Kim Kostere & Linda Malatesta - Maps, Models & The Structure of Reality - NLP in Psychotherapy (1990) (OCR)

Maps, Models and the Structure of Reality
NLP Technology in Psychotherapy
Kim Kostere Linda Malatesta

MefamorPhous Press
Portland, Oregon
Published by
MetamorPhous PreSS P.O. Box 10616 Portland, OR 97210-0616

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be utilized in any form of by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the author. Copyright 1990 by Kim Kostere and Linda Malatesta Cover Design & Editing by Lori Stephens Printed in the United States of America Malatesta, Linda K. Maps, models, and the structure of reality: NLP technology in psychotherapy / Linda K. Malatesta, Kim M. Kostere p. cm. Includes bibliograt>hical references. ISBN 1-55552-007-3: $11.95 1. Neurolinguistic programming 2. Neurolinguistic programmingCase studies. I. Kostere, Kim M. II. Title RC489.N47M35 1989 616.89'I4-dc 20 89-36356
Appreciation is given for permission to reprint from the following publishers:
The Use of Symptoms as an Integral Part of Hypnotherapy by Erickson, M., Copyright 1965. Reprinted by arrangement with American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 2250 East Devon #336, DesPlaines, IL 60018. Man's Search For Meaning by Frankl, V., Copyright 1959. Reprinted by arrangement with Beacon Press, 25 Beacon Street, Boston, MA 021 08. A Teaching Seminar with Milton H. Erickson, M.D. by Zeig, J. (Ed.), Copyright 1980. Reprinted by arrangement with Brunner/Mazel Pulr lishers, 19 Union Square West, New York, NY 10003. Zen Flesh, Zen Bones by Reps, P., Copyright 1939. Reprinted by arrangement with Charles E. Tuttle Publishing Co., Inc., Suido 1Chrome, 2-6, Bunko-Ku, Tokyo,Japan. Exploring The Crack In The Cosmic Egg-by Pearce,]., Copyright 1974. Reprinted by arrangement with The Julian Press, Inc., 225 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10003. Mind And Nature by Bateson, G., Copyright 1979. Reprinted by arrangement with E.P. Dutton, a division ofNAL Penguin, Inc., 2 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016. Solutions by Cameron-Bandler, L., Copyright 1985. Reprinted by arrangement with Future Pace, Inc., P.O. Box 1173, San Rafael, CA 94915. Medicine Woman by Andrews, L., Copyright 1983. Reprinted by arrangement with Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 10 East 53rd Street, New York, NY 10022 The Doors of Perception by Huxley, A., Copyright 1954. Reprinted by arrangement with Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 10 East 53rd Street, New York, NY 10022. Steps To An EcololrY Of Mind by Bateson, G., Copyright 1972. Reprinted by arrangement with Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 10 East 53rd Street, New York, NY 10022. On Becoming a Person by Rogers, C., Copyright 1961. Reprinted by arrangement with Houghton Mifflin Company, 1 Beacon Street, Boston, MA02108.
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Innovative Hypnotherapy by Erickson, M., Zeig, J., Copyright 1980. Reprinted by arrangement with Irvington Publishers, Inc., 740 Broadway, New York, NY 10003. Problem-Solving Therapy, Second Edition by Haley, J., Copyrigh t 1987. Reprinted by arrangement with Jossey-Bass, Inc., 433 California Street, San Francisco, CA 94104. Way of the Peaceful Warrior by Millman, D., Copyright 1980, 1984. Reprinted by arrangement with HJ. Kramer, Inc., P.O. Box 1082, Triburon, CA 94920. Introduction To Linguistics by Wardhaugh, R., Copyright 1972. Reprinted by arrangement with McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. The Roots Of NLP by Dilts, R., Copyright 1983. Reprinted by arrangement with Meta Publications, Inc., P.O. Box 565, Cupertino, CA 95015. Provocative Therapy by Farrelly, F., Brandsma, J., Copyright 1974. Reprinted by arrangement with Meta Publications, Inc., P.O. Box 565, Cupertino, CA 95015. Physics as Metaphor by Jones, R., Copyright 1982. Reprinted by arrangement with University of Minnesota Press, 2037 University Avenue Southeast, Minneapolis, MN 55414. Reframing: Neuro-linguistic Programming and the Transformation of Meaning by Bandler, R., Grinder, J., Copyright 1982. Reprinted by
arrangement with Real People Press, P.O. Box F, Moab, UT 84532. Guru: Metaphors from a Psychotherapist by Kopp, S., Copyrigh t 1971. Reprinted by arrangement with Science and Behavior Books, Inc., P.O. Box 60519, Palo Alto, CA 94306. The Structure Of Magic by Bandler, R., Grinder, J., Copyright 1975. Reprinted by arrangement with Science and Behavior Books, Inc., P.O. Box 60519, Palo Alto, CA 94306. The Tao of Physics by Capra, F., Copyright 1975. Reprinted by arrangement with Shambhala Publications, Inc., Horticultural Hall 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, MA 02115. My Voice )ViII Go With You: The Teaching Tales of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. by Rosen, S. (Ed.), Copyright 1982. Reprinted by arrangement with W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110.
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Change by Watzlawick, P., Weakland,]., Fisch, R., Copyright 1974. Reprinted by arrangement with W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110. Uncommon Therapy: The Psychiatric Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. by Haley,]., Copyright 1973. Reprinted by arrangement with W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110.
Dedicated to
Pecos Bill Crystal Pyramids and The Big Picture
vi
Acknowledgements
We would like to gratefully acknowledge the following pioneers in the fields of psychology, philosophy, Neurolinguistic Programming, and science whose work laid the foundation for this book: Harlene Anderson, Richard Bandler (co-founder of NLP), Gregory Bateson, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, FriyofCapra, Robert Dilts, Milton H. Erickson, Richard Fisch, Harold Goolishian, David Gordon,John Grinder (co-founder of NLP) , Jay Haley, Clark Moustakas, Fritz Perls, Cereta Perry, Virginia Satir,John Weakland, and Paul Watzlawick. We are also grateful to the following people who have supported us throughout this project: Sandra Anderson, Walter T. Kostere, Gabriel Malatesta, Geraldine Malatesta, M. Diane Vincent, David Balding, Lori Stephens, Nancy Robinson, Karen Bos, Yvonne Warner,Jeanette Bowman, Wanda Valeu, Debbie Malatesta, Carmen Hall, Terry Boortz, Angela Daniels, Nicola Malatesta, Mary Selep, Mary P. Hramiec, Ingrid Markwort, Kirsten Stewart,Joanne Lindensmith, Deborah Bright, Susan Porosky, Deborah Nagy,Jennifer Hall, Christian Zieminski, and Joseph Matthew Daniels. Special thanks are given to The Center for Humanistic Studies in Detroit, Michigan for leading us into self-search and expanding our models of the world.
