

arrows,

deadly blades
the sweat
stream

blood.
of the heroes
on

of the wounds

the

field,

thick

flows, and

dyes the sand,

trunks

warriors foe fell

of the barat

the field fell heads

on

smote, and headless

of the foe.

the field of battle ;

Turning Having won

All He took

his face towards the

were

Delhi,

battle,went

Prithlraj,

the chiefs

glad.
with him

Padmavati

Rejoicing,King Prithlraj."1
Chand
a

Bardal's
him.

son some

Jalhan

is also

said to Raso

have
were

been
posed com-

poet

and

possibly

parts of the
a

by

J"gndiydiU.." Jag-nay
of Chand Bardai

(or Jagnik)
the

was

ary contemporwas
a

and in

attended

court

of Paramardi

(Parmal)
of have has
a

of Mahoba

Bundelkhand,
have
not

who

rival
we

Prithiraj. His
in been the

works

_survived,unless
Alha

Mahoba
as

Khand
a

(or

Khand),

which

described which
handed
was

poem

of Chand's spurious canto written This by Jagnayak.

epic,
poem

has
many

been

down which

by

oral

tradition
one

and

exists both

in
in

recensions and

differ

from
and

another

language always
1

subject matter. professional singers in India

modernized
to

It

is
the

still sung

by
is

language
of
the

suit

the

dialect

reciter.
the

Translation Asiatic Society of

by Mr. John Beames, in Vol. 38 Bengal (1869), pp. 152, 153.

of the

Journal of

16

HISTORY of this
of
"

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE
Alha and have

The

heroes into

poem
one

are

Udal
been

(or
lated trans-

Udan).
under the

Portions

recension
metre

English
title of A few

ballad The

by

Mr.

Waterfield,
or

Nine-Lakh will

Chain
some

the

Maro

Feud."
poem.

stanzas

It relates
The In When

give Alha's victory over

their lives to
saw save

idea

of

this
:
"

King Jambay
and

warriors

staggered,they scattered
;

broke,

hope
his

Jambay

they fled,he spoke,

drave.

And
11

elephantonward champion, Devi's

Mahoba's Now Alive So from

turn

son,
me

settle

thy
turn

cause

with

the

field

by

shall go strike we."

but

one,

"

I may
Do Then And The Across And Then Now

not

thou
a

law ; strike,by the Chandel strike first, O King "; good red bow did Jambay draw,
to

fitted the notch

aim
was

string.

good,
the
arrow

the

Fast

did

stringdid twang, fly;

sprang,

the howda

Alha

the shaft went his

whizzing by.
as near

javelinflew
may

they drew,
? there

how turned

Alha
care

bide
at

Queen
She
11

Sarada's

his

right hand

the spear

aside.

Now
M

hear, Banaphar,"
Twice
peace

Jambay spake,
foiled my
blow so."
;

hast

thou

In

thy

way

to Mahoba

take,

For But
"

thrice thou there

to
a

'scap'stnot
made
;

Alha

his breast the

bare,

And No From
'*

did

Raja

cry

part of

Kshatri's

trade
to

it were,

the battle trench

are

fly."
stand

There And

homes

in heaven

ready for all,

To-morrow if in Maro
name

if not to-day ; this tide shall

My
"

shall live for is left thee, thou the miss

no

fall, aye."
to
"

One And Then

chance
see

King,
more

save,

drew

King
smote

his

shining glaive,
sore.

And

thrice he

full

EARLY
No At hurt His Then
*

BARDIC
Alha's
was

CHRONICLES

17

on

body happ'd,
lifted high ;
of
was

shield
wist hewn

length the

sword he death down

Jambay snapp'd, nigh.

this
;

I have And

elephants with
limbs it
now
"

blade,

lopped their
need
has life is lost

away

Its master's

betrayed,

My
'*

to-day !
my

Now,
And Howda

Raja,
his
to met

now

stroke he
to

take drove

thou,"
;

elephant on howda, tusk

the

tusk,
strove.

Close Then With The And Then On

champions
dash'd
a

Alha

forward

his blow

shield,
;
to

the boss

he dealt
was

driver elephant's he waver'd

to

hurl'd fro.

the

field,

and

Jambay drew Long time their Alha's body no

11

his steel hurt

dagger keen, they plied;

was

seen,

Now

bind

the

foe,"

he cried.

Pachsawad
Dashed Soon And Alha

whirl'd the howda

his iron
to the

chain,
;

lightedon
arms

the

ground plain,

fast his

he bound.1

Sarang
in the middle
a

Dhar."

Sarang
of Chand known

Dhar,

bard

who

flourished

of the

fourteenth

century,
Bardal.
He the Hammir

is said to have is the Rasa of

the

been
author

descendant of two
poems

reputed
and the

as are

Hamrriir house

Aavya,
of Ranthambhor.

which
the

chronicles

royal
in his whose

The
emperor

valour

of Hammir
at

struggle against
hands Dhar he

Ala-ud-din,
very

received
the

his

death, is
of
an

famous.

Sarang

is also

author

called the lyric stanzas was published in 1363. These early bards
some

of Sanskrit anthology Paddhati, which Sarngadhara had

long

line

of

successors,
on.

of

whom
are

will
valuable

be
not

mentioned

later

Their
as a

chronicles
record
1

of the
Calcutta

times Review,

only as literature, but the in which Like they lived.

63

old

Vol.

(1876),

pp.

414

ff.

18

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE

chronicles

of
and
on

other unreliable the

lands
as

they

contain but

much the

that

is

legendary
they
throw

history,
in

light
written

which is

period
great
this
to

which value. One

to

they

were

nevertheless
Other
Poets

of

very of

Period."

or

two

other

writers
may

who
be end

are

considered
These

belong
are

this
who Nalla

period
wrote

also
at

mentioned. of
the and

Bhupati,
and

the

thirteenth Amir

century,

Srngk,
about

Mulla
the

Daud,
fourteenth whom certain
an

Khusro,
The
are

who
latter also is
was

flourished
a

century.
Hindi Gorakhnath
of
verses

Persian
There

poet
is
founder

to

ascribed.

also

who
and
as

regarded
the author has
at

as

the

of

order

Yogis,
works.

of
been

both

Sanskrit
as

and
to

Hindi his

Some historical
was,

doubt

expressed
but it 1200 in
seems

being
that he

person

all,
about
one

likely
The almost

and

that

he

lived

a.d.

Hindi

works,
not

which written
his

include

prose,
are

are

certainly
the

by
followers.

him.

They

bably pro-

works
some as

of

They
middle
must

have the

been

placed
century,
very

by

early
date

as

the

of

fourteenth

but

their

at

present

be

regarded

as

uncertain.

IV.

EARLY

BHAKTI

POETS

(1400-1550)

The

Vaishnava
was

Revival."

A
the

new

development
of the Muhammadan for the

in Hindi

literature
movement had

caused in North
a

by
of had

growth
The

Vaishnava
quest con-

India.

been

time

great
been But

difficulty
dispersed, though
and form
a

Hindu

religion.
and

Scholars
cast
was

idols

broken,
suffered

temples
it

down.
not

Hinduism

severely
to

destroyed,
Vaishnava

great
the of

impetus
Hindu

was

be

given
Vaishnava
time

to

the

of

faith.
India
at

The

religious
into But three all A for him

movements groups,

North

this
and

fall

Ramaite,
sects

Krishnaite,
have
many

deistic.
in and
common.

the

various

points
love and
most

personal

God,

who of

is

full

of

pity

his

devotees,

is the

object
is demanded those
a

worship,
as

towards

devotion

(bhakti)
from
as

the

important
release.
the cold

requirement
The
movement

who
was
a

would revolt

obtain

whole

against
and the

intellectualism formalism
of

of
mere

Brahmanic ceremonial.

philosophy
It and rather it
movement
was

lifeless
a

essentially
emphasised Sanskrit,
This the in

popular by
the its
use

religious
of
amount

movement,

this
than

is

the

vernacular,
of literature of the

vast

produced.
from

constitutes

the

importance
Hindi

point
Ramananda's

of

view

of

literature. It
gave

Predecessors."

is the India

generally
greatest
about

agreed

that
to

it the

was

Ramananda

who in

impulse
this
and h of

religious
were

revival
others the

North
were

timer
the the

but

there

who

his
The

predecessors
Adi

harbingers
Sikhs,
some

of

movement.

Grant
has

compiled
of
the

by
earliest

Guru

Arjun specimens

in
we

1604,

preserved
of

possess

Hindi

20

HISTORY
of the bhakti of

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE

poetry
been

movement.

Among

those

devotees have than

(bhagats)

whose

compositions

fragments
are

preserved in the Granth, and who Sadna and Namdev. are Ramananda,
also
a

earlier
The

Granth

contains sometimes
of end
more

fragment
identified Gita
and

of

certain

Jaidev the

who

has

been

with
But date

Jayadeva,
lived
the and the

author the is

the

Sanskrit
the than

Govi?ida, who
the

towards

of

twelfth
doubtful
are

century.
unknown.

identification circumstances
the been

of this Jaidev

Sadna,
of the Sindh
and

who

probably flourished
century,
been
a a

about have

beginning
born

fifteenth
to

is said
butcher

to

in

have became

his trade

and

devotee. in the
to

(kasai). He gave up Only a couple of his

country
and
was
a

hymns
devotee between
and

are

preserved

Granth.
Maratha He

Namdev

belonged
of Vithoba
at

the

Pandharpur.
1430.

probably

flourished
a

about

1400
to

and the

according
great
time
a

legends
in

By caste he was preserved about

tailor,
he

him

showed
for

devotion
an

his

boyhood,
company

but

afterwards with
a a

lived
He He

evil
author he of

life in of
was

band

of dacoits. devotee.

repented,
is the
but north A

however,
a a

and

became

great
of

considerable

number

Marathi
leader
verses

hymns,
in
in the Hindi. him

India

noteworthy religious wrote also, and many

number of Namdev of the

considerable
in the

hymns
is
about
a

are by most interesting figure and probably one leaders of the new religious revival which

composed

Granth.

first

began
about

this time

in North

India.

Ramananda,

who ascetic
to

lived who
that
name

probably from
somewhere the of from be eternal

1400 the should

to

1470,
1430

was

an

about

year

began
the and

preach
the

God
that

be

worshipped
was source

under

Rama,
the

Rama

alone

of release this should

evils of

tion, transmigra-

sought by fervent devotion been The had him. {bhakti) towards already way similar lines, on prepared by the preaching of others such that and Ramananda with success evidently met
that he took
up

his residence

in Benares

and

made

that

the

22

HISTORY 1425.
the

OF On

HINDI
a

LITERATURE

the he

year

abdicated

becoming his sovereignty

to

disciple
became been

of
a

Ramananda
mendicant.

and

Dhana,
was
a

Jat, is said
at

have
of

born

in 1415.

Sen

barber three been

the

court

the

these have

disciples of
preserved
of the the

Ramananda

in the

Adi

Of Raja of Rewah. only a few hymns Granth. Bhawana?id,

author of

another

disciple,is
chapters
chamar
as a

reputed
the of

of Dhar.

an

tion explanain Das Rai

in Hindi fourteen
was

Vedanta called

system
Amrit

philosophy
and

the

disciple
devotee.

Ramananda,
More than Adi

attained

great

celebrity
have

thirty of his
Granth.
to

hymns

been in which
:
"

preserved
he

in

the

The

following, a specimen
14

describes

his relation

God,

is

If Thou
If Thou 0

art art

hill,then

am

God, Thee;

the moon, if Thou break

then
not

Thy peacock ; am Thy chakor;

me,

with

I will

not

break

with

If I break

with Thee, whom

art art
a a

shall I I
am

join ?
;
am

If Thou
If Thou 1 have

lamp,

then

place of

Thy wick pilgrimage,then I

Thee
;

Thy pilgrim.

joined true love with Joining Thee I have broken Wherever I go there is Thy
There Rav Kabir." is Das
no

with all others.

other

Lord
Thee

like

Thee,

service ; O God.
noose

By worshipping
The
as a

Death's obtain

is cut

away.

singethto

Thy service."1

greatest poet
weaver
or

of the
a

whether Muhammadan

disciples of Ramananda, the religious leader, was

Kabir
son

(1440-1518). According
of
a

legend he who, in order

to

was

really the
conceal
near

Brahman

widow,
the it
was

to

her

in

the

Lahar

Tank

shame, Benares,

exposed
where
weaver,
as

infant
covered dis-

by wife Nima,
Another
offence he

Niru,
and

the

Muhammadan
up
an a

and
own

his
child.

brought version gives

Even
to
as

by

them

their

of his birth. both

entirely miraculous boy he is said to have

Muhammadans.
a

account

given
former of

Hindus
latter
"

and
on

The

angered
and

by putting
the

sacred

cord

though
names

low God

caste,
1

by
Sikh

using

Hindu

for

Macauliffe,

The

Religion," Vol.

VI.

p. 331.

EARLY

BHAKTI

POETS
He taunted
guru.
to

23
also ing Desirbecome
a

though
with
to

he

was
a

Muhammadan.

was

being
remove

disciple of be accepted.

without a nigura, that is one he this reproach wished but feared that Ramananda,
He
upon

he
to
a

might
he the then
mantra

not

therefore the

had

recourse

stratagem.
knew
guru
no

Lying might
words

down

steps

of the

ghat which

Ramananda

visited, he hoped that in the dark that stumble over him, and probably
would
rise This words
so

readily
hope Ram,
Kabir
a was

to

his
' '

lips as
and

the

of
he

his
had

order. the

realised Kabir
to have

Ramananda
that the

uttered been

' '

Ram.

claimed

initiated

and

Ramananda

admitted

claim.

After

this initiation

is said

visited his guru

he he
went
was

regularly, but though far beyond his master

disciple of Ramananda

in his
or can

teaching.
not,
be there traced

Whether
is
no

originally
Muhammadan He He
names was uses

Muhammadan influence

doubt his in

that ideas. India. other

in

the the such

founder
name as

of the Rama

deistic
for

movement

God

(as

well

as

Vedantic

has Hari, Govind, Allah, etc.) and of ideas, but he rejected entirely the doctrine

incarnations, and idolatry and most

The

with
of

no

unsparing
Hindu direct and

voice

condemned and

the

ceremonies

rites.

influence
him other

of Not
as

Kabir,

both

indirect, has been

enormous.

claims
many

only is the sect of Kabirpanthis, which but its founder, still very numerous,
owe

sects

to

him

the
sects

leading ideas
will
be literature
many

of

their their
not

theology.
later leaders
very
on

Many
in connection

of

these

mentioned

with
There information

the
are

which but

produced.
much reliable in

legends
the the
to

about

life of Kabir.

His

interest
seems

weaving
conflict
to

with
from

religious questions to have brought his family, but even

the who

neglect of his
into
came

him
more

sometimes
trouble

him

opposition
were

of

both in

Hindus
turn at

and

Muhammadans,
denunciation

offended

his

of many

of their

have
after

been

persecuted
denounced
a as

by the

He to practices. seems Sikandar Emperor Lodi,

being

by

both

Hindus
and

and

madans Muhamwas

troublesome

person,

finally

24

HISTORY
from
to

OF
Benares

HINDI

LITERATURE
the

exiled
He
went

by

Emperor's

orders.

in the Gorakhpur Maghar district, his days. he ended where The composed by Kabir are numerous. poems very he himself commit It is probable that did not them to remembered and treasured writing, but that they were Various collections of by his disciples. up poems live at ascribed
to

Kabir

have that

come

down

to

us,

but

there

is

strong
be

probability
that

there

is much
One the
"

in

these

tions collec-

is not
in in the

his Adi

genuine work.
Granth
Another of

collection
is contained

is to
was

found

Sikhs, which

compiled the Bijak perhaps

be with
as a

1604.

collection
or a

in

"invoice," (literally
a

account-book,"or
treasure
can

"

document

by
work
after

which
was

hidden

located").
the book

This
Panth

produced
death said

in connection

Kabir

the

of Kabir
to

probably
have
been

of instruction.

It is often
one

compiled
of short
a

by
verses

Bhago
the

Das,
year

of The

Kabir's Bijak
The
are

immediate is
a

disciples, about
doctrinal

1570.
metres.

tion collecare

in various
poems.

Ramainls similar
an

The The

"abdas

but
of

in
of the

different

metre.

Chauntlsa

is

exposition
the

the

religious signification of the consonants In the of thirty verses Nagarl alphabet.

an

Vipraof the

matlst

attack The and

is made

on

the

orthodox

system
in the

Brahmans. Birhulls
so

KaharSs,
are

Vasantas,

Belts, Chanc
over

harts,
metres

Hindolas
The short the

religious
ends

verses

named.
or

collection

with
Ko
verses

four

hundred of
a

Sakhis,
the

apophthegms,
Sayar
Neither in

each

consisting
sums

single doha, and

whole
Granth
matter.
nor

Bijak
the the

Pad, which
contained
can

up

in the in

Adi
their there
over verses

those
as

Bijak
of

be

regarded

entirety
are a

the

work
have

Kabir.

Besides

these

very

large
to

number been

of

Sakhis
still

(of which
and
current

five
At

thousand

collected)
are

other

ascribed
the

Kabir

which

in

India. of
a

Kabir
Panth the

the

Kabir which

Chaura, which is the headquarters there is said to be at Benares,

works
of

collection

of

Kabir,
twenty

called

the

Khcts books.

Granth,

includes

about

different

EARLY

BHAKTI

POETS
the

25

Many
The

of

these

are

evidently
few
in the of

works have
of

of been

disciples
in

or

successors,

though
used old

them

published.
the The

dialect is the is

compositions
dialect

contained
and the
to

Bijak
of

Avadhi
and
not

Hindi.

poetry
and

Kabir

rough
it often
to

unpolished,
always
strung

style
with

language
Words little
are

make

easy

understand.
very

loosely

together

and the sentences grammatical accuracy, The often full of colloquialisms. are elliptical and of the and frequent play on words obscurity of many increase the the used similes difficulty. But in spite of all this Kabir be given a very must high place in

regard

Hindi
he

literature. attacked the

The

amazing

boldness

with

which

his day, practices of shams and reality in tolerating no demanding the all and those who God, seeking after were of his appeal moral to to men earnestness put the in itself give his work an things of God first, would this the But besides stinging outstanding importance. satire which his and his he has at command, ability to produce striking epigrams, and the fascinating rhythm of his verse, all combine to give a wonderful to power his poetry. called the He has been pioneer of Hindi

religious

literature
in view such
to say
a

and

the

father

of all Hindi
we

of the claim
that

predecessors can hardly be

was

have

but though, hymns; already mentioned, it is

allowed,
than
any

certainly
before and of the

true

it

he

more

others

him

religious literature popularized Hindi extended literature its influence, and Hindi
who

vastly
same

type
the
may

subsequent
charm and
to

to

Kabir

owes

to

him
very

great
little
a

debt. idea
extracts

Translations

of his

poems

give
of the
two

of
he

force
some are

of

his idea

style, but
kind the of

few

help produced.
him
11

give
Here

of literature

one

or

Sakhts

ascribed

to

"

Everything is from God and nothing from His servant; He into a mountain and can change a mustard-seed
into
a

mountain

mustard-seed." of God
to

"

The He

house who in

is

distant,as

is

tall

palm

climbs

the top, tastes

of heaven

; ; he who

falls is

ground

pieces."

26
11

HISTORY
the

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE
flour
to

Consider
So

parableof
;

the sieve ; it suffers the

pass, but

retains the husk

men

let pass

what

is

good

and

swallow

what

is useless."1

The
:
"

lines below

illustrate

Kabir's theological standpoint

then
to

If God If Ram
Hari All

be

within ? the East

the

mosque, which

whom

does

this world

belong
then

be within who is in the

image
; Allah you

you

find upon
West. Karim
are

your

pilgrimage,
? within
;

is there to know

what

happens

without Look and Ram

is in the

your

heart, for there

the
men

will find both of the world and of Ram

and

women

His
:

livingforms.
is my guru, He is

Kabir
my

is the child

of Allah

He

Pir."a extract
verse
:
"

One

more

will

illustrate

the

poetical merit
came

of Kabir's
No The
one

knew

and

the mystery spread the warp. and

of that

weaver

who

into the world

earth

sky

are

the two

beams

the

sun

and

moon

are

two

filled shuttles. Taking a thousand

weaveth

threads he
hard
to

spreadsthem
reach with

lengthways: to-day
woven

he

still,but

is the far-off end.

Says Kabir, Joining Karma threads,splendidlythe

The have been
son a

Karma,
weaves.8

with

unwoven

weaver

of

Kabir,

poet, and
Hence

is also said Kamal, made his couplets to have been

named of his
arose

to

in

refutation
to have

of the

sayings

father

whom

he

seems

opposed.
was
"

the the

proverb,
son

"An
was
owe

family

Kabir's, in
Of
to

which

Kamal

unlucky born."
their
more

Nanak.

the the the

many

movements

which Kabir
the
none

inspiration
important
founded in

teaching

of

is

than the

religion of Punjab by Nanak

when

Sikhs, which

was

(1469-1538).
years

It
met

is

said

that

Nanak,

twenty-seven

of

age,

of the latter is seen Kabir, and the influence of Kabir's the compositions large number included in the
are

not

only in
of and

afterwards
doctrines

Sikh
very

Granth,
similar

but
to

in those
and

the of
the

Nanak,
1

which

Kabir,
Kabir

Translations Translation

from

Westcott's

"Kabir

Panth,"
69.

pp.

95, 86, 93.

a

by

Sir Rabindranath 28.

Tagore, "Kabir's
Shah's

Bijak. Ramaini

(Rev.

Ahmad

Poems," translation.)

EARLY

BHAKTI
deal than

POETS

27

undoubtedly
stands
nearer

owe

great

to

him,
Kabir.

though
Nanak

Nanak
made

to

Hinduism

directions in several accompanied by his journeys while Nanak who played the rebeck disciple Mardana, His hymns and other poetical utterances were sang. in a mixture of Punjabi and Hindi. Although he is not is clear and a as equal to Kabir poet, yet his verse Nanak lacking in poetical excellence. pithy, and not of his most of followers and one soon gathered a number famous compositions is the Japji, a collection of verses in praise and for their he which daily use arranged this he composed Besides a very large number prayer. of The other
verses

which
one to

are verse

included from

in the the

Sikh
"

Gra,7ith.

following is
is
no

Japji.
those

"There

limit

God's

praises; to
and
to

who

repeat them
is He His
no

there is no limit. is no limit to His There

There The The To His is limit

mercy,

His

there gifts be known.

; neither

limit. heareth.

to what seeth, no no limit of the secret of His heart cannot limit of His creation cannot be known

God

limit to what

near

nor

His know

far side His

can

be discovered.
many
vex

limits how be His the

their hearts.

limits cannot Nobody knoweth The Great

more we

ascertained limits.
more

say,

there remains

to

be said.

Lord, and exalted is His seat. His exalted name the most exalted. is higher than Were else ever exalted, so any one
Then How He would know that exalted

is the

Being
He

Himself. great He is He knoweth God bestoweth whom Nanak, on gifts

looketh

with

favour

and

mercy."1
The
as

Krishna
as

Cult."

The

followers
and

of

Ramananda,

well
name

those of Rama

of
to

Kabir
the

the
names

Nanak, generally gave other Supreme God, though

used. The
an

were

sometimes

followers

of and and and

Ramananda

accepted
of

Rama the

as

incarnation,
of

permitted
the
use

idolatry, but images were

was

doctrine

incarnation

both

rejected
to

by

Kabir

Nanak.
1

It

indeed

still bhakti
bv

Rama

which
Sikh

they

Japji, XXIV;
I. 208.

Translation

Macauliffe, "The

Religion,"

Vol.

28

HISTORY
but Rama

OF

HINDI
as

LITERATURE invisible

preached,
incarnation.

to

the

God,

not group

as

an

There

was

however

another

of of the

Vaishnavas
another

Ramaite

God under the form worshipped Krishna. Like incarnation, namely of Krishna cult the also had worship

who

its
but
was

beginnings
about this

in

the

centuries
a

before
new

this

period,

impetus, which of well marked, as as use furthered, by the vernacular for its religious literature. Sometimes the child Krishna who was was especially thought of but it was often as object an more worship,
aspect
relation
most

time

received

the it

of
that

of

Krishna's
to

life which
and the

was

concerned

with

his

Radha

other

Gopis
back
to

that

received Sanskrit
and
as

attention.

