Berksliteraturereview

A Literature Review Darla R.
Kelberlau-Berks University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Comprehensive Exam Part I Dr. John Raible, Advisor March 12, 2014
Berks: Examining Factors of Success in Math: A Case Study of African American Males Math Achievement
Introduction The clock showed 9:08 am, but the 9:00 meeting had not yet begun. Although there were conversations taking place amongst some in the room, most sat quietly. The tension in the air was evident and felt by all. Some nervously looked at their watches while others watched the doorway. The nine educators seated around the large table with their laptops open and ready were waiting for their supervisor to arrive to begin the meeting. What would he say? What would his reaction be? Would there be some sort of consequence or needed action? This was the setting of a Math Curriculum Department meeting that I participated in several years ago. It took place in the fall of 2010 after the release of the results of the Nebraska State Math exams that were given to Nebraska students for the first time just months earlier. The Math Specialist entered the room without any greetings or pleasantries. The topic at hand was of utmost importance and was too pressing. The test results were quickly passed around the table. My eyes scanned the results looking for the lowest scores, trying to identify the issues at hand. Not only were scores given for the district as a whole, but scores were also given by school and grade level as well as disaggregated by other characteristics such as gender, race, socioeconomic status, special education and English language learners. Although I wasnt necessarily surprised by the results, I was heartbroken just the same. Our minority students were not achieving at the same levels as our White students. With this new state test and this sudden comparison amongst schools and districts within the state, this problem was suddenly placed into the spotlight and its level of urgency multiplied. As I sat at this meeting, my mind began swimming in thoughts about how this discrepancy in achievement happened; what caused this difference in learning; what can be done to change this and how can we help teachers understand the significance with the issue that lies behind these numbers? 2
The Achievement Gap In September 2013, the Nebraska Department of Education released the 2012-2013 State of Schools Report. This report contained the results of state tests in Reading, Writing, Math and Science. Students completed the state tests in grades 3-8 and in grade 11. The following are the 2013 overall Math results for the state: (NDE, 2013). Student Group All Students Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native Asian Black or African American Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander White Two or More Races Students eligible for free and reduced lunch Special Education Students English Language Learners % Proficient 69% 52% 37% 73% 38% 56% 77% 65% 55% 40% 45%
As shown above, the math achievement of African American students is 39% lower than their White counterparts. The same data categorized by grade level is found in Appendix A (NDE, 2013). This data shows that there is not only an achievement gap throughout all of the grade levels assessed, but it also shows that the gap actually widens with time. Other data, including the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), show similar trends nationally with similar trends in Reading as well. Alarmingly, the 2013 NAEP tests show that while 57% of White 8th grade students were proficient in math, only 16% of Black 8th grade students were proficient. Conversely, only 16% of White 8th grade students scored in the lowest Below Basic
category, while 48% of Black 8th grade students scored in that same low category (National Assessment of Educational, n.d.). Much has been written about the popular phrase the achievement gap. The achievement gap not only refers to gaps amongst students of differing races, but it also extends to gaps amongst students of differing socioeconomic statuses. The National Governors Association has deemed the severity of this issue as one of the most pressing education-policy challenges that states currently face (Closing the achievement gap, 2005). Some have even taken it a step further stating that the racial achievement gap in learning is the cause of continued racial inequities (Thernstrom & Thernstrom, 2003). The achievement gap has become a part of legislation such as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) that was passed in 2001, where one of its purpose statements is to close the achievement gap (No Child Left Behind, 2001). The phrase has become a part of local school district policies as it has been identified as district-wide school improvement goals (School Improvement, n.d.). Gloria Ladson-Billings is the Kellner Family Professor of Urban Education in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. She has done much research in the field of education of African American students. She believes that focusing on the achievement gap only leads to short-term solutions rather than addressing the underlying problems (2006). Her stance is that there have been historical, economic, sociopolitical, and moral decisions that have resulted in the achievement gap. She prefers the phrase Education Debt to better represent the complexity and underlying factors of the issue (2006). Dr. Jawanza Kunjufu is a well-respected educational consultant and author of numerous books on schooling and African Americans. His work focuses on addressing issues related to the 4
