Design, Construction and Performance of Porous Asphalt Pavement for Rainwater Harvesting

By Prof. Prithvi Singh Kandhal and Sapan Mishra* [Published in the Indian Roads Congress Journal, Indian Highways, Vol. 42 No. 3, March 2014]

ABSTRACT Multi-storied commercial and residential buildings, which significantly increase the demand for water supply, are increasingly being constructed in urban India. In many states of India such as Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamilnadu, the ground water is plunging at an alarming rate. Responsible town planners, architects and civil engineers must be proactive and integrate rainwater harvesting techniques in the design of all types of buildings, parking lots and lowtrafficked roads/streets. For example, Public Works Department (Buildings and Roads) engineers can integrate government buildings with porous asphalt parking lot. This would recharge the ground water in over-exploited/critical areas of India. The revolutionary technology presented in this paper addresses that very need. The porous asphalt pavement which can be used for parking lot or low-trafficked roads/streets works like this. The top 75 mm asphalt layer is specially designed to make it porous. Rainwater goes through it rapidly without any ponding. The water is then stored in an underlying open-graded stone bed, which is about 225 mm thick. From there, water percolates slowly into the underlying soil. The porous parking lot or street can be integrated with a roof rainwater harvesting system in the buildings adjacent to it by diverting the roof water to the stone bed. Recently, the Jaipur Development Authority has constructed the first ever porous asphalt parking lot in India. This paper gives the details of its design, construction and performance.

1. INTRODUCTION Multi-storied commercial and residential buildings, which significantly increase the demand for water supply, are increasingly being constructed in urban India. However, additional water supply is hardly available. The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) has identified about 800 regions in India in which ground water level is plunging at an alarming rate. These regions are located in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Bihar, Delhi and Tamilnadu. According to the 2004 data of CGWB, for every 125 units of ground water being taken out in Jaipur, only 100 units are replenished by rain. It is estimated that the ground water level in Jaipur is falling at the rate of about one meter every year. * Respectively, Associate Director Emeritus, US National Center for Asphalt Technology, Auburn University, Alabama, USA (pkandhal@gmail.com) and Executive Engineer, Jaipur Development Authority (sapanmishrajda@gmail.com) 1

According to the CGWB, all underground water will be depleted in Jaipur in about 10 years time1. There is some water in rocks below 100 meters but that water contains harmful elements in it and may not be safe for drinking. There is an urgent need to act now to recharge the ground water in overexploited/critical areas of India. The Ground Water Advisory Council on Artificial Recharge of the Ministry of Water Resources has suggested that there is a need to develop separate technologies for recharge specifically for urban areas. This paper addresses that very need. The ground water problem was also felt in the US in urban areas, where rainwater simply runs off without charging ground water. The Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania was tasked in early 1970s to develop technologies to address the problem of plunging water table in urban areas. The first author had the privilege of brainstorming with the Franklin Institute researchers in developing the concept of porous asphalt parking lot for urban areas2. This concept was tried in some pilot projects and was very successful. The concept was later fully developed in the 1980s. It was also successfully tried on a road in Chandler, Arizona. At the present time it is being used in many states of the US primarily for storm water management3. The State of California has built over 150 projects since 1980. About 95% of rainwater falling on a porous asphalt parking lot goes to recharge ground water. Even in case of open ground with vegetation in rural areas, only about 33% of rainwater goes to recharge ground water primarily due to evapo-transpiration losses. This percentage is believed to be significantly lower in hot climate of Rajasthan. This proven concept of building porous asphalt pavements was declared Outstanding Engineering Project in 2000 by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Responsible town planners, architects and civil engineers must be proactive and integrate rainwater harvesting techniques in the design of all types of buildings, parking lots and low-trafficked roads/streets. For example, Public Works Department (Buildings and Roads) engineers can integrate government buildings with porous asphalt parking lot4,5. This would recharge the ground water in over-exploited/critical areas of India. The revolutionary technology presented in this paper addresses that very need.

2. CONCEPT OF POROUS ASPHALT PAVEMENT TECHNOLOGY This technology is based on building porous asphalt pavements which can be used for parking lots, recreational areas, or low-trafficked streets and roads. The porous asphalt pavement works like this (Fig. 1). The top 50-100 mm thick asphalt layer is specially designed to make it porous. Rainwater goes through it rapidly without any ponding at the surface. The water is then stored in an underlying open-graded stone bed also called stone reservoir. From there, water percolates slowly into the underlying natural soil (subgrade). There is hardly any evaporation loss. Porous parking lots or streets can be integrated with roof rainwater harvesting systems in the buildings adjacent to it as explained later. There is no need to bore deep wells or construct deep pits.