Radha-Krishnaite Gita Govinda

as

verse

goes

the

of

Jayadeva
1450

in the

twelfth Krishna
1480

century,

early

the

fourteenth Between named

century
and

hymns
there

appeared
a

in Bengali.

flourished who
He
wrote

Gujarat!
credited

poet
with

Narsingh
that

Mehta

Radha-Krishna

lyrics in

language.
verses

is

also

Vidyapati

similar having composed who lived at Thakur, district

of
one

in Hindi. in the the

Bisapi
middle

Darbhanga
fifteenth

Bihar of the He

in
most
was

the

of

century,
Eastern of

is

famous the

Vaishnava
founder of
a

poets
school
over

of

India.

master-singers
Little of several
rests
on

which

afterwards
of

spread
he

all
was

Bengal.
author

is known Sanskrit

his

life, but
His

the

works. in the

chief
love

fame of

however Bihari.
Radha

his sonnets
he
uses as

Maithili
of the
to

dialect

In bore

these
to

the
an

story

which
the

Krishna
soul
to to

allegory
Many

describe
were

relation

of the

God.

of these

wards after-

adapted and Chaitanya,

His
a

poems

possess

made and by popular Bengali imitators. Vidyapati has had many had and he has great literary merit
on

great

influence

the

literature

of

the

Eastern

part

of India.

Umapati
and and

was

probably
Krishnaite

contemporary
songs both

of in

Vidyapati,
in Maithili

also
in

wrote

Bengali.

30
The

HISTORY sharp arrow through, O

it struck Mother. I

OF
of His Mother.
me

HINDI
love hath

LITERATURE

pierced my
;
now

body through
be

and O

When

I knew

it not

it cannot

endured,

Though
Is there

use

charms, incantations,and
one

drugs, the pain will

Intense is the agony,

not

depart.
any Mother. O who

will

treat

me

Thou,
Saith The

God,
me.

art

near

; Thou

art

not

distant ;

come

quickly

to

meet

MIra, the Lord, the mountain-wielder, who

hath

is the

compassionate
twine
of His

quenched the fire of my Lotus-eyed hath entwined

The

body,
my

Mother.

soul

with

attributes."1

Vallabhacharya."

spread
most to

Krishna,
was

however,
son

owed

worship Vallabhacharya.
the India
an

of

of He born

the

of

Brahman

from He in

South

and

was

at

Benares
at

in

1479.

established the

image
and of his

of
from
sect

Krishna
this in
as

Gobardhan

Braj country,
the

his

headquarters
parts
has and of

spread
He in

doctrine
many

many

India.

wrote

works
movement

in

Sanskrit, but
he

nothing
was

Hindi, though
many
as

the

initiated
in 1531
son

produced
succeeded

Hindi leader

writers.
of the
sect

He

died his

by
not

Vitthalnath. about
sect

lived from Vitthahiath, who of the the leader only became

founded but

1515

to

1585,
a

which

his father been

had

is also

credited
verses

with
the
to

having
been

Hindi
of the

writer.
short

Besides

Hindi
is also

genuineness of which
the

is doubtful, he
a

said
called

have

author with

prose

work
and

Mandan

dealing

of the be one must Krishna, which in earliest extant It is written writings in Hindi. prose of the Four Braj Bhasha. disciples of his father disciples Vallabhacharya, together with four of his own

story

of Radha

became in
a

the

celebrated

Ashta

Chhap, who

are

mentioned
this of

later

chapter.
of the

Divisions

Bhakti

Movement."

During
movements

period
ism Hindu-

(1400-1550)
fall
1

the

various

bhakti

into

three

groups,
"

namely
The

(1)
the

those

who
Vol.

Translation

by Macauliffe,

Religion of

Sikhs,"

VI.

356.

EARLY

BHAKTI

POETS

31

incarnation and Rama an practised as worshipped God under the who worshipped idolatry, (2) those the doctrine but rejected idolatry and of Rama, name Krishna. of incarnation, and (3) those who worshipped
In
to

each be

group

during this period Hindi

and
was
one

literature factors

came

used
to

of the

great

which

helped
on

spread
hand

the

various
to

the

other

helped
Almost

while movements, they of stimulate the growth

the

Hindi Hindi
these

literature.

whole with
one

of
or

subsequent
another

literature
forms

is impressed Jayasi."
currency

of
had

of Vaishnava

doctrine. The than bardic the

Malik
a

Muhammad
more

chronicles

much

local

religious

verse

described little to
one

outside contributed and above, Rajputana of vernacular the development literature, but
poem

remarkable
even

of

this

period
had the
was

seems

to

show

how the

the

poetry

of the

bards

been

affected
about

by
of

This religious revival. Muhammad Malik Jayasi who Malik Muhammad

was was
a

Padumavatl

flourished Muhammadan

1540.

devotee,
and He

but

acquainted

with

Hindu of of

lore,
Kabir.

profoundly
was

affected honoured the tomb birth

by the teaching Raja by the

of
a son

much

Amethi,
of

who
the

attributed his
the the mavatl, Padu-

to
seen

the

prayers

saint, and
called

is still to he

be

at Amethi.
a

Besides
poem

wrote

also the

religious
he from
or

Akharavat.

In Ratan

Padumavatl

tells the
a

certain

Sen of

great
to

be.auty
as as a

who, hearing Padumavati,

and

story of a parrot of the

Padmini,
to

journeyed
Chitor

Ceylon Delhi,
was

mendicant
heard in of order

returned the and

with

Padmini
at

his bride. also

Ala-ud-din,
Padmini
to

ruling sovereign
endeavoured of
to

capture
He

Chitor

gain

possession

her.

taken Sen was unsuccessful, but Ratan prisoner and held as a hostage for her surrender. He was wards afterfrom released of two captivity by the bravery heroes. He then attacked king Dev Pal, who had made insulting proposals to Padmini during his imprisonment. Dev Pal was Sen, who mortally killed, but Ratan was returned His to Chitor two wounded, only to die.

32

HISTORY PadminI
and

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE satl for

wives,
while gates

another, became
Ala-ud-din
it
was

him, and

this of

was

happening
though
end At the
as

Chitor, and
it. it
man,

at the appeared bravely defended,

captured explains body of

and the
so

of the
an

poem

Malik

Muhammad is the

all

being
Sen

allegory.

Chitor

Ratan is

is the

soul, Padmini

is wisdom,

Ala-ud-din
on,

story.

is the delusion, the parrot guru, thus and is given to a religious character Malik Muhammad's is based the on poem with
and the actual he has also in

facts connected
took the The

place
details
poem

1303, but
borrowed

siege of Chitor, which considerably modified

from other dialect
an

stories.
of

is written

in the

vernacular

Malik

Muhammad's
of Persian
in the

time
words

tinged slightly with

and

admixture

idioms.

It It is

was
a

originally
of great
as

written

Persian

character.

work

originality and
one

be reckoned poetic beauty, and must of the masterpieces of Hindi literature.

The

following translation
description
as a

of

an

extract

from

Malik
some

Muhammad's
idea
"

of

Ceylon
:
"

will

give

of his excellence
When the
a man

poet

Kailasa odours
were

mount

approacheth this land, 'tis as though he approacheth of heaven. Dense lie on every side, mango-groves
to

from rising it the

the

earth

the

very

sky.

Each covereth

Malaya, night. The shade is pleasantwith its Malaya breeze ; e'en of Jye"tha [May-June] 'tis cool amidst it. It is as in the fiery month from from it the shade and cometh cometh that as though though night of the When the cometh thither suffering sky. wayfarer greenness his trouble in his blissful rest, and whoso from the heat he forgetteth hath this perfect shade, returneth ne'er found again to bear the
sun-rays. '* So end.
many

of mount

and

the shade

tall tree the exhaleth the world as though

and

so

dense
seasons

are

The it
11

whole
were

six

these groves, of the year do bear

trees

that

cannot

tell their

they flower
and fruit, bow their

and the

fruit, as
more

though

always spring. pleasant thick mango-groves (humbly) do the they bear, the more
The main fair
sweet

fruit On the

heads. fruit bees khirni

branches

and

trunks barhal

of the
to

jack
who

appeareth the
as

him

trees, the looketh.

jack
The

ripen,and
ripeneth
its

molasses, and

the black

wild

plum,

like black

(among

they ripen as ripen and ripeneth the khurhur; leaves). Cocoanuts doth From mahud the orchards in Indra's heaven. the were though and its is its scent flowers such sweetness flavour, ; exude, that honey and in these princes' good to eat, whose gardens are other good fruits,

EARLY

BHAKTI

POETS

33

names

I
once

knew tasteth

not.

They
them

all

appear
ever

with

nectar-

like
more.

branches,

and

he

who

remaineth all groves

longing
are

for

"Arecaand
On every

nutmeg,
are

fruits,
of

produced
of

there

luxuriantly.
and
of

side

thick

tamarinds,

palmyras,

date-

palms.
11

There
as are

dwell

the
upon

birds,
these the The

singing
turtle-dove
emerald and

in

many

tongues,
At
out
'

and the

sporting honeyand

joyfully
suckers thou' the for
ever
1

they

look

nectar-branches. cries

dawn
thou

fragrant,
tu

and

'Tis

only
and crieth

(eka-i

hi).
cry

parroquets

sportively
The tuhin hawk-cuckoo khi. in many while

rejoice,
Kuhu

rock-pigeons
its

kurkur

fly
warbler

about. shouted

beloved,
the
'

and

the

skulking
while the

kuhu

crieth

cuckoo, [dahi,

king-crow
the

speaketh
The the

tongues.
the kun
green

Tyre,

tyre

dahi]
its and

crieth tale

milkmaid-bird, peacock's
crows.

pigeon
sounded
**

plaintively
sweet to

telleth the
ear,

of

woe. caw

cry

kun

loudly
every
own

Filling praiseth

the the

orchards,
Creator in

sitteth his

bird

that

hath

name,

and

each

tongue."1
Two
"

Other

Poets may

of

this

Period."

other

poets
Das
Dhruv

of

this

period
wrote

also

be

mentioned

Narottam and

(fl. 1530)
Charitr.
also the

the works of

Sudama
are

Charitr
stories
poems.

the
He

These
author

in

verse.

was

detached Ram Hit

Kripa
entitled

(fl. 1540)
Tarahgini

was

the in the

author

of Bhasha.
extant

work
Its

written
its

Braj

importance
in

lies

in with
was

being
the
art

earliest

work
it

Hindi
the

dealing
way

of

poetry,
for

and the

shows of

how Kesav

being

prepared

work

Das.

Padumdvati,
Pandit
Sudhakara
; New

Canto

II.

27-29;
in

Translation Bibliotheca Vol. I.

by

Sir

George
of

A.Grierson

and of

Dwivedi

Indica

Asiatic

Society

Bengal

Series,

No.

877,

15,

16.

THE

MUGHAL INFLUENCE

COURT IN HINDI

AND

THE LITERATURE

ARTISTIC

(1550-1800)

The

New

Influence

in

Hindi

Poetry."

Although
was

the the

religious
literary
of the

language language
court,
was

of

the

Muhammadans used in

Arabic,
the

they
Persian.

India,

and

language
a

This
had the

language developed

possessed
a

large
artistic

literature,
character in
court

which
before

already
Muhammadan Hindus

highly
was

power

established with Urdu

Persian the

India.
came

Many
to

who

were

connected and when after its

own

learn

this
it

language,
was

literature
models.

developed Though
any

fashioned
on

Hindi

developed
from

lines,
seems

without
not

direct
that

influence the became standard At all there

Persian,
Persian
may
verse

it

unlikely
many
a

polished

with

which

Hindus artistic before.

acquainted
in

have

suggested
than there of

higher
been

Hindi
events

literature about
a

had the

the
new was

middle
artistic

sixteenth
in

century
Hindi

appeared
which

influence
under

literature,
from the

developed
Previous
but those who
was

encouragement
rulers who first The

Mughal

court.

Muhammadan it
was

had extended

encourged
patronage
of Akbar

ture, literato

Akbar in

wrote

Hindi.
its

reign
and and

(1556Not
a

1605)
only
strong
\vao

marked he

by
successful

brilliance
in
war

splendour.
in

was

establishing
but ture, Architecall
aged. encour-

and,
also
a

on

the

whole,
of and
art

good
and

government,
literature.
were
a

he

great

patron

music,
The

painting
Emperor

calligraphy

established

large

library

of

THE

MUGHAL
of

COURT various Sanskrit

"

HINDI
and

LITERATURE
had the

35

books made Poets

languages,
into

translations
vernacularality. liberthe

from
were

Persian rewarded
of such

and

patronized and The magnificence glorious reign of Queen

contemporary
influence

with
a

great

reign, like
England

Elizabeth

in

which

was

with
on as

stimulating
in Even

but exercise not it, could a all sides, and this was felt

Hindi
those

literature writers
court

well

as

in far

other
away

directions.
from that
a

who
were

lived

the

influence could

of the
on

helped
in

by feeling
under

they

carry

their

labours
to
secure as

peace

ment govern-

strong
towards

enough
as

good

order,

and

tolerant Akbar

Hindus
a

well

Muhammadans. and

pursued
of

deliberate

Hindu others

him,

and

policy of protection learning. The patronage in high position, to Hindu

a

ment encourage-

extended
as

by
as

well

to

Muhammadan

writers, stimulated literary activity, and encouraged

standards of

great
was

outburst
in of touch

of
the

improvement
in close

poetic
those

art.

The

influence lived

course

felt most
the
court. Poets

by
at

writers

who

with

Akbar*

Court.

"

Akbar
verses

author

of

few

detached Akabbar

is the reputed in Hindi, in which he

himself

signs
Tan
were

himself in the

Ray.
name

They

were

probably
musician
of
state

composed
Sen.
also

Emperor's
of It
was

by
great

the

court

Some
authors.

Akbar's

ministers
to

largely due
and

the

influence
learn
as a

of

Raja

Todar

Mai
Urdu Besides

(1523-1589)
was

in making
the

Hindus

Persian

that

developed
was

accepted
of
.

language. into Persian, Todar

verses,

translating
Mai the morals Dube

Bhagavata
some

Purdna Hindi Birbal

author

the

best
was

and at Brahman, was first a poet at the of the court Raja of Jaipur. The latter sent him of Akbar, his ability to the court where He not only skilled soon brought him into favour. was in business that he soon to a high position, but so rose also possessed great musical and poetical talent. Akbar him the title of Kavi Ray (poet-laureate) and he gave received He was famous for rapid promotion. as a poet

(1528-1583)

being on a Kanauji

(mtt)

Raja

36

HISTORY of
work
to

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE
and humorous character.

his No
verses

short

verses

witty
him
are

complete
ascribed
a

by
him

has still

survived,
current.

but
When

many

he

of a high position he himself became patron Das other (fl.1577), another Raja Manohar poets. also a poet. of Akbar's courtiers, was Maharaja Man of Akbar's generals, Singh (1535-1618) of Jaipur, one and is reputed to a great was patron of literary men, lakh of rupees for a single have a as given as much brother of Abul Abul Faiz_(or Faizi) was Fazl, verse.

reached

who Akbar.
author

wrote

the Abul

Aln-i-Akbarl.
Faiz
was

Both
a

were

friends

of the

of many
most

Hindi skilled

only couplets.
not

Persian

poet but

The

Hindi
was

poet
Abdul
son

amongst
Rahlm of Bairam

Akbar's
Khan

great

ministers whose
on

of

state

Khankhana

(1553-1627).
the throne.

He

was

the

through

aid Akbar,
He and

in
was

his

established youth, had been sian, acquainted with Arabic, Perand

himself

being a poet was a great especially of Gang patron Hindi morals His Kavi. on especially those verses, (niti) are very much a admired, and he was poet of a he the several works Amongst produced high order.
of poets,

Sanskrit

Hindi,

besides

is the Tan

Rahlm

Sat

Sal

in which
of

some

of

his

best

poetry
vert con-

is found. Sen

(fl.1560-1610)
was

Gwalior,
celebrated
age.

Hindu musician service

to

Islam,
court

the

most

at
at

Akbar's
other the

and he he
was

indeed

of his

After in
to
a on

courts

summoned

by Akbar
Akbar is said

1563,
have

and

first time
two wrote

performed
of
rupees.

him also

lakhs

Besides
He

being
lived

given singer he
into the

poems

in

Hindi.

his are compositions Amongst reign of Jahangir. of Ram the Mala. Das the Sahglt Sar and Rag of the Das, was Gopchal, the father great poet Sur another as regarded court, great singer of Akbar's Hindi other Sen. second Among only to Tan poets

who
Karnes

attended

Akbar's

court

were

the

two

friends

given

latter was The for Karan) and NarhariSahay. the the title of Mahapatr, by Akbar Emperor

38

HISTORY famous

OF

HINDI
courtesan
was

LITERATURE
of also those the
a

dedicated
Pravin
numerous

to

days

named of

Ray
Ram

Paturi, who
poems

authoress

short

which
of

have Das

great
was

reputation.
inscribed
to
was

The

Chandrika
son

Ke3av

Indrajit Singh,
Das

of Madhukar

Shah.

It

KeSav

who,
to

through
excuse

Raja

Birbal's
a

instrumentality, got
had fine he heavy was greatly honoured Rasik the

Akbar

Indrajit from

Das imposed upon him, and Ke"av also the Ke3av learned wrote by Indrajit. (sahitya) and Priya on poetical composition

Ram

Alankritmanj
and kindred

art

on

prosody.
were

These
not

works

on

poetry
with
of

subjects
but also

giving rules,
so

provided
a

only original
of Das

concerned

illustrations,
great
is
a

that

each merit. but

work
The there

is also

collection of Ke3av
of

verse

poetic reading,
very

poetry
is
no

not

doubt

his is

being
to

easy poet of

great
the

skill, and
foremost. have The
we

his been

name

be
he of
can

reckoned
on

amongst,
his
many

Very

many

commentaries
and has of

principal works
imitators. is all that

written,
a

had

translation
space

few

which
a

have

for

here,
"

lines, give only

enemies like

his

very
Ke"av

inadequate idea of
says
cannot

his

poetry:
done
to

my

[grey]
a me

hairs have

me

what

my

do;
with call
*

Maidens
now

countenance

fair as

the moon,

and

eyes

deer,

Baba
*

[father].
* * *

Do Do

not

employ
serve an

Brahman
;

who

is

greedy
; do

of

fees; do

not

make that

fool your
not

friend

ungrateful master
* *

not

praise poetry
*

is

full of defects.
* "

Ke"av

says,

When

see

glancing eyes
to

my

good
heeded
my

resolutions
;

go,
to

and all

the opinion of the world

My
The

ears

become

deaf of

is no longer instruction,and
wrong ;

eyes of my

closed mind

discernment

right and

chariot-like motion

of the

good
a
*

intentions

becomes
on me.

stopped like
May
the Creator
*

river that has ceased

woman

to flow.

forbid that such

*

should
*

fix her eyes

*

who is a thief, with an unsteady gait, a servant Avoid a horse is friend without mind which master a a fickle, intelligence, who is
a

miser.

THE

MUGHAL

COURT

"

HINDI

LITERATURE

39

house, dwelling in dog-kennels, Taking food in another's these things,says Kesav in the rainy season Das, travelling of trouble. lot a give
"

Keeping

company

with

sinners, a
"

woman

under
hurtful

the

control

of

to are Cupid, a son Folly,old age, sickness, poverty, falsehood, anxiety

"

of ill-fame

these

the mind. these

things,

says

Ke"av,

are

hell upon

earth.

Some

Contemporaries

"ffttesa.v

Das.

"

The

brother

Balbhadra Sanwhose name was Das, include which several works a ctdhya Afisra, wrote PurSna. His the most on Bhagavata commentary is recognized is a Nakhsikh, which famous as poem of

Kes'av

standard

work.

This Hindi

is

form

of literature

which

is

common

amongst
works
on

writers, and

with

the

art

part of the

(nakh)
with be
kind used

to

body of a the top-knot

verses.

of poetry. heroine hero or of the hair

a

is closely connected In a Nakhiikh every

from the

toe-nail

(iikh) is described
was

illustrative

Such
in
on

work
of
or

intended A-

to

by

other is
a

poets
work

want

ideas.
a

similar

of work in which and

lovers,
with
a

Nayak-Nayika
and heroines which
on are

Bhed,
often

various
classified

kinds

of heroes

described

minuteness

is
of

pedantic and
of this
and

absurd.
were

Other Bal

writers
Krishna

the

art

poetry
wrote
a

period
Nath

TripaM
of whom

1600) (fl.
Artistic Jahan."

Kasi

1600), the (fl.

Ras
time
of

former

good
The

prosody
Poets of

called
the

Chandrika.

Jahangir

and

Shah

effects

of

the

encouragement

given
his

to

Hindi

literature

by Akbar

lasted

long

after

death.

Jahan (1627-1658) very Jahangir (1605-1627) and Shah Akbar' s policy of encouraging largely continued poets. Dara of the Shah Shukoh, son Jahan, was a great with a patron of learning and literature strong leaning towards Hinduism. Even he in
was

the

time

of

Aurangzeb
to to

(1658-1707), although

unfavourable continued
Brahman of

Hindu

learning, the title of Kavi to deserving poets. Sundar (fl. 1631) was
title
wrote

Ray
a

be

given
the He

who

held

of
a

Kavi work and

Ray
on

at

the

court

Shah
of

Jahan. called

poetical composition
also the author
a

Sundar Bhasha

Srihgar,

was

Braj

40

HISTORY
of the

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE afterwards
after

version
translated

Singhasan
born

Battisi, which
Ji Lai. 1589 and Kavitta various and
a

was

into Urdu

by Lallu
about

Se?iapati was
He
was a

died

1649. is
art

Kanauji Brahman the His principal work was dated 1649, and deals with
of in

devotee

of Krishna.

Ratnakar,
aspects
He

which of
the excelled famous he

poetry
his his

as

well

as

other

matters.

description

of
of

nature, and
the

is especially
in

for
the

description
to

six
Datt.

seasons

which

is of

considered his is
the

have of

excelled

all

Hindi
Another

poets
work
poems

with

exception
written
The
"

Dev

Kavya
as

Kalpadrum.
detached
verses

His his

were

probably
afterwards.

and

collected of

following is from
trees

description
in full their
to

spring (basant):
11

During

the

sportive spring the palds

are

bloom,
to

with
to

red

however flowers, parts of which appeir of bees are have been dipped in ink. Swarms The

from

blackness

going

them

gather

blowing fragrance in the gardens and In the spring,by constantly looking poet Senapati says, of at these flowers the idea writing poetry has been strongly brought The mind.' red glow of the upper to my part of the flowers clearly of a the desire and lover, while the burning yearning pourtrays blackness of the lower part, like a fire burnt out completely and turned of to charcoal, suggests;.the separation." pangs
honey.
mild
south

wind

is

forests.

The

'

The

Tripathi
Brahman of

Brothers.

"

Ratnakar
at

Tripathi
Tikvampur
sons,

was

Kanauji
district
became

who and

lived had

in

the

Cawnpore
Hindi
Jahan

four

all of

whom

famous
seventeenth

poets.
and and The

They

flourished in the

in

the half

reigns of Shah
of the the

Aurangzeb
eldest

latter

century
Das.
was

amplified and
was

developed
Chintamani
rulers is of
as

work

of who
the

Kesav

Tripathiy
well
as one as

patronised
Shah authorities
on

by
the

several
He

by

Emperor

Jahan. his

regarded

of the

great

subject
works

poetical

Chhand are composition (sahitya). Among Vivek, Kavi-kul Bichar, a treatise on prosody, Kavya He also the Praka's. and Kalpataru, was Kavya and other in kavitta author of metres. a Ramayan
The
or name

of

the

youngest

brother
Both

was

Jata

Sankar
and

Nil

Kanth

Tripathi.