CONTENTS
Preface Introduction
CHAPTER 1 - MODELING
xi xiii
. 1
Logical Typing . . . . . . Universal Modeling Processes Levels of Modeling . . . . Minimum Requirements for a Model The Primacy of Experience The Structure of Reality Internal vs. External . Science as a Metaphor .
CHAPTER 2 CHANGE Modeling and Change Presuppositions ....
. 4 . 5 . 6 13 14 15 17 18 19 20 20
23 24
CHAPTER 3 - RELATIONSHIP POSTULATES Pacing and Leading . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER 4 - LANGUAGE POSTULATES The Meta-Model
~k~n
Distortion Generalization Questions

CHAPTER 5 - EVOLUTION POSTULATES Description .... Referential Index Shift Time Projection Paradoxical Intervention
31 31 M 35 39 44
49 50 59 62 66
ix
Exaggeration Reframing . Content Reframing Six-Step Reframing Contextual Reframing Paradoxical Intervention With Reframing . Metaphor . . . . . Metaphoric Reframing
CHAPTER 6 ECOLOGY POSTULATES
74 77 78 80 85 88 91 97 103 103 104 III 113 117
The Ecology Frame Reframing the Reframe Reflections Bibliography About The Authors
PREFACE
Where does NeuroLinguistic Programming come from? Upon what epistemological foundation is this profound technology of communication and change built? Kim Kostere and Linda Malatesta provide answers to these and other questions. The major strands of this exposition serve to make the foundation of modeling comprehensible to the general reader. Certainly all practitioners ofNeuroLinguistic Programming should have the knowledge contained here thoroughly integrated into their every experience and behavior. Without it, practitioners are merely performing recipes and violating the very tenets from which NeuroLinguistic Programming springs. Such practitioners are held to criteria of right vs. wrong, correct vs. incorrect, and thus the map is wrongly perceived as the territory and our evolutionary progress is lost. With the knowledge presented here, practitioners will know they can find their way through uncharted territory with the confidence that well-formed outcome, sensory experience and relevant feedback are true guides to successful change.
Leslie Cameron-Bandler San Rafael, California
xi
INTRODUCTION
Since its inception in the mid 1970s, publications on the subject of NeuroLinguistic Programming have emphasized therapeutic interventions, patterns for creating successful outcomes, and algorithms for change. Although these books have illuminated a path toward creating excellence in the areas of education, psychotherapy, business management and behavioral medicine, little attention has been placed on examining the philosophical foundation upon which NeuroLinguistic Programming rests. The purpose of this book is not to present new technology but instead to explicate the philosophical base and epistemological assumptions which underlie this state of the art model of communication and change. In doing so, we have drawn from the fields of systems theory, physics, secondorder cybernetics, phenomenology and linguistics. Also, this volume examines the pattern which connects NeuroLinguistic Programming to Ericksonian psychotherapy, strategic/systemic psychotherapy and humanistic/existential psychology. We, the authors, hope that the material contained within this exposition will provide the means by which a practitioner of NeuroLinguistic Programming can transcend the confines of everyday models of existence in order to enter into the realm of endless possibilities. Linda Malatesta Kim M. Kostere Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
xiii
MODEUNG
In 1933, Alfred Korzybski published his classical work, Science and Sanity. Within this volume, Korzybski carefully described the relationship between a representation and that which it represents. To illustrate this concept, he used as a metaphor the relationship between a map and the territory it depicts. "A map is not the territory it represents, but if correct, has a similar structure to the territory, which accounts for its usefulness." (p. 58) A representation is not what it represents; one is a symbol for the other. This distinction may seem insignificant on the surface. However, as we explore the process bywhich maps, models, and representations are built, it will become clear that the relationship which exists between map and territory, when examined in detail, has an effect on the very structure of reality as we know it. A model is a symbolic representation that depicts structure. Each one of us builds models or representations of the world, and it is by way of these models that we organize and communicate experience. It is through the process of modeling that the infinite variety of experience is organized into a form that can be interpreted, understood,
2 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality
and utilized. Modeling is an integral part of our daily lives and is the way by which we transform the chaotic into the structured. Capra (1975) describes the role that modeling plays in physics: In physics, the in terpretations of experimen ts are called models or theories, and the realization that all models and theories are approximate is basic to modern scientific research. Thus the aphorism of Einstein, "As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain; and as far as they are not certain, they do not refer to reality." (p. 27) A model, by its very nature, includes certain facets of experience and excludes others. Physicists know that their methods of analysis and logical reasoning can never explain the whole realm of natural phenomena at once, and so they single out a certain group of phenomena and try to build a model to describe this group. In doing so, they neglect other phenomena and the model will therefore not give a complete description of the real situation. (Capra, 1975, p. 27)
A model is neither good nor bad, right nor wrong, but can be evaluated only as to its usefulness in making available specific outcomes. Models inherently provide both limitations and resources. Newtonian (classical) and Einsteinian (modern) physics exemplify the development of two very different models that represent essentially the same territory. For many years, the model created by Isaac Newton provided the paradigm used in the study of physics. During the first three decades of this century, however, Einstein, Heisen-
Modeling 3
berg, and Bohr strayed away from the presUppOSItions accepted by Newton, and hence modern physics was born. Both the classical and modern models of physics are effective in explaining certain phenomena and making possible various outcomes. Neither the classical nor the modern models are right, better, or correct; they are, however, different and therefore produce different outcomes. The difference between each model lies in its method of organizing a description of the world and the presuppositions upon which it is built. To illustrate these poin ts, let us look at one of the best known models in physics, Newton's "classical" mechanics. The effects of air resistance or friction, for example, are generally not taken into account in this model because they are usually very small. But apart from such omissions, Newtonian mechanics was for a long time considered to be the final theory for the description of all natural phenomena, until electric and magnetic phenomena, which had no place in Newton's theory, were discovered. The discovery of these phenomena showed that the model was incomplete, that it could be applied only to a limited group of phenomena - essentially the motion of solid bodies. Studying a limited group of phenomena can also mean studying their physical properties only over a limited range, which may be another reason for the theory to be approximate. This aspect of the approximation is quite subtle because we never know beforehand where the limitations of a theory lie. Only experience can tell. Thus the image of classical mechanics was further eroded when twentiethcentury physics showed its essential limitations. Today we know that the Newtonian model is valid
only for objects consisting of large numbers of atoms, and only for velocities which are small compared to the speed oflight. When the first condition is not given, classical mechanics has to be replaced by quantum theory; when the second condition is not satisfied, relativity theory has to be applied. This does not mean that Newton's model is "wrong," or that quantum theory and relativity theory are "right." All these models are approximations which are valid for a certain range of phenomena. Beyond this range, they no longer give a satisfactory description of nature, and new models have to be found to replace the old ones - or better, to extend them by improving the approximation. (Capra, 1975, p. 28) At this point, it is necessary to clarify that in using a model to explain modeling, we are in fact creating a model which is also affected by the process of modeling. Modeling is recursive. Thus, we are faced with a paradox. "The map is not the territory," and the map created by this statement is also not the territory.