A typical cross-section of the porous asphalt pavement system is shown in Figure 2. The pavement consists of the following components from top downwards: Open-graded, porous asphalt course 50-100 mm (typically 75 mm) thick 12.5 mm nominal size aggregate choking layer 25-50 mm thick (this is placed over the stone bed so as to stabilize it and facilitate asphalt paving over it) Clean, uniformly graded 40-75 mm size crushed aggregate compacted layer to act as a water reservoir (typically it is 225 mm thick and contains more than 40% voids to accommodate rainwater) Non-woven geotextile to separate the soil subgrade and water reservoir course so that soil particles do not migrate from the subgrade into the stone water reservoir course thus choking it. Alternately, a 75 mm thick stone filter course consisting of 10-25 mm size aggregate can be provided if good aggregate gradation control can be maintained. Uncompacted natural soil subgrade (bed)

Fig. 1. Schematic of porous asphalt pavement (Courtesy NAPA)

Fig. 2. Typical cross-section of porous asphalt pavement (Courtesy NAPA) As mentioned earlier, rooftop rainwater harvesting systems of the buildings adjacent to porous parking lots or streets can be integrated into the porous asphalt pavement. A typical rooftop rainwater harvesting system for buildings consists of the following elements: 1. Vertical down pipes for carrying the water from the roof to ground level and a horizontal pipe system for connecting all down pipes. 2. A silting pit fitted with a steel screen 3. A soaking well with cement ring and shaft filled with filter media consisting of large stone, medium size stone and coarse sand. If the rooftop rainwater harvesting is integrated with the porous asphalt pavement, item 3 above is not required. The water from the rooftop is carried directly to the stone water reservoir and dispersed there through a series of perforated water pipes. (Fig. 3). This way, the stone reservoir does not experience any localized flooding. This system also means no soaking well or bore hole which involves considerable cost. In case of streets, water from the roof top of the buildings on the street can all be diverted to the stone water reservoir course. Another major advantage of this technology is that the water recharging the underground water is pure and free of contaminants.

Fig. 3. Roof rainwater harvesting integrated with porous asphalt pavement (Courtesy NAPA) It should also be mentioned that porous cement concrete can also be used in lieu of porous asphalt but this paper is limited to the use of the latter.

3. DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE GUIDELINES FOR POROUS ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

Detailed guidelines for constructing porous asphalt pavement for parking lots and low trafficked roads or streets for rainwater harvesting are given in Appendix. Some brief highlights are given below. It is recommended that the in-situ soil permeability infiltration rate is 12.5 mm per hour. However, 2.5 mm per hour is acceptable by suitably increasing the thickness of the stone reservoir course. In Jaipur, the infiltration rate of the local soil is significantly higher than 12.5 mm per hour. Soil investigations should be carried out by boring and/or test pit to test for permeability, determining the depth of high water table, and determining depth to bedrock. Porous asphalt pavement is not suitable if (a) local soil is clayey; (b) bedrock is close to pavement; and (c) location has high water table. Also, porous asphalt pavement should not be constructed at a location subjected to blowing sand. That is, the adjacent ground should either be paved or covered with grass. Compacted stone reservoir layer should be placed directly on natural soil subgrade (bed) because fill is not recommended. Although a flat soil bed is preferred, slope of natural soil bed should be limited to 5 percent. This would ensure that water at the bottom of stone reservoir layer does not flow; rather it percolates downwards. If the slope is steeper, a terraced parking lot can be considered. The thickness of compacted stone course (containing about 40% voids) should be designed to accommodate intensity and amount of rainfall prevailing in the region. Typical designs are made for 6 months/24-hour rain storms. Conservative designs are based on 20-year/24 hour rain storms, which can range from 35 mm to 400 mm in 24 hours. Typically, stone reservoir is about 225 mm (9 inches) thick, which can store 40% of 225 mm = 90 mm (3.7 inches) of rainfall temporarily. Obviously, the thickness is increased if additional water (from rooftop or adjacent dense road surface) needs to be accommodated. The structural design of the pavement including the compacted stone reservoir course and porous asphalt wearing course should be based on traffic using the facility. Normally, porous asphalt pavements are recommended for parking lots, recreational areas, and low-trafficked roads (with limited truck use). Both the porous asphalt course and the stone bed are structurally strong to withstand car and occasional truck traffic. This is because both derive their strength from stone-on-stone contact6. Work site should be protected from heavy equipment so that the natural soil subgrade (bed) is not compacted otherwise its permeability may be reduced. Before placing the stone reservoir layer, place a filter fabric over the soil bed so that soil particles do not migrate upwards and clog the stone reservoir layer. As an alternate, a stone filter course consisting of 12.5 mm stone particles has been found quite suitable. Place the porous asphalt course last on the entire project so that it is protected from construction debris. It should also be protected from soil laden runoff.