Chintamani

Nil

THE

MUGHAL

COURT
excelled

"

HINDI

LITERATURE

41

Kanth

were

as

poets

by

the

other

two

Ram. and Mati brothers, Bhushan Bhushan Tripathi visited the but his

courts

of several

special patrons
and

were

Siv
On
own

Raj
one

kings, (or Sivaji) of

occasion
to

Sitara latter the

Chhatrasal

of Panna.

the
carry

monarch

helped

with
and
on

his

shoulder

poet's palanquin,
upon

Siv
one

Raj
for is the

bestowed
five
a

lavish

rewards and The

him, giving twenty-five thousand

is
an

occasion Siv

elephants
poem.

rupees

single
Raj
as

principal work
and each

of Bhushan
account

Bhushan
used

which

excellent

of
It

rhetoric

in
a

poetry,
verse

figure of
of Siv

rhetoric
was

is illustrated

by
have
are

in honour and lost. 1673. But

Raj.
of the in the

composed
of

between

1666 been
extant

Some
besides
verses

works

Bhushan

other

there $iv Raj Bhushan praise of Siv Raj and

to

of

Chhatrasal. in
very

Bhushan

is considered terrible

have
He

excelled holds
a

the

tragic, heroic, and

rank

styles, and

high
the

amongst
and is

Hindi
is

poets.
in the of

is especially

famous of

for

his keen

interest

Hindus,
which which

this
very

one

and progress features the It

to
to
was

glory
of

his this
the the

poetry
interest Maratha Muhammadan his
verses

much him
so so

admired. much much is

a

attached

Sivaji,
weaken of
one

hero,
:
"

who
power.

did
Here

translation
fire
as

of

"As

Indra

subdued
overcame

Ramachandra
waters,
overcame as

Jambha, as the barav the hypocriteRavan,

Cupid,
overcomes as a as

overcomes

the sea,

as

the wind the Lord

"ambhu
Sahasra
a

overcame

Rama,
the lion

overpowers of Brahmans, of
a

the

B5.1, as fire
herd of
as

branches
overcomes

tree,

as

a as

leopardovercomes lightovercomes
says,

deer,
Krishna

elephants,
so,

darkness,

overcame

Kanha, the

Bhushan

the lion Siv

Raj

overcomes

the Muhammadans."

Mati Rav

Ram Bhau

Tripathi

lived

first at and In
on

court

of
at

raja Mahathat

Singh
Nath

of Bundi

afterwards
honour

of

Raja
patron Lalam.
His

Sambhu
he

Sulanki.
a

of

his

first
Lalit in

composed the Among

as

work

rhetoric
verses verses

called
are

illustrative well
to
as

many

praise of his patron

work is considered
account

love

and

others.

understood

of

clear and give a very the subject of rhetoric.

easily
It
was

42

HISTORY
about
on

OF
1664.

HINDI
The

LITERATURE Chhand
in
on

composed
treatise Nath. The

Sar
honour lovers

Pingal
of

is

Ras

prosody Raj
and Ram

composed
is
a

Sambhu
a

treatise

containing
excellent Mati Ram.

Nayika
work.
As
a

Bhed Mati

is considered
also

to

be

very

composed
for the

the

Sat
and

Sat

poet

he

is famed
the

purity
of his

sweetness

of

similes, and for his descriptions of the dispositions of men. Many of his dohas considered are equal to those of Bihari Lai. Other Poets of the time ol Shah Jahan." Raja Sambhu Nath the and friend (fl.1650) was Singh of Sitara
patron
author much be the of of Mati
a

his language,

excellence

Ram

and BJied latter

other and
a

poets.
Nakhiikh

He

was

the
are

Nayika
The

which considered
of

admired. best
in Jahan

is sometimes
extant.
a

to

work

of its kind
was

Sarasvaii
learned

(fl.1650)
Sanskrit
he took of this

Brahman the in

Benares,
of

Shah
chief

At composition. to writing poems kind

many
was

instance

Hindi.

His

work

the

Kavindra in

Kalpa
of

Lata,
patron

in which
as

there
as

are

poems

praise
and

his
the

well Tulsl

of

prince
was

Dara

Shukoh

Begam

Sahiba.

1655) (fl.
1655
called he the

only
an

mediocre
excellent

poet
includes
1443
to

himself,
of
poems

but

in

compiled
Kavi different of
was

anthology
1643.

poetry,

Mala,
authors

which
from

by seventy-five
Another circ. 1650). (fl.
a

writer
He the

this
the

period
of of

was

author

the

Vedang Ray Par si Prakas,

the
was

work
the

describing
and orders
Lai

manner

counting
which Jahan.

etc., by Hindus

by

Muhammadans, of the Emperor Shah

Chaube."

months, compiled
Hindi is Bihari been in

Bihari

The with the

most
art

celebrated of

writer
Lai born

in connection

poetry
to

Chaube
in

(circ.1603-1663).
and On of the
to

He

is said

have

Gwalior

have

spent
he

his
settled

boyhood
at

Bundelkhand.
the
verses

his

marriage
Bhasha His

Muttra

home
are

Braj
him
as a

composed.

Jaipur, who gave Lai's fame Bihari

of

his dialect, in which Raja Jai Singh patron was for each do ha. gold ashrafi
rests upon

poet

his

Sat

Sal

THE

MUGHAL which
do/ids take is

COURT

"

HINDI
of

LITERATURE

43

(1662),
hundred

collection
sorathds.

and the

approximately The majority

is

seven

of

the of in of the order have

couplets
Radha itself. and

shape
but intended

of

amorous

utterances

Krishna, are They

and other
connect not

each

couplet
to

complete illustrate figures

a a

rhetoric
verses

constituents themselves
can

of

poem.

As

do

into

story the
and

of their
come

arrangement
in different for made

be

changed
The

they
third
the this works this
a

down

recensions.

most

famous
son

is that
the

Emperor help
to
to

prince Azam and Aurangzeb,

A brief the
nature

Shah,
hence

the

of

called

Azam

Shahi
will

recension.
The

description
of of literature the dictum
to

of
of

work
on

indicate
vast that made

Hindi

poetics.
seems

amount

indicate
not

in

India

that reversed. first

verses

type poet
In

is born the

and

would recension
Then

have there there of

verses

be
are

Azam

Shahi
verses.

few

miscellaneous
to

are

able applicthe Next

each

of
two

four

kinds

hero

(nfiyak), followed
which
describe

by
there of

nearly
and
are

hundred

varieties

sub-varieties

of

heroine

(ndyikd).
and and

verses

illustrating the
excitants
a verses

various

constituents its ensuants,

deal third

poetic style (ras),its

which
the is six
a

among

about of love and

hundred

seventy
The

with
section of
are a

pangs

in ends

separation.
with
the
verses

Nakhsikh,
Indian

descriptive
part
there and

the

seasons.

In and

fourth

moral

apophthegms
of
verses

allusive
In the last there of

sayings
part
are

collection
to

illustrating sentiments
other
verses

priate appro-

various
the

occasions.
and

besides
verses

the

conclusion considered

illustrating
are are

different
in

styles (ras)
to

poetry,

which
These

India

be

nine

in number.

hdsya

(furious),
bibhatsa

(comic), karund vlra (heroic),

(pathetic), raudra (terrible), bhaydnaka

sdnta

(disgustful),adbhuta (marvellous), and (erotic). Only the (quietistic), srihgdra

are

first
as

eight
last in
an

referred

to

(sringdra) had
earlier

in this part already been recension.

of the dealt

Sat with

Sat,
at

the

length

part

of the

44

HISTORY Lai which

OF

HINDI
the works

LITERATURE
of this in the form of

Bihari
of

was

not

originator
had

composition.
one

Similar
is

appeared

Sanskrit,
Sanskrit

called Sat had well

Sapta
Sal written
as

Satika,

equivalent of the Hindi

of

("

seven
a

centuries,"i.e.
Sal before
the But

verse).
Lai

Tulsi

Das
as

Sat

time

of Bihari

Lai,

other
very

Hindi

poets.
had in
a

Bihari
in this number and

undoubtedly achieved particular line, and his of commentators (as many

imitators. translated
to

great
has

excellence

work
as

large

thirty

many

Hari
the

Prasad

(fl. circ.
into

number) 1775) of
Each such
a

Benares
small

Sat

Sal
in

Sanskrit.

couplet had
space

be the

complete
poet
all be the
must

itself,and give an
an

yet
entire

in

Conciseness
and

of

style was

therefore different in

absolute

picture. necessity,
of Indian of

besides
had Lai

this
to
a

artifices
turn.

rhetoric Bihari
natural laden from

illustrated his
when best

The

work

is

triumph
at
as

of skill and in

of

He

is perhaps
under

in expresfelicity sion. his description of the

scent-

phenomena,
breeze the south. and

he

describes
a

guise of Naturally a work

the
on

way-worn of this kind

pilgrim
abounds

in obscurities

account to
a

of

the

style is
verse

very

difficult Lai

translate.

peculiarity of its In the following

Bihari
At
even

gives
the rogue,
a

riddle:
and with
"

"

came

my

tresses
a

Toyed
Snatched 'Who
Jaswant

with
a was

sweet

rude

kiss

"

with ne'er audace with then wooed me ?

'
'

'please'
caresses.

dear it,

Thy

love ?

'

'No, dear, the

breeze.'

Singh."

pur

(Marwar)

Jaswant Maharaja figures in history as born

a

Singh
an

of

Jodhof 1681. In

opponent
died
the in throne.

He was Aurangzeb. still In 1634, while literature

a

in
he

1625
came on

and
to

boy,

his

chief

fame in 261

rests

his

Bhasha

Bhushan"
was

work

on on

rhetoric
a

dohas. has Kesav

This
had Das is
a

founded

Sanskrit this

one,

work, which large number

the

of

commentators.

Though
on

was

Hindi
in
some

writer

subject he
for those

considered
do
not

first great heretical

points, and
from

who

follow
Vol.

Kesav
423.

Translation

Imperial

Gazetteer

of India,

II, p.

46
month winter

HISTORY

OF

HINDI
the Dev of

LITERATURE

of November,
season,

the

the full moon, nightsof spring

"

morning
says

sun,
are

the
most

days

of the
"

these

excellent.

Later

Writers

on

the

Art
was

Poetry."

The the It
was

Aurangzeb
of the

(1658-1707J
of the
a

marked

by

reign of beginning
also
set

decay
however

Mughal
not

Empire.
in Hindi
at

the in.

time This
names

when

period
was

of decadence felt

poetry
is shown the

first

as

by the
end in of the

mentioned

above. and still the

But
more

towards after

Aurangzeb's reign,
eighteenth
While there marked and
most

his time
be

century,
number
no names

decline

becomes
to

evident. great
as

the
are

of poets still continues of such outstanding of Akbar and

are

importance
successors,

the

time
of the

his immediate

writers
the

only imitators
The and
severe

of greater

poets
was

who

preceded
to

them.
arts

unfavourable
the
court

to
was

Aurangzeb Hindu learning,

not court

but
that

withdrawn,
of his
are some

and
son

of poets patronage poets attended many Bahadur

entirely
and also

his

Shah writers
the

(1707-1712).
on

The

ing followand
to

of

the

the of
"

kindred the end

subjects from
of the

time

of poetry down Aurangzeb

art

Kulpati
Brahman He of attended

eighteenth century : Misra (born circ. 1620)

and
a

was

Chaube

Agra
the

court

of Bihari Lai Chaube. nephew of Maharaja of Ram Singh

His chief is dated Jaipur. work, which Ras Rahasya, poetics. a work on Ram Bhed
as

1670,
of
a

is

the

Jt well

(born 1646)
as

was

the

author

Nayika

other

works.
of

several wrote Bundelkhand, works poetical composition. on attended Dev Misra circ. 1680), of Kampila, Sukh (fl. title him the several The courts. Raja of Gaur gave of Kaviraj He works poetical wrote on prosody, and other a poet composition subjects and is considered Mandan
.

(born 1643),

of very

great
of
a

merit.
was
a

Newaj
the Court of author of many

circ. 1700) (fl.

Brahman

who

lived
was as

at

of Panna. He Raja Chhatrasal Natak play called the Sakuntala

verses.

the
as

well

detached

THE

MUGHAL Kalidas

COURT
Trivedx

"

HINDI

LITERATURE of

47
in
court

circ. 1700), (fl.

Banpura
at

the

Doab, was Aurangzeb,

Jambu.
He

in attendance for many years that afterwards and at

the

of of

of

the

Raja

is

considered he

to

be
an

an

excellent

poet.
called
poems

Among
Kalidas

other

works

compiled
contains of
over

anthology,
a

Hajara,
from
to

which works

thousand hundred

selected from with

who and 1423 Alam
a was

the

two

poets
in love

1718.
was woman a

(fl. 1703)
Muhammadan
a

Brahman named He became

who

fell

Shekh
a

Rangrezin,
Muhammadan
wrote

dyer by trade.
her. in the His

married
was

Shekh service

Rangrezin
of is Muazzam

also

poetry.
son

Alam

Shah,
to

of very

Aurangzeb.
beautiful.

poetry

considered

be

of the authorities as Sripati (fl.1720) is counted one His most famous work is the on poetical composition. He several other also. wrote works Kavya Saroj. Suraii
on

Mtera the

(fl. 1729),
Sal
of Bihari Das.

of

Agra,
also

wrote

a one

tary commenon

Sat
of

Lai, and
He

also
wrote
a a

the
on

Rasik rhetoric

Priya
and

Kesdv

works

other

subjects, including
of

Nakhiikh.
Brahman who of

Gah
was

an

(fl. 1729),
service of Muhammad At
on

Benares,

was

in the

the

Emperor
rewards.
a

Qamruddin Shah)
the orders in

Khan who of his

(the
gave

Vazir the

poet
many

liberal
wrote
verses

patron
are

Ganjan
to

work

poetics

which

there

in

praise of the Vazir.

merit.

It is considered

be

work

of great Datt Guru

wrote
was

Singh
the

(fl.1734)
name

was

Raja
imitation

of

AmethL

He

under
an

of

Bhilpati.
in

His of

principal
that of

work Bihari

excellent

Sat

Sal

Lai. Nidhi

Tosh district other

are

(fl. 1734)
He
on

lived
wrote

at

Singraur
Sudhanidhi
a

in

the and

of Allahabad.

the

works

poetics
a

including
and
at

Nakhsikh,
a

which

much

admired.

Dalpati
collaboration

Ray,
the

merchant,
Alahkar

(fl.1735 J, both

of whom

lived

Bansidhar, Ahmedabad,
It
was

Brahman
wrote

in

Ratnakar.

inscribed

48

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE
and of

to

Raja

Jagat
on

Singh,
the

of

Udaipur,
Bhushan

is

kind Jaswant

of

commentary

Bhasha

Raja
was

Singh.
Som?iath

1737) (fl.
son

was

Brahman

who

nised patroother

by
works
to

of the the

he
a

wrote

Raja Bharatpur. Piyiish Nidhi, which

of
on

Among

is considered

be

standard Lin

work of

the whose in

art

of poetry.
name

I? as

(fl.1740),
works

real

was

Sayyad
Hardoi,
a

Gulam
wrote

Nabi,
several

Bilgram,
on

the

district which
of

of

poetics

include

Nakhsikh

called Nath the

at

Ahg
son

Darpan.

Uday Doab, was

wrote
on

Trivedi of
the

(fl.1740),
Kalidas of of the

Banpura
He of His
was

in

the the and

Trivedi.

poet-laureate
the

court

Raja
the
same

Amethi,
son

subject
also

poetics.
on on

Dulah

Trivedi
Bairi

ffl. 1750)
Sal
Bharan

wrote wrote

(fl. 1768)

the
to

subject. subject of rhetoric.

be
a

His

Bhasha

is considered

standard

work whose
Kishor

of great
Kishor

excellence.

(fl. 1768)
detached He
verses

was
are

an

excellent
collected in be

poet
the

various

Sahgrah. description
Datt
or

is considered
six Datt
a seasons.

to

very

successful
the

in his
author

of the

Dev
the

(fl. circ. 1770)

work
Lalam
on

was

of the
to

Lalitya Lata,
Lalit

rhetoric Ram. the

which

is said of
on

resemble Chanda?i

of Mati attended

Ray
He He

(fl.1773)
wrote

court

the the

Raja of Gaur.
art

many

esteemed

works
of

of

poetry.
successful
Kavi

had

twelve
circ. Fateh

pupils, all
wrote

whom

became

poets.

Ratan

(born
the He

1741)
Shah
to

works
and of

on

poetics, which
Fateh merit. Bhushan. His Fateh Ram of

include

Prakds be
a

the

is considered
are

poet

great
of his

examples
Shah

mostly

verses

in

praise
the

patron
six
verses

of Bundela.

Manx well-written which considered

(fl.1772) has his Chhand Chhappani

Misra
account

given in
a

fiftyand
poem,

very

concise

of the resembles

art

of poetry.
the

This

somewhat
to

Sanskrit

Sutras,

is

be

very

excellent.

THE

MUGHAL Bodha

COURT

"

HINDI

LITERATURE
connected

49

Flrozabadi
He
was

circ. 1773-1803) was (fl.

the author
are

with
some

Panna. detached
a

of the
much
were

Ishg?idmd
admired.

and He

verses

which

was

poet of love, and

of
a

his

verses

written
author be

mostly
of

in

praise
Jan

courtesan

named
was

Subhan.
the
to

Gopal
a

(fl. 1776)
which

the

Samarsar,

work

is said

full
the

of

poetic

feeling.
DevB
Nandan

(fl.1784-1800)
is
a

wrote

Sringar
other

Charitr, which

Nayak-Nayika

Bhed,

and

connected with the art of poetry. much-praised works Than Than the Ram, or (fl. 1791), a Bhat, was of a work author on poetics called Dalel Prakds. Bern
etc.

(fl. 1792-1817)
His

wrote
are

works who

on

ric, poetics, rhetoverses

best

verses

said to be
was

of satire. in all the connected

Bhaun
graces

1794 ), a Bhat, (fl.

skilled

with

of poetry, wrote the poetic art.

in

Braj Bhasha
was

works

Bhikari

Das

(fl. 1734-1750)
He

a more

Kayasth

of

Pratapgarh, in Bundelkhand. known of Das. by the name

brother
from of

His

other

Prithvipati. poets, especially from

to be
an

Raja

generally Hindupati, patron was He borrowed phrases

,

is

Sripati, but
art

is

sidered con-

nevertheless
many

excellent the of

works

connected the

with
Pur
ana

poet. poetry
verse.

Besides
he also

translated

Vishnu
He

into

Hindi

Guman Akbar
Harsha Ali and

Misra Khan.
wrote

(fl. 1744)
translated several

attended the
on

the Naishadha

court

of

of

"ri

Raghu
of Gokul the writer admired. of Bihar! Kumar

Nath

poetics. the (fl. 1745), of Benares, was

is celebrated
into
as

works

father
of
a

Nath, who
on

the

translator Nath
was

Mahabharata
the
art

Hindi.

Raghu

They
Lai. Mani
wrote

his works poetry, include a commentary on Bhatt

a

of

being
the

much

Sat

Sal

(fl.1746)
on

was

very

skilled
Rasik

poet,
Rasal.

who

good work

poetics
attended Asothar.

called

Sambhu

Nath

Misra

(fl. 1749)
Raja
of

the

court wrote

of

Bhagwant

Ray

Khichi,

He

50

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE

several

much-admired
of Arsela and

works Arsela and other

on

poetics
poets.

and

was

the

preceptor

Siv

Siv

(fl.
prosody. (fl.
Goncla
He

circ.

1750)

wrote

on

poetical

position com-

Jagat
of the

Singh
Raja
of

circ. and

1770) Bhinga
prosody

belonged
and and
was

to

the

family pupil
of

Siv

Arsela. Thakur

wrote

on

rhetoric.

(fl.
metre,
His
most

circ.
and

1750)
his works work
on

excelled

especially

in the

the

savaiya

are

mostly
the Thakur

in

erotic
He Lai.

style.
also
wrote

famous

is
the

Satak.
of
a

commentary
an

Sat
was

Sal

Bihari

Hari

Char

Das

(fl.
He

1778)
wrote

Brahman,
on

of
the

Krishnagarh
Kavi

(Marwar).
and Rasik of

commentaries
Kesav the

Priya
the Sat
also.

Priya Lai,
and

of

Das,
author

as

well
of other

as

on

Sal

Bihari

was

works

VI.

TULSI

DAS

AND

THE
(1550-1800)

RAMA

CULT

Tulsi

Das."

The

most

celebrated
that

name

in

Hindi
whose
not

literature

is

undoubtedly
has but had

of
and the

Tulsi
deserved

Das,
fame world.

Hindi

Ramayan
in of India his

great

only
details
He

throughout
from

whole
are

The

life, apart
to

legends,
born Ram
at

very

scanty.
and

is

said
name

have is

been_
as name

about and first the

1532,
his

his

father's
as

given
own a

Atma
was

mother's
but Tulsi

Hulasi.
he The

His became

Rambola,
name

when Das.

devotee

he

took

of

place
to to

of
some

his

birth he
at

is not
was

known
born
near

with
at

certainty.
;

According according
the that He
guru

Hastinapur
But

others

Hajipur,
most

Chitrakiit.

tradition
he
was was was a

which
born
at

is

generally
in and
was

accepted
of Banda. that

is

Rajpur,
who

the it sixth

district is
in

Kanauji
Narharidas,
from

Brahman,

said

his

preceptorial
tells
he
us,

succession the

Ramananda,
to

He

himself that

in
at

introduction
or

the

Ramayan,
When he
very
was

studied
man one

Sukar-khet,
is said when Das from that she
was

Soron. loved
gone

young and

it

he had

his home troubled

wife
to

her
on

much, father's
account

day,
Tulsi

house,
of

greatly
He

separation although
His

her.

therefore
a

hastened swollen

after

her,
the

it involved

crossing

river

in

dark. if the
as a

wife,
he would

however,
have become Das. At
as

rebuked

him,
devotion
These he
up

saying
to

that

only
earth
to
a

great

Rama,
acted

would

gold.

words left

call

Tulsi
devotee

daybreak taking

home,
abode

and
at

became Benares.

of

Rama,

his

52
There he

HISTORY
he the other

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE
of
as

spent

greater

part

also

visited

places, such

life, though Soron, Ayodhya,

Many
the

his

Chitrakiit, Allahabad, and about told him, but are Nabha reliable. Das, the
is said
connected
to

Brindaban.
author of and

legends
that

scarcely anything friend,

him. Sur
was

is

Bhaktamala,
Das
not

have
to

been
the

his

is also

supposed
Abdul

have

visited

He

with
Rahim

court, though
are was

Raja
to

Man have

directly Singh and

artistic of
the Benares

Khankhana
doubt he

said

befriended
the

him,
age

and

no

affected
was

by
died

influence

in

literature
he

which

characteristic
Das
at

in
The

which

lived.

Tulsi

in 1624.

great
is the

This but
"

masterpiece of Tulsi Das is the Ramayan. it is generally known, name by which

called deeds
to

he

himself of the

it the

Ram-charit-manas,
It
was

the

Lake

of Rama."
his had
own

commenced

in

1575, according
The

statement

in the

prologue.
by
in the the

story

of Rama

been who

told

long

before

Sanskrit fourth
of Indian

poet century
poets
of of

Valmiki,

lived

probably
frequent
of India.
a

been a B.C., and it has in the various languages

theme The

Ramayan
of that outline

Tulsi his
the

Das

is not, however,

translation

Sanskrit

predecessor.
the in the in
same, treatment. two agree.

The but there It

general
is
a

of deal

story
outline

is
that

great
in the
are

of

difference

is Not

broadest

only only
in the and main and In
as

there

different
the

episodes
are a

each, but

even

main often
that books
a man

story
have
of Tulsi II to and

incidents
different

quite
Das VI of

differently placed The complexion.

work of Valmiki outlook.
appears

difference, however,

between is in their

the

theological
poem

Valmiki's
except
sixth

Rama
passage

been

only a interpolated
Rama

man,

in

one

which
first

has

into the

book.
are

The

book,

in which
later

and

incarnations
a

of

addition.
appears

regarded as partial as by scholars Vishnu, is considered of Tulsi In the poem Das, however,
his brothers
as an

Rama

throughout
The
same

incarnation

of
as

the that

Supreme

God.

theological position

54

HISTORY
of been

OF

HINDI
In

LITERATURE in his
he

of the

devotees Das has

Krishna.
of

one

Tulsi
the
"

explaining why
Rama's
cranes ever nor are a

passage, he calls

which
poem says,

"Lake
no

(or ''pond")
wretches

deeds,"
and
come near

Sensual

like the

crows

that it ; for

have here
or

part in such
no

pond
the claim
in

are

prurient
scum

and
on

seductive

stories,
and

like

snails
the
are was a

frogs
crow

and

water,
if made of

therefore do
come,

lustful

and

greedy
This

crane,

they
his

disappointed."
just
one,
so

by Tulsi
poem
a

Das

and

it is this feature
value

which
moral

has ideal

given it
before The

much

holding
Das
since He

up

high
is the

its readers. dialect

or

which

Tulsi

uses

old

Bais-

wari,

AvadhI,
in this

dialect

of Eastern

his influence been

Ramaite
other

poetry

Hindi, and through his day has ally gener-

words His
has

from

however, many dialects,especially from Braj Bhasha.

uses,

dialect.

language
little

abounds in

in

scruple
other similes

colloquialisms, and Tulsi Das altering a word, or adopting a

to

corrupt

pronunciation,
Like

make

it fit into he makes

his

metre

or

rhyme.
gem the the

Indian and

poets

conventional which

stereotyped
in the
to
swan

of many use The phrases. and milk and

is supposed
power

to be

serpent's head,
separate

mythical
water
use

of the it has

from
stant con-

with
of such there Das

which

been
as

mixed,
passages

his

phrases
are

"lotus-feet," are
which
lover in and

ples. exam-

But that In

many
a

other

show

Tulsi
one

was

true

observer of

of nature.

place he speaks * like distress, writhing

King

Dasrath,
scour

his
a

great
turbid

fish in the
Mr.

of
us,

river," a
commentators
a

passage

which,
someone

Growse discovered

tells

puzzled
this
was

until

that

true

phenomenon
comes

of in

nature.