Logical Typing
The theory of logical types states that there is a discontinuity between a class of information and the members of that class. This theory is used to delineate levels of abstraction and states that one logical level is about (meta-to) the logical level below it. 1. The class cannot be a member of itself nor can one of the members be the class, since the term used for the class is of a different level of abstraction - a different logical type - from terms used for members. (Bateson, 1972, p. 202)
Modeling 5
2. The name is not the thing named but is of a different logical type, higher than that of the thing named. (Bateson, 1979, p. 251) To illustrate this point, Gregory Bateson (1972), in Steps To An Ecology of Mind, uses the content area offurniture in order to clarify the idea of logical typing. Ifwe classify chairs together to constitute the class of chairs, we can go on to note that tables and lamp shades are members ofa large class of "nonchairs," but we shall commit an error in formal discourse if we count the class of chairs among the items within the class of nonchairs. Inasmuch as no class can be a member of itself, the class of non chairs clearly cannot be a nonchair. Simple considerations of symmetry may suffice to convince the non mathematical reader: (a) that the class of chairs is of the same order of abstraction (i.e., the same logical type) as the class of non chairs; and further, (b) that if the class of chairs is not a chair, then, correspondingly, the class of non chairs is not a nonchair. Lastly, the theory asserts that if these simple rules of formal discourse are contravened, paradox will be generated and the discourse vitiated. (p. 280) Since the modeling process involves levels of abstraction, the theory of logical typing is essential in understanding the process of modeling.
Universal Modeling Processes

Bandler and Grinder (1975) describe in detail the three universal modeling processes: generalization, deletion,
and distortion, and the effects that these processes have upon the models or maps that we build. Generalization is the process by which elements or pieces of a person's model become detached from their original experience and come to represent the entire category of which the experience is an example. (p. 14) Deletion is a process by which we selectively pay attention to certain dimensions of our experience and exclude others. (p. 15) The third modeling process is that of distortion. Distortion is the process which allows us to make shifts in our experience of sensory data. (p. 16)
Levels of Modeling
There are three levels of modeling that have a direct effect on our experience of the world. These levels of modeling could be described as layers which separate us from the world at large. They are: sensory experience, experience of experience, and language. Language Experience of Experience Sensory Experience WORLD AT LARGE Each level of modeling is meta-to the level of modeling which is the next logical level below it. The higher the model is in abstraction, the greater the distance between it and the world at large. For example: sensory experience is meta-to the world at large, experience of experience is meta-to sensory experience, and language is meta-to experience of experience.
Modeling 7
1) Sensory Experience: The first level of modeling is sensory experience. Sensory experience is synonymous with perception and is the means by which we make contact with the world at large. The act of perceiving takes the abundance of information available in the world at large and organizes it into visual, auditory, kinesthetic (the physical sensations of touch, emotion, and visceral sensations), olfactory, and gustatory sensations. Perception is the filtering system by which our sensory apparatus (eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and skin) takes information available in the world at large and converts it into a form which is compatible with the central nervous system. During the transformation process, the ongoing bombardment of information that exists in the world at large becomes categorized into images, sounds, feelings, smells, and tastes and is, therefore, altered from its original form. These sensory distinctions are not the product of our environment as such, but are instead the result of the coding that occurs in the central nervous system. For instance, the linear nature of time may be totally the result of the central nervous system. All sensations are transmitted sequentially as a series of electrical impulses. This process could account for our experience of past, present, and future since each impulse is transmitted before or after the other. In other words, time as we experience it may not exist in the world at large but instead be the result of the modeling process. Past, present, and future may all exist simultaneously in the world at large. Thus, the framework posed by linear time might be solely the product of our central nervous system. The suggestion is that the function of the brain and nervous system and sense organs is in the main eliminative and not productive. Each person is at each moment capable of remembering all that has ever happened to him and of perceiving everything
that is happening everywhere in the universe. The function of the brain and nervous system is to protect us from being overwhelmed and confused by this mass of largely useless and irrelevant knowledge, by shutting out most of what we should otherwise perceive or remember at any moment, and leaving only that very small and special selection which is likely to be practically useful. According to such a theory, each one of us is potentially Mind at Large. But in so far as we are animals, our business is at all costs to survive. To make biological survival possible, Mind at Large has to be funneled through the reducing valve of the brain and nervous system. (Huxley, 1954, pp.22-23) 2) Experience of Experience: The second level of modeling is experience of experience. This level of experience involves the mental maps or models we make to organize and respond to our immediate sensory perceptions. Neurologically, these are representations resulting from the stimulation of networks of cortical cells and neurons that form complex branching and interconnecting chains of causation in the brain. (Dilts, 1983, p.15) Experience of experience includes that portion of internal processing or thinking which occurs in primary sensory modalities. By primary sensory modalities, we mean pictures, sounds, feelings, tastes, and smells. Excluded from this level of modeling is internal dialogue because language, whether spoken out loud or experienced internally, is at a different logical level than primary sensory representations. Grinder and Bandler (1976) refer to the
Modeling 9
primary sensory modalities as representational systems. The five representational systems are as follows: (V) (A) (K) (0) (G) Visual Auditory Kinesthetic Olfactory Gustatory