Before placing the 50-100 mm thick porous asphalt course, place 25 to 50 mm thick layer of 12.5 mm size stone to stabilize the surface of the stone reservoir course and facilitate paving operation. The porous asphalt course should be designed as per established guidelines contained in the US Manual on Design, Construction and Maintenance of Open Graded Asphalt Friction Course (OGFC)6. Incidentally, OGFC is used in the US as a wearing course on interstate highways, ranging in thickness from 20 to 25 mm. The objective of laying OGFC on dense graded asphalt course is to provide a skid resistant pavement during rains. Rainwater quickly penetrates the OGFC surface, flows at its bottom and emerges from its edge on to shoulders. Not only the OGFC prevents hydroplaning of motor vehicles during rains, it also provides a quieter pavement throughout the year6,7,8. Normally, the asphalt mix would have 6 percent bitumen by weight of mix. It is recommended to use polymer-modified bitumen so that there no drain down of binder in the trucks transporting the porous mix from plant to paving site. Traffic should be restricted for 24 hours after construction of the porous asphalt wearing course. The dramatic performance of porous asphalt pavements in the US is clearly visible in Figures 4, 5, and 6. Figure 4 shows a parking lot which is porous where the cars are parked whereas the driveway between the parked cars is dense asphalt. During rain, water is standing on the driveway but has percolated into the porous parking area. Figure 5 shows two parking lots just after rain. The one in the background is conventional dense asphalt parking lot whereas the one in the foreground is a porous asphalt parking lot. Their relative appearance after rain is so very clear. Figure 6 shows view of a highway in Chandler, Arizona during rain. The left lanes were constructed with porous asphalt and the right lanes were constructed with conventional dense asphalt. After 20 years in service, the porous asphalt on this highway is still functional. This highway is in semi arid region of Arizona with very low rainfall similar to Rajasthan. It is absolutely clear that the porous asphalt technology works. Ninety-five percent of the rainwater falling on porous asphalt pavement goes to recharge the ground water. Therefore, its effectiveness in capturing rainwater is very close to paved catchment areas.

Fig. 4. View during rain: driveway is dense asphalt with water ponding on it; parking area on the right is porous asphalt with no water (Courtesy NAPA)

Fig. 5. View just after rain: parking lot in the background is dense asphalt with water still ponding on it; parking lot in the foreground is porous asphalt (Courtesy NAPA)

Fig. 6. Highway in Chandler, Arizona during rain; left lanes are porous asphalt and right lanes are conventional dense asphalt (Courtesy NAPA)

4. DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND PERFORMANCE OF POROUS ASPHALT PARKING LOT IN JAIPUR

The Jaipur Development Authority (JDA) had planned to construct a conventional dense graded asphalt parking lot at the Gandhi Nagar Railway Station in Jaipur. It was decided to include an experimental porous asphalt area (about 85 m by 4 m) as part of the large parking lot. It is believed to be the first ever porous asphalt pavement constructed in India for rainwater harvesting. The land where parking was developed by the JDA was initially a garbage dumping yard. It was cleared and reclaimed to construct the parking lot to serve public at large. Figure 7 shows the cross section of the porous asphalt parking lot on the left and that of the conventional dense graded asphalt parking lot on the right. The two types of parking lot pavements were divided by constructing a cement concrete partition wall as shown in the figure.

Figure 7. Cross sections of porous asphalt parking lot (left) and dense asphalt parking lot (right) partitioned by a concrete wall

The porous asphalt parking lot for rainwater harvesting was designed and constructed as follows. Subgrade The existing subgrade was tested for its average water infiltration capacity, which was determined to be 46.5 mm/hour (1.83 inches/hour) which is well above the minimum reasonable water infiltration rate of 12.5 mm/hour (0.5 inch/hour). After removing the garbage, excess soil was excavated to the required level and grade keeping about 150 mm (6 inches) soil to be excavated last. This was done to keep the final subgrade relatively uncompacted from the construction equipment. Stone filter course It was necessary to provide a stone filter course between the finished subgrade and the stone reservoir course so that fines from subgrade do not migrate upwards into the stone reservoir course thereby reducing its storage capacity. The thickness of the stone filter course was 75 mm (3 inches). The gradation of the aggregate actually used in this course is given in Table 1; it met the AASHTO 57 gradation. The filter course was compacted lightly with a 2-ton steel wheel roller to maintain its integrity and avoid compacting the natural subgrade. Table 1. Gradation of Stone Filter Course Sieve size, mm Recommended % Passing (AASHTO 57) 37.5 100 25 95-100 12.5 25-60

Actual % Passing 100 95 36

4.75 2.36

0-10 0-5

4 2

Stone reservoir course The function of the stone reservoir course is to temporarily store rainwater which percolates slowly into the natural subgrade below. The actual gradation of the clean stone used in constructing this course is given in Table 2; it met the recommended AASHTO 2 gradation. Table 2. Gradation of Stone Reservoir Course Sieve size, mm 75 63.5 50 38 19 0.150 Recommended Percent Passing (AASHTO No. 2) 100 90-100 35-70 0-15 0-5 0-2 Actual Percent Passing 100 92 48 8 2 1.5

The total thickness of the stone reservoir course was 365 mm (14.4 inches). Being the first ever porous asphalt parking lot in India, it was designed very much on the safe side. It was laid and compacted in two lifts with an 8-ton steel wheel roller. Four roller passes were applied in static mode and there were no roller marks. Rolled stone reservoir course was tested for effectiveness by poring water over it from a bucket; water disappeared from the surface instantly. Stone choking course The stone choking layer is placed on the stone reservoir course so as to fill and level its open large surface voids and to make it stable and smooth for asphalt paver. It was placed in 50 mm (2 inches) thick layer and compacted well with an 8-ton steel wheel roller in static mode only until a smooth surface was obtained for paving above it. The gradation of this course was same as that of the stone filter course as given in Table 1. The finished, rolled surface was tested by pouring water over it; water disappeared instantly from its surface.