Tulsi
such

Das's
;
"

love
as

of the

nature

out

many

passages

following,
"The

taken
went

from
on

the
from
;

Aranya
there its water
on

Kand
the
as

Lord
lake

to

shore clear drink

as

of the
the

deep
soul

and

beautiful

called

Pampa
came a

of the

saints ; with charming beasts of different kinds of beggars crowds lotus-leaves the water
at

of steps flights
as

each

of its four Under its

to they listed,

sides ; where of the flood, like

cover

good
as

man's

gate.

of

dense

was

difficultto

as distinguish

is the unembodied

TULSl

DAS

AND

THE

RAMA

CULT

55

The under the veil of delusive phenomena. happy fish spirit supreme like of the deep pool, the days all in placidrepose at the bottom were of many colours Lotuses of the righteousthat are passed in peace.

displayedtheir
honeymakers

flowers think

; there

was

buzzing
swans

of
and

garrulous bees, both

waterfowl
were so

and

bumble-bees

; while

noisy you
his that The
to

would

they
and
be

had
cranes

recognised the
and other words

Lord birds could

and
were

were so

telling
numerous

praises. The geese only seeing would

no believing,

describe
as an

them. the

beautiful voice of so many delightful built themselves had saints The wayfarers. round forest-trees all with lake, magnificent the and
tree
swarms

birds seemed
a
"

invitation
near

house

the

champa,
flowers

mdlsari, the kadamb

the mango.
was

tamdla,
had

the forth

pdtala,
its A
new

the

kathal, the dhdk

and

Every
with
ever

put

leaves

the and and

resonant

was fragrant, was so

in

air, soft,cool and delightful delicious motion, and the cooing of the cuckoos
of bees. that
a

pleasant to

hear

saint's meditation

would

be broken like
a

by

it.

The

soul

low to the bowed trees, laden with fruits, of fortune renders increase whom every before.''1

ground, only more

generous

humble

than

The named

story

is divided
and the

into
Uttara.

seven

chapters,

or

kdnds,
second,

respectively Bal, Ayodhya,

Lanka,
banishment
Of describes
scenes

Aranya,
these

Kishkindha,
the led
up to

Sundar,
which

at

Ayodhya

that

the best. forest, is considered of the The characters are consistently drawn, and many full of deep pathos. The are grief of Dasrath, scenes the filial piety meekness, nobility of generosity and of the wifely devotion and Rama, Sita, the courage
to

Rama's

the

enthusiasm
as

of

Lakshman,
of Tulsi
response

the has

unselfishness
described heart had of the in
verse

of

Bharat,
cannot

the

genius
a

Das

them,
reader.

but

awaken The

in the

object which

Tulsi
it

Das

mind,
a

however,
wonderful

was

not

merely
to
use

to

tell in beautiful
as a

story,
supreme

but

vehicle

for

value

of the

worship
other

of Rama.

preaching the Though Tulsi

the

Das

accepted,
the

like

leaders

of

Vaishnava
it
he
a

movement,
was

tempered
with

pantheistic teaching of the Vedanta, by belief in a personal God, whom

the

identified

incarnation
to

Rama.

His

poem

is

passionate appeal to men the worship of this God.

1

devote

themselves

to

The

theological digressions

Translation

by

Mr.

F.

S.

Growse.

56

HISTORY Tulsi
he Das

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE

which

sometimes
be of
to

makes,
some

and
extent

the
a

frequent
drawback

hymns
to

the

inserts, may literary value

the
purpose

the

Rdmayan,
Tulsi
do the Das Das
not

but had
as a

they
in

are

excused

by In these hymns manifest, and

ideas

which
who

view.
are

the
even

powers

of Tulsi

poet
his
from

those but

accept

gious reli-

cannot

admire The

spiritual

earnestness

which Bal
"

the

hymns
"

display.
be all

following is

the

Kdnd:
To the

King
and and

of heaven
care,

glory given, refuge of creation

brief

in

distress and Priests Heaven

scan

kine

hell's befriending, Ocean's

triumph ending,
fair.
men

best

beloved

of Lakshmi,
earth's of

daughter
than all

upholder, who,
souls I pray.

bolder, dares
?

to

the secret

thy strange mysterious

to

way

Ever

kind
favour

and

loving,humble
now

approving, may

thy gracious
immortal,
no

reach

me,

sense all-pervading, fleshly Spirit

evading, hail Mukund

Queen
of

lord of blissfulness Ever pure and

holy,

supreme. whom the

Folly

has

power saints of

to

tangle in her
sages in
an

dream. world-deluding
of endless the

Glory, glory, glory, theme

story, sung

by
source

and

ecstasy of love.

Daily, nightly gazing on Hari, lord of blessing,

Triune

sight amazing,
above.

every

heaven earth's
;

incarnation,who
other aid
was

at
none

creation,wert

alone

presiding,
sinthe

and

Though in prayer unable, and my faith unstable, O great hear our hapless moan. destroyer, Life's alarms dispelling,all disasters quelling, comfort of
be faithful, All the
our succour now

low before thee, with unfeigned gods implore thee, falling of body, soul, and vow. submission Lord God Bhagavana, Ved and eke Purana, Sarada and Seshnag, and all the saintly throng, Find the theme too spacious, only know thee gracious; hasten then hour of wrong. to help us in our In all grace excelling, Beauty's chosen dwelling, ark on life'sdark
ocean,

God

and

of all most saints and sages, home

sweet,
now

this tempest rages,

flyin

tion consterna-

to

clasp thy lotus feet."1 is undoubtedly a worthy great poem, of the the great classical masterpieces
It is not
Mr. F. S.

The
to

Rdmayan

rank

world's
1

amongst literature.

indeed

without

its

literary

Translation

by

Growse.

TULSl
defects, and
have and excelled

DAS
other

AND Hindi
Das

THE

RAMA
such

CULT Sur
of

57

poets,
in the

as

Das, may
their
verse

Tulsl

polish

the But Ramayan handling of metres. its place as the work hold Das Tulsl will always its of The importance a great literary genius.

their

of of

fluence, in-

no

of but
most

Tulsl Das founded be exaggerated. too, cannot the added to indeed theology nothing sect, and which he Hinduism of to belonged, school that
there is
no

doubt
in

that

the

Ramayan
in

has the North

been

the

potent
of
A the

factor
vast

cult

making Vaishnavism majority of Hindus

must

accepted
India

to-day.
brief mention
of be made

of the
have Rama. of

other the In

literary
object of
the in
or

works Gltavall which

Tulsl Tulsi
is
as

Das.

All

of of
the

them

popularizing
are

the Das

worship
tells for

Ram
verses

story
The

Rama

adapted
a a

singing.
of dohas work.
a

Dohavah,
is not
so

Doha
an

Ramayan, epic poem

that poems it is of

collection
moral

and

much

probably
Tulsi
or

Sir George Grierson from collection of dohas

made

thinks
other The the The and

Das,
and

by
in of

later deals

hand.

Kavittavali,
story
of
Rama

Kavittsamba?idh,
is written collection
much

also

with
Rama

kavitta

metre. to

Vinay
is
is
a a

Patrika which work

is

hymns
Bihari
Rama

work similar

is very to that

admired.

The

Sat

Sal

which with

Lai

wrote

fifty
of with dohas.

years

later, but
1585.
to
some

is connected
seven

instead

Krishna.
It is dated

It contains A

hundred
many

emblematic works
to

great
but there

other

also
of

are

ascribed
of

Tulsi
of the

Das,
them

with
is

regard
a

the

ness genuinedoubt. his in

great
is
are

deal

Although
greatest
the other
The

Ram-charit-manas his

undoubtedly
also

work works

poetic
he It Das

powers marks that

as

exhibited

which

composed.
the of the greatness Ramanandis, amongst the incarnation

Bhaktamala."

achievement
or

of Tulsi
there

other

worshippers
seem

of Rama
to

of the
of
standing out-

Supreme,
Vaishnava

be

fewer in this is

Hindi
other
no

works sections
due

importance
movement,

than and

of
to

the the

doubt

58

HISTORY influence

OF
of
some

HINDI

LITERATURE

dominating
There
are,

Tulsi

Das's
who work

great
must

work.
be
tioned. men-

however,
Bhaktamala
was

writers
was

The who (fl. 1600), the

the
as

of

Nabha He
was

Das
was
a

also known

disciple
of the others

of

Agra
is said Das

Das,
to
was

who

dray an according
of
a

Das.
to
some

leader but

Vallabha

movement

Krishna

worship,

by

have
a

been

disciple of Rama-

by caste, and it is said that when he was he was a child exposed by his parents time of famine woods. to a during perish in the and It was at Agra Das found him brought him up. the that Nabha Das, when suggestion of his preceptor the Bhaktamala, he arrived at maturity, wrote probably The somewhere 1585 and 1623. between Bhakta?ndld,
nanda. Dom
"

Nabha

or

Roll

of the of

Bhagats,"
mainly
the

is

poem

in

old

Western It

Hindi, written
an

in the

chhappai
or were

metre.

gives

account

principal
of Rama who

Vaishnava

whether
deals Nabha The

worshippers

chiefly with
Das

those
seems

Krishna, worshippers
been
a

of

devotees, though it
of Rama.

himself
very

to

have

Ramanandi.

style is
one

obscure

and

stanza

only is given
characteristics
manner,

ally Genercompressed. and each to devotee,

are

in

this

his

chief

described
to

in

the

briefest

possible

with

allusions

different

holds in his life. The Bhaktamala legendary events important a religious history. place in Indian very be almost It would, however, unintelligible but for the This it. which was always accompanies commentary in Das in 1712. kavitta written the metre by Priya There further added. In this commentary legends are have also been other

work
of

is often

printed
and been has

commentators, together with the

the

later

and

their
text

original
Das.

Nabha

Das

Bhaktamala all the

Maluk

gloss of Priya and fully translated

of India.

The in

adapted
the

chief

vernaculars

D"s."Maluk
was

Das,
founder

who of
a

lived
sect

in

reign

of

Aurangzeb,
connected

the the
as an

which
The the

with
Rama

Ramanandis.
incarnation main of

is closely Dasis Maluk

and

worship
also
use

Supreme
between

images.

The

difference

this

TULSI
and that

DAS
of the Maluk

AND

THE

RAMA

CULT be
that

59
the

sect

Ramanandls
Dasis
are

seems

to

teachers

of the

not

ascetics, but, like

was a

Maluk founder, laymen. occupation, and is said to have and the district of Allahabad,

their

Das been
to

trader

by
in

born died Kara

at

Kara,
at

have
at

Jaganother
to

nath.

Monasteries
are

of his

followers The
:
"

and

places
Maluk Ten

still in
include

existence.
the

works
Das deals

ascribed
Ratna

Das

following

("The
na's Krishis
a

Jewels

")
on

Bhaktavatsal,
the soul and

which
; Ratna-

with
is

regard for his devotees

dissertation

khana,
He

which
also

God.

the

of a large number of detached verses reputed author still quoted which the and apophthegms are amongst famous A is translated one as follows, and people. with the teaching of St. Matt. vi. 26 : has been compared
M

The

python doth no service,nor hath its living); to perform (to earn

Maluk

the fowl of the air

duty

Quoth

Das,

For

all doth

Rama

provide their daily

current to open

bread."

The

idea India

of the that

in

the belief on couplet is based the python (ajagara) is unable has

to

hunt

for its food, but its prey to walk

Other
Works

wait

with

its

mouth

for

into it.
connected

with

the
was

Worship
also

of Rama.

"

disciple companion,
said
to

of
was

Tulsi Bent
a

Das,
Madhav

who

his

constant

Das

(fl. 1600).
of
his
master

He

is

have

written
and
a

biography
was

called of other

Gosai7i

works,

Charitr, including

also

the Besides

author the of there

Nakhsikh. other of

Ramayan
Tulsi
Das

(or Ram-charit-manas) and the dealing with story this several period during
the
same

works
works

Rama, Tripathi chapter as Ramayan

appeared
with
the and

other

connected

subject.
in the
also

Chintamani

(fl. 1650), who

a

is mentioned
art

previous
wrote
a

writer
kavitta

on

of

poetry,
metres.

in

other Man

Das

(born 1623),
which
of

of

Braj,

wrote
on

Hindi
two

poem

entitled

works,
Nataka.

Ramcharitr, the Ramayana

is founded Valmlki
and

Sanskrit Ha?itima?i

the

60

HISTORY Prasad

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE
the

Ishwari Bilas
poem.

Tripathi
which is
a

1673) (fl.

wrote

Ram

Rdmayan,
All
Ram

translation
the and author

of

Valmiki's
works

Bal both and in

circ. 1692) (fl.

and

was

of two

praise of Rama
wrote

Sita

entitled

Nehprakas

Slta

1703)
honour ruler

of of

Ja?ik Rasiki Saran Dhydnmahjari. the Avadh is a poem Sagar, which Rama. (fl.1750) was Ray Bhagwant in the

(fl.
in
the

Asothar,
years

district
the

of

Fatehpur,
of
the

and

for 1760.
work Bilas

several

resisted
he
was

attacks

Mughal
in

Emperor,
He
was

till the

killed
of
a

by

treachery
Another the Ram
was

author

Rdmayan.
Rama

dealing with the of Sambhu Nath

was

story
of
to

of
the

(fl. 1750).
the

Tulsi of
He

Sahib

(1763-1843)
but
was
willing un-

the

eldest
to

son

Raja
throne. the

Poona,
and Hathras. called

succeed

therefore

left his
a

and renounced kingdom wandering ascetic finally he wrote hymns, many

world,
in

becoming
Besides
the

settled
a

work
in
a

Ghathe and
as

Ramayan.
was
none

He other

claimed
than the

that

great
the

previous birth Tulsi Das himself,

but
it
was was

had

in that
a

birth

composed
deal the of Ram-

Ghat-Ramdyan,
not

it

aroused
to

great
but

opposition
differs
and is in

published
substituted

the

world

char it-manas

in its
as

place.
as

His

work

style
that

and of

language,
his
more-

well

in

subject matter,

from

renowned character. Madhu

namesake,
Sudan considerable Das

decidedly

inferior who

in

(fl. circ.
merit,
he
was

1782),
the the
was

was

poet

of

author

of

the

in which Ramasvamedh, made Like by Rama. and his poetry Rama,

master.

describes
Das he

horse-sacrifice
a

Tulsi

devotee the

of

resembles called
who Benares. the

that

of

great

Maniyar
was

Singh,
devotee

also

Yar
was

(fl.circ. 1785),
a

another
was
a

of Rama of

skilful works
and
some

poet.
the

He
the

Kshatriya,

His

include of

Saundarya

Laharty
all Rama

Sundarkand,
deal

Hanuman the

Chhabbisi, legends regarding

of

which
and

with

Hanuman.

VII.

THE

SUCCESSORS

OF

KABIR

The

Kabirpanthis."
of Kabir

The

great
is their These The

influence
shown

which

the

teaching
number

exercised which
owe

by
to

the the

large
ideas
their who

of
he

sects

origin
sects

which literature
trace

promulgated.
in the vernacular.

have

Kabirpanthis,
have in
two

their
has its

direct
centre

origin
at

to

Kabir,
Kablr-chaura where

divisions.
and

One

the

Benares,
died.
the ruled in

is also
other

associated
has

with
centre

Maghar
in

Kabir

The Central

its
Each

Chhattisgarh
divisions
The Surat

Provinces.

of has

these

is

by
of and the that
are

mahant,
Benares of the

and

each

its literature.
back
to

descent

mahants

is traced
mahants
to

to

Gopal,
Das.

Chhattisgarh
said
but

Dharm

These

sometimes

have

been
a

personal
later.

disciples Although
free
in

of the the

Kabir,

probably
have

lived
as a

little

Kabirpanthis worship
found its

whole
influence the
sect.

kept
has

from

of

images,
way

Hindu into

various

ways

back

Kabir he of

rejected
is

the often

doctrine
now

of

divine
as

incarnation,
an

but

himself
the such

regarded practices
rosary, to

incarnation
he

Supreme.
as

Hindu of the

which
have been himself
sect sect.

condemned,

the

use

introduced. the has The

was

Except
amount

the of

works

ascribed

Kabir
to

large
been

literature

belonging
those in

this
the

scarcely already

examined mentioned

by

outside

Bijak, probably
Two
other

connection
years sect

with
after
may

Kabir,
death. be

compiled
works

about

fifty
to

his also

belonging
are

this

mentioned.

These
to

the

Sukh
of

Nidhan,

which

probably

belongs

about

the

middle

THE

SUCCESSORS
and A the

OF

KABIR

63
which

the

eighteenth century, probably as late as 1800.

1800
was

Amar

Mill,
who in

is

about
metre The

and Paltu

wrote

some

Kablrpanthi pithy verses

been

flourished

kundaliya
in
a

Sahib.
It has that

Sikhs."

already
the

mentioned

previous chapter
by
whom
called i.e.
"

religion
influenced

of the

Sikhs, founded

Nanak,
were

was

greatly
was

by
nine book

the
gurus

teaching
most

of

Kablr.

Nanak

followed
The
'

by

of

poets.
Granth
the

sacred

of_the Sikhs,
Granth
r

the Adi (or sometimes Original Granth,' to distinguish it from the

Sahib

the

later

Granth
Guru

of

Tenth

Guru),
the

was was

compiled
the

in Guru

1604

by

Arjun
An

(1563-1606), who
Amar (the

sixth
of

of the

Sikhs.
Guru

It contains

gad, Guru
Bahadur

compositions Das, Guru Ram

ninth

Guru Guru
first the the

Teg

Govind

Singh

(the

Guru) tenth Guru).

were

Nanak, Das, Guru Arjun, and a couplet of

The after
positions com-

Guru

of these

last two

Gurus

added

the

compilation.
Granth bards also who

Besides
contains attended

writings panegyrics of
on

the

of these the

Gurus,

Gurus

by
their

them

or

admired

characters, and Kablr Namdev,

that in the
to

of several as hymns bhagats, such and rated others, whose teachings corroboof the Gurus. The not hymns are arranged
to
or

Granth

the

according thirty-one Rags,

their musical the

as

authors

but

according
to

measures,

which

All they were composed. of Nanak adopted the name the

was

Gurus,
their
nom

except
de

the

last,

beginning

of the

volume

is

placed the

At plume. Japji, which

composed by Nanak, and then follow the So-Daruy the So-purkhu, and the Sohila, which from extracts are later All these tended inpieces were parts of the books. for devotional and therefore placed at purposes,
the

beginning
volume

of the

book.

After
or

of the

is the
and

Bhog,
ideas

Rags at the conclusion, which

The

the

end
tains cona

slokas

panegyrics.

whole

forms

the it contains which volume, lengthy being it is a For variation. the Sikhs repeated in endless and of hymn-book prayer-book as well as a manual The theology. language varies in different parts, but

64

HISTORY
most

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE written in old

A

for

the

part the
some was

hymns

are

dialects

of Hindi Guru

with
is

admixture

of Panjabi.
a

hymn
:
"

of The

Nanak

following
11

one

given in of the hymns

the miles there is shall there be

previous
of Guru
be

chapter.

Arjun

On The On The On The

the way
name

where of God where of God where of God

cannot

counted,

the way
name

the way
name

thy provision; pitchdarkness, shall accompany and lightthee thee, nobody knoweth shall be there to recognisethee
and
a

Where There

there is very terrible heat of God the name shall be saith

great sunshine,
over

shadow

thee ;
on

There,
The

Nanak,

the

name

of God
name

shall rain nectar

was

thee."

tenth

Guru,
1675 into

whose
to
a

Govind
he order

Singh,
oped develthe

held
Khalsa

office from
the and him

1708.

It

was

who

Sikhs

great
ideas Govind

military
were

called

organized
many

them

to resist the

Muhammadans. into the

many also

Under

Hindu

introduced

religion
verses

of the

Sikhs.
in

Singh

composed
but
some

mostly
and

Hindi
other

(Braj Bhasha),
These
verses

in Persian
the

Panjabi.
and collected in

works,
of year
some

translations
were

together with in the Guru's

after
one

employ,
which

the

1734,
into is

Govind

Singh's death, by
is called it from of the the

Bhai Adz
and

Mani

Singh
It

volume,
to

Granth

of the Tenth

Guru
used but
same or

guish distinfor
the

Granth.
other
as

promotion
regarded
as

valour
the

purposes,

it is not

by

Sikhs

having
the other

the

authority
hymns,
verses,
an

the

Adi
of

Granth.

Besides
many

Japji,

in it

praise
contains of
the

God,
the

and Vichitr

religious
which
martial is

Ndtak,
of
up

account

life and
calculated

mission
to

Govind
the

Singh,

and

other of the

poems

stir

valour
the
was

Sikhs.
The

Dadupanthis."
was

The

founder

of who

sect

of
at

Dadiipanthls
Ahmedabad,

Dadu

(1544-1603),
most

born

but
to
common

spent

of

his he

life
was a

in

Rajputana.
cotton-carder that he

According by caste,
1

report
tradition
"

but

the

of

his

followers
Vol.

Translation

by Macauliffe,

The

Sikh

Religion,"

III. 202.

THE

SUCCESSORS
is

OF
correct.
was

KABIR His
so

65

was

Brahman and

probably
His is
not

spirit of
that he

forgiveness
was

kindness

(daya)

great

called that of

Dadu

to

Dayal. Kabir, but

ideas.

teaching
so

is very similar much affected by

Muhammadan

Much has

of
found

the

Hinduism
back

against
into of the the

which
sect.

Dadu Dadu

protested

rejected,
and

its way for instance, the

teaching

of his modern idolatry, but some Hindus followers Vedantists, and only twice-born are has the read the Bant, and allowed sect to no are Bdni D"du's Moreover, dealings at all with outcastes. Dadu's teaching idolatrous is worshipped rites. with

Vedanta,

caste,

was are

spread
contained

by
in

fifty-two disciples. the Bdnl, a book

It

His of

doctrines
about five

thousand

verses.

is

divided

into

thirty-seven

the Divine such subjects as chapters dealing with Meeting, Teacher, Remembrance, Separation, The The The Mind, Truth, The Good, Faith, Prayer, etc.
verses

of Dadu and
to

are

very

attractive
are

and

have

musical
them

rhythm,
are

hymns
and

which
used

included for

amongst
of
a

set

music

both is
a

public and

private
few of

The worship. Dadu's verses

"

following
:
"

translation

Receive

that which

is

into perfect

all besides ; abandon all things for the declares is the true devotion.
"

your love

hearts to the exclusion of of God, for this Dadu is devoid the thread

Cast

off

of sin. of your
'*

Attach All have

pride,and become acquaintedwith that which is sinless, and suffer who to Rama, yourselves
to be upon

meditations

him.
to take

cannot

release their souls

it in their power from

away

their

own

lives,but they
alone is able
to

punishment ;

for God

pardon the soul, though few deserve His mercy. 11 Listen to the admonitions of God, and will care you hunger nor for thirst ; neither for heat, nor cold ; ye will be from the imperfections of the flesh.
M

for not absolved

Draw

your

mind

because of God.
"

if ye subdue If ye call upon and the evil

within, and dedicate it to God ; of your flesh, the imperfections ye will think only forth, from God,
return

ye
to

will

be of

able
your

to

subdue
ye

inclinations
you

mind

tions, imperfecyour will depart from

to

you

; but

they

will

again when

cease

call upon

him. "Dadu
essence

and

Rama incessantly;he partook of his spiritual examined the mirror, which was within him. constantly

loved

66
"He of Rama

HISTORY
subdued
; he

OF
the

HINDI

LITERATURE

evil inclinations

of the flesh, and all imperfections overcame crushed every improper desire,wherefore the light him."1

will shine

upon

The

sect

which

Dadu.

founded two
are sons

has
were

very

large
posed com-

literature
all his

in Hindi.