Black culture, particularly the education of African American students. While attending a conference in which Kunjufu was the keynote speaker, I was impressed with his level of frankness and his willingness to be bold in addressing difficult and uncomfortable topics. This boldness, as well as the fact that his academic background is not in the field of education, has caused Kunjufu to be controversial in the minds of some, particularly outside the African American community. Yet, the following reflective questions Kunjufu posed about the accuracy of the achievement gap phrase are questions worth pondering. Is the issue really as simple as the phrase might indicate . . . or is there more to the issue? Could there be an opportunity gap? Could there be a funding gap? Could there be a teacher quality gap? Could there be a lack of respect gap? Could tracking be a part of the gap? Could there be a gap between pedagogy and student learning styles? (Kunjufu, 2012). Ladson-Billings stance, as well as these questions, caused me to think more about the complexities of this issue. I was reminded of Flores (2007) warning that while it is important to recognize a symptom such as low achievement, it is even more critical to understand and address its underlying causes (p. 29). This search for understanding and analysis has created a wonderful journey that has crossed a variety of areas. Areas such as history, psychology and education have all been searched. Although the areas are very different and distinct, there are clear connections amongst the areas and connections to the achievement gap topic. For example, the impact of history is found even today within our African American students. The belief of certain races being inferior/superior to others still exists and can be seen in the existing stereotypes of what African American male students are thought to be like. Those stereotypes are in the minds of African American male students themselves and impact their mindset and math identity. When teachers believe those stereotypes (even unknowingly), low expectations and tracking may result. An 5
overall disbelief in students and ineffective instruction can be another result of the presence of negative stereotypes. These topics and these connections will be discussed in greater detail in the remainder of this paper.
Factors Contributing to the Gap In what follows, I will discuss key factors that contribute to the achievement gap. These factors include: the role of history, tracking, inequities within schools/teachers, and accepting the status quo. Looking to the past when attempting to analyze and understand the issue of the achievement gap seems like a logical response. In fact, this idea is found with the following well-known saying originally stated by George Santayana: Those who do not remember the past are condemned to repeat it (Brainy Quote, n.d.). The message with the saying as well as with looking to the past to understand the gap in achievement is very similar. There is learning that takes place when understanding history, and that learning can prevent future harm. The past for African Americans is disturbing and painful, yet much can be explained when considering the educational journey African Americans have made in this country. Slavery and the denial of education marked the beginning of that historical journey. Even after emancipation, education for African Americans was separate and inferior (Paige & Witty, 2010; Stinson, 2006; Thernstrom & Thernstrom, 2003). The 1950s which has been called the second Reconstruction marked the end of segregated classrooms with the Brown vs. Board of Education case that declared school segregation based on race to be unconstitutional (Paige & Witty, 2010).
Tracking Although the more overt inequities, such as segregation, ended nearly eighty years ago, there are still resulting stereotypes and other forms of inequities that exist in our schools today. Tracking, being over-identified for special education services and being under-identified for gifted courses are examples of this current type of racism that results in segregation (Nasir & Shah, 2011). During the 2000-2001 school year, African American males comprised 8.6% of the nations public school student population. Yet, they made up 40% of those in special education in some school districts (Smith, 2005). African American males are 2.5 times less likely to be a part of gifted programs (Focus on Blacks, 2011). African American males comprised 22% of students expelled from school and 23% of students suspended (Smith, 2005); this is three times as likely as White students (Focus on Blacks, 2011). This same trend is seen with mathematics course placement at the local level as well. At a local high school, 46% of African American males were enrolled in off-track or a block-format math class during the fall of 2013 (comparable to below grade level or low-level courses). Forty-two percent of African American males were in the regular math track whereas only twelve percent where enrolled in an above grade level math course. Some researchers have attributed this trend to a cultural gap that exists between African American students and teachers that are primarily White females (Ford & Harris, 1996). Ford and Harris point out that most teachers have not had training in multicultural education nor have they recognized their own biases towards African American students. This difference in culture and lack of understanding may lead to low teacher expectations and an overabundance of referrals of African American students to special education and a low number of referrals to gifted education. (This lack of training and lack of understanding on the part of White teachers will be investigated in more depth later in this paper.) 7
Teacher Quality Another new form of segregation is created with the practice of having inexperienced, unprepared teachers at schools serving predominantly students of color. Classrooms that consist of high numbers of minority students are more likely to be taught by inexperienced, unprepared teachers (Wilkins et al., 2006; Smith, 2005). This practice only exacerbates the inequities in schools. Students who most need highly effective teachers are the least likely to have them (Darling-Hammond, 2001). An example of this was found in California when a class size reduction plan was implemented. Due to this change, there were many teaching positions open and, thus, a teacher shortage. Many inner city teachers transferred to schools in the suburbs causing the inner city schools to be left with inexperienced or even unqualified teachers. Although this doesnt appear to be a blatant act against the inner city students or communities, it is an example of racism/classism (Weissglass, 2002).