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Figure 8. Stone reservoir course being spread over stone filter course

Figure 9. Choking stone layer in place (left) ready for laying porous asphalt; dense asphalt completed on right side Porous asphalt wearing course Different blending proportions of the three aggregates available at the asphalt batch plant were tried so that the combined aggregate met the desired range of gradation for porous asphalt. The following proportions met the requirement: 15 mm aggregate (60%); 10 mm aggregate (32%); and stone dust (8%).

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A trial batch of 1200 kg was made at the batch plant with 6 percent bitumen using 720 kg 15 mm aggregate; 384 kg of 10 mm aggregate; and 96 kg of stone dust. The mix temperature was 120 C (248 F). The sampled bituminous mix was analyzed for bitumen content and gradation by conducting extraction test. Both dry and washed gradations were determined. Test results are given in Table 3. Table 3. Gradation of porous asphalt mix produced Sieve size, Required mm percentage passing as per NAPA IS-115 19.00 100 12.5 85-100 9.5 55-75 4.75 10-25 2.36 5-10 0.075 2-4 Percentage passing actual, dry gradation 100 82 60 18 9 1.3 Percentage passing actual, wash gradation 100 96 86 25 10 3.2

Type of bitumen: Although VG-30 paving bitumen meeting IS 73 is used in conventional paving, stiffer bitumen is needed for porous asphalt parking lot so that (a) there is no drain down of the asphalt binder within truck when this open-graded mix with high bitumen content is transported from the plant to the paving site, and (b) there is no scuffing when wheels of a parked vehicle are moved with power steering. Therefore, polymer modified bitumen (PMB) Grade 40 complying with IS: 15462 was used on this project. Table 4 gives the test properties of the bitumen used.

Table 4. Properties of PMB 40 used on project Properties Penetration at 250C, 0.1 mm Softening Point, 0C, min Elastic Recovery of half thread of ductilometer at 25 C, % , min Flash point, 0C, min Separation , difference in softening point, 0C, max 220 3 285 1.7
0

Specification 30-50 60 75

Measured value 45 60.3 66.5

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Test of residue Increase in softening point, C, max Reduction of penetration at 25 C, max. Elastic recovery of half thread in ductilometer at 25 C , percent, min 5 1.5

35

33

50

57

Viscosity at 1500C, Poise, min

3.9

5.4

The design bitumen content was 6.0 percent by weight of the mix. High bitumen content is used in this open graded mix so that thicker film of bitumen is obtained to avoid premature oxidation of bitumen. One percent liquid anti stripping agent by weight of bitumen was used to minimize stripping. This dosage was confirmed by conducting 24-hour static immersion test in distilled water in accordance with IS: 6241. Three mix samples were compacted in Marshall moulds with 50 blows on each side. The moulds containing compacted specimens were placed under water tap for testing relative water infiltration rate. Table 5 gives the test results for information, which are reasonable based on visual observation. Table 5. Relative water infiltration rates for compacted porous mix Mix sample No. I I I II II II Mould number 1 2 3 1 2 3 Time taken for 25 mm deep water to drain, seconds 7.60 6.45 6.25 6.27 7.45 5.90

Schellenberg binder drainage test was conducted (see guidelines for procedure) on two different trial mix samples. Drain down of 0.12 and 0.14 percent were obtained, which were well below the acceptable maximum limit of 0.3 percent.

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Figure 10. Schellenberg binder drainage test

Compacted Marshall specimens were tested for average bulk specific gravity (Gmb) which was determined to be 2.070. Maximum specific gravity of the loose mix (Gmm) was determined by ASTM D 2041 and was found to be 2.471. Air voids were calculated from Gmb and Gmm values. Average air void content in compacted Marshall Specimens was determined to be 16.2 percent, which met the minimum 16 percent requirement to ensure adequate permeability of the porous asphalt mix. Although there is no requirement for Marshall Stability and flow, these tests were conducted for information only. The average Marshall stability was determined to be 323 kg and the average Marshall flow was determined to be 4.85. On the day of scheduled laying of porous asphalt, there was some traffic problem in the city of Jaipur. It was not certain as to how much time the truck will take to reach paving site within the city some 25 km away from the hot mix plant outside the city. Considering this unforeseen problem and high temperature of the mix (120 C) it was arbitrarily decided to lower the bitumen content from 6.0 to 5.5 percent so that there is no bitumen drain down problem in the truck during transit. When the truck arrived at the paving site and emptied the mix on to paver, it was observed that there was no bitumen drainage at the bottom of the truck The porous asphalt was laid in one lift to obtain compacted thickness of 75 mm. It was compacted with 8-ton steel wheel roller in static mode. Only four passes were made and there were no roller marks. Stone reservoir was provided with an overflow outlet by extending this course beyond the porous asphalt course (Figure 14). This was done so that water does not exert any pressure underneath the porous asphalt course in case stone reservoir course gets choked and its storage capacity is reduced from unforeseen circumstances.