Dadu's
well
as

poets, and
have
The

fifty-two disciples
verses,
as

reported
later

to

many

followers.

most

important
the
younger

poet

Das
Busar. the

his discipleswas Sundar is also called (fl. 1620-1650),who

amongst

By
best
names

the

Dadupanthis
in Hindi

he

is
to

regarded
rank He
was

as

one

of the

Hindi

poets, worthy
his most

amongst
a

highest

literature.

nous volumiare

writer.

Amongst

admired

works

his

Savaiyas (sometimes called the Sundar Bilas) and the Nischal Das, a later Dadupanthi poet, Gyan Samudra.
introduced
The Lai

Vedantic
Dasis."
a

ideas Lai

into the
the
a

teaching
died
Dasis.

of the
was

sect.

Das, who
as

in 1648,
He tribe

the

founder
to

of

sect

known from

Lai

belonged
called
can

Alwar,
to

and

came

predatory
whose
of Rama. he

the

Meos. traced the and

Like

other

teachers

doctrines
the His called

be of

Kabir's influence
of the
name are

emphasized
a

value

repetition
hymns
members
The

teaching
the

contained
of the
sect

in

work

Bani.
to

The music.

often
the

sing
Sadhs
to

the

hymns
founded

Sadhs."

The

sect

of

was

in

1658

by Blr
of the

Bkan,
Doab. from

and

is found
Bhan

chiefly

in have

the

upper

part
his
form
were

Bir
a

claimed

received

doctrines of
verses

instructor in the superhuman (sabdas) and couplets (saktiis). These

a

collected

into

volume
like

called

the

Adz

\Upadesa

("Original Instruction").These
those
are

of

other
at

teachers the

together with and Dadu, Kabir, Nanak

verses, sect.
was

recited
Dharni

meetings

of the in the
and

H^s."Dharnl

Das

born

in

1656

and

lived at the village of Manjhi

He He
1

district of Chhapra.
became
a

was

Kayasth
a

by

caste,

devotee. He

founded
Translation

sect

which
R. VI.

still survives.

is the
Asiatic

by G.
Vol.

Siddons, in the

Journal

of

the

Societyof Bengal,

(1837).

THE

SUCCESSORS
of two Prakas.
Poets."

OF

KABIR
the

67

reputed
and the
Some
verses

author Prem
Sufi
was

Hindi

works,

Satya
wrote

Prakas Hindi
to

Muhammadan

who He

Yari
a

Sahib
and

(1668-1723).
lived
and

seems

have

been of his Das 1730. the

Sufi,

taught
verse,

at

Delhisuch
as

Some
Kesav about and

disciples also wrote and Bulla Sahib, both

A

Hindi
of

whom

flourished Gulal Sahib.

of

latter

disciple of Bulla Sahib was had a disciple called Bhikha

in the
are

Sahib
y

Both

of these

flourished and Two both other the of

were

latter the

half
who

of

the

eighteenth
Hindi
been

century,
verse.

reputed
a

authors
may

Hindi
same,

writers
or

have

connected

with
Sahib

similar

Dariya
Both

Bihar, and
Muhammadans

Dariya
century.
who
was

are movement, of Marwar. Sahib

of these

and

flourished
Another

in the

first half

of the

eighteenth
verse

madan Muhamin the and first

was

writer
half of the
a

of Hindi

also

lived

eighteenth century
Sufi.
Dasis." caste

Bulle

Shah,

probably
The to the

Charan

Charan

Das

(1703-1782)belonged
About the still
year

Dhusar

he had

founded
many

admitted His

Baniyas. at sect a Delhi, which disciples who spread his as disciples not only men
is
very

of

1730 He he also.

exists. and

teaching,
but of
women

teaching
the
name

similar
as

to

that value

emphasizes
of

such of need
a

doctrines

the

and Kablr, of the repetition of and the the word

sity neces-

God,
guru.

the

importance

(sabda),
of Charan
guru

the

of devotion

(bhakti),
was

having
Das,
a

Idolatry
crept
back

denounced the the

sect. sect
a on

by
The and is

but
very

has

into

holds
as

important
Like

place in
sects stress
use

regarded
literature

divine.

similar

it has

large
this

amongst

Hindi, and its members,

sect

in

great
the
possesses

is

laid

of

Sanskrit
in

being
Hindi

The discouraged. of the Bhagavata

translations
the

Purana
to

and been

Bhagavad
at

Gltay
least in
posed com-

which

are

said

have himself. Hindi followers.

made,
Charan

part, by Charan
many

Das other

Das which
of

also
are

works Two

much
women

esteemed

by

his

his

68

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE

These were disciples were Sahajo Bai and poetesses. said to have been sisters and are to They Daya Bai. CharanDas. Their caste have belonged to the same as
verses
are

of
Bodh
Siv
near

considerable
of

merit Bai
was

and

full

of in

devotion. 1751.
a

The

Daya
The

Daya

composed
dray
1734
an

Narayanis."

Siv
In

was

Rajput
a

who which

lived

Ghazipur.

he

founded

sect

Brahman without as worships God attributes, is himself and rejects idolatry. Siv Narayan regarded incarnation Outward an by his followers. as formity conto the

observances and

of Hindus of all the

a

and

Muhammadans
are

is

permitted

people

castes

admitted Muhammad

as

members. Shah
founder

It

is said

that

Emperor
of
and the

(1719-1748) became
was a

member

sect.

The

voluminous
sixteen The been
to

writer
books
guru

is credited
verse.

with

having composed
The Garib

of Hindi

Dasis."

of

Garib
the

Das
he

(1717an

1782) is said
anachronism,
sprang

to

have

Kabir, which,
that
sect

although
sect,

seems

show

founded which

from

the

Kabirpanthis.

This

must is still in existence, consists only of sddhus, who The he book which castes. belong to the twice-born

composed,
sakhls
to

called

the

Guru
Of

Granth
Das

Sahib,
lived of
Ram

contains

24,000

and

chaupais.
of Kabir. Rohtak

these, however,
at

be sakhls

Garib
The

7,000 are said the village of

Sanehis
who
was

Chhurani
The
Ram

in the
Ram

district of the
sect

Panjab.
lived

Sanehis."

in (born 1718), by He at first an idolater, but gave was Rajputana. up founded the of idols and of Ram sect the worship is now The sect Lovers of Ram," Sanehis, or sented repreof sddhus. order His sayings merely by an into Bant. The been collected have and a hymns Dulhd of the who third leader Ram, sect, named about in 1776, composed Sanehi became 10,000 a Ram in died 1824. He and sakhls. sabdas 4,000 founded

Charan

"

The

Satnamis
seems

and

Jagjivan
have

Das."

The founded but It the

was

sect

of

the the

Satnamis
middle of
its

to

been

before

of the

seventeenth
are

century,

ces circumstan-

origin

unknown.

reorganised

70

HISTORY
Much

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE is smooth which

had and
come

(sdnta ras).
and the

of their

verse

mical, rhythinto
certain than

artistic influences
were no

Hindi
extent.

literature But

doubt
was

felt by them

to

their

interest rank

literary,and
If their
are

few
are

of them less

religious high amongst

than those and dealt of

rather Hindi

poets.
which in these need of

verses

rugged
in the The
not

Kabir, they

also

often

lacking
his work.
are

characterise voluminous
a

vigour subjects
to

charm with The value

works
the

very

extensive.

of
the

guru

and

respect
name

due of

him,
of

the

repetition of the
of devotion of

God, the
delusions

supreme
may

importance
a, the

(bhakti), the
a

value

truth, the
and

these
over

sober duty of living a righteous and few kindred topics are over repeated

life,
and

again, in different
a manner

in

tedious.
to be

at interminable length, ways, which is apt to be to the ordinary reader Nevertheless there are striking pasmany sages

found

which
of India

are

full of the

beauty

and

inculcate of

valuable

lessons. the North

During
was

greater

part

this

passing through a time The of great reign of Aurangzeb political change. (1658-1707) was a long struggle against disintegrating worse. forces, and after him the politicaldisorder grew rebellion Internecine strife and were frequent. The period
invasions Shah
The of Nadir

Shah
were

(1739) and
a

afterwards of
terrible

of Ahmad disaster.

Durrani
Marathas which

(1756)
also
were

time

Empire,
exist

by
in

constantly attacking the Mughal of the this period ceased end to

It
was a

except
of

name.

time
; but

of

calamity, tyranny of heart in sought peace thoughtful men period many in such circumstances piety and quietism, and it was referred in this of the to that much religious verse the writers In these not produced. chapter was poems feeling after aspiration and only expressed their own which beautiful forth thoughts God, but gave many in times of distress, and others to an a solace were after seek the to and to live nobly incentive to them is described in literature The sects whose highest ends. cases something to Kabir, in some this chapter all owe

and persecution'

frequent during this

THE

SUCCESSORS

OF

KABIR

71

the all and the

influence

being
in

direct
at

and

in for
a

others

indirect.

They theism,
are

stand,
a

theory
many

least,
their

non-idolatrous

great
as,

of

theological
those which

conceptions
Kabir

same

or

similar

to,

taught.

VIII.

THE

KRISHNA
(1550-1800)

CULT

The

Ashta

Chhap."
who the have

Vallabhacharya
been leaders mentioned of each the

and in
a

his

son

Vitthalnath, chapter
at
as

previous
sect

early
near

Vallabhacharl
four
are

Gobardhan,
whom
were

Muttra,
poets.

had

disciples,
known
as

all the

of Ashta the for This

Hindi
or

They
or

Chhap,
poems

the

Eight
Western
the

Seals,
are

Diestamps,
as

because
standards

they
dialect
was

produced
of

regarded
in

that

Hindi

which
named Muttra

they

wrote.

dialect in

Braj

Bhasha, namely
country.
connected in

after and their the and

the

district
ban almost and

which
the

they

lived,

Brinda-

surrounding
Hindi

Since with

time

all has
come

poetry

Krishna
it has

Cult
also

been
to

composed
be looked

Braj
as

Bhasha,
the Das Eastern
are

upon

poetic
and
most

dialect of

of
the The

Hindi

par

excellence,
of of Rama

though
wrote

Tulsi
in who

worshippers disciples
Ashta Parmanand
were

Hindi. included
Das in

Vallabhacharya
were

the

Chhap

Sur
and

Das,

Krishna
Das.

Pay
of Nand the

Aharl,
nath VitthalDas

Das

Kumbhan

Those

Chaturbhuj
Das. half Das

Das,
these

Chhit
flourished

Svaml,
about

and
or

Govind second
Krishna

All of
the

middle

sixteenth Aharl
not
seems

century.
to to

Pay

have in

been

rival

of
He

Sur
was,

Das,

though

equal
writer

him

poetical
and

merit.

however,
His best

the

of

graceful
is

melodious
the Prem-

stanzas.

known
Das

work
had
to
some

called

sattvanirilp.
became

Krishna

several
one

pupils
of them

who
was

poets.

According

THE

KRISHNA who

CULT
.

73

Agra
Nabha

Das

(fl. 1575),

was

in turn

the

preceptor

of

of the Bhaktamala. Das, author Das Nand to Sur Das, the holds, next

highest place
in the Ashta

as

poet
to

amongst
He
was
a a

those

who

are

included
some

Chhap.
him be

Brahman,
of the

and

have
Das.

believed
There

brother him

great
says,

Tulsi
Aur

is

proverb
Das but metal

gariya, Nand (or melters), jariya, "All others are simply founders is the artificer (who joins the Nand Das pieces of
about

which

sab

composite of several larger works of his compositions One

a

into

whole).
as

"

He of in had

was

the

author
verses.

well
a

as

detached

is

poem

imitation

of

the

Sanskrit

hyayt. The Sur Das." Chhap, greatest of all the Ashta Sur Das. The particulars of his life are was
and
son

Glta

Govinda,

called

Pane

ever, howvery

scanty
and
court went

uncertain. of Baba Ram

It is said

that

he
was

was
a

Brahman

the

Das, who
At

of the

Emperor

Akbar.

the

of

his parents and to Muttra, devotee. he removed Afterwards with

singer at the of eight he age became the pupil

to

Gau.
a

between
of

Agra
to

and

Muttra,
In the

where

he

became which
verses

Ghat, disciple
self himthat

Vallabhacharya.
wrote
some

commentary
famous Ram bard

he says that

of his emblematic of the

was

he

he

was

descendant

Chand
and

Bardal,
his

that

his

father's
consider this
at

name

Chandra,
lived
at

grandfather,
however,
verse

Hari

Chandra,
him
to

be

Brahman is

and
as

where lived
killed

information
and

given
seven

Agra. Some, regard the spurious. His

six of whom He

father
were

Gopchal
with

had

sons,

alone, blind (either literally or figuratively) and worthless, he says, remained He had a vision of Krishna, alive. as "all was darkness" and thereafter to him, which may
mean

in battle

the

Muhammadans.

he

became
one

blind. the and All from Ashta

He

went

to

live

at

Braj, and
places
his his of bard
dates
to

became birth
are

of

Chhap.
death in

Tradition

in

1483

his

1563, but
agree
a
"

these
as

uncertain. either he

the

traditions
or

blindness, his life, and

of

birth,

from
to
as

later the

period
blind

is often

referred

Agra."

74

A Sur

HISTORY
Das excelled

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE

in many

styles of composition.
passages

A the

of large number Bhagavata Purana

verse,

and episodes were reproduced the the

from in

by

him

and

he

was

writer

of

great number
and

exquisite of lyrics
Radha,
and

in connection

of Krishna worship collected which were together in the Sur the Sur avail. The contains Sahityalaharl
verses an

with

Sagar

emblematic
wrote

for (Drisktakilt),

which

Sur He

Das also

himself
wrote

explanatory
story
of

commentary.
a?id

in

Hindi

Damayantl. Altogether he is credited with having composed as as 75,000 verses. many holds Sur Das Some a high place in literature. very Indian authorities would the foremost place give him Hindi would reserve poets, though most amongst persons that honour for Tulsi Das. An often quoted couplet Hindi is the sun, Tulsi referring to poetry says, "Sur
the Nala the of here
moon,

Kegav
are

Das

is Sur

cluster

of stars, but

the

poets

to-day
and
power.

like He
of

so

many

there."

Das

glow-worms giving light is undoubtedly a poet of

to

great
the

is considered

excel

in his

use

of all

style recognized by the authorities on An Hindi of images and similes. poetry and in his use said with court regard to poet of Akbar's anonymous
ornaments

and Birbal in the kavitta Gang excels in sonnets Kes'av's meaning is ever metre profound, but Sur ; the excellency of all three." possesses

him,

"

A
All One The One The One The One The

few

specimens
are

of his

work
had

are

given
power

here

"

days
Meru
next

not

day King
;

alike ; Hari"chandra
went to

in his in the

wealth
of
a

like Mount and

day
a man

he is

live the

house

Chandal,

removed

clothes
a

day
and

in every next day he has to live in the and legs. hands

burying-ground. bridegroom, attended by a bridal direction flagsare placed ;

and forest, there

from

company, forth

stretches

day
next

SIta is

crying in a very terrible re-united day having become

in
s

forest ; with Ramchandra, with

both

go

about

balloon

of flowers.
was

day Raja
(Krishna)
next

Yudhishthir
as

reigning

Sri

Bhagwan
Dusasan

his follower ;

day (his wife) Draupadi is made

away her clothes.

naked, and

takes

THE
The Sur

KRISHNA
birth appear;

CULT
O the foolish

75 mind, give
up

doings of anxiety;
Das
says,

the former
"

How

far

can

I describe

qualities? True
*

are

letters written
*

by
*

the Creator
*

(on the

forehead) ."
*

Without In those Now In vain In vain Sur Das

Gopal these days (when

have

bowers he
was a

become of

like enemies.
creepers

here) these

seemed

very

cool,

they

fieryflames. is flowing, and the birds twitter ; the Riverjamuna the lotuses are blooming, and the black bee hums ; Looking for the lord, my eyes have become says,
become

heap

"

red

like the ghunghchl

*****

seed.

"

Night
It is The The

day my eyes shed tears with always the rainy season collyrium does not stay on
have

and

;
me,

since
eyes,

Syam
my

went

my

hands the the

away. and

my

cheeks cloth

become
bodice

dark,
never

of my

gets dry, because

a

heart

in the

midst of it is

running

like

stream

of water.

My
Sur

eyes
are

have

become away.
"

rivers,my
now

limbs

tired, and

fixed

stars

moving
says,
not

Das

Braj is
Varta."

being submerged (in tears), why

An is

do you The

deliver it ?"

Chaurasi

important
the

work Varta been

which

belongs

to

this

period

Chaurasi
to

(or
It is

"Eighty-four Tales"), reputed

by Gokulnath
earlier
Vaishnava
to

have

written
the

of Vitthalnath. (fl.1568), the son in date than and whereas the Bhaktamala, contains
accounts

Bhaktamala

of Varta

devotees

of

various
sively exclu-

sects, the

Chaurasi

is devoted

of the stories, mostly legendary, of of Vallabhacharya. deal It lays a great the erotic side of the Krishna From legends. of the literature of view it is very important

followers
stress
on

the
as

point

being
earliest

written

in

prose,

of

which

it

is

one

of

the

It is written clear and easy style, in a very specimens. and although written three hundred and fiftyyears ago the language little from the differs very used modern Braj dialect.
Other

early poets

Vallabhacharis."

Two
mentioned. have been

or

three
sect

other
were

early
Hindi

members
must

of

the also

Vallabhachari be
to

who

(fl.circ. 1574) is said

Hit Bhagwan a disciple of

76

HISTORY
He

OF

HINDI
the author merit.

LITERATURE of his which

A

Vitthalnath.

was

some

Krishnaite

lyrics
was a

of

considerable
at

Raskha?i
name

(fl. 1614)
was

Muhammadan

first and
a

then

Sayyad
and

Ibrahim.
verses

He in and

became
his honour

worshipper
are

of

Krishna
to

wrote

said

be

full of devotion
was

sweetness.

disciple
Hindi
sect
was

of Raskhan

Qadir Baksh,
The

who

also

wrote

poetry.
founded in

Radha-Vallabhis."

new as

Brindaban
In this
sect

about Radha

1585 is

known

the

Radha-Vallabhis.
as an

placed above
was

Krishna Vamsa
was a

object
called man Brah-

of devotion. Hit

Its founder
or

Hari

(also
Gaur

Haribans,
named

Hit

Jt)

His
.

father

who in the of the service was Vyasa, Muhammadan Hari in SansVarhSa krit wrote Emperor. the Radhaconsists of 170 coupsudha-?iidhi, which lets. Chaurasi Pad His in Hindi is the principal work

(or Premlata).
very
sensuous

The

erotic
these but
a

side of Vam"a

the

Krishna

cult full

is of

in prominent imagery,
as a

works

and

they
in Hindi

are

Hari

possesses

great

skill A

poet

and
are

holds here

few
M

stanzas
Whatever
me,

high place given :

"

literature.

my

Beloved

doeth

is

pleasingto
The would

me

; and

whatever I would the

is be of !

pleasingto
is in my
my eyes.

that my

Beloved
my
to

doeth.

place where
fain be

Beloved's

My

eyes ; and is dearer Love

a one

Beloved
me

apple
Vans
us

than
me. are

Love the
can

would

lose

thousand

lives for
one

body, soul, or Sri Hit Rejoice,

like
?
two

life ; and Hari

my

loving pair,
separate
11

dark,
from has

fair,
?

cygnets

; tell

who

wave

water

my

Beloved,

the fair

spoken

this is

surely a

beautiful

O friend, night ; the lightningis folded in the lustycloud's embrace. is the woman could with who where a princeof so quarrel exquisite with hearkened gallants ? Rejoice,Sri Hari Vans ! dear Radhika her
ears

and

with

voluptuous

emotion

joinedin

love's

delight.

44

Come
a

Radha,
dance
on

you

knowing
bank of

one,

your

paragon
stream.

of

lovers Bevies

has

started
damsels

the

the

Jamuna's
of

of

are joyous dancing in all the abandonment sound. the forth Near Bansi-bat, a a sweetly stirring pretty gives pipe the with delicious where air breathes where the softness, spicy spot, fills the with world overpowering fragrance, half-opened jasmine

delight ; the

beneath with head

the clear radiance

are

of the
on

autumnal

full moon,

the

milkmaids
from about

rapturedeyes to foot,quick

to

lord, all beautiful gazing your glorious love's remove every pain. Put your arms

78

HISTORY
all goes for

OF

HINDI
when the

LITERATURE
darkness
of your last

chamber,
draweth

nothing

day

nigh."
Das

"

Hari Vitthal
these
were

was

succeeded the latter

as

leader Biharini Das

verses

of

the Das.
a

sect

by

Vipul,
Hindi
one.

and

by

Both minous volumost

poets, Biharini
his
numerous

being
he

very

In
to

uses

the

erotic

language
Sital
a

express

the

intensity
was a

of his

religious
sect,

devotion.
was

(fl.1723), who

leader

of the

also

belonged Lalit Prakas,

founder
Other

Sahachari Sara?i (fl. skilful poet. 1763) also Dasls. to the Hari is the his works Amongst which
sect.
of
a

contains

sayings
Verse."

of

Hari
Dhar the

Das,

the

of the

Writers
was

Krishna

Gad

Bhatt
sect

(fl. 1565) Chaitanya

in has the Cult.

Krishnaite
wrote
verses

belonging
uf Lai

to

of

and

considerable

merit
work
on

Krishna's
been
art

honour. in
was

Bihari
a

Chaube,
chapter
with famous
as

whose
a

described of poetry,
Most of the

previous
also in

writer Sat

connected

the

Krishna
deal

verses

his

Sat

with

some on

phase
the

or

other of

writers
verse.

art

of the story of Krishna. Other also Krishnaite wrote poetry in the

Taj,
was a

who

flourished
was

first half
of
a

of

the

teenth seven-

century,

the of

wife

Muhammadan,
wrote
some

but much

worshipper
verses

Krishna.
honour.

She

admired

in his

Bhishma

chapter
under the Bakhshi

of

circ. 1650) (fl. the Bhagavata title Bal Mukund

translated Purdna

the

famous
Hindi

tenth
verse,

into

Llld.
was a

Hahsraj
a an

(fl.1732)
poet.
He of Radha

Kayasth
the

of Panna,

who which
some

was

skilful
account

wrote

Saneh
as

Sagar,
well
as

is

and

Krishna,
wrote

other

works.
Brahman Krishna work of

Man,
A

Baiswara,
connection

in 1761 Krishna

lation trans-

of the famous is the Bast

Khanda
in

entitled

Kallol. Krishna

with

the the
a

Cult

Braj
1

Bilds (1770). It was Braj Das, of Brindaban, and contains

from Mr.

work

of

description

Translation

F.S.

Growse's

Mathura,

p. 210.

THE

KRISHNA

CULT

79

of

at Brindaban. during his residence Braj Basi Das belonged to the sect of Vallabhacharls. to 1798) was Bat Kunwari (fl. 1760 a Sundari of and daughter Raj family, princess of the Rathor and She of Rupnagar Krishnagarh. Singh, Maharaja of Bhadra Bal married to Singh, Maharaja was

Krishna's

life

Raghavgarh.
lady wrote devotion,
Manchit
the author
a

of her Many large number

of which
are

family
of
poems

were

poets, and
full of of

this

religious
was

many

in honour

Krishna.
of
a

Dvij
of
of His

(fl.circ. 1779),

of
is

Bundelkhand,
an

Surbhxdanllla, which
Krishna, and
poems
are

account

the

childhood
Krishna.

Krishnayan,
considered

which
to

is
of

life of
a

be

very

high standard
Bibi 1842. who Ratan

of

She

was

helped

to

poetic excellence. born about of Benares, was Kunwar, of Raja Siv Prasad, the grandmother in the teenth nineHindi literature develop
In the Prem of Ratna she and has

century.
account
was

given

an

of the

devotees of many
on

Krishna,
other

in addition

she

the
General

authoress
Remarks

verses.

Krishnaite

Literature."

great
Cult

deal
deals

of

the

poetry
the of

connected of

with Krishna
bhakti Krishna all
was

the

Krishna
the Radha.
a

with
Hindu
over

amours

with
threw
was

Gopis
The

(milkmaids)
great

Braj, and

especially with
of

teachers these

mystical
them
was

glamour
Supreme
a

stories.
from and the

to

the but
to

Deity,
Radha

whom
who other

creation full of

sportive emanation,
and

love for

his

devotees.