Status Quo A final thought about this idea of segregation still existing in schools today is found with the idea of doing nothing. Accepting the status quo is not only allowing gaps to exist, but is causing them to even worsen (Smith, 2005). Noguera and Wing (2006) believe that the most insidious form of racism we perpetuated in our schools was that we opened our doors every year and did the same exact things, often pretending to expect different results (p. 170). Until something different truly different is required in schools, we will not achieve equality for all students. For me as an educator that interacts with teachers and their minority students on a daily basis, I am interested in the perspective of these students. Their thoughts and experiences have 8
the power to provide greater awareness and understanding to the issue of math achievement in Lincoln Public Schools.
Stereotypes and Academic Achievement As seen, student achievement data is reported by race/ethnicity. The mere statements of performance and achievement of certain groups of students may, unintentionally, reinforce prejudice and stereotypes (Flores, 2007). The literature on this topic mentions the following descriptors of the stereotype/image of African American male students: scholastically apathetic, tending toward criminality, culturally and morally deficient, and intellectually inferior (Nasir & Shah, 2011, p. 37-38); African Americans are not good at school and math (Nasir & Shah, 2011); African American males are too aggressive, too loud, too violent, too dumb, too hard to control, too streetwise, and too focused on sports (Noguera, 2008, p. xxi); African American learners are deficient (Berry, Thunder, & McClain, 2011). Given these negative qualities which are rampant and well known by students and teachers alike what is the believed impact for the African American male student? Some say they may lack confidence; they may appear to care less and seem to quit easily or give up on a task (Nasir & Shah, 2011); they may have an inferiority complex that ultimately leads to a lack of will, desire, and confidence in terms of excelling (Muhammad, 2003, p. 55). Howard and Hammond (1985) suggest that some African Americans avoid intellectually challenging situations because they have adopted societys belief of Black intellectual inferiority. Teachers may have adopted this societal belief as well and may have lowered expectations (even unintentionally) as a result. The youth may respond to this image in a variety of ways, but it is something that the youth cannot avoid or ignore, as they confront these stereotypes and images on a daily basis (Nasir & Shah, 9
2011). Their responses, however, are often times viewed by teachers as behavior problems or as oppositional behaviors (Ford & Harris, 1996; Thernstrom & Thernstrom, 2003). Stinson stated that African American youth have three options for responding: sucking it up, compromising or by refusing to yield (2013, p. 74). The youth may feel conflicted between the expectations of school and the image of - or allegiance to - their race. Some feel that doing well in school is placing their own individual gain over their race and over relationships with friends (Noguera, 2008; Ford & Harris, 1996). They may feel as if they have to choose between a school reputation and a community reputation (Stinson, 2011), feeling the need to reject their racial and cultural identity in the process of achieving success (Fordham, 1988, p. 55). Students of color may feel as though being successful at school is acting White. Some have associated school achievement behaviors with White culture and anti-intellectual behaviors with Black norms. Schockley believes that this reveals a larger problem with schooling for African American students that Black students feel disconnected from school (2011).