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Figure 11. Porous asphalt paving in progress over stone choking layer

Figure 12. Porous asphalt lay down and compaction

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Figure 13. Completed parking lot: porous asphalt on left and dense asphalt on right

Figure 14. Extension of stone reservoir course at the edge of parking lot for overflow

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Figure 15. Close up of porous asphalt pavement surface

Figure 16. Water from tanker hose readily penetrating porous asphalt surface

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Figure 17. Water from tanker hose simply flowing on dense asphalt surface

Figure 18. Relative performance of porous asphalt (right) and dense asphalt (left) during monsoon rain in June 2013

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After the compacted porous asphalt mat cooled to ambient temperature, its general permeability was tested by pouring water on it from a bucket. Water disappeared almost instantly. The parking lot was completed in October 2012. In absence of rain at that time, a water tanker was brought in to check the relative permeability of the porous asphalt and the conventional dense graded asphalt pavements. As expected, water from the hose pipe was rapidly penetrating the porous asphalt surface and was just flowing on the dense asphalt surface. The comparison can be seen in Figures 16 and 17. Later, the porous asphalt parking lot was observed during the first two heavy rains of the monsoon season on 11 and 27 June 2013. Rainwater was almost disappearing on the porous asphalt surface and was flowing on the conventional dense asphalt. This relative stark difference can be seen in Figures 18 and 19. Therefore, it has been verified in the field that porous asphalt is performing really well as expected.

Figure 19. General view of porous asphalt (right) and dense asphalt during monsoon rain in June 2013

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It is estimated that this porous asphalt test section measuring only 85 m by 4 m would recharge the groundwater by over 2 lakhs liters per year considering average annual rainfall of 640 mm in Jaipur. If the whole JDA parking lot (3,545 sq m area) was built with porous surface it would have recharged the groundwater by over 22 lakhs liters per year9. It is hoped public and private agencies in India would construct porous asphalt parking lots/low-trafficked streets and roads, in areas where the groundwater level is depleting.

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Porous asphalt pavement is one of the responses to plunging ground water table in Jaipur and elsewhere in India. It can be integrated with the roof rainwater harvesting system effectively and economically. According to experience in the US, properly designed and constructed porous asphalt pavement can last more than 20 years. Such a pavement can be used for parking lots, recreational areas, and low-volume roads and streets. The first ever porous asphalt pavement in India for rainwater harvesting has been constructed successfully by the Jaipur Development Authority in October 2012. Its design, construction and performance have been described in the paper. Government should encourage (and mandate in critical areas) construction of porous asphalt pavements in urban areas. Town planners, architects and civil engineers should be proactive by incorporating this unique rainwater harvesting system while designing government buildings, residential buildings, commercial buildings, parking lots and roads in new townships.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Figures 1 through 6 are courtesy of US National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA). Permission given by Mr. Kuldeep Ranka, Commissioner, Jaipur Development Authority for constructing this first ever porous asphalt parking lot in India is appreciated.

6. REFERENCES 1. Mathur, R. P. Regional Director, Central Underground Water Board. Presentation made at the Water Resources Workshop held in Raj Bhawan of Jaipur on 4 November 2009. 2. Thelen, E. and L. F. Howe. Porous Pavement. The Franklin Institute Reserch Laboratories, 1978.

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3. Jackson, N. Design, Construction and Maintenance Guide for Porous Parking Lots. National Asphalt Pavement Association, Information Series IS-131, October 2003. 4. Kandhal, P. S. Presentation made at the Water Resources Workshop held in Raj Bhawan of Jaipur on 4 November 2009 presided by H. E. Governor S. K. Singh. 5. Kandhal, P.S. A Revolutionary Technique of Rainwater Harvesting Integrated into the Design of Buildings and Parking Lots. Water Digest Magazine, March-April 2011, New Delhi, India. 6. Kandhal, P. S. Design, Construction and Performance of Open-Graded Asphalt Friction Courses. National Asphalt Pavement Association, Information Series IS-115, May 2002. 7. Kandhal, P.S. and R.B. Mallick. Open-Graded Friction Course: State of the Practice. Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Circular Number E-C005, December 1998. 8. Roberts, F.L., P.S. Kandhal, E.R. Brown, D.Y. Lee, and T.W. Kennedy. Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design and Construction. NAPA Education Foundation, Lanham, Maryland, Second Edition, 1996. 9. Kandhal, P.S. Role of Permeable Pavement in Groundwater Recharge. Presentation at the Rajasthan State Workshop on Water Conservation: Issues and Challenges. Held in Jaipur by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), 7 February 2013.

APPENDIX
GUIDELINES FOR CONSTRUCTING POROUS ASPHALT PAVEMENT FOR PARKING LOTS AND LOW TRAFFICKED ROADS OR STREETS FOR RAINWATER HARVESTING