Gopis

stood

human

Radha especially typified the devotee, souls, of whom God. In self in devotion to ready to offer her whole the literature the connected

with
often
to
use

this form
the
most

of

the

bhakti

movement

writers

erotic language

and under

sensuous

imagery

describe

the

soul's devotion,

to her picture of Radha' s self-abandonment could of the verses not be translated beloved. Many of these writers the Yet into lyrics of English. often of real religious were men passionate devotion in motives impure quite free from earnestness, any of this kind literature them. That has, composing

the

80

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE

however,
been shown

very in the the

dangerous

tendency
of
the Krishna in The

has

too

often

history
writers

movement.

Many
were

of

mentioned merit.

this

chapter
influences
to

poets
had

of
come

very

high
into

artistic
are

which
in
a

Hindi

literature
in the

be

seen

very
was

marked the
to to
centre

degree
of

their

work.

Muttra,
was

which

movement,
and

in Das

close

proximity by
court.

the have

Mughal
had

court,
some

Sur

is with

said the

tradition

connection
channel the

But,
there the is

through
no

whatever
that towards the

influence felt of

came,

doubt

poets
the and fame onwards

of

Braj

very

strongly poetic
was
so

tendencies
and that the

perfection
of

the

art, great
to

excellency
from
their

their

poetry
Bhasha

time the

Braj

came

be

regarded

as

chief

poetic

dialect

of

Hindi.

IX.

BARDIC

AND

OTHER
(1550-1800)

LITERATURE

Bards

of

Mewar."

The of

succession
and down
states

of

bards

in

the of

various
Hindustan and Mewar

kingdoms
was was was

Rajputana right
of
to

other
to

parts

continued
one

modern

times,
great
of
couragement en-

the

where
A

given
Singh,
the

them. of

chronicle who
was

the

time
1628 unknown

of
to

Rana

Jagat
called The

Mewar, Bilds,
of
was

reigned
written

from

1654,
bard.

Jagat
who

by
Rana

an

successor

Jagat
famous
of

Singh,
poets.
was

Raj
of

Singh

(1654-1681),
was a

the

opponent
The also of

Aurangzeb,
of his

great
called bard.

patron

chronicle written
Rana
wrote

time,
his

Raj
At

Prakd's,
the Man

by Raj
the

an

anonymous

suggestion
the

Singh
Raj
Dev

poet-laureate,
which

(fl. 1660),

Bilds,
and
was

describes Another

struggle
poet
wrote

between

Aurangzeb
at

Raj
title Jai

Singh. Raj

who

lived

his life

court

Saddsiv
the

(fl. 1660),
Ratnakar.

who

his
son

patron's
of
also

under
was

The and he

Raj
was

Singh
a

Rana of
at

Singh
A
was

(1681-1700)
work
the

he had

patron poets
series Another

poets.
court

which
Jai whom Dev

written which

by
is
a

his of

Bilds,
he had

lives

of

the of
was a

kings
bardic
Ran

conquered. Mewar,
date entitled

author

chronicle

of

Raj

Pattand,
In
"

Chhor,
great

whose

is doubtful.
Bards of Marwar. to to at

Marwar

also

patronage
is

was one

given day
poets

poets.

Maharaja
six
son

Siir

Singh
of

said

in
to

have his

distributed
court.
as

lakhs

rupees
was

six
a

His

Gaj grandson

Singh
Amar

also

patron

of

poets,

well

as

his

Singh.
6

82

HISTORY

OF

HINDI with
court

LITERATURE his
of father and

Amar exiled.

Singh
He but the in

quarrelled
went to

was

the

Jahan,
murder
a

revenge

for
and

Shah Emperor to slight he attempted

cut

the

Emperor,
of courtiers.

was

down poets

after

killing
a

number

Among
Banwdrl
and 1634.

the

patronised
wrote

by Amar panegyric
of whom

Singh
of his
flourished

were

Lai,

who

patron,
about

Nath Raghu Maharaja

Ray,

both

Ajlt Singh,
written
a

in Marwar of Jodhpur (1681-1724), had a work entitled the Raj Rupakakhyat, contains which

history
race

of his family from Karan to 1724.

the time of

the
was

commencement

of the bard of

solar

the

poet

and

Jodhpur Prakas,
1731
in

at

Maharaja

Abhay

Singh

(1724-1750),son
Surya
to

of
he

Ajit
wrote

In his poem, called Singh. a history of the period from

the

1638

7,500

Maharaja Vijai Singh, who reigned at Jodhpur 1753 to 1784, was himself from and he also had a poet, written, entitled the Vijai Bilas, which a work gives an in 100,000 couplets of the account between war Vijai Singh and his cousin Ram Singh.
lines.
Bards
at

Other

Courts."

Other

courts

also

had

their

poets.
Shah

The Jahan

rebellion
was

Jagat celebrated by

of

Singh,
a

of Mhow,
named Ratan
an

against
Gambhir

bard Rav

In honour (fl.1650). Ray of Raja Uday great-grandson bard

wrote
a

of

(fl.1650),
anonymous

Singh,
Rav Ratan

history
of

called

Raysa.
own

Jai
not

Singh
only
a

Sawai,

Jaipur

(reigned 1699-1743),was
wrote

but of poets patron Jai entitled Singh

his

graphy, autobioJai of

Sawai's
was

brother-in-law,
a

Kalpadrum Buddh Rav, Raja

patron
of

Singh Bundl,
Jodhraj Kavya

also

poet
a

and

poets.

(fl. 1728) was

at

the

orders the
same

with Ghan
the

the Hamniir who wrote Brahman, deals of NImrana, which of the Maharaja incidents by the bard formerly described who

Sarang

Dhar,
Syam

lived circ. (fl.

and of
to

in

the

fourteenth attended the

century.
court

Sukla
the

1680)
in

of also

Raja of Rewah
court
are

wrote

his of

praise.
Benares.

He

attended
poems

the be

Raja
of

His of

considered
attended

great
of

merit.

Harikesh

(fl.1731)

the

court

Raja

Chhatrasal,

BARDIC
Panna. He
was
a son

AND

OTHER
in the

LITERATURE
heroic

83 Sudan

excelled
a

style.

(fl.1750)
Suraj Mai,
wrote

the in
to

Sujan
which
be
an

battles

who was Brahman, patronised by of Bharatpur. of the Maharaja He is an of the account Charz'tr, which took is conSudan Suraj Mai sidered part. excellent the
to

narrative Kavi
who in his

poet,
for
a

especially

in he the

his
was

account not

of

preparations
Lai

equal
itself.
was

battle, but description of

in the

battle

bard
Lai Jha He

wrote

Maithili
most poem

dialect famous called the

of Bihari

(fl. 1780), one

was

of the of
a

poets

of Mithila.

the is

author
a

Kanarpi
of

Ghat

Laral,

which

description
raja Mahapatron victorious.

of

battle

Kanarpi
Singh,
At ruled the
at

Narendra
Lai

Kavi."

Ghat, in which of Darbhanga, of Raja court

Panna, in

his
was

Chhatrasal

(1646and
was

1731),
himself
to
men

who
a

Bundelkhand
was

poet,
letters.

much The
as

encouragement
most

given
was
name on

of

famous
Kavi.

of
His
a a an

these full

Lai,
was

generally
Gorelal
he entitled
wars

known
in

Lai

Purohit.
wrote

Besides

writing
verse

treatise

lovers,
work
the of that

Braj

Bhasha It

celebrated
account

Chhatra
order of and
are

Praka's.

gives
of the
of

of
and

and

succession
the related excellence of
a

ancient

Rajas
Lai

Bundelkhand,
of his

life

Chhatrasal detail.
The

father
in his
account

with
as

great
a

Kavi is

achieved
the

great
in

narrative
Praka's of
:
"

poet,
ing follow-

especially

description
the
at the

battle.

Chhatra
battle

Raja

Chhatrasal's
**

bravery

of Deogarh

Raja Chhatrasal, valiant in war, dreadful in battle,famed for heroic achievements, active, vigorous, and powerful as a tiger,penetrated into the midst of the Deogarh Raja's army while thousands of ; fell balls and arrows him like and rain around. Firm discharged at undaunted, redoubling his efforts he furiouslyattacked the numerous he was surrounded. troops by whom Entirelydisregarding balls and
bullets,he
foe
was

inflicted and while

received

wounds

in

the

enemy's

ranks.

The

amazed The sal of Chhatraat the fighting gods were repellingthe attack of thousands, and scattering death and destruction around, Kali delightedto see his sword-dance. His progress could no as one an antagonist had stop ; for, as soon raised his sword, Chhatrasal, by superior inflicted a wound dexterity, ; and he was skilful from his in the the of use equally Separated spear.
;

confounded.

and,

84

HISTORY
surrounded
to
severe

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE
from
one

troops, and
their army

by foes, he fought his

Wherever he renewed
enemy,

way

flank

of

the other.

wounds,

he went, the

victory followed.

garding Disre-

impetuosityand fury,that the and abandoned took to flight,

fame

attack, fighting with such believinghim to be Kal Rudra,

Chhatrasal deer Bahadur obtained from
a

the field.

and

renown:

for

the

kettle-drums the camp

sounded

strains

enemy of victory, and

fled like

lasting tiger. The

ordered

Khan

to be

pitched."1
of

Other
we

Literature

the

Period."

Besides

the

ture litera-

mentioned in this the and already writers other on preceding chapters, there were many of the There subjects during period. a are variety of the the with works Vedanta, dealing philosophy the connected with Jain works religion, works on have morals

(niti),comic

verses,

and

great
and

many
as

other cography, lexigery. sur:

"

on topics, including text-books agriculture, astronomy,

such

subjects
mentioned in

veterinary
here

A Nath
poems
on

few
Kavi the

of the

authors

may

be

(b. 1584),
seasons

who

dwelt
in

Braj,

wrote

and

other

subjects.
the

Mubarak

All
was

(b.1583), of
author of still current.

Bilgram
a

district
of

of

Hardoi,
verses

the
are

large

number

short

which
of

Nazir

(fl.before
considerable
and often indecent. Das He

1600), of Agra,
fame whose

was verses

versatile
are

poet

very
are

popular
said to be
Bandrsi

quoted,

though
was
a

many

of

them

(b. 1586)
at
are as a

follower
died

of

the

Jain
after he

religion.
1641.

lived

Jaunpur
full of

and

sometime

His

works
account

religious teaching
In his life.
was

and

is much
he

admired
an

poet.
own

most

famous

work
of

gives
Sri

of his

Dhar in honour

(b.1623), of Rajputana,
of

the

author

work

Durga
on

and

entitled
was
a

Bhawa?ii
other

Chhand.

Ghasi

Ram

circ. 1623) (fl.

poet

of considerable

merit, who
Puhakar the time of and

wrote

and love, morals (fl.1634) was a Kayasth He

was

Jahangir.
while
there

in

subjects. who lived during prison for some

the Ras Ratan.

offence

composed
A

Translation

by

W.

R.

Pogson,

History of the Boondelas.

86

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE

Giri
morals

Dhar

(b. 1713),
and used

of

the

Doab, pieces
metre

wrote

verses
are

on

(niti)
He

occasional
the
to

which
of

much
some

admired. critics
verses

kundaliya
be the

which
master.

consider
abound

him in

greatest
and
many

His
have

colloquialisms

of

them

become

proverbs.

$ri garh
he He in

Nagari Rajputana.
the
a

Das

(fl. 1723)
His
real

was
name

Maharaja
was

of

Krishnabut

Savat
as

Singh,
de

adopted
was

name

of

Nagari

Das

his

nom

plume.
a

poet

of

considerable

merit

besides

being

king

of Nur

great

valour.

Muhammad
It

(fl.1743)
is
a

was

the
to

author the
to

of

the

Indrdvati. of Malik

love

story
It

similar is considered

Padumdvati be
a

Muhammad.
poem.

well-

written Manbodh of
the

Jha

(fl. 1750),
of in of been

also

known
was
one

as

Bholan of the

Jhd,
most

district

Darbhanga,
the the

celebrated
wrote
a

poets
version have

Maithili
Harivamsa

dialect of

of

Biharl.

He
ten
are

which

only

sections
very

preserved.

These,

however,

popular.
Nidhdn

(fl.1751)
treatise
on

and

Day

Nidhi surgery

(b.
under

1754)
the

each

wrote

veterinary

title

"alihotr.
Ram end

Chandra
the

was

Brahman

who
He feet of

flourished
wrote
a

at

the in

of

eighteenth
in honour It

century.
of the

work entitled

five Char

books
an

Parvati,
to

Chandrikd.

is

considered

be

work

of

great

poetic

merit.

X.

THE

MODERN
(From 1800)

PERIOD

new

influence of culture the of

a

came

into

Hindi

literature

at

the

beginning
with
had the been
now

nineteenth the time The West. of East

century
The

through

contact

eighteenth
dearth,
but

centurya cence renas-

largely began.
its
come

literary
India
as

Company,
a a

which
company,

had

commenced had
was
now

career

in

India

trading
vast

into
to

possession

of

Empire
towards

and those

beginning
it
was

feel
upon

its responsibilities
to

whom
was

called

govern.

This
many

responsibility
in
the that

being

continually Amongst
was

urged
other

by

British
were

Parliament.

responsibilities

recognised
culture the and

the

duty
of

of the

fostering
peoples
of

and under the

helping
the rule

the of

education
The

Company.
to

introduction
culture.

printing-press
spread
not

helped

diffuse but
upon

literary
of

The

only
have Just
the
to
a

of vernacular
a as

English
the life

education
and of

could of in
not

not

but

vast

effect the of
case

thought learning
classics

India.

in

of Latin of

the

revival
and

Europe
led

study

the

Greek
but

only
to
so

stimulation
literature the of of

thought, European
has

also

helped

revive
also in
a

the
India

the

vernaculars,
been

study

English
of the

accompanied
literature of rule British of

by
India.

great
The
to

renascence

vernacular

peace

and after

security
the

which

the

brought
strife been

India,
disorder also of

long
which of

period
the

internecine had

and

through
the

country
literature

passing,
the

gave

genius
fallen

Hindi
of in the

the

opportunity decay
This

reasserting
which

itself, and

recovering eighteenth

from

into

it had

century.

88

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE
of

period is marked
dialect
Lallu

by
At

the

creation

new

Hindi
of the

literary

and

of Hindi

prose.

Ji Lai."

the commencement of John the Fort

nineteenth
at

century
Calcutta
the other

the
was

head Dr.

William With
J. the

Gilchrist.
of Professor
a

College the help

such

of
as

European
Abraham

officers

College,
W.

Captain
and Dr.

Lockett,
he
gave

Taylor,
to

Hunter, study of the

great
officials

impetus
were

the

cultivation for the

and and the but
a

of vernacular

literature.
scholars
new

Text-books

suitable

European produce
who also

group

of

vernacular
to

collected, gathered together

Most of Urdu

encouraged
work Lallu
was

literature.
the

in connection

with
wrote
was

language,
and

Ji for

Lai,

Urdu,
done

Sadal
other if the
as was a a

Misra,
scholars
not

did

Hindi
The

what
works

being
which

by
were

for Urdu.

they produced,
prose

the

first prose
form of

works

in those and

languages,
Lallu

first

literary standards,
whose

established

recognised
Brahman but had

literature. had
come

Ji

Lai

family
been Dr.
John

originally from
India.
he and

Gujarat,
the

long
of

settled

in North

Under

direction
were

Gilchrist
modern
as

Sadal

Misra

the of

creators

of
were,

"High
we

Hindi."
seen,

dialects North those

Hindi

have

Many in spoken
amongst

India, but
who
and

the
not

vehicle know

of

polite speech
was

did had with Hindus

a

Persian,
borrowed

Urdu.

Urdu,

however,
Persian
connected for
more was

vocabulary
Muhammadanism.

Arabic

languages,
which
Urdu Arabic
or

the largely from which were specially A literary language could commend and the itself result from

Hindi-speaking people
to
was

very

desirable,
and

produced
words for of them

by
words

taking
or

expelling
and

it

Persian
Bolt

origin,
Hindi

ing substitutThe used

was
as

of Sanskrit

origin.

name

Khari the

("
of

pure

speech")
and
sprang,

is sometimes which well

for

for

dialect from Hindi

Delhi Urdu

Meerut,
as

the the

language
modern

which

It seems to be implied literary dialect. and Lallu JI Lai was that only restoring the Delhi Meerut dialect to its original purity and using it for

THE

MODERN

PERIOD

89

literary
case,

purposes.

This,
Urdu
sprang

however,
words of

was

hardly Panjabi
and

the

for

though
as

originally from
of

this dialect and

it had

also

assimilated well Hindi

it is also
as

many

Rajasthani origin. The

Hindi
success.
"

those Lallu

Arabic
was
or

Persian
a new

of

Ji Lai
had the

really
a

literary dialect.
as

This
been

"High
called, has adopted as

Hindi,"

"Standard
great
of

however

It has in North in

literary speech
still continue
or

millions
to

India.

Poetical
or

works

be

written
as

Braj

Bhasha,
has before from

Avadhl,
been time

other used

old for

dialects,
poetry.
in Hindi
prose

High
very

Hindi

not

much
prose
an

But
were

whereas
rare,

this
now

works

onwards

extensive

literature
new was

in

this

first work The began to be produced. is regarded which as dialect, and one

a a

standard,
version It
was

Lallu
tenth
on a

Ji

Lai's

Prem of the

Sdgar,
Bhdgavata

which version
also

is

of the founded

chapter
was

Purdna. of

previous

Chaturbhuj
in 1810. admired

Mi"ra, and
The its

Braj Bhasha begun in 1804 and

which
an

completed
much

R"jniti

(1809),

is

for

Hitopadesa
The

and

language, was the Pahchatantra,

Batiisi
in and and mixed the Urdu

of the adaptation and is in Braj Bhasha.

Singhdsan
works

Baitdl and

Pachisi Hindi.
also Lai
poems

are

lections col-

of stories other

Besides
wrote
a

in Hindi
on

Urdu,
Sal
a

Lallu of

Ji Lai
of

commentary

the

Sat

Bihari

called in

Ldl

Chandrikd,
Bhasha the
prose

and

gathered
Sab ha Bilds.

collection Sadal

Braj

called

Mi'sra

author the

of the

Nasketopdkhyan,
story
must

which
the

(fl. 1803) was gives in Hindi

of Hindi

well-known
mention

of Nachiketas.

Serampore."
literature
done Ward
many

In connection also

with
be made

revival
of the

being about this time by William Carey and his colleagues and Marshman the at Serampore. Amongst translations of the Christian Scriptures made by
missionaries
The Hindi
were some

work

these India. first

in

the

dialects

of

North The

version

was

Carey's own
Testament

work.
were

portions of his
in 1809 and
was

Hindi Hindi
in

New

lished pubwhole
of

the

translation Besides

of

the

Bible

completed

1818.

translations

90
the

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE

Scriptures, Carey
of
many

and

his

editions

vernacular

colleagues also works, amongst

printed
them

being
in
a

pore

of these Most editions Ramayan. perished fire which the destroyed printing-press at Seram1812. In 1818 in to began Carey publish a in in
any

the

newspaper

Bengali, which
oriental
many newspapers

was

the and

first
was

printed
vernacular

language,
now

newspaper the runner fore-

of

the

issued

from his

the
workers co-

press.

All

this work in the

of

Carey

and

helped greatly
literature.

development

of vernacular

Raja
Lallu As
easy to

Siv

Prasad."

The has

new

literary dialect
been words

which

Ji Lai
be

produced
many

not

without
it is
a

its critics.

it includes
to

Sanskrit

speech Raja
as one

not

understood the
same

except
extreme

by

the
as

learned. Urdu.

It tends Siv

fall

into

Prasad

(1823-1895)is especially remembered

to

who

tried
the

popularise
which
of the settled he

literary speech
and
to

midway
the

between

Persian-ridden

Urdu,
believed

the be

Sanskrit-ridden
nearer

High by
no

Hindi, speech
means

colloquial
is
the

people. Raj yet.

Bibi
the the

The

controversy
Prasad
was

Siv

of the
he
was

poetess
to

Ratan

Kuhwar.
of He

In

grandson his youth

wards afterto

Vakil
he of Nur

Maharaja
and

Bharatpur,
an

but
rose

entered

English service.
became

the

position

Inspector in the of Public He Instruction. was Department eventually title of Besides the lations transRaja. hereditary granted show the modern and other works, all of which of a great many the author text-books influence, he was
The

Munshi

for schools.

Printingthe

Press."

The

outstanding feature
in modern number

of

the has

development
been in prose. of the use
at

of Hindi

literature
a

times
of

production of
This has

very very

large
much
was was

works

been

facilitated
at

by

the

printing-press.
that first and
not at

It

the

College
for

press

Fort

William
but

printing
the the

first used hindered characters

Hindi

works, development,
type
were

expense

its
of The

rapid
the

ungraceful with favour. regarded

work

THE

MODERN

PERIOD

91

of

Carey

and In

others

at
a

Serampore

has
press

already
was

been
up

mentioned.
at

1837
has

lithographic
date onwards

set

Delhi, and
in

from
of

that

the

publication of
The the

books

Hindi

been

increasing continually.
was soon

introduction

lithography

followed
kinds of books of

by

publication of Hindi newspapers there are now a large number.

been turned books
out

and All
"

magazines, of which
have

from and

the

press

translations

books,
and and said

social
books

pamphlets questions, novels,

many to

dealing
educational

with

English religious
be

text-books,
it cannot
a

on

other
most

subjects
of them

; but

high literary standard has yet been reached, and experience alone will show how of them are worthy to rank as standard many regard
that

with

works
still One than
as a

of
book
any

Hindi

literature.
and had

Hindi

prose
are

literature
not

is

feeling

its way, which has

its standards

yet fixed.
circulation

probably
in

greater
times

other
or

Hindi

work

modern

(whether
of the

whole

to have Bible, and The important influence on the life of the people. an of to printing-press has also been used produce many

portions) is the Hindi translation owing to its large circulation is bound

in

the

older

works
to

of

Hindi

accessible before

the

general
That

are literature, which which public in a way

now

was

impossible.
the than
new

Harischandra."

influence
the
case

from
Babu

the of

West
Hindi

revived

rather

checked in the

cultivation
of is often He
was
was a

poetry

is illustrated

chandra Hariscalled cated edu-

Bharatendu
at

(1850-1885), of Benares, who of India"). ("The moon Queen's College, Benares, and
writer
to

prolific

and

successful

of
at

poetry
the
age

commenced

write
a

in many styles, having He of sixteen. wrote

different

altogether about works. Among

was

hundred
are

these real

seventy-five eighteen plays, and

of of the modern

and

chandra Harisin be

the

founder
some

drama

India.

In

his

plays

his

best

work

is to

found, and
of

India

they exhibit his great desire of and the development

for the progress its intellectual

freedom.

92

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE

Hari^chandra
He also

ing subjects includhistory, patriotism, religious devotion, and love.

wrote
on

also

various

was

the works

author

historical

of many include the and both the Indian

poems

humorous

verses.

His
or

Kashmir

Kusum,
a

history of
lives
to

Kashmir,
men

Charitavali,
and
are

series

of

of

great

European.
considered and mirth
are

Next
to

his
best

plays

his

love

be

the

part of his work. characteristics of

He of
must

Love

minent pro-

power.

be

poetry, reckoned amongst

He used

his

which

is full
the

of

great

writers Bhasha interest

a a

Hindi

literature. Haris'chandra
To

chiefly the
to

Braj

dialect.

also did much

cultivate

in Hindi
called of old

poetry.
texts

magazine
number

accomplish this he started in which he published Harischandrika,

with
much other
matter.