Math Identity The aforementioned stereotypes are not only known by African American students, but are unfortunately believed by many Black students as well. Some have been affected by the messages prevalent in society and have adopted these negative beliefs themselves. This mindset of believing that intelligence is set and static and cannot change has been termed a fixed mindset by psychologist Carol Dweck (2006). The other mindset that Dweck refers to is the growth mindset. With this mindset, it is believed that intellectual ability can be developed and can grow with factors such as effort. Brain theory and the plasticity of the brain are key concepts within Dwecks mindset ideas. When learning happens, a synapse fires. Learning creates and 10
strengthens synapses. Even making mistakes causes the growth of a new synapse (Dweck, 2006). Teaching about these mindsets and the functioning of the brain can help students overcome the negative stereotypes that exist and gain a new motivation to persist and believe in the power of effort and the power within themselves. Blackwell, Trzesniewski and Dweck (2007) conducted a study in which they measured the mindsets of several hundred middle school students. They monitored the students grades over the next two years. The grades of those with a growth mindset were significantly higher than those with a fixed mindset. Teaching this growth mindset can benefit students; it can help students overcome negative stereotypes. Another concept that refers to students belief about themselves, as it relates to the math classroom, is math identity. Martin (2000) defines mathematics identities as students beliefs about their mathematics abilities, their beliefs about the instrumental importance of mathematics, their beliefs about the opportunities and constraints that affect their participation in mathematics, and their motivations to obtain mathematics knowledge (p. viii). Having a positive math identity is needed to help students develop an interest in math and persistence while completing mathematics (Berry, Thunder, & McClain, 2011). The topic of developing an interest in math by showing relevance in the curriculum will be discussed later in this paper.
Caring Teachers Having recognized the importance of this positive belief in oneself and ones math ability, how can this be developed in students to overcome the impact of negative stereotyping? Berry and McClain (2009) believe that this identity can be developed with caring, invested teachers. As Kunjufu (2002) argues, Significant learning cannot take place until a significant 11
relationship has been established . . . you cannot teach a child that you do not love, respect, and understand . . . children know when you love . . . and respect them and when you dont (p. 64). The love, care, and interest of the student must be genuine; the student must be the teachers first priority, the content second (Boykin & Noguera, 2011; Kafele, 2009; Muhammad, 2003; Smith, 2005). Author and former principal, Baruti Kafele, wrote about the great importance of teachers care for their students. In his book, Closing the attitude gap: How to fire up your students to strive for success, Kafele (2013) challenged teachers to reflect on these questions: Do you believe in your students? Know them? Care about them? Understand them? Empathize with them? This common theme of caring for, and believing in students, is frequently found within the literature. Other examples of this are: the whole issue boils down to whether or not one believes all children can learn (Paige & Witty, 2010, p. 73). Carol Dweck not only wrote about the power of the growth mindset in students. She also studied and wrote about the fixed versus growth mindset in teachers. Dweck cited researcher Rheinberg who measured the mindset of teachers at the beginning of a school year. Teachers with a fixed mindset believe that students have set intellectual abilities while teachers with a growth mindset believe that they can cultivate students skills. At the end of the school year, Rheinberg found that the low achieving students left the fixed mindset teachers classrooms as low achievers. Meanwhile, the low achievers that were in the classrooms of teachers with growth mindsets, left as moderate or high achieving students (Dweck, 2010). Teachers need to truly care about and believe in their students. This is not just to make students feel good; this affects learning and achievement. A consistent theme when talking with successful students is that significant adults have been a major factor in that success (Noguera, 2008). I dont become what I think I can, I dont become what you think I can, I become what I think you think I can (Kunjufu, 2002, p. 43). 12
What is meant by truly caring about students, or truly caring about people in general? Pennington, Brock and Ndura (2012) completed research on White teachers conceptions of caring for their minority students while taking into account White privilege. The study consisted of a yearlong professional development that contained three key events. Those key events were: a privilege checklist, the use of counter-narratives and a privilege walk activity. The privilege checklist was an activity in which zero or one point was tallied dependent upon the accuracy of the statement for ones own life. Then, the total numbers of points were totaled for a final score. While completing this activity, there was an obvious large difference in final scores for the White teachers and the Black teachers. Instead of having an open, honest reflection of the score differences (caused by racism that exists in society), the White teachers tried to show care towards a Black teacher by pointing out one statement that the woman couldve possibly earned a point for. It was as if there was a shallow environment of being nice, rather than truly caring, while at the same time, avoiding the uncomfortable conversation about racism. Later, in this same study, the teacher participants completed a privilege walk activity. This is an activity in which all participants start at the same starting point. Statements are read aloud. If the statement is true for you, you take a step forward; if it is not true for you, you take a step backwards. Upon completion of this activity, the few Black teachers in the group ended in the extreme back while the White teachers were much further ahead. While the White teachers appeared to be bothered by this (and understood White privilege at this point), they still did nothing to show care or concern towards the Black teachers. In fact, the White teachers actually withdrew from the Black teachers (Pennington, Brock & Ndura, 2012). This type of silence is a behavior of White privilege (Greason, 2012). Researchers Pennington, Brock and Ndura cite Nel Noddings in saying, caring involves stepping out of ones own personal frame of reference into 13
the others. When we care, we consider the others point of view, [her] objective needs, and what [she] expects of us. Our attention, our mental engrossment is on the cared-for, not on ourselves (p. 768). Therefore, to truly care about students, some teachers may need to have an honest reflection about their own biases and possible privileges they experience based on their race. This honest reflection is necessary to have genuine care and concern for students of a different race. These are not bad teachers . . . however, they do not understand that their perceptions of African American students interfere with their ability to be effective teachers for them (Ladson-Billings, 2009, p. 23).