1. Introduction These guidelines deal with the basic outline for the design, construction and controls needed for constructing porous asphalt pavement for parking lots and low-trafficked roads or streets for rainwater harvesting. The porous asphalt pavement shall be constructed as per project drawings under the guidance of the Engineer. The porous asphalt pavement consists of the following starting from the bottom upwards: subgrade; stone filter course; stone reservoir course; stone choking layer; and porous asphalt course. Guidelines for constructing these different courses or layers are given below in that order. 2. Subgrade Subgrade should be allowed to remain natural and uncompacted to maintain its permeability. No excessive construction traffic should be permitted on the subgrade. It is advised to excavate for the desired subgrade level (at least the last 150 mm or 6 21

inches) when all preparations have been made for laying the stone filter course and the stone reservoir course. If there are any depressions in the subgrade which need to be filled and levelled, use permeable sand and compact it lightly. The slope of the finished subgrade should not exceed 5 percent. In case of steeper slope, terraced parking lots need to be considered. Subgrade soil should be such that it can drain water within 48 to 72 hours. Infiltration capacity of subgrade soils used in the past in the US has ranged from 2.5 mm/hour to 76 mm/hour (0.1 inch/hour to 3 inches/hour). A rate of 0.5 inch/hour is considered very reasonable. Subgrade with clayey soils is not desirable. 3. Stone Filter Course The stone filter course is provided between the subgrade and the stone reservoir course so that fines from the subgrade do not migrate upwards into the stone reservoir thereby reducing its storage capacity. It also provides some platform for laying the stone reservoir course. Note: Although nonwoven geotextile fabric has been used between the subgrade and the stone reservoir for this purpose, some clogging of the geotextile material has been reported from the fines washed down on its surface. Typically, the stone filter course is 75 mm (3 inches) thick and the following AASHTO 57 gradation given in Table 1 is used. Table 1. Gradation of Stone Filter Course (AASHTO 57) Sieve size, mm 37.5 mm (1.5) 25 mm (1) 12.5 mm (1/2) 4.75 mm 2.36 mm Percent Passing 100 95-100 25-60 0-10 0-5

After spreading the stone filter course aggregate on the prepared subgrade, only light rolling should be done with a 2-3 ton roller.

4. Stone Reservoir Course The function of the stone reservoir course is to temporarily store rainwater which percolates slowly into the natural subgrade below. Its AASHTO Gradation 2 consists of large uniformly graded aggregate particles 40 mm to 65 mm (1.5 to 2.5 inches) in size with about 40% voids to accommodate rainwater. The stone should be clean. Desired gradation is given in Table 2.

Table 2. Gradation of Stone Reservoir Course (AASHTO No. 2)

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Sieve size, mm 75 mm (3) 63.5 mm (2.5) 50 mm (2) 38 mm (1.5) 19 mm (0.75) 0.150 mm

Percent Passing 100 90-100 35-70 0-15 0-5 0-2

The thickness of this course is designed to hold rainwater during a 25-year, 24-hour rain storm. Its minimum thickness is 230 mm (9 inches). It should empty within 72 hours. Its thickness is designed based on expected rainfall and desired structural strength. Stone reservoir course should be laid and compacted in 150 mm to 180 mm (6 to 8 inches) lifts and rolled in static mode only with a light roller (about 5 ton) until no roller marks are visible and it is true to the desired grade. Test the rolled stone reservoir course by pouring water over it, water should disappear instantly from its surface. Note: The stone reservoir course should be provided with an overflow outlet so that in extreme cases such as choking, water does not exert any pressure underneath the porous asphalt course thus damaging it. Overflow can be provided by extending the stone reservoir course like an apron by about 0.45 to 0.6 m (1.5 to 2 feet) beyond the overlying porous asphalt pavement course. In case of kerbed parking lot, a suitable outlet control structure with internal weir and an outlet channel or pipe should be provided. 5. Stone Choking Layer The stone choking layer is placed on the stone reservoir course so as to fill and level its open large surface voids and makes it stable and smooth for asphalt paver. Normally, it is placed in 50 mm (2 inches) thick layer and compacted well with a light (about 5 ton) roller in static mode only until a smooth surface is obtained for paving above it. Test the finished, rolled surface by pouring water over it, water should disappear instantly from its surface. The stone choking layer consists of either a clean, single size aggregate (12.5 mm) as given in Table 3 or AASHTO 57 gradation given in Table 4.

Table 3. Gradation of Stone Choking Layer (Alternate 1- Single Size) Sieve size, mm 12.5 mm (1/2) 9.5 mm (3/8) Percent Passing 100 0-5

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Table 4. Gradation of Stone Choking Layer (Alternate 2- AASHTO 57) Sieve size, mm 37.5 mm (1.5) 25 mm (1) 12.5 mm (1/2) 4.75 mm 2.36 mm Percent Passing 100 95-100 25-60 0-10 0-5

6. Porous Asphalt Course Do not apply any tack coat before placing the porous asphalt course; it is likely to reduce its permeability. The porous asphalt course is usually placed in 75 mm (3 inches) thickness in one lift. After compaction in the field it must have at least 16% air voids to provide the desired porosity and permeability. Specifications for Dense Graded Bituminous Mixes IRC: 111-2009 shall generally be followed to produce and lay porous asphalt with the additional/special requirements noted herein. 6.1 Gradation: It is important that the gradation given in Table 5 is strictly adhered to obtain the desired porosity and permeability.