Representational systems and series of representational systems are the building blocks of experience of experience. Human beings experience such phenomena as thinking, memory, imagination, and intuition as specific sequences of representational systems. For example, a man might experience a specific memory from childhood as an image of his grandmother's kitchen, the aroma of baking bread, and the secure feeling of being with grandma (the content). This example could be diagramed as: V-O-K (the model). Notice that this level of modeling does not emphasize content but instead delineates form. The sequencing of representational systems is a calculus for the way that a person organizes his/her experience and as such is not content dependent. The man described in the previous example might remember his first lover by seeing an image of her face, remembering the smell of her perfume, and feeling the love he had for her (the content). Again, the form is the same V-O-K (the model), but the content has shifted dramatically. Our experience, at this level of modeling, is affected by the limitations of consciousness. George Miller (1956), in his article, The Magic Number 7t2, defines the limits of consciousness. Miller states that a person can only keep 72:2 chunks of information in conscious awareness at one time. Due to this limitation, we selectively focus on certain parameters of experience. Since we are present at each moment in time, with all of our sensory apparatus open to
experience, our brain records all sensory input. The limitations of consciousness, however, force us to focus on certain portions ofinternal processing. To return to the aforementioned example, one could describe the man's memories of both his grandmother and his lover as follows:
In this diagram, the representational systems which are in conscious awareness are circled. The portions of experience not circled are represented neurologically in the brain, however, not at a conscious level. 3) Language: Language, the third level of modeling, is a digital system. By digital system we mean a series of symbols which stand for sensory representations. Language is not experience. It is a representation of experience, and therefore is ai a higher logical level than sensory experience and experience of experience. Words draw their meaning from the sensory representations to which they are associated. For example: the word "dog" is a symbol for a particular type of small animal. In order to understand this word, we search our experience of experience for a visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, and/or gustatory sensation that is associated with the symbol (dog). The process of associating language to sensory representations is known as transderivational search. The more abstract the word (e.g., love, power, sin), the more complex becomes the process of transderivational search. Transderivational search is a highly individualized process since words become attached
Modeling 11
to personal internal representations. In returning to the previous example, for some people the word "dog" will elicit an internal representation of a collie, while for others, the word dog may represent a poodle, a German shepherd, or a basset hound. This example illustrates the slippage that exists between language and experience. Semantics is the branch oflinguistics that is devoted to the study of how words acquire their meaning. Transformational grammar (Noam Chomsky) makes a distinction between deep structure and surface structure. Deep structure is the abstract structure, postulated as underlying a sentence, containing all information necessary for both the syntactic and semantic interpretations of the sentence. Surface structure is the grammatical relationship among words of an actually observed sentence. (Wardhaugh, 1972, pp. 207-220) The surface structure is what is spoken (written), while the deep structure is the actual meaning of the sentence. Language is the means by which we communicate with each other. It is through language that we are able to share ideas, memories, and dreams. Many of our cultural traditions and biases, as well as intellectual and educational achievements, are preserved and handed down from generation to generation in the form of the written and spoken word. Every individual is at once the beneficiary and the victim of the linguistic tradition into which he has been born - the beneficiary inasmuch as language gives access to the accumulated records of other people's experience, the victim in so far as it confirms him in the belief that reduced awareness is the
only awareness and as it bedevils his sense of reality, so that he is all too apt to take his concepts for data, his words for actual things. (Huxley, 1954, p. 23) The grouping of sensory representations, via language, helps create our individualized models of the world. Language is one way that we organize a world model. Through cultural conditioning, the name label for a thing will become, over time, a specific intermediary, functioning between the sensory input and the finally created percept - that which is "seen." The acculturated person doesn'tjust "see the tree," for instance, but the tree-as-named. And through acculturation, a name doesn't simply denote. Language becomes seman tic, which means that the name or word carries with it the related attitude sets of that culture. This has far reaching effects. Any object, symbolized or not, that has been labeled with a name, then has this mediation-efIect of semantics to funnel through before being cognized by the acculturated mind. Whether the sensory stimulus is from out-there, as with a tree, or internally generated, as with its symbolic form, the stimulus is channeled through the mediating act of "the tree as named," that is, language and its semantic overlay. Jerome Bruner spoke ofour "representing reality to ourselves" verbally in order to make metaphoric mutations of our representations and so change aspects of that reality. This is one of the uses of language and creative logic. But, through acculturation, we don't employ language selectively either as a tool for logic, or as communication. When language becomes semantic, and takes on negative and positive values beyond denotation,
Modeling 13
our homeostatic system reacts to the emotional undertones involved. Then we act on tangible sensory data, as well as our abstract creations, through our culture's value system. No longer do we interact directly with reality, neither a reality of the natural world, including other people, nor the reality of creations possible through creative logic. We interact with a "mediated reality" and consider the artificial result our natural condition. (Pearce, 1974, pp. 45-46) Many people process information (think) in the form of internal dialogue. Internal dialogue i~ the act of talking to oneselfin one's head. A person's internal dialogue is one of the ways that he/she maintains a particular model of the world. It is the ongoing stream of words in one's head that confirms and maintains a person's beliefs about the world in which he/she lives. The world, or to be more accurate a person's model of the world, is believed to be as it is because one convinces him/herself ofit through internal dialogue. Many forms of psychotherapy such as cognitive therapy, Rational Emotive Therapy and Transactional Analysis are aimed at changing a person's internal dialogue, thus changing his/her model of the world and the feelings and/ or behaviors that exist within this model.
Minimum Requirements for a Model

For a model to be well-formed, it must have the facility to describe both content and process. Content distinctions are the elements within a model that portray substance. Movement and the relationships between/among the various content are represented by process distinctions. An excellent example of a model that contains both of these essential distinctions is linguistics. In linguistics, words and
vocabulary (semantics) are the content distinctions while syntax delineates the rules of process that describe how the words may be arranged and combined.