Effective Mathematics Instruction Once the concern and belief is present, and a caring student-teacher relationship has been developed, teachers can then focus on the math content and other pedagogical issues. One issue with math instruction is that students often times feel disconnected with the content; they struggle to see the relevance in the math curriculum. It is often found that a students poor math grade may be more indicative of boredom and a disconnection with the curriculum rather than indicative of low mathematical skills (Ford & Harris, 1996; Kunjufu, 2002). The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation conducted a study in South Carolina in 2006 to learn more about why African American students were dropping out of high school. The number one reason that they found was because of a lack of interest in the courses (Shockley, 2011). One way to address this issue of disconnectedness is by incorporating more problem solving into the math classroom. It is with these types of real world problem solving tasks that students can come to understand the mathematical concepts rather than merely memorize a formula or procedure (Flores, 2007). This conceptual understanding provides students with a deeper understanding that will allow for much 14
greater retention and the ability to apply and transfer the math skills to other situations (Muhammad, 2003). This type of incorporated problem solving needs to be throughout the curriculum and the daily routines and learning tasks that are completed; it cannot be an occasional occurrence. It needs to become the fruit of the mathematics tree and not just a leaf (Muhammad, 2003, p. 25). Students also need to see mathematics as it relates to them. Students can benefit by seeing math in nature, sports, music, science, and business (Muhammad, 2003). It is important to show relevance and build on students interest. Relevance in the content as far as real-world applications and problem solving experiences (as mentioned previously) is important. Yet, taking that a step further and including topics that include the culture of the students gives even more benefit. African American students (or any students) interest increases greatly when the content is connected to their culture. In a survey conducted by Ford and Harris (1996), almost 40% of African American students said that they are tired of learning about White people in school (p. 1149). Students need to see how mathematics is a central and important part to everything in their world including their lives as Black people (Muhammad, 2003). In the words of Gloria Ladson-Billings (2009), culturally relevant teaching is needed, that is, creating a bridge between students culture/home lives with the school content/curriculum. LadsonBillings identifies three criteria for culturally relevant teaching. Those three components are: the need for students to experience success, the need for students to be culturally competent, and the need for students to develop a critical consciousness that will help them in and outside of the classroom (1995, p. 160). Similarities to this type of relevant pedagogy can be found within other programs and with other researchers. Robert P. Moses is a Civil Rights leader and the founder of the Algebra 15
Project that began in 1982. Moses finds similarities with the pursuit to gain voting rights in the 1960s to the current pursuit to provide a quality education for all students. The power in the right to vote in the 1960s, Moses believes, is comparable to the power in successfully completing Algebra today. The Algebra Project uses research-based strategies as professional development and consultation is provided for teachers, school districts and other stakeholders (Algebra Project, n.d.). Moses believes in student-centered classrooms in which students feel safe to offer ideas and maybe be wrong. The Algebra Project focuses on real-life events (that show students relevance to their lives), as well as including student exploration and math discourse leading to the symbolic representations (Moses, 2001). This kind of relevance will help students develop more connectedness to their learning. Once their interest has been sparked, students may then be more engaged with the mathematics content. Researchers have found that greater engagement leads to greater success especially for minority students (Boykin & Noguera, 2011). This should seem obvious: when students are engaged thinking about math and doing math, they learn more. Principal Kafele (2009) noticed this as he described an effective teacher that he observed. The key to the effectiveness was found in the teachers ability to engage students in student-centered learning. Nasir & Shah (2011) argue that the days of lecture are over; our students today are surrounded by media and activity. They learn best by doing rather than just listening to a lecture. Learning is deeply related to engagement; learning occurs when one is invested in the learning setting (p. 24). Ruth Heaton (2000) found cognitive engagement to be utmost importance, as well. Heaton was a veteran elementary teacher when new math standards were established. Heaton experimented with a new delivery approach in which she relied on an inquiry model of 16