He

such the as produced anthologies of Hindi poetry Su?ida?i in the savaiya contains Tzlak, which poems also
metre

from

the

works

of

sixty-nine poets,
a

and

the

Kavi

Bachan

with
As

Sudha, which the rainy season.

an

is
of

collection of

of

poems

dealing
the

example

the

poetry
:
"

HariSchandra

following translation
O

is

given
your

warriors,having put

on

arms,

arise for the and

and fly the fight,

battle. bow
;

flag of victory ;
Draw Put your
on

sword
up

from your
vow

the scabbard,

join the
to

Having girded
your

loins,put your
garments
to

arrow

your

saffron-coloured
a

and

the

bracelet

of battle

(as sign of

If the Aryans be united, and

or die) ; conquer think of their

own

dignity,
support
the

They
Then When Even These Woe Woe

will honour the

a an

give up
of their

quarrels amongst
race.

themselves, and
cannot

strength of the mean lion is roused, can

ant

Amirkhan
a

dog

stand

be great. in battle against him

trampled underfoot
woe

nificant. bites,although it is only insigto

are

to

visible enemies, those who, being who have

any

those have

who
a

ignore them.
love them.
weapons,
to

Aryans,

those

who

are

barbarians.
to

those

dealings with
on

Warriors, arise,and having put

the battle.

all your the

plunge
on

into

Write

with both

pen

of steel the

(conquerors and

strengthof conquered)
.

Aryans

the heart of

94

HISTORY
It is Brahman in 1843.

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE work
and

poets.

very

voluminous
named

was

compiled

by

Krishnanand

Vyas

Dev,

and

completed
The Pas

which is a collection of poems Chandroday and by two hundred in forty-two poets, was compiled 1863 by Thakur Prasad Tripathl. The Bhushan in the year compiled Dig- Vijai was 1869 in the district by a Kayasth, of Balirampur of
,

Gonda,
from the The

named works

Gokul
of
a

Prasad. hundred and

It

contains from
second

selections former edition

ninety-two poets.

"iv Singh
by
Siv valuable A

anthologies
of this very
Gokul
was

Saroj was compiled The Singh Sengar.

work
famous of the
was

Nath."

work

published belonging

in 1883.
to this

period
verse.

the
was

translation

Mahabharata Nath instance

was

into Hindi
of

This

begun

by
at

Gokul
the Nath

(fl. 1820),
of

being

undertaken

Raja
and

Udit
the

Benares, Narayan,

of Benares.

Gokul
the

the Bihar he has

author

of other Chet
the

works,
Chand-

including history
patron.
of

Govind
latter

Sukhad
of which

rika, in the

described who

family
was

Raja
His

Chet

Singh, of Benares,
achievement,
In and The his Nath this

his
the
was

greatest
of the
son

however,
work

was

translations
assisted
The

Mahabharata.

he

by

his

Gopi
of

pupil Mani
influence

Dev.
on

Patronage
literature
the The old
state

Courts."

modern

Hindi

did

not

spread
affairs

places
time. into all
the At the

of

all at once, and in many still continued for some

printing-press did not penetrate to regions immediately, and poets still looked
work of the
of states
to

rulers

help
and

them

by

their in

patronage.

courts

of Panna

Charkhari

of Baghelkhand, and other principalities, poets and bards were Ayodhya, rulers and several still welcomed and encouraged, were of Man themselves Jodhpur Maharaja Singh poets.

of

Rewah

in

Bundelkhand, Nagpur, Benares,

(fl.1810)
Rajasthani.
was

was

the Cha?idra

author Sekhar

of various

works

chiefly in

at the

courts

of erotic

Bajpeyi (1798-1875), who and Patiala, Jodhpur Darbhanga,

and Hath

excelled
author

in of the

the

heroic
and

styles

and

was

the

Hammir

other

works.

Maharaja

THE

MODERN

PERIOD
the

95 of Mohan

Hindupati, of Panna,
well
as

was

patron
of His

Bhatt,
the

as

of Rap
a

Sahi
on

and the

Karan
art

circ. 1800), (fl.

latter Bhatt

being
attended

writer
other

poetry.
son

Mohan
a

courts

also. Bhatt

was

well-known
also visited

poet

named

Padmakar The

(seebelow), who
Ratan

various

courts.

Rajas of Charkhari, named

Khuman
all great

Singh, Vikram

Sahi, and
Vikram

Singh,
works work.
is

were was

of poets. patrons a successful poet.

Sahi
his

(1785-1828)
a

himself

imitation
attended

of his

Bihari
court

Among Lai's
include

Sat
and

Sal, in
who Dev Bal

great

The

poets

(all fl. 1820).

Ram Din Ratan

Bihari

Baitdl, Man, Lai, Avadhes, Rdv

Rand,
the

Gopdl,
court

Tripdthi

(all fl.

1840)

attended

of

Malla (fl.1840), who Surya was of the at the court a Raja of Bundi, wrote long work in the form of illustracalled the Ban's Bhaskar, which tive

Raja

Singh.

verses

gives

an

account

of of

the

Kingdom
poets

of
were

Bundi.
also

Baghelkhand, both encouraged

and his
son

In

at

the

court

Rewah,

by Maharaja

Visvandth

Singh Singh

Singh (fl.1764-1834) Both these (1789-1854).

J ai but
were

kings
In of

not

only
he and

patronised

poets
wrote

themselves
and the

authors. Hindi

ViSvanath
the

in Sanskrit
on

Hindi.

composed
on

commentaries

Bijak

Kabir
as a

Vinay
Ram

Patrikd

of Tulsi kl Sawdrl.

Das,

as

well

work

entitled

Chandra

The tained main-

also poetical traditions of this royal family were Raja Raghu by VisVanath's successor, in the throne to (1823-1879), who Singh came He
was

Raj
1858. of the

the

author Purdna

of

much of

admired
a

translation
of other
was

Bhdgavata
entitled

and

history
many

Hanuman,
works. another

Sundar
Man

Satak,
Singh
both
a

besides of
,

Maharaja
monarch
The

(fl. 1850)
poet

Ayodhya,
a

who
Art of

was

and

patron poets
the

Poetry."
were

Many
of

of the
on

of poets. attended who

of

the and

courts

of

kings

writers Gurdhi
the
same

art

poetry,
to wrote

this

particular form
attention.
work
on

composition
Pdnde
lines
as

continued

receive
an

great

(fl. 1803)
Kegav

excellent

Das's

Kavi

Priya. of Lucknow,

Benl whose

Pravln

Bdjpeyl
is full

(fl. 1817), a
of
excellent

Brahman
verses,

poetry

96

HISTORY
works

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE with
of
was

wrote

several
of the
most

connected of

the of

art

of

poetry.
was

One

famous

writers
and

this

period
He

Padmakar the
courts

Bhatt

(1753-1833),
rulers

Banda.

attended for
seven

of various He

richly
of

rewarded about

his poetry.

is the

reputed

author

works,
very

mostly concerning the art of poetry, which are much One of his outstanding qualities praised.
skilful
to
use

is

his

of the

alliteration.

His

best At

work
the end

is of the

considered his

be

Jagadvinod
to

(1810).
devoted
wrote
a

days he is of the worship

said

have and

his

life to
Dhar
on

Ganges,
His also and
wrote
a

book

entitled

Ganga
A
of

Laharl.
was

grandson,
poet

Gada
wrote

Bhatt
rhetoric.

(fl. 1860),
Muttra,
most
same

and

contemporary
who

rival
works is the

of

Padmakar
on

was

Gwdl,
poetry.
About Ram

the

art

of

His
the

famous
time
or

work
a

Yamuna

Laharl.
also

little later
who
as

flourished
and

SahayDas
Panna. The

(1820), of Benares,
former,
Bihari
was a

Pajnes
of

(1843),
considerable

of

was

poet
model. and
art

merit, took

Lai devotee

his

Pratap
the of author

Sahi of In

(fl.1828)
several the Mati
to
a

of

Rama the he

works
Ram.

connected of his

with

poetry.
to

cleverness

language

is said

resemble

Bihari
of Mati

family which
several Prasad of

descendant
wrote

belonged has produced poets, being a many Ram (fl. 1842) Tripathl. Navln
Lai of
on poetics. high standard (fl. 1847-1877) was a

Tripathl

(fl.1840)

works

Gahesh

Farukhabadl
Giri Dhar His

Kayasth,
other of He

Farukhabad,

who Das real

wrote

Nakhsikh
was

and father

works.

(fl.1843)
name

the

Harischandra.
wrote

was

Gopal
Sardar
flourished The
art

Chandra.

about

forty
and the

different

works.

(1845in the former

1883),
second
was

of

Benares,
of author

Narayan
works
on

Ray
on

half

nineteenth

century.
the the works of

the

of several

of

poetry,
Das

including
and
on

commentaries

Kesav

Lai, and a commentary The of the emblematic on some couplets of Sur Das. of another Sardar, is a Sringar Sahgrah, poem of popular work rhetoric, dealing with all branches on
the

Sat

Sal

of

Bihari

THE

MODERN

PERIOD

97

the A

art

of poetry.

Narayan
work of in

Ray
the

was

pupil of Sardar.
dialect
was

much

admired

Marwari which

is the

Raghundth
about
a

Rupak

Ma?isa
of the

Ram,

written
It
are

the

beginning

nineteenth

century.

is
so

the in which prosody arranged that they give of Rama.

Bihari Poets."

illustrative
a

examples

continuous Bihari
Nath

history

of the

life

few

century
Maithili
Nath Jha

may

be

mentioned,
Bhdnu both

poets of the nineteenth in the all of whom wrote

J ha attended

dialect.

(fl. 1850) and

the
court

Harsh

(born 1847)
of
a

of

the

Maharaja
work Nath
account
was

is
wrote

Darbhanga. play entitled

many

Bhanu

Nath's

best

known
Harsh

Prabhavati
as

Haran.

of the

songs famine of

plays. A popular 1873-74, entitled KavittaAkall,

well
as

written

by

Phaturi

Lai,
in
the

Kayasth
latter

of

Tirhut. of the

Chandra
nineteenth in

Jha, who

flourished
was

the author

half
a

century,
Verse."

of

Ramayan
of
the

Maithili, which
Religious

is much

admired.
a

Though
described
has due
to

great
a

deal

literature
the

already
of
movements

output

religious verse
seems

religious connection directly to the various

been than less in

sectarian
times.
come

have

since

the

beginning of
from

the

nineteenth with
the has
new

century
indeed
a

previous
have

Contact
the

influences
to
a

which

West

led

religious activity in India, but

movements

great deal of large part of the new

of form
much
as

has Prose
or

been

in

the

direction
in the
to be very
as

religious
of
phlets pam-

reform.
the

literature, whether
has of
come

newspapers,

used

for

dissemination

religious

well

other

ideas.

Still, the
various
In 1806

with the production of poetry in connection did not entirely cease. religious movements Jai Sanskrit and a Chand, of Jaipur, wrote which
merit deals

Hindi
entitled

work

with

the

doctrines
A Ji

of the later

Jains,
Jain
in of

Svami

Karttikey"iupreksha.
was

considerable of
Benares. of
a

Brindaban
who

(circ.1791-1858),
of

Bakhtdwar

(fl. 1817),
was a

Hathras,
was

the

district
wrote

Aligarh,
entitled

religious mendicant,
intended
to

book

Suriisar,which

98

HISTORY
all notions

OF

HINDI
and
were

LITERATURE fallacies
works and also
was

show
that

that

of God There Rama Rdva?i

man

are

nothing
author

exists.
the Ram

several Aun and Lalak

connected the

with
of the the

cult. Yuddh

(fl.1803)
other

works

dealing with
of the

stories

of Rama.

Das

(fl. 1813),

the district, wrote Satyopakhydn, relates the early life of Rama which from his birth to his marriage. in the The Maithili Ramayan dialect, composed Jhd, has already been mentioned. by Chandra

Lucknow

(born 1804), who Sahaj Ram a Ramayan Sitapur, also wrote of the Sanskrit Raghuvamsa
Nataka.
In Nath of the latter
a

lived which
and of the of of

in
of

the

district
Hanumdn

of

is

translation

the

half

nineteenth

century
wrote

Raghu
hundreds
was a

Das,

Brahman honour
same

Ayodhya,

hymns
while
of

in

devotee,
district

in the Rae

of whom he Rama, period Jdnkl Prasad,

wrote

of

the

Bareli,
of
Rama

several
are were

poems

dealing with
to
on

the

story

which

considered

be very excellent. of Tulsi the works

Commentaries

also

written

vali

of

Ba?zdan
on

commentary^
Bodhanl
on

SankaDas, such as the Manas of which is Pathak, Benares, the and the Ram Tattva Ramayan,

of Siv

Prakds Patrikd.

Singh,
These

which Of

is

commentary
in the
who latter
were : are

the

Vinay
of

appeared
may

half of the
devotees Rasik much and

nineteenth
Krishna

century.
the

writers
be

following
who
wrote

mentioned which

Govind Lalit

(fl.1801),

works,
Krishna
works
as

praised, all connected

Kishorl with Krishna of the
and

with

the

legends,
are

(fl. 1860-1873), whose

full of

also

connected

merit

works
has

of
also

poetry.
The been

spread
of in these

Christian translations

faith in India
of Christian of

accompanied

by the production
are

Many
written
Indian
a

English metres,
sound also have have these

which,
been
a

English judged according

and uncouth. in Hindi

hymns. hymns
to

standards,
of of the
most

barbarous

But

large number
many

written

metres,
the
one

and

bounds of
the

Christian famous

popularity far beyond Church. Curiously enough,

of

writers

Christian

hymns

in

THE

MODERN

PERIOD

99

Hindi

metre

was

European
His
most

named

John

Christian work is
the

(died
Mukti

about

1883).
a

famous
in
verse.

Muktavall,
Thus,
while
the

life

of

Christ

nineteenth

century

was

period
ment developof

of

great

change
of
prose

characterised

especially
and the

by

the

literature,
of
new

application
literature
of it themes.

it
older

to

large

number

subjects,
to

the

type
exhibited

still

continued
little
or

be

produced,

though
in its of Hindi

generally
The and in

no

novelty
a

period

has of its

been
many
more

largely
past

time

transition,
literature
No

spite
awaits
here and

glories
development.
account

still is
prose

its
made

complete

attempt
in

to

give
the

an

of

the

writers

poetry
these

of

last

thirty
still

or

forty
and have

years.

Many
alone

of show
and

writers how
much of real of

are

living,
work will

time
a

will
fame

their value.

lasting

prove

XI.

SOME

GENERAL OF HINDI

CHARACTERISTICS
LITERATURE

Having

now

traced

the
to

history
the

of

Hindi

literature it its
may

from

its earliest
to

times
in
even

present
some

day,
of

be

helpful points
1.

mention

this
at

chapter
risk
of

general
of

characteristics

the

some

repetition

already
The

mentioned.

first it

striking
grew

feature flourished
was

is

that, through

during
its

the
own

time

when

and

original religious
the in the and

force,
interest.

Hindi

literature

dominated
more

by
half
ment move-

Probably springs
of other

much

than

of

literature
one or

directly
is
these

from

the A the
art

bhakti

its

aspects.
with

great
of
verses,

deal

of
;

remainder
even

concerned

poetry
which with
The

in

works

the of them

illustrative
are

form
one or

the

greater
of

part
the

often

connected

other

various
and
some

religious
other but
even

movements.

bardic
are

chronicles,
in
not

parts
in

of the
the

literature,

secular
is

character,

these

religious

interest
2.

quite
whole
a

out

of

sight.
of the the

Until

the the indeed

beginning
of few

nineteenth
was

century
in
verse.

practically
There
to
are

literature
The

exceptions.
almost if this and is

works
not

ascribed

Gorakhnath
one

(though
in prose,
to

certainly
it have

by
dated

him)
as

include

correctly
is the the

belonging
Hindi
of in of
prose

the work and

fourteenth
extant.

century
Then
we

earliest
Mandan Nath

Vitthalnath
the the

the

Chaurasi
and
ana

Varta Damodar

of

Gokul
s

sixteenth

century,
Pur
and the

Das'
seventeenth

translation

Markandeya
these,

in

the

century.
accom-

Besides

commentaries

which

102

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE chatak
for the

night
the

; the

eager

supposed

to

drink
;

waiting of the only raindrops,

the
on

bird, who beginning

never

is
of

rainy
to

season

chakor the
moon

bird, that
; the
water

is
swan

happy
knows
it has

except
how
been
are

when

gazing
milk
"

that

separate

from
and

the

with
stock

which
But

mixed

these

many

other

metaphors
many

continually recurring

in

Hindi
a

poets.
true not

beautiful
nature

works

from similes, drawn also at first hand, are of Tulsi Das, but also

observation

of the

found
in the

only
of

in

verses

other

poets.
5. Another

thing
of the

to

be

noticed
of its

in

Hindi
but

poetry
even
are

is
Not in
fined con-

the limitatio7i

range

subject

matter.

only is
connection
to

the

religious interest
with this
the grooves.
a

dominant,
The

subjects dealt
stories

with of

well-worn
form been told
are

Rama

and

of Krishna
and have There
are

very
over

large part of the subject matter

and
over

again by poet
but the and
are

after
same

poet.
details

differences

in treatment, themes

constantly appearing again

these
as

again.
very

Those

religious poets who avoid occupied with such subjects

in
a

largely
noted

have

already been

previous chapter, namely, the value of the guru, of bhakti, the the evils of transmigration* importance of the world, and the deceit of mdyd, the transitoriness of pure suchlike subjects. One misses also the poetry There is indeed human love. a good deal of erotic the to of a very owing unhealthy type, but poetry secluded the general practice of child-marriage, and romantic the period of position occupied by women, of courtship, does is the time not come youth, which in India, and and lot of young into the men women
hence

when

love

is described with
the the

in Hindi
courtesan.

poetry
But of

it is too the

often of
other

in connection

fidelity
some

Padmavati,
stories
of

wifely devotion
same

Sita, and
on

the

type
was

must

not,
a

the
to

other look

hand, be
to

forgotten.
poet
a

There

also of

tendency

previous writers
a

for themes
success

if
sure

great
to

achieved

poetic inspiration,and in any subject, he was

imitators.
Thus there

have

large

number

of

SOME

GENERAL

CHARACTERISTICS

103

are

whole Hindi their

realms

of

human

thought
contributed
the literature

in

connection

with
and

which
as

writers
has

have

nothing,
and

great

work which
a

been,
Hindi
narrow

original
contains

stimulating
are

thoughts
within
6. has

confined

somewhat
in

area.

Yet

spite

of

its
and

limitations is

Hindi of
It has It much

literature

many

excellencies,
than
as

worthy

greater

study
described

it

has

yet

received.
of

truly
possesses

been
a

"garden
of

delights."
which
of

system
if
ever,

and been and

variety
excelled,

versification
and of

has

seldom,
and noble

beauties

thought
and

phrase, aspiration,
and

expressions
abound. It
was

deep

feeling genuinely
of
the

moreover

popular, people,
and

being
as a

written tacit revolt

in

the

dialects the

often
of the

against
it
very

literary
to

exclusiveness
the heart

Sanskrit
and and the the reached

scholars,
a

appealed
wide

of of

the its
up

people,

audience. become

Many closely
bound

thoughts
with with who

expressions
of the

have
and

life

people,
literature

close

acquaintance
for India. all

vernacular

is
the

most

important
of

would

fully

understand

peoples

XII.

PRESENT

POSITION

AND

PROSPECTS

With what
are

such

splendid
of

record of

of

past

achievements
?
answer

is the its

present

position
is

Hindi
? be A

literature brief

What
to

prospects

development
all that
can

these

questions
chapter.
the first has In

attempted

in

this

present

place
to

it face

is
many

to

be

noted

that

Hindi

literature
some

present
Indian itself.
whether of

difficulties,
vernaculars,
This

of
some

which
of
to

it shares

with

other
to

and the the

which discuss should

are

peculiar
the be

is

not
or

place

question
the

English
instruction
true sorry

vernacular education.
Indian

medium is

in
most

higher
educated
sons

But

it would

certainly
be
very

that that
a

people
the
not

their

should

surrender

opportunity
of

which

knowledge
with
on

of the

English
vast

gives
stores

only

becoming
but

acquainted
of
other from that somewhat
to

of

Western educated
a

learning,
people
different
almost from

carrying
parts

intercourse
India
own. a
a

with
possess

of

who
It

vernacular unavoidable

their such
at to
a

is, however,
of

state

affairs
for if

should
a

put

Hindi wishes

disadvantage, English
and the rather hence

writer
it

appeal
for

widespread
use

educated

audience than there

as

is

natural
to
a

him

to

the is
a

vernacular
sometimes medium
as more

express

his
to

ideas,
despise regard
unlearned

tendency
and

vernacular

of

literature,
intended

to

vernacular
than in
every

productions
for the
way to

for
a

the

educated. be

This and

is

condition
is
to

of

things

deplored,
the

it

be for

hoped

that,

without

lessening

opportunities

PRESENT

POSITION

AND

PROSPECTS
the

105

securing
may

be

acquaintance with English, more important given a much

an

vernacular

place
because We
a

in

the its have

future.

Hindi standards
seen

is

also

under

disadvantage
yet been
prose

of prose
not

have
but
a

not

fixed.

that
recent

only is
is also prose

the

literature

plant of
Hindi
are

very

growth,

that

the

dialect
the

of High
There
to

which
and

it

uses

modern

production.
of write

scarcely
the

any

standards

past
a

look

to,

Some which
than

state present authors attempt

of the
to

language
in

is transitional.

language
But

from
other

are

expelled,
of Hindi
be

as

far
or

as

possible, all words

those

Sanskrit

origin.
is for Other
a

if this

standard
folk the
not very

adopted
extreme

the

language
and

the

common

difficult to understand.

writers
many

go

to

opposite
only
even

admit

great

words

of

origin,
Hindi

words

Persian, but also of English when there are simple and well-understood their which could just as well express
Arabic
and
seems

meaning.
expression
must go
can

It

indeed ideas the in

a

inevitable

that of

for

the

of modern

good
to

deal

borrowing
this should
the is

take

place, but
prose

limits
course

which

only be settled
of

of time

by

practice
a

of
deal

good

writers.

At

present
translations

there and

great
the

variation, both
with
some

in

original
and

works,
much
to

adoption of
be

to the language regard generally recognised

used,
standard

is very in
a

desired.
to

Owing
modern
very

Hindi

prose

literature
has

being written
not

artificial dialect, which popular for the purposes

not

proved

itself

of

about from

only

that

the

language
there The the

poetry, it has come is different of poetry

are

that

dialects

of prose, but that still used for poetry. standard

several of

different
a

existence in many issue of

is

widely
and and

divergent
that

between

language

of prose
ways,

of poetry would be unfortunate it cannot be said what the ultimate there

to

this

matter
some

will be, but

modern
more

does
use a

seem

tendency

amongst

poets
to

language which

approximating

that

of prose.

106

HISTORY

OF

HINDI
the

LITERATURE

These

disadvantages
are,

to

present

development
counteracted

of

Hindi
many

literature favourable with

the

however,
that the

being
The

bytion, educa-

circumstances.

spread
is not

of
far

prospect
made

day

distant

when

it will be
to

helping
read.

increase

Moreover, franchise, and to

to

compulsory, at least for boys, is of those who can rapidly the number the modern the tendency to extend political responsibility give increased
of the

large

numbers
to

people
them

of India

will also
other and

make of

it necessary
modern It is

acquaint

with

various

aspects

political, social, religious, and

impossible with
that
a

increasing education
which
of
can

language
millions
modern the

be

understood
not

questions. ment enlightenby over

eventually
it may
not

hundred
a

people
exact

should

develop
be
easy

great

literature, though
lines
for of

to

forecast

The

existence
The

of

societies literature
is

its development. and the extension

a

improvement
hope.
are

of Hindi

is also

sign

of

great
It and

Nagarl
Benares,

Pracharini

at
a

doing
editions
It

Sab ha, whose useful most for

old

ters headquarwork. works useful

It
courages en-

conducts

systematic
many

search

manuscripts,
the older
many at.

publishes
of Hindi
in

good
a

of

literature. which Hindi

translate

also

issues is aimed

books
also

high standard
to

writers

produce
books works

original books
from

and

to

important
other of
a

European
has taken under-

languages.
the in

Amongst publication
the

it
others

standard

Hindi

ary dictionalso
are

several

volumes. works have

been

Many
Hindi existed

publishing
works
and
up

of various

till

now

authors, whose only in manuscript,

outside works
the

have

often
to

hardly
the authors and

known

particular sect
of
many

which

belonged.
are

lations Trans-

English

other

being

it possible even numbers, making with for those who English to are unacquainted West. of the culture of the knowledge gain some with books politics, subjects connected on Moreover, religion are science, philosophy, morals, history, and A great deal being constantly issued from the press.

produced

in

great

PRESENT

POSITION

AND

PROSPECTS

107

of

what

is

produced
it is all of the

may

not to

have

great
and the

value

as

literature, but
the
resources

helping language

cultivate
to

enlarge
needs of

meet

to-day.
at

Hindi
is the

society
Sahitya
and

which

has

its

headquarters

Allahabad

examinations

in

Hindi

grants Hindi
extend and

diplomas,
schools other

conducts which Sammelan, of standard and high a very is trying establish to purely of North that North hold and
are

in all parts

Mid

India. much
to

Amongst
Hindi
other

societies
the

doing
Tract

literature

India
an

Society place.
deal

Christian
the
agency

societies of these
been also

important
a

Through
Hindi

societies

great

of

literature

has but
on

religious nature,
books, people
of
the and books

produced not only of a directly stories, biographies, educational

and other

social
are

subjects.
unaware

Indian
much

themselves
new

often

largely
reform
seen are

how

movements

for

political
the

emancipation,
Christian

and

religious
India and her has

social freedom, really inspired by

of
even a

ideals. herself

vision

future her

glory
past
ideals of

for

children
as

greater
these have

than

achievements,
of have been who
come

excellent and before of

been.

New

righteousness
very

service
has

and duty, of brotherhood inspiration for her, and

to many

these of

largely
this
as

due
so

the

life and
ways

teaching
is the in Indian
so on

Christ,
The
a

in

in

other excellent

fulfilment

of all that ideas

of

is

noble
old

and

life.

the

mythology,
of writers

which
in the
to

formed

large
the
matters

part

of the the

themes

past,
many

are

wane,
are

and

past

ideals
a

with

regard

other

is seeking India out charge. after a life than she has more complete In this development the lived in the past. vernacular literature is bound have to most important a part to The all writers, play. responsibility resting upon

undergoing larger, a fuller,a

where but best the the

such

great

issues is
one

are

at

stake,
call
are

is

very

great,
the
very

situation noblest

which
from

should all

forth

and

work of

who

concerned

in

production

literature.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

History

of

the

Literature,

etc.

The

Modern

Vernacular
A. Grierson.

Literature
1889.
Published

of

Hindustan.
the Asiatic

Sir

George

by

Society

of

Bengal
Misra
Misra

(Calcutta).
Vinod.
with

Bandhu literature,

(3 vols.)
of the work

An of the

account

in

Hindi

of

the the

examples
and
An

the

chief

authors,
Granth

by
Prasarak

brothers.

Published

by

Hindi

Mandali

(Khandwa

Allahabad).
account

Hi?idi
nine

Navaratna. great
Hindi

in Tulsl Mati above. Naresh

Hindi

by
Sur

the

same

authors

of

writers, viz.,
Kesav Publishers

Das, Ram,

Das,

Dev, Bardal,

Bihari

Lai,

Bhushan,

Das,
as

Chand

and

Harischandra.

Kavita
the

Kaumudl.
literature contains down
an

By
to account

Ram time of 89

the

of,

but

not

with Vol. I. deals Tripathl. Harischandra, including,

and
their

poets yet

and

gives

copious

extracts

from

work.

Vol.

II.

is

not

published.

(Sahitya

Sammelan

Office, Allahabad). Santbanl

of

Sahgrah.
Hindi

(2 vols.)

Contains with

extracts notes.

from

the

works Steam

thirty-five Printing Press,

religious poets, Allahabad.)

Edition

(Belvedere

Eficyclopczdia Imperial

Britannica. of of India. hidia.

XI. II.

Vol.

XIII.

pp.

483-491.

Gazetteer

Vol. Sir
as

Linguistic
much

Survey
useful

George

A.

Grierson. and

tains Con-

information

to

the

language
and
whose

dialects.
Contains is described

The

Encyclopaedia
articles in this
on

of
of the

Religion
different
sects

Ethics.
literature

several

book.

Translations.

Only
been

small

translated list is
not

into

portion of English.
information

the The which

as

vast

quantity
are

of
some

Hindi

literature

has

following
have
to

of the and their

translations
in
most

(the
cases

exhaustive)
also

been authors

made,
and

which work.

contain

the

Translation
Growse.

of

the

Ramayan

of

Tulsl

Das.

By

F.

S.

INDEX

ABDUL
36 Abul Adi

Rahlm

Khankhana,

Banarsi Bandan BanI

f., 52
19 66

Das, 84 Pathak,

98

Faiz, 36 Granth, ff., 63

f.

Adi

Upade",
Das,

Agra
Akaram

58, 73
12
34 31

Faiz, 10,
47

65 (of Dadu), Ban! Lai 66 (of Das), BanI (of Ram Charan), Ban" 95 Bhaskar, 47 Bansidhar,
Banwari

68

Akbar, Alam,
Alankar

ff., 45, 73 f.

Akharavat,

Ratnakar,
Khand, Das, Khusro, Dhar,
22 63 15

47

Lai, 82 9, 13 ff., 81 ff., 94 23 f., 30, 42 f., 44, 47, Benares, 49, 52, 60 f., 63, 82, 91, 94, Bards, 96, 98, Bern,
49 105

Alha
Amar Amar Amir Amrit

Singh,

13,
18

81

f.

Beni Beni

Madhav
Pravin

Das, Gita,
67

59

Bajpeyi, 95
35, 39, 67,

Ananya

Das,
63

12

f.

Bhagavad Bhagavata Bhagwan Bhagwant

Angad,
Afig

Purana, 74, 78, 89, 95

'

Darpan,

48
93 f.

Anthologies, Arjun, 19, 63

Ashta

Hit, 75 Ray, 49,

52, 57

60

Bhaktamala, f., 81

f., 73, 75

Chhap,
39
94

30, 72 f., 43 f., 46

89

Aurangzeb,
Avadhes, Avadhi,
Avadh

4, 25, 54.
60

Sagar, 4, 52, 55, 69, 94 f., 98 Ayodhya,

Azam

59 Bhaktavatsal, 19 ff., 27, 30, 53, 67, 70, Bhakti, 79, 99, 100, 102 Bhanu Nath Jha, 93, 97 91 Bharatendu, Bhasha Bhasha

Bharan,

48 44

Shah,

43, 45

Bhushan,
22

f., 47

BAHADUR
Bairl

Shah, Sal, 48
4, 54
89

46

49 Bhaun, Bhawanand,
BhawanI Bhikhari Bhikha

Chhand,
Das,
49

84

Baiswari,

Baital, 85, 95 Baital PachisI,

BakhshI

Sahib,
78

67

Bhishma,
78
Bholan Bhu Dhar

Hansraj,
97 60 39 95

Jha,

86 85

Bakhtawar,
Bal

Das,
47

AH, Dev,
Mukund

Bhupati,
Bhushan

Balbhadra,
Bal Bal Bal

Bible,

18, Tripathi, the, 89 "f.

41

Llla, 78

Krishna

TripathI,

39

Biharl, 2ff., 28, 83, 86, 93,97 Bihari Lai, 95

INDEX
Bihari
46 Bihari Lai Lai

111

f.,49

10, 42, ff., f.,57, 78, 89, 96 Tripathi, 96

Chaube,

Das, 78 Bijak, 24 f.,62, 95

Biharini

Birbal, 35 f.,38, 74
Bir Bisal

Bhan, 66 Dev, 13

PrakaS, 49 Dalpati Ray, 47 Damodar Das, 85, 100 Dara Shukoh, 39, 42 Darbhanga, 28, 83, 86, 94, 97 Dariya.Sahib, 67 Das, 49
Dalel

Bodha

Firozabadl,
Basi

49

Ratna, 59 Daya Bai, 68

Das

Das, 78, 93 Braj Bhasha, 4, 29 f.,33, 39, 42, 45, 49, 54, 64, 72, 75, 83, 85, 89 Braj Bilas, 78 Brindaban, 52, 73, 78

Braj

Daya Bodh, 68 Daya Nidhi, 86

Delhi, 4, 8, 13, 31, 67, 88, 91 Devanagari, 5 Dev Datt (Dev Kavi), 10, 40, 45,93 Dev Datt, 48 Devi Das, 69, 85 Nandan Devki Tiwari, 48 Dev Maya. Prapahch, 45, 93
Dhana,
Dharm Dharni Dhruv Dhruv 22

Brindaban JI, 97 Buddh Rav, 82

Bulla Bulle

Sahib,

67

Shah, 67

Bundelkhand, 85, 94

42, 46, 49, 79, 83,

Das, 62

William, 89 Chaitanya, 28, 77 f. Chandan Ray, 48 Chand Bardal, 9, 13 ff.,73 Chandra Jha, 98

pAREY,
^

Das,

66

Charitr, 33 Das, 77

Dialects,4

Dig-Vijai Bhushan, 94
Doha, 6, 43 f.,57 11, 93 f. Drama, Drishtakut, 74
Dalah Dulan Dulha

Chandra
Charan Charan

Sekhar

Bajpeyi, 94
86

Chandrika,

Das, 67 Charitavall, 92 Chaturbhuj Das, 72 Chaupai, 6, 68

Trivedi,
Das, Ram,
69 68

48

Pad, 76 Varta, 75, Chet Chandrika, 94 Chhand Bichar, 40 Chhand Chhappanl,

Chaurasi Chaurasi

100

ETAST

India

Company,
48

87

48

Chhand

Sar 85

42 Piftgal,

FATEH Fateh
Fort

Bhushan,
Shah

PrakaS, 48
90

Chhappai, 6, 58
Chhatra,
Chhatra Chhatra Chhit

William

College,88,

PrakaS,
4

83

Sal, 41, 46, 69, 82 f. Swami,

72

Dhar GADA Gambhlr

Bhatt, 78, 96

Ray,

82

Chhattlsgarhl,
Chintamani Christian

Ganesh,
Ganesh

61

Prasad

Farukhabadi, 96

Tripathi, 40, 59
99

GaAg"

Lahari, 96

Christian,John,

Literature, 98, 107

64 ff.

Gafig" Pati, 85 Ganga. Prasad 36f.,74

(Gang

Kavi),

HADU,
^

Ganjan, 47.
Garlb

85 Dadupanthis, 10, 64 ff.,

Das, 68

112
Gauri

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE
TNDO-ARYAN

Parinay, 93 Ghagh, 85.'

Ghan Ghasi Ghat

Languages, 1, 7
49

Indravati, 86

Syam
Ram,

Sukla, 82
84 88

Ishqnama,
Ishwari

Prasad

Tripathi, 60

Ramayan, 60 Gilchrist,Dr. John, Giri Dhar, 86

Giri Dhar
Gita

Das, 93
jagjiwan
uas,
oo r.

Govinda, 20, 28, 73 Golcul Nath, 49, 75, 94, 100 Gokul Prasad, 94

Gopal, 95 Gopal Chand, 93 Gopal Ram, 93 GopI Nath, 94

Gorakhnath,
Gosain Govind Govind

Jagnayak (Jagnik), 9, 15 Jahanglr, 10, 36, 39, 84 f. Jai Chand, 97 Jaidev,20

Jai Dev Bilas, 81 ,84,85, 97 Jains, Jain Satak, 85

18, 100 Charitr, 59 Das, 72

Singh,
Sukhad of f. the

63 f.

Govind
Granth 63 Granth 63 f. Gulal Guman Gurdln Guru Guru

Bihar, 94
Tenth 19

Guru,

Jai Singh, 95 Jai Singh Kalpadrum, 82 Jai Singh Sawal, 82, 85 Jaipur,35 f.,42, 46, 82, 85, 97 Das, 69 Jalali Jalhan, 15
Jan Gopal, 49 Janki Prasad, 98 Janki Rasik Saran, 60 Japjl,27, 63

Sahib, 10, Sahib, 67 Misra, 49 Pande, 95

Datt Granth 96

f., 26 f.,

Singh, 47
Sahib, 68

Japji,64 Jaswa^t Singh,

Jata.Sankar
45 Jatibilas, 31

44

f.,47

Gwal, Gyan Praka", 69 Gyan Samudra, 66

LIAMMIR
**

Jayadeva, 20, 28 Jodhpur, 44, 82, 94 Jodhraj,82

94 9 f.,22 KABIR, 66 ff., 70, 95

Hath,
Rasa, 17

Hammlr

Kavya, 17, 82

ff.,31, 62 f.

Hammir Hanuman
Hanuman

Chhapplsi, 60
Nataka, 59,
98

Kabirpanthis,23, 62 f.,68 Kalidas Hajara, 47

Kalidas

Hari Hari

Charan

Das, 50
77 f.

Trivedi, 47, 48
26

Das, Harikesh, 82 Hari Prasad, 44 HariSchandra, 11, 91 f.,93, 96 Harivarh"a, 76, 86 Nath Harsh Jha, 93, 97 2 ff.,88 f. Hindi, High 2 Hindi 34, 88 f. ff.,
Hit Hit

Kamal, Larai, 83 KanarpI Ghat Karan, 36, 82, 95"

Karnes, 36 92 Kusum, 39 Ka"I Nath, Nath Kasi Khattri, 93
Kashmir Kavi Kavi Bachan Kavi-kul

Haribans,

76

Sudha, 92 Kalpa-taru, 40
42

Hitopadesa, 89 Tarangini,
33

Mala,

Kavindra

Kalpa Lata, 42

INDEX
Kavi

113

Priya, 37, 50,

Alcali, 97 Ratnakar,

95

Mahabharata,

49, 85

Kavitta, 6, 40, 57 f.,59, 74

Kavitta Kavitta 40

Mahajani,

Kavittavali, 57 Kavya, 6 Kavya Kalpadrum, 40 Kavya Prakas, 40 Kavya Saroj,47 Kavya Vivek, 40 Kayattri (Kaithi), 5 Kedar, 12 Kesav Das, 10, 33, 37 ff., 40, 44, 101 74, 50, 95, 96, 47,
Das, 67 36 f.,52 Khankhana, Kharl Boll, 4, 88 Khas Granth, 24 Khuman Rasa, 12
Kesav

Mahapralay, 69 Mahoba Khand, 15 Maithili, 5, 28* 83, 86, 93, 97

Malik 31 Muhammad 86 ff.,

Jayasi, 10,

Maluk

Man,
Manas

Das, 58 f. 78, 81, 95

Sankavali,
98

Manbodh Manchit

Jha,

86 79

Dwij,

Mandan, 30, 46, 100 Man Das, 59 Mani Dev, 94

Mani Manohar Mansa Man Ram

Mi"ra, 48
60

Maniyar Singh,

Das, 36 Ram, 97

Kishor, 48
Kishor 48 Safigrah,

Singh, 36, 52, 94 f. Markandeya Purana, 85, 100

Kripa Ram, 33, 37, 85 Krishna, 9, 27 ff., 40, 43, 54, 58, 72 ff., 98, 102 Das Krishna Pay Ahari, 72
Krishna Krishna

Marwa'r," 50,

81

f."

Marwari, 3, 97 Masaud, 12
Mati

Ram

TripathI, 41 f.,48, 96

Kallol, 78
nand

Vyas Dev, 94

Krishnayan, 79 Kulpati Misra, 46

Kumar Kumar Kumbhan Mani

Meerut, 4, 88 Mewar, 3, 12, 29, 81 Mira Bal, 10, 29 Mohan Bhatt, 95

Moti

Bhatt, 49

Ram,

85

Pal.* 12
Das, 72

Mubarak

AH,

84

Muhammad
Mukti Mulla

Kundaliya, 6, 63, 86
I ^

Shah, 47, 68 Muktavall, 99 Daud, 18

AKSHMAN Lalak Sita Ram,

Singh,
Das, 98
93
89

93

97 Mun, Muttra, 4, 42, 72 f.,80

Lala Lai Lai

Chandrika,

Das, 66 Kishori, 98 Lalit Lalam, 41, 48 Lalit Prakas, 78 Lalitya Lata, 48

Lalit

NABHA
Nahush Nala

Das, 52, 58, 73 Nagarl Das, 77, 86

Nagari Pracharini

Sabha, 106

Natak, 93 Nakhsikh, 39, 42 f.,47 f.,59, 96

Jha, 83 Lai Kavi, 83 Lallu Ji Lai, 4, 11, 40, 85, 88 f., 93, 101
Lai

Damayanti, Singh, 18 10,20, 63 Namdev, Nanak, 26, 63 f.,66

Nalla Nand Narhari Narottam

and

74

Das, 72 f.

Narayan
1V1

1V/IADHONAL,
Madhu

85 Sudan Das, 60

Ray, 96 Sahay, 36
Das, 33

114

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE Puhakar, 84 Purohit GopI Nath, 93

Narsingh Mehta, 28 Nasketopakhyan, 89

Nath Kavi. 96

84

Pushya (Punda), 12
Bhed, 39, 42 f., [46, 49 Bakhsh, 76 QADIR Qutub AH, 12 28, 43, 74 ff. Radha-sudh"-nidhi, 76 Radha-Vallabhis, 76 f. Raghu Nath, 49 Raghu Nath Das, 98 Raghu Nath Ray, 82
JA

Navin,

Nayak-Nayika
Nazir, 84

Nehpraka", 60 Newaj, 46, 93 Nidhan, 86

Nilkanth Ni"chal North Nur

DADHA,

TripathI, 40
Das, 66

India Tract

Society,107
86

Muhammad,

DADMAKAR
r

Bhatt, 95, 96

PadmavatI, 14, 102 Padumavati, 31, 86

Raghunath Rupak, 97 Raghu Raj Singh, 95 RaghuvarhSa, 98

Rag
Rahim

Mala, 36

Pajnes, 96
Paltu

Rag-Sagarodbhav
Sat

Rag-Kalpa-

Sahib, 63

Panchadhyayl, 73
Panchatantra, 89 Panna, 41, 46, 48, 78, 83, 94, 96

Das, 72 Praka", 42 ParSva Puran, 85 Ph aturi Lai, 97

ParsI 4 Pifigal,

Parmanand

Sai, 36 [drum, 93 Rai Das, 22, 29 Rai Pithora, 8, 13 85, 89, 94 Rajasthanl,2 ff., Raj Dev Bilas, 81
89 Rajniti, Raj Pattana, 81 Rajputana, 8, 10, 31, 64, 68, 81,

84, 86
48

Pipa, 21 Plyush Nidhi, Poetesses, 10, 29, 38, 47, 68, 78 f. PrabhavatI Haran, 93, 97
Prabodh Pran

Raj Ratnakar, 81 Raj Rupakakhyat,

Rama,
Ram

82

9, 20, 23, 27 97 f., 102

ff.,51

ff.,

Chandroday, 93

Prakrit, 1, 10, 12 f.,93

Nath, 69

Alankrimanjari,38 Ramananda, 9, 19 ff., 27, 51, 58

Ramanandis, 21, 57 f. 60 Ram"Svamedh, 60, 89, 98 Ramayan, 40, 51 ff., Ram Bilas, 60 60 Bilas Ramayan, Ram Chandra kl Sawari, 95 Ram Ram Chandrika, 38 Ram Charan, 68, 86 52 ff. Ram-Charit-Manas, 59 Ram Charitr, Ram Das, 36, 63; 73
Ram Ram Ram Din

Pratap Sahi, 96
Pratham Pravin

Granth, 69 Ray Paturl, 38 Premchandrika, 45 Premlata, 76 Prem Prakas, 67

Prem

Prem Prem

Ratna, 79 Ratnakar, 85

Sagar, 89 Premsattvanirup,72 Printing Press, 90 Prithi Raj, 8, 13 Prithi Raj Rass, 13 Priya Das, 58
f.,97, 100, 105 Prose, 30, 85, 95 ft.,101 Prosody, 6, 37 ff.,
89

TripathI,95

GItavall, 57

Ji,46
Ravan

Ram
Ram Ram

Yuddh,

97

Sahay Das, 96 Sanehls, 68

INDEX Bodharri, 98 Ran Chhor, 29, 81 Ranthambhor, 9, 17 Ras, 43, 70 Ras Bilas, 45 Ras Chandrika, 39
Ram Tattva Ras Rasik Rasik Rasik Ris Ras Ras Ras Ras Ras Ratan Ratan

115

Chandroday, 93
Govind, 98 Priya, 38, 47, 50 Rasal, 49 ke Pad, 77
Khan, 76 Lin, 48

Sarasvati,42 Sardar, 96 5 Sarra.fi, Satnamis, 68 f. Sat Sal, 42 ff., 47, 49 f., 57, 78, Ram Sat Sal Mati 42 [89, 95 f 67 Satya Praka",
.

Satyopakhyan, 98 Saundarya Lahari, 60 Savaiya, 6, 50, 66 Nabi, Sayyad Gulam

Sen,
21 40

48

Rahasya,

46

SenapatI, 10, Serampore, 89

Shah

Raj,

42 84 48

Ratan,

Kavi,

79, 90 Kunwar, 59 Ratnakhana, Rav Rana, 94

Rav Ratan

Raysa, 82

Jahan, 10, 39 f.,42, 82 Shekh Rangrezin, 47 Sikandar LodI, 23 Sikhs, 26, 63 f. 40, 89 Singhasan Battisi, 102 SIta, 51 ff., Sital,78
Sita Ram Dhyanrhanjari, 60 Siv Arsela, 49 f. Siv Narayan, 68 Siv Prakas Singh, 98 Siv Prasad, 79, 90 Siv Raj,41 Siv Raj Bhushan, 41 $iv Singh Saroj,94 Siv Singh Sengar, 94

Rewah,

22, 82, 95

Rup
CABAL
"

Sahi, 95

Singh, 85

Sabdas, 24, 66 f. Sabha Bilas, 89 Sadal Mi"ra, 88 f. SadaSiv, 81

Sadharan

Siddhant, 77
66

Sadhs, Sadna, 20

Somnath,

48 43 84

Soratha, 6,
Saran, 78
68

Sahaj Ram,, 98
Sahachari

Sri Dhar, Sri Hit Brindaban

Sahajo Bal, 74 Sahityalahari, Sahitya Sammelan, 107 Sakhis, 24 f.,66, 68

Sakuntala

D"s Ji Sri Nagari Das, 86 [Ch"cha, 77 96 Sringar Sangrah,

^rinivas Das,
47, Sripati,
Sudami Sudan
49

93

Natak, 46, 93
49

Charitr,33

86 Salihotr,

Samarsar,
Sambhu
Sambhu Saneh

Nath,
Nath

60

Mtera, 49

Sudhanidhi, 47 Sujan Charitr, 83 Dev Sukh MiSra,

Sukh

46

6ymbhu Nath
Sagar, Sangit Sar, 36

Singh, 42
78

Nidhan, 62
39

Sundar,
Sundar Sundar Sundari Sundari

28, 30, 35 f., Sanskrit,1, 5, 19 ff., 43 f.,48,52 59, 67, 73, 76 f., 90, 93, 95, 97, 105 Sarang Dhar, 9, 17, 82
,
,

Bilas, 66 Das, 66
Kunwari

Bai, 79

Tilak, 92
60

Sundarkand,

116

HISTORY

OF

HINDI

LITERATURE

Sundar

Satak,

95

Urdu,
39
Usha

2ff.35,
Haran,
93

88

f.

Sundar

Sringar,
97

Siinlsar,
Surati

Misra,
74

47

\/AISHNAVAS,
v

9,
75 72 ff.

19,

28,

55,

Suravall, Surbhldanllla,
Sur

57

f.,

79

Vallabhacharis,
36

75, f.,

78 75

Das,
72
ff.

10,

13,

f.,

52,

57,

Vallabhacharya, Valmiki, 52, Ray,

22,
85 59 42

30,
f.

72

80,

96

Sur

Sagar,
Praka", Malla,

74
82 95

Vedang
Vedanta,
84,
Vichitr

Surya Surya

23,

45,

55,

65

f.,

Natak,

64

TAJ"
1

78 Tan

Vidyapati
Sen,
35 63

thakur,
Sundar,
Gita,
37 93

10,

28,

93

f.

Vidya Vigyan Vijai

Teg
Thakur,

Bahadur,
50

Muktavali,

85 82

thakur
Thakur Than Todar Tota Tosh

Prasad

Tripathi,
50
49 35

94

Vijai
Vikram

Singh,
Sahi, Patrika,

Satak,

85, 57,
13

95

Ram, Mai, Ram, Nidhi,

Vinay

95,

98

VIsala-deva,
Vishnu

93 47

Purana,

49 95

Vi^vanath

Singh,
30,

Tripathi

Brothers,
42

10,

40

ff.

Vitthalnath,
Vitthal

72,
78

75,

100

Tulsl,'
Tulsi

Vipul,

Das,

10, 98,
60

37,
102

44,

51

ff.,

72
Tulsl

ff.,

95,

W/ESTERN

Hindi,

ff.,

58,

Sahib,

T
KJ

TDAY

NathTrivedi,

48

YAMUNA
1

Lahari,
Yari

96

Umapati,

28

Sahib,

67