The Primacy of Experience

Thus far in this book we have presented a model of modeling. There are two conclusions that can be drawn from this meta-model:
1. Human beings build models of the world.

2. People do not act directly upon the world at large but instead upon models of the world. Since we can never directly encoun ter the world at large and our experience of the world is filtered through several levels of modeling, all experience is intersubjective. That is, experience is observer-dependent and the result of a co-existent relationship between the subject and the object. Experience consists of an ongoing "dance" between that which is perceived and the perceiver. The object perceived can never be isolated from the act of perception; they are one. This model emphasizes the uniqueness of all experience. Thus, one can never be an "objective" observer; one can never "know" an objective reality. Modern people tend to discount unfamiliar worlds by carefully distinguishing between them and their physical reality. Dream, myth, literature, even modern art are relegated to the realm of imagination and subjectivity, which is assumed to have no objective existence, no consistent physical properties, no logical, eternal, governing laws by which we may predict and control events. We may
Modeling 15
appreciate other subjective worlds, find them amusing, even derive wisdom from them, but we need not take them seriously or treat them as real and objective. The two realms are separate and distinct - the one exists as part of the mind, the other, altogether apart from mind. By subjectivity I am not referring to the effects on scientific thought of the individual tastes, preferences, and prejudices of scientists, which change with time, are influenced by peer pressures, and figure prominently in the formation of scientific paradigms. Rather, I mean the basic role that mind and the self play at some unfathomable level in the workings of the universe. Subjectivity in science has both a personal and an impersonal aspect, and fundamentally I mean it to refer to the dependence of the physical world on consciousness. Mind and matter are not separate and distant, but form an organic whole, in my view. To distinguish a subjective from an objective viewpoint is ultimately illusory. (Jones, 1982, p. 10)
The Structure of Reality

The only reality is intersubjective reality; that is, each person's experience of the world is observer-dependent and, as such, true for him/her. Unfortunately, a concept that is central to many psychological theories is that of reality testing. Within this concept lie the presuppositions that there is an objective reality, this objective reality is knowable, and personal perception can be tested against this objective reality for accuracy. An individual whose perceptions are not in line with the perceptions of the psychologist is often labeled as psychotic or schizophrenic. Contrary to the medical model,
which attaches a diagnosis to such a person implying sickness, another way to view this discrepancy is to identify that the psychologist and the client have differen t models of the world. Each of these models, being valid and true for the person involved, represent different maps for essentially the same territory. Different means different and does not connote right or wrong, good or bad, sick or well. We have often wondered whether the difficulties endured by those people labeled as schizophrenic are the result of their experiences in nonshared reality or if the pain which they suffer is due to the fact that they live in a culture which makes few or no provisions for individual differences. People who lived in tribal societies and had models of the world that differed drastically from the consensus reality of other tribe members were often assigned roles that allowed them to use their differences in productive ways. Those individuals, having different models of the world, often became shamen, medicine men/women, prophets, and seers and held highly-respected positions in the community. Our technological society, however, does not have a convenient place for differences; therefore, difference is often seen as sick and/ or crazy. Central to the practice of psychiatry, psychology, and social work is the concept of diagnosis. By its very nature, diagnosis presupposes sickness, thereby placing the therapist in the role of curer and the client in the role of patient. The very act of diagnosing takes the ongoing process of experience and freezes it in time, thus converting an ongoing, changeable process into a static, unchangeable event. When a therapeutic problem is defined as the social relationships of clients, a therapist must include himself in the issue since he helps define the problem. To label a child as "delinquent" or as suffering from "minimal brain dysfunction," or to
Modeling 17
label an adult as an "alcoholic" ora "schizophrenic," means that one is participating in the creation of a problem in such a way that change may be made more difficult. A therapist who describes a family situation as characterized by "a dominating mother and a passive father" or "a symbiotic relationship between mother and daughter" has created problems, although the therapist might think he is merely identifying the problems put before him. The way one labels a human dilemma can crystallize a problem and make it chronic. (Haley, 1987, p. 2-3)
Internal vs. External

A fundamental difference between people who are considered "sane" in our society and those who are diagnosed as "insane" is the ability to distinguish between "internally" and "externally" generated experiences. To return to the logical levels of modeling presented earlier in this book, "internally" generated experience is synonymous with experience of experience and "externally" generated experience, with sensory experience. Due to the modeling process, both forms of experience take place intersubjectively. However, for most people, there is a qualitative difference between that which is perceived as being outside of ourselves and that which is experienced as occurring within our own minds. To illustrate this point, let us take a person who is experiencing auditory "hallucinations," hearing voices coming from an electrical outlet. Upon closer investigation, it may very well be that this person is indeed having an auditory experience but the experience is actually his own internal dialogue which he is attributing to some external source. This person is, therefore, unable to differentiate between language (internal dialogue) and sen-
sory experience (the sound of someone speaking to him). He is mixing logical levels of modeling. Most of us have experienced our own internal dialogue. However, this experience is somehow qualitatively different from the experience of hearing someone talk to us. This difference allows us to discriminate between the two.
Science as Metaphor
Over the last few hundred years, no model has gained more respect and credibility than science. In fact, science is surrounded by such an aura of infallibility that many people consider it to be "the ultimate truth." Modern science, the product of a particular paradigm known as the scientific method, is no more or less true than any other model. Since science is preserved, taught, and transmitted via language, one could conceptualize science as an elaborate metaphor. "Metaphor implies the creation of an idea or symbol, which not only stands for something else but, in fact, stands alone as a new evocation of meaning." Gones, 1982, p. 51) As in all models, the metaphor of science provides both resources and limitations, and can only be evaluated by the usefulness of its outcomes.
CHANGE
Change is a transItIon from one point to another. Change can be intentional as in a client seeking the help of a therapist, or it can occur quite unintentionally as in the case of St. Paul falling from his horse. Change can be a natural transition, for example, when a child enters puberty or a teenager matures to adulthood. However, in many cases, change requires a decision to change and some effort on the part of the person desiring the change. There are two types of change. The first type is remedial change which is change initiated to fix or repair. This type of change is usually evidenced by the presence of emotional and/ or physical pain/discomfort. Here, change is implemented as a remedy for such pain. The second type of change is generative change and involves change for the sake of enhancing the person, evolving his/her being, and does not involve taking away discomfort. Generative change is not directed at taking away uncomfortable or undesirable symptoms, but instead is aimed at personal growth and the fulfillment of human potentials. Change is often described in terms of positive and negative. The assignment of such distinctions to the change
process is futile and the value judgments imposed by this labeling seem to make more of a statement about the context in which the transition has occurred than the actual change itself.
Modeling and Change

The process of psychotherapy is aimed at change, be it remedial or generative. It is our belief that many of the limitations clients bring to therapy with the hopes of change are limits in their model of the world, not in the world at large. The process of therapy involves working with clients in order to facilitate the expansion of their world model, that is, to open new possibilities, to broaden the scope and depth of their world views, and to expand their models to include a wider range of options and choices.
Presuppositions
As in all models, our conceptualization of the change process has within it several presuppositions. These presuppositions are not necessarily "truths." They are, however, the basis upon which our model is built and as such they provide a useful way to proceed.