instruction. This was very different from the traditional method of teaching mathematics in which teachers provided the necessary information/formulas and students copied the same type of problem without much thinking. Heaton realized the importance of allowing students to explore and even struggle with the math concepts. She saw the importance of students engaging in and thinking about the mathematics (Heaton, 2000). As with Moses, Heaton found that a safe classroom environment was necessary for students to truly explore and engage in the math concepts. One final aspect to instruction that has been mentioned numerous times in the literature is the extreme importance of teacher expectations (Hrabowski, Maton & Greif, 1998; Thernstrom & Thernstrom, 2003; Noguera, 2008; Haycock, 2013). Some have even called this the most important factor impacting the academic achievement of African American children (Kunjufu, 2002, p. 17). Of course, one would hope that those expectations are high; yet the self-fulfilling prophecy applies to both high and low expectations (Ford & Harris, 1996). Even the teachers that think their intentions are honorable, as they feel sorry for their students, who may have struggles, need to realize that they are harming those children. Students do not need our sympathy. They need our inspiration and encouragement to change their realities for the better. We must therefore continue to hold them accountable for nothing less than excellence (Kafele, 2013, p. 14-15). As seen, the first essential element is students knowing that their teachers care about them. This genuine care may require self-reflection on the part of the teacher to acknowledge and eliminate any prejudices or biases they may have towards their students. Partnering with teacher care is teacher belief. That teacher belief in their ability to cause learning in their students relates to a belief in the abilities of their students. When students see that their teachers 17
believe that they can learn, they will adopt a growth mindset that can overcome negative stereotypes and can show them the power of effort and resilience. This positive belief in their ability to learn math, coupled with relevant, engaging and rigorous curriculum is a great formula that can lead to success and learning for all students.
Discussion What is lacking in the research related to the African American achievement gap is an emphasis on the students that are succeeding in math classrooms (Ladson-Billings, 1997). The literature generally focuses on the deficits or what is wrong with African American students. Lubienski noted the importance to recognize gaps, but also reiterated the importance of more detailed analyses of the issue (2008). There is a notable void in trying to understand the students and their thoughts and perspectives on the issue. Analyzing data is of value, but truly listening to the students themselves is of great importance as well. What have other researchers learned while studying successful African American male students? Jett conducted a case study of a successful math doctoral student. The student remembered a teacher that took me under his wings. The student described his journey of initial struggle to the eventual success with this phrase: I once was lost, but now am found (Jett, 2011, p. 1134). Other researchers, McGlamery and Mitchell (2000), noticed a common theme that the successful students had a teacher that they had a positive relationship with. This relationship gave the students a sense of safety and resulted in there becoming active participants in the math classroom. Brand, Glasson, and Green completed a study in 2006 in which they interviewed five African American students that were high achievers. The one central theme that existed in all of the student interviews was high-quality interactions with their teachers which 18
included teachers who validate their students capabilities, who are accessible and approachable, who are supportive, and who hold high expectations for their students (Boykin & Noguera, 2011, p. 71). David Stinson completed a case study of five of his former high school students that were then successful in math courses at the college level. He noted factors such as: parental support, positive relationships with teachers, comfort with their race, and having a highachieving peer group (2013). Berry, Thunder and McClain also completed a study of African American boys that were successful with mathematics. The students in this study were younger than the other studies. Findings from this study included: early development of computational fluency, relationships and feeling connected, engagement with mathematics and extrinsic recognitions (2011). McGee studied fourteen high-achieving African American math and engineering majors while in their junior/senior year of college. She found that these students had a positive sense of who they were as African Americans; she also found that they had parental support and a belief in succeeding even in times of difficulty (McGee, 2005). Yet another study, conducted by Hrabowski, Maton, and Greif found the following factors to be of importance: exposure to advanced math courses, a high-achieving peer group, and positive relationships with the math teachers (1998). Warde studied successful African American males who completed a baccalaureate degree. Although this study wasnt specific to mathematics learning, the findings were quite similar to other studies that have focused on math achievement. The findings were: realizing the importance of education, having access to resources, having a mentor and being resilient (Warde, 2008).