Table 5. Gradation of Porous Asphalt Pavement Mix Sieve size, mm 19 mm 12.5 mm 9.5 mm 4.75 mm 2.36 mm 0.075 mm Percent Passing 100 85-100 55-75 10-25 5-10 2-4

6.2 Type of Paving Bitumen: Although VG-30 paving bitumen meeting IS 73 is used in conventional paving, stiffer bitumen is needed for porous asphalt parking lot so that (a) there is no drain down of the asphalt binder within truck when this opengraded mix with high bitumen content is transported from the plant to the paving site, and (b) there is no scuffing when wheels of a parked vehicle are moved with power steering. Therefore a polymer modified bitumen (PMB) Grade 40 complying with IS: 15462 should be used. 6.3 Bitumen Content: Bitumen content by weight of mix should be 6 percent. Thicker films of bitumen are necessary in the porous asphalt pavement with over 16% air void content so that bitumen does not get oxidized prematurely in service. 6.4 Anti Stripping Agent: A suitable anti stripping agent should be mixed in the proposed bitumen. It is necessary because water will pass through the porous asphalt

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pavement. The effectiveness of the anti stripping agent should be tested with the 24hour static immersion test in distilled water as per IS: 6241 or 10-minute boiling test given in Annexure A. 6.5 Mix temperature: Since the open graded porous asphalt mix contains relatively higher bitumen content, the bitumen can drain down to the truck bed if the mix temperature is too high. That would result in either fatty or too lean mix spots during paving. It is recommended to make the mix in 95-120 C (200-250 F) temperature range to minimize bitumen drain down during transportation. Establish the mix temperature so that drain down does not exceed 0.3 percent if determined by the drain down test given in Annexure B or C. If the drain down exceeds 0.3 percent even at relatively low mix temperatures, increase the amount of material passing 0.075 mm sieve but not to exceed 4 percent. Examine the truck bed after unloading the mix into paver to confirm there is no actual drain down problem. 6.6 Mix Design: Compact the mix using aggregate gradation given in Table 5 and 6.0 percent bitumen binder by weight of mix in Marshall mould with 50 blows on each side. Make three specimens. Allow the mix to cool completely in the moulds (in a refrigerator if needed) before extracting the specimens without any damage. Determine the bulk specific gravity of the compacted specimens by geometrical measurements. Determine the maximum specific gravity of the loose porous asphalt mix as per ASTM D 2041. Calculate the percent air voids in compacted specimens using bulk specific gravity and the maximum specific gravity. Air voids should be at least 16 percent to ensure reasonable porosity and permeability. Before extracting the specimens from the moulds, conduct an approximate water permeability check. Hold the mould containing specimen under a water tap. Water should readily pass through the compacted porous asphalt. If not, revise the gradation of the aggregate. 6.7 Paving and compaction: Trucks carrying the porous asphalt should be covered with tarpaulin because the mix has tendency to cool at a faster rate. The 75 mm thick porous asphalt should be paved in single lift and compacted promptly with an 8-10 ton roller in static mode only. Only 2-3 passes are needed to compact the porous asphalt course. Do not use pneumatic tired roller. Too much compaction would reduce its porosity and permeability. Examine the truck bed after the mix has been emptied on to paver to see if there is any binder drain down. If so, the paved surface would have either fatty spots or lean spots. Decrease the mix temperature immediately to prevent any further drain down. After the porous asphalt is compacted, make a permeability check by pouring water on its surface, the water should disappear immediately. If not, there is something wrong in terms of mix composition (bitumen content and gradation) and/or compaction. Until this test is successful, paving work shall not proceed any further. Do not allow any traffic on the paved surface at least for 24 hours.

7. Maintenance of Porous Asphalt Parking Lot

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Place a sign board at the porous asphalt parking lot so that its surface is not sealed by any means in future. If needed, the parking lot can be patched lightly; not more than 10 percent of the surface area. The parking lot should be reasonably protected from excessive wind blown soil or sand; mud tracking from adjacent areas; and construction debris to maintain its permeability. Overflow outlet from the stone reservoir course should be checked periodically to ensure it is functional. If the permeability of porous asphalt is reduced drastically for some unforeseen reason, it can be reclaimed , recycled and relaid,

ANNEXURE A of APPENDIX Boiling Water Test for Detecting Presence of Anti Stripping Agent in Bituminous Mixes (After ASTM D 3625) This boiling water test shall be conducted at least twice at random on each day of bituminous mix production to detect if an anti stripping agent (such as hydrated lime or liquid anti strip) has been used in the mix in required dosage to prevent stripping of the bituminous mix. Mix samples should also be taken at the paving site and test conducted everyday right at the paving site. Follow the procedure as given below. 1. Boil distilled water in a glass beaker of 1000-2000 ml capacity filled about half. 2. Place about 250 grams of fresh bituminous mix into the boiling water. 3. After the water resumes boiling, continue boiling for 10 minutes. 4. Cool water to room temperature, decant (drain off) water, and spread the bituminous mix on a white paper towel. 5. Examine the mix for bituminous coating. At least 95% of aggregate surface should retain bituminous coating. Any thin, brownish, translucent areas are considered coated. 6. Reject the mix if bitumen coating is found to be less than 95 percent.