1) Resources: It is our belief that each person entering therapy already has within him/her all the resources needed in order to make the desired change(s). The role of the therapist is that of assisting the client in gaining access to and appropriately contextualizing these resources. 2) Flexibility: It is our belief that a choice is better than no choice. An
Change 21
essential goal in the therapeutic process is to assist the client to increase his/her choices and options. Clients who acquire a great deal of behavioral and psychological flexibili ty appear to fare better in day-to-day living. These people seem to be better equipped to "roll with the punches" and "bounce back" from life's "ups" and "downs." This presupposition is consistent with the law of requisite variety, a concept from systems theory. The law of requisite variety states that the component within a system or system within a group of systems with the most variability controls the system. (Ashby, 1956) 3) The Primacy of Experience: It is our belief, as stated earlier, that each person's experience is true for him/her. All experience, due to the modeling process, is intersubjective. Both the client and the therapist enter into the therapeutic process not with a description of "reality" but with their own individualized models of the world. Through the process of developing a therapeutic relationship, the therapist and client co-create a consensual world view which includes within it both the presenting problem and the resources needed to implement the desired change. That is, the presenting problem does not exist independent of the therapeutic context. It is through the process of therapy that the client and therapist co-create the problem as well as the solution. The presenting problem and the potential solution exist in the realm of experience and, as such, are observer-dependent. 4) Adaptivity: It is our belief that a person makes the best choice possible at each moment in time, given the resources which he/she has available. Aligned with this concept is the belief that a person, if given a better choice, will take it. Central to this presupposition is the idea that underlying each choice/behavior there exists a positive intent. This concept
describes the innate good and inherent movement toward self-actualization which lies within each person. Often the problems that a person brings into therapy are the results of decisions/choices made which have become frozen in time and, as such, are no longer appropriate - given the client's current resources and state of being. Thus, a onceadaptive behavior becomes maladaptive. Psychotherapy facilitates the process of opening up new choices and making new decisions, thereby expanding the client's model of the world. 5) Being and Becoming: It is our belief that human beings are constantly in process. Life involves movement, transformation, and evolution. There are numerous levels of movement which lend credence to this presupposition, such as the movement among atoms and molecules at the atomic level, the constan t regeneration of cells at the physiological level, and the movement of heavenly bodies at the planetary level. A person and his/her world model are in a constant state of being and becoming. Our theory of change accepts this constant state of becoming, integrating it into the model and utilizing the movement to facilitate change. 6) Relativity: It is our belief that our model of growth and change, like all models, is nothing more than a model; that is, our model is affected by the process of modeling and, therefore, has within it inherent limitations and resources. We believe that it is important, when using this model of change, not to mistake the model for the person. All models are generalizations and each person is an individual.
RElATIONSHIP POSTUlATES
Cen tral to the practice of psychotherapy is the development of a therapeutic relationship which promotes and facilitates the change process. Rogers (1961) describes such a relationship as follows: My interest in psychotherapy has brought about in me an interest in every kind of helping relationship. By this term I mean a relationship in which at least one of the parties has the intent of promoting the growth, development, maturity, improved functioning. improved coping with life of the other. The other, in this sense, may be one individual or a group. To put it another way, a helping relationship might be defined as one in which one of the participants intends that there should come about, in one or both parties, more appreciation of, more expression of, more functional use of the latent inner resources of the individual. (pp. 39-40)
The therapeutic relationship is marked by a sense of mutuality, of two human beings embarking on a journey together. This type of relationship is akin to what Buber (1937) refers to as an "I-and-thou" relationship. It is our belief that a therapeutic relationship does not consist of rigidly defined roles. A growth-promoting relationship involves two human beings, sharing experiences and walking down the path of change together.
Pacing and Leading

The first step in the development of a therapeutic relationship is that of establishing rapport. Pacing refers to the process whereby the therapist enters into the world of the client. This is accomplished by accepting the client's model of the world and joining the client at that model. The process of pacing involves an openness to and acceptance of the world of the experiencing client. It is by entering into the client's world that the therapist can come to understand and know the client. Once havingjoined the clien t at his/her model of the world, the therapist can begin to assist the client in expanding his/her world view to include more options/choices. This process is known as leading. There are a number of methods which can be used to facilitate the process of pacing and leading (Bandler, Grinder, 1979; Lankton, 1980; Cameron-Bandler, 1985; Kostere, Malatesta, 1985). Mirroring is a pacing technique in which the therapist directly adopts a portion of the client's ongoing analogue (non-verbal) behavior. There are several behavioral systems which can be used in mirroring. For example: a therapist can directly adopt the client's breathing rate and depth, body posture, and/or body movement. Mirroring is a powerful tool that both facilitates a deep
Relationship Postulates 25
sense of rapport and allows the therapist to have an experience of the client's experience. Mirroring is an effective technique for entering into the client's model of the world. There are, however, situations in which the client is experiencing a great deal of physical and/or emotional pain. In those cases, the therapist may elect not to use direct mirroring but, instead, crossover mirroring. Crossover mirroring allows the therapist to pace the client while maintaining his/her own physical integrity. In crossover mirroring, the therapist does not directly have an experience of the client's experience, nevertheless can establish rapport without feeling the client's pain. Crossover mirroring is a form of pacing in which the therapist matches anyone of the client's output channels with any output channel of a different system. For example: the therapist can pace the client by synchronizing his voice tempo with the client's breathing rate. In both mirroring and crossover mirroring, once rapport has been established, by either directly or indirectly matching the client's analogue behavior, the therapist can begin to lead the client by overlapping his/her behavior from the present state to the desired state. Once the feedback loop of mirroring has been established and the therapist begins to alter his/her analogue behavior, the client will follow. Descriptive pacing is a process whereby the therapist verbally feeds back to the client his/her verbal and/or analogue behavior. Pacing the verbal component of the client's behavior consists of feeding back the client's language, a technique that is similar to active listening. When descriptively pacing analogue behavior, the therapist delivers a verbal description of the client's readily observable ongoing behavior. Verbal and analogical descriptive pacing and leading can be used either independently or together in order to establish rapport and lead the client to the desired state. For example: a therapist might respond