Conclusion
19
As seen, there is much to consider when analyzing the topic of the achievement gap. Educators, in their quest to address this issue, must understand the history as well as understand effective pedagogy and the importance and value of teachers and the teacher-student relationship. Yet, even with the complexity to this issue, its great importance warrants immediate action. We cannot sit by and contemplate the best action to take; we cannot sit by and point the finger at others that ought to be doing things differently. We must do something. Teachers have a great power and potential to change the lives of students today. In conclusion, consider the following statements made by African American male students: I had a teacher, he was a math teacher, he really took me under his wings and stuff. I mean I was trying to do good and work hard at it and stuff. Stuff wasnt clicking, but after he got with me and showed me how to do things, the ins and outs and stuff like that . . . basically, he just worked with me, and it was easy (Jett, 2011, p. 1134). [The teachers who were most influential developed] a teacher-student relationship that went beyond just the classroom . . . where you could go into their office or classroom after class and not necessarily talk about academics, but you can still learn from them, learn about life, and learn about just different aspects . . . I think that is very important to have a relationship with a teacher (Stinson, 2013, p. 81) She was my best math teacher because she pushed me to the limit . . . she was different from my other teachers because she took time to explain and help me when I had hard work (Berry, Thunder & McClain, 2011, p. 17). With the complexity and immensity to the issue of the achievement gap, it might be easy to look around and feel overwhelmed and defeated as if efforts wont make any difference at all. Yet, considering these comments made by successful African American male students, we must 20
remember that we, as teachers, do have the power and potential to impact students. Our efforts and our care for the students have the power to change and impact them. It is with great excitement that I look forward to hearing from our own, local students. With hearing their thoughts and their experiences, there is great potential to learn about the factors that have helped them experience success in their math classrooms. That learning can have great potential to, in turn, help many more students (and teachers) in the future!
21
Appendix A: 2012-2013 Nebraska State Math Test Results
22
References: Algebra Project. (n.d.). Retrieved February 26, 2014, from http://www.algebra.org/ Berry, R. Q., III, & McClain, O. L. (2009). Voices, power and multiple identities: African American boys and mathematics success. New England Mathematics Journal, 41, 17-26. Berry, R. Q., III, Thunder, K., & McClain, O. L. (2011). Counter narratives: Examining the mathematics and racial identities of Black boys who are successful with school mathematics. Journal of African American Males in Education, 2(1), 10-23. Blackwell, L., Trzesniewski, K., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and intervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246-263. Boykin, A. W., & Noguera, P. (2011). Creating the opportunity to learn: Moving from research to practice to close the achievement gap. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Brainy quote. (n.d.). Retrieved February 25, 2014, from http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/repeat.html Closing the achievement gap. (2005). Retrieved November 30, 2013, from National Governors Association website: http://www.subnet.nga.org/educlear/achievement Darling-Hammond, L. (2001). The challenge of staffing our schools. Educational Leadership. 58(8), 12-17. Dweck, C. S. (2010, January). Mind-sets and equitable education. Principal Leadership, 26-29. Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: Ballantine Books. Flores, A. (2007). Examining disparities in mathematics education: Achievement gap or opportunity gap? The High School Journal, Oct/Nov, 29-42. 23
Focus on Blacks (National Education Association, Comp.) [Pamphlet]. (2011). Washington D.C. Ford, D. Y., & Harris, J. J. (1996). Perceptions and attitudes of Black students toward school, achievement, and other educational variables. Child Development, 67, 1141-1152. Greason, W. D. (2012). White like me. Journal of American Ethnic History, 32, 77-83. Haycock, K. (2013, April). Driving for equity in common core: Implementation. Paper presented at NCSM Conference, Denver, CO. Heaton, R. M. (2000). Teaching mathematics to the new standards: Relearning the dance. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Howard, J., & Hammond, R. (1985, September). Rumors of inferiority: The hidden obstacles to Black success in America. The New Republic, 17-21. Hrabowski, F. A., Maton, K. I., & Greif, G. L. (1998). Beating the odds: Raising academically successful African American males. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Jett, C. C. (2011). "I once was lost, but now am found": The mathematics journey of an African American male mathematics doctoral student. Journal of Black Studies, 42(7), 1125-1147. Kafele, B. K. (2013). Closing the attitude gap: How to fire up your students to strive for success. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Kunjufu, J. (2002). Black students, middle class teachers. Chicago, IL: African American Images. Kunjufu, J. (2012). There is nothing wrong with Black students. Chicago, IL: African American Images. Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). But that's just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory into Practice, 34, 159-165. Ladson-Billings, G. (2009). The dream-keepers (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 24