ANNEXURE B of APPENDIX Outline of ASTM D 6390, Determination of Drain Down Characteristics in Uncompacted Asphalt mixtures A. Scope and Summary of Test This method determines the amount of drain down in an uncompacted asphalt mixture sample when the sample is held at elevated temperatures, which are encountered during the production, transportation, and placement of the mixture. This test is

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especially applicable to open-graded asphalt mixtures (such as open-graded friction course and porous asphalt) and gap-graded mixtures such as stone matrix asphalt (SMA). A fresh sample of the asphalt mixture (either made in the laboratory or from an asphalt plant) is placed in a wire basket. The wire basket is hung in a forced draft oven for one hour at a pre-selected temperature. A catch plate of known mass is placed below the basket to collect material drained from the sample. The mass of the drained material is determined to calculate the amount of drain down as a percentage of the mass of the total asphalt mix sample. B. Testing Equipment 1. Forced draft oven, capable of maintaining temperatures in a range of 120 to 175 C with +/- 2 C of the set temperature. 2. Plates to collect the drained material 3. Standard wire basket meeting the dimensions shown in Figure 1. A standard 6.3 mm sieve cloth shall be used to make the basket. The dimensions shown in the figure can vary by +/- 10 percent. 4. Balance readable to 0.1 gram C. Testing Procedure 1. For each mixture to be tested, the drain down characteristics shall be determined at two temperatures: at the anticipated plant production temperature and at a temperature 10 C higher than the anticipated production temperature. Duplicate samples shall be tested at each temperature. Therefore, a minimum of 4 samples shall be tested. 2. Weigh the empty wire basket (Mass A). 3. Place in the wire basket 1200 +/- 200 grams of fresh, hot asphalt mixture (either prepared in the laboratory or from an asphalt plant) as soon as possible without losing its temperature. Place the mix loosely in the basket without consolidating it. Determine the mass of the wire basket plus sample to the nearest 0.1 gram (Mass B). 4. Determine the mass of the empty plate to be placed under the basket to nearest 0.1 gram (Mass C). 5. Hang the basket with the mix in the oven preheated to a selected temperature. Place the catch plate beneath the wire basket. Keep the basket in the oven for 1 hour +/- 5 minutes. 6. Remove the basket and catch plate from the oven. Let cool to ambient temperature. Determine the mass of the catch plate plus the drained material to the nearest 0.1 gram (Mass D). 7. Calculate the percentage of mixture which drained to the nearest 0.1 % as follows: Drain down (percent) = (D-C)/(B-A) multiplied by 100 Where, A = mass of the empty wire basket, g B = mass of the wire basket plus sample, g

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C = mass of the empty catch plate, g D = mass of the catch plate plus drained material, g 8. Average the two drain down results at each temperature and report the average to nearest 0.1 percent.

Figure 1. Wire basket assembly for drain down test

ANNEXURE C of APPENDIX The Schellenberg Binder Drainage Test 1. Determine the mass (A) of an empty 850-ml glass beaker, approximately 98 mm diameter by 136 mm high, to the nearest 0.1 gram. 2. Pour approximately 1 kg of the mix immediately into the glass beaker after mixing at the anticipated field mixing temperature. Re-weigh the beaker together with mix (B) to the nearest 0.1 gram. 3. Place the glass beaker with a glass or tin cover in an oven maintained at 170 C + 1 C for 1 hour + 1 minute. 4. At the end of 1-hour period, immediately remove the glass beaker from the oven and empty the beaker without the use of any shaking or vibration. Reweigh the beaker (C) to the nearest 0.1 gram. 5. Calculate the percentage of binder drain down (defined as the percentage of mass of the mix deposited in the beaker) as follows:

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Binder Drain down (percent) = (C-A) / (B-A) multiplied by 100 LIST OF FIGURES AND TITLES Figure 1. Schematic of porous asphalt pavement Figure 2. Typical cross-section of porous asphalt pavement system Figure 3. Roof rainwater harvesting integrated with porous asphalt pavement Figure 4. View during rain: driveway is dense asphalt with water ponding on it; parking area on the right is porous asphalt with no water on surface Figure 5. View just after rain: parking lot in the background is dense asphalt with water still ponding on it; parking lot in the foreground is porous asphalt Figure 6. Highway in Chandler, Arizona during rain; left lanes are porous asphalt and right lanes are conventional dense asphalt Figure 7. Cross sections of porous asphalt parking lot (left) and dense asphalt parking lot (right) partitioned by a concrete wall Figure 8. Stone reservoir course being spread over stone filter course Figure 9. Choking stone layer in place (left) ready for laying porous asphalt; dense asphalt completed on right side Figure 10. Schellenberg binder drainage test Figure 11. Porous asphalt paving in progress over stone choking layer Figure 12. Porous asphalt lay down and compaction Figure 13. Completed parking lot: porous asphalt on left and dense asphalt on right Figure 14. Extension of stone reservoir course at the edge of parking lot for overflow Figure 15. Close up of porous asphalt pavement surface Figure 16. Water from tanker hose readily penetrating porous asphalt surface Figure 17. Water from tanker hose simply flowing on dense asphalt surface Figure 18. Relative performance of porous asphalt (right) and dense asphalt (left) during monsoon rain in June 2013 Figure 19. General view of porous asphalt (right) and dense asphalt during monsoon rain in June 2013

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