to a client who is discussing his fears by stating, "As you sit there, gripping the arms of your chair, I can see the tightness of your facial muscles and the light perspiration on your forehead. I also hear you telling me that you are feeling fearful. I, however, want you to notice that your breathing is becoming deeper and more even and, as you continue to talk, realize that you are sharing with greater comfort." The process of pacing and leading is not based on a cause-effect paradigm. During this process, the client and the therapist co-create a model of the world in which they co-exist. Pacing and leading could be represented metaphorically as follows: The therapist enters into the void to meet the client, the therapist joins the client in the darkness, and together they move toward the light. The following case study, from the work of the late Milton H. Erickson, M.D., is an elegant example of pacing and leading. George had been a patient in a mental hospital for five years. His identity had never been established. He was simply a stranger around the age of twenty-five who had been picked up by the police for irrational behavior and committed to the state mental hospital. During those five years he had said, "My name is George," "Good morning," and "Good night," but these were his only rational utterances. He uttered otherwise a con tinuous word-salad completely meaningless as far as could be determined. It was made up of sounds, syllables, words and incomplete phrases. For the first three years he sat on a bench at the fron t door of the ward and eagerly leaped up and poured forth his word-salad most urgently to everyone who entered the ward. Otherwise, he merely sat quietly mumbling his word-salad to himself. Innumerable efforts had been made by
psychiatrists, psychologists, nurses, social service workers, other personnel and even fellow patients to secure intelligible remarks from him, all in vain. George talked only one way, the word-salad way. Mter approximately three years he continue to greet persons who entered the ward with an outburst of meaningless words, but in between times he sat silently on the bench, appearing mildly depressed but somewhat angrily uttering a few minutes of word-salad when approached and questioned. The author joined the hospital staff in the sixth year of George's stay. The available information about his ward behavior was secured. It was learned also that patients or ward personnel could sit on the bench beside him without eliciting his word-salad so long as they did not speak to him. With this total of information a therapeutic plan was devised. A secretary recorded in shorthand the word-salads with which he so urgently greeted those who entered the ward. These transcribed recordings were studied but no meaning could be discovered. These word-salads were carefully paraphrased, using words that were least likely to be found in George's productions and an extensive study was made of these until the author could improvise a word-salad similar in pattern to George's, but utilizing a different vocabulary. Then all entrances to the ward were made through a side door some distance down the corridor from George. The author then began the practice of sitting silently on the bench beside George daily for increasing lengths of time until the span of an hour was reached. Then, at the next sitting, the author addressing the empty air, identified himself verbally. George made no response.
The next day the identification was addressed directly to George. He spat out an angry stretch of word-salad to which the author replied, in tones of courtesy and responsiveness, with an equal amount of his own carefully contrived word-salad. George appeared puzzled and, when the author finished, George uttered another contribution with an inquiring intonation. As if replying the author verbalized still further word-salad. After a half dozen interchanges, George lapsed into silence and the author promptly went about other matters. The next morning appropriate greetings were exchanged employing proper names by both. Then George launched into a long word-salad speech to which the author courteously replied in kind. There followed then briefinterchanges oflong and short utterances of word-salad until George fell silent and the author went to other duties. This continued for some time. Then George, after returning the morning greeting, made meaningless utterances without pause for four hours. It taxed the author greatly to miss lunch and to make a full reply in kind. George listened attentively and made a two hour reply to which a weary two hour response was made. (George was noted to watch the clock throughout the day.) The next morning George returned the usual greeting properly but added about two sentences of nonsense to which the author replied with a similar length of nonsense. George replied, "Talk sense, Doctor." "Certainly, I'll be glad to. What is your last name?" "O'Donovan and it's about time somebody who knows how to talk asked. Over five years in this lousy joint" ... (to which was added a sentence or two of word-salad). The author replied, "I'm glad
to get your name, George. Five years is too long a time" ... (and about two sentences of word-salad were added). The rest of the account is as might be expected. A complete history sprinkled with bits of word-salad was obtained by inquiries judiciously salted with word-salad. His clinical course, never completely free of word-salad which was eventually reduced to occasional unintelligible mumbles, was excellent. Within a year he had left the hospital, was gainfully employed, and at increasingly longer intervals returned to the hospital to report his continued and improving adjustment. Nevertheless, he invariably initiated his report or terminated it with a bit of word-salad, always expecting the same from the author. Yet he could, as he frequently did on these visits, comment wryly, "Nothing like a little nonsense in life, is there, Doctor?" to which he obviously expected and received a sensible expression of agreement to which was added a brief utterance of nonsense. Mter he had been out of the hospital continuously for three years of fully satisfactory adjustment, contact was lost with him except for a cheerful postcard from another city. This bore a brief but satisfactory summary of his adjustments in a distant city. It was signed properly but following his name was a jumble of syllables. There was no return address. He was ending the relationship on his terms of adequate understanding. (Erickson, 1965, pp. 57-65)
LANGUAGE POSTUIA.TES
As stated earlier, language is not experience. It is a model of experience. Even though language is not experience, it is a powerful organizing tool which has a profound effect on our models of the world. Since much of the information communicated during the therapeutic process is done so verbally, this section is devoted to the linguistic components of the change process.
The Meta-Model
As previously mentioned, transformational grammarians make a distinction in linguistics between surface structure and deep structure. We, as native speakers of the English language, have intuitions about the meaning of language. In many cases, these intuitions supply us with meaning (deep structure) which is not formally displayed in the surface structure. Since language is a model, it is affected by the three universal modeling processes: dele-
tion, distortion, and generalization. Often, the language that a client uses to describe his/her experience becomes detached from the experience. The meta-model is a series of formal linguistic operations designed to reconnect language to experience. (Bandler, Grinder, 1975; Lankton, 1980; Cameron-Bandler, 1985; Kostere, Malatesta, 1985) Although the meta-model operates on the linguistic level of modeling, intervention using the meta-model will have an effect On other parameters of the client's model of the world.
Deletion
Deletion is meaning in the deep structure that is missing from the surface structure. The meta-model systematically recovers the deleted material. 1) Simple Deletion: This form of deletion involves sentences in which the verb has the potential of occurring with two noun phrases or argument nouns; however, only one argument noun is displayed in the surface structure of the sentence. In this case, the second argument nOUn has been deleted from the surface structure and can be recovered by using the metamoo I'!1.
Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist: I'm happy. With whom/about what? I feel angry. At whom/about what? I don't know. What specifically don't you know?
Language Postulates 33
Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist:
I'm confused. About what? I'm scared. Of what?
2) Comparative Deletion: Comparative deletion refers to a situation in which a client's sentence draws a comparison; however, the surface structure of the client's language does not indicate what is being compared. Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist: She's happier. She's happier than whom? John is more sensitive. John is more sensitive than whom? He is the best. He is the best compared to whom? Jenny is least threatening. Jenny is least threatening compared to whom/what?
3) Modal Operators: In many cases, the client's language will indicate that, in certain situations, there is no choice. Since language is not experience, the lack of choice may not exist in the world at large but only in the client's model/language. By challenging modal operators, the therapist expands the client's model to include more choices. There are two challenges for modal operators: "What would happen if you did (didn't)?" and "What stops you?"
Modal Operators of Necessity

The modal operators of necessity are: must, it's necessary, have to, should, need to, and have got to. Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist: I have to clean the house before my husband gets home. What would happen if you didn't? I should finish this project by Friday. What would happen if you didn't? I need to quit drinking. What would happen if you did/didn't?
Modal Operators of Possibility

Can 'tand it simpossible are examples of modal operators of possibility.
Client: Therapist: I can't quit drinking. What stops you from quitting? What would happen if you did? It's impossible to talk to my boss. What stops you? What would happen if you did? I can't concentrate on work. What stops you? What would happen if you did?
Client: Therapist:
Client: Therapist:
Each of the two challenges for modal operators will
offer the therapist a different type of information. The challenge "What stops you?", in most cases, allows the client to search into his/her personal history for an answer, while "What would happen if you did (didn't)?" has the client project experientially into the future.
Distortion
Distortion in natural language systems occurs when a person makes shifts in his/her linguistic representations. In this case, the person's deep structure is distorted from the world of sensory experience. These shifts often create an impoverished model of the world, thus restricting the person's options and abilities to act in the world. 1) Nominalization: The process whereby a verb is changed into a noun, thus changing an ongoing process into a static event/object, is called nominalization. In many cases, once the process of nominalization has occurred, the client perceives the nominalized material as an unchangeable even t/ object instead of a changeable ongoing process. The process of nominalization is an example of distortion. The decision is final. In the above sentence, the word decision is a nominalization. It is a verb (decide) that has been changed to function in the sentence as a noun. In this case, there is possibly no reason why the client can't redecide about the issue except that he/she perceives the decision as an unchangeable event. It is the first task of the therapist to assist the client in changing the nominalization back into a process. Once a verb has been nominalized, much of the information concerning the process has been deleted. The
second task of the therapist is to recover the deleted material. The material deleted from the aforementioned example might be: Who is deciding? Deciding about what? Deciding when? Deciding where? How specifically deciding? To recover the deleted material, the therapist can use the meta-model questions listed in the section on deletion. The way to test for nominalization is to examine the surface structure of the sentence and identify the words functioning as nouns. If you cannot imagine being able to reach out and touch the nouns, they are nominalizations. For example, you can touch a chair, a table, a car, men and women. However, you cannot touch love, frustration, marriage, fear and decision. Another test is to take the noun and place it after the phrase "an ongoing." If the phrase is logical, it is a nominalization.
An ongoing chair) An ongoing table) An ongoing car) An ongoing love) An ongoing decision) An ongoing fear)
Nouns
Nominalizations
I want love. You want loving from whom? The decision is made. What specifically are you deciding?
There is frustration in my life. What specifically is frustrating you? My confusion is terrible. What specifically is confusing you?
In the English language, many words ending in ion are nominalizations and they can easily be changed back into verbs by using their ingform. 2) Cause and Effect: Cause and effect is a form of distortion in which a cHen t claims that there exists a cause-effect relationship between two not necessarily-related events. This issue arises in the field of psychotherapy when a client claims that his/her emotions, attitudes, and/or behaviors are caused by another person or thing and that the client has no control over his/her response(s) in the situation. The meta-model response to a cause and effect violation is: How specifically? Client: Therapist: My husband makes me cry. How specifically does your husband make you cry? My job depresses me. How specifically does your job depress you? Debbie makes me angry. How specifically does Debbie make you angry?
Client: Therapist:
Client: Therapist:
3) Implied Causatives: Many times when the word "but" is present in the surface structure of a sentence, a cause-effect relationship is implied even though it is not formally stated. Implied
causatives, like cause-effect statements, often connect two not necessarily-related events into a cause-effect relationship. This form of distortion can create limits in the client's model of the world. The meta-model challenge for implied causatives is to reverse the sequence of the cause-effect relationship and to verify that the reverse order is then accurate. Client: Therapist: I would go back to school, but I have to support my family. Then, if you didn't have to support your family, you would go back to school. Right? I don't want to beat my wife, but she always nags me. Then, if your wife didn't nag you, you wouldn't beat her. Correct?
Client: Therapist:
Another option in challenging implied causatives is that of asking if the cause-effect sequence is always the case. Client: Therapist: I don't want to beat my wife, but she always nags me. Do you always beat your wife when she nags you?
A third choice in challenging implied causatives consists of accepting the cause-effect relationship and asking the question: How specifically? Client: Therapist: I don't want to beat my wife, but she always nags me. How specifically does she nag you?
4) Mind Reading: Mind reading is a type of distortion in which the client claims to have information about another person's in ternal state (thoughts, feelings, attitudes, likes, and dislikes) without indicating the means by which the information was obtained. The meta-model response to challenge a mind reading statement is: How specifically? Client: Therapist: I know my wife loves me. How specifically do you know that your wife loves you? I sense that he hates me. How specifically do you sense that he hates you? I know that my husband is unhappy in our marriage. How specifically do you know that your husband is unhappy in the marriage?
Client: Therapist:
Client: Therapist:
Another method for challenging mind reading statements is that of asking the client to check out his/her assumption by asking the other person involved if the information gathered through mind reading is accurate. This process will begin to assist the client in using sensory experience during communication.
Generalization
In natural language systems, generalization is the process whereby an element in the client's surface structure has come to represent an entire category of information of which it is only one example. Generalization can cause a
loss of detail, thus creating an impoverished model of the world. This same modeling process can also account for a client's move from the specific to the general, thereby allowing an isolated experience to expand into a universal.
I) Lack of Referential Index:
Lack of referential index occurs when a category of objects/events is mentioned in the client's surface structure; however, the client does not refer to a specific object/event in sensory experience. Lack of referential index is an example of both deletion and generalization. The meta-model responses for lack of referential index are: Who specifically? What specifically? Which specifically? Client: Therapist: People are dangerous. Which people specifically are dangerous? Women hurt me. Which women specifically hurt you? They're trying to find me. Who specifically is trying to find you? Boats are fun. Which boats specifically are fun?
Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist:
2) Unspecified