Ladson-Billings, G. (1997). It doesn't add up: African American students' mathematics achievement. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 28, 697-708. Ladson-Billings, G. (2006, October). From the achievement gap to the education debt: Understanding achievement in U.S. schools. Educational Researcher, 35, 3-12. Lubienski, S. T. (2008). On "gap gazing" in mathematics education: The need for gaps analyses. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 39, 350-356. Martin, D. B. (2000). Mathematics success and failure among African-American youth: The roles of sociohistorical context, community forces, school influence, and individual agency. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. McGee, E. (2005). Chronicles of success: Black college students achieving in mathematics and engineering. Retrieved from http://www.blacksuccessfoundation.org McGlamery, S., & Mitchell, C. T. (2000). Recruitment and retention of African American males in high school mathematics. Journal of African American Men, 4(4), 73-87. Moses, R. P., & Cobb, C. E., Jr. (2001). Radical equations: Civil rights from Mississippi to the algebra project. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. Muhammad, S. (2003). How to teach math to Black students. Chicago, IL: African American Images. Nasir, N. S., & Shah, N. (2011). On defense: African American males making sense of radicalized narratives in mathematics education. Journal of African American Males in Education, 2(1), 24-45. National assessment of educational progress. (n.d.). Retrieved December 2, 2013, from National Center for Education Statistics website: http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/studies/2009455.pdf 25
Nebraska Department of Education. (2013). Retrieved October 12, 2013, from Nebraska Department of Education website: http://reportcard.education.ne.gov/ No child left behind: Improving the academic achievement of the disadvantaged. (2001). Retrieved December 1, 2013, from U.S. Department of Education website: http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/pg1.html#sec101 Noguera, P. A. (2008). The trouble with Black boys. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Noguera, P. A., & Wing, J. Y. (2006). Unfinished business: Closing the racial achievement gap in our schools. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Paige, R., & Witty, E. (2010). The Black-White achievement gap. New York, NY: American Management Association. Pennington, J. L., Brock, C. H., & Ndura, E. (2012). Unraveling the threads of white teachers' conceptions of caring: Repositioning white privilege. Urban Education, 47, 743-775. School Improvement. (n.d.). Retrieved December 20, 2013, from Lincoln Public Schools website: http://www.lps.org Shockley, K. (2011). Reaching African American students: Profile of an Afrocentric teacher. Journal of Black Studies, 42(7), 1027-1046. Smith, R. A. (2005). Building a positive future for Black boys. American School Board Journal, September, 26-28. Stinson, D. W. (2006). African American male adolescents, schooling (and mathematics): Deficiency, rejection, and achievement. Review of Educational Research, 76(4), 477-506. Stinson, D. W. (2013). Negotiating the "white male math myth": African American male students and success in school mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 44(1), 69-99. 26
Thernstrom, A., & Thernstrom, S. (2003). No excuses: Closing the racial gap in learning. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Warde, B. (2008). Staying the course: Narratives of African American males who have completed a baccalaureate degree. Journal of African American Studies, 12(1), 59-72. Weissglass, J. (2002). Inequity in mathematics education: Questions for educators. The Mathematics Educator, 12(2), 34-39. Wilkins, A., & Education Trust Staff. (2006). Yes we can: Telling truths and dispelling myths about race and education in America [Pamphlet]. Washington D.C.: The Education Trust.
27

Berksliteraturereview

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Berksliteraturereview

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

A Literature Review Darla R.

Kelberlau-Berks University of Nebraska-Lincoln

Appendix A: 2012-2013 Nebraska State Math Test Results

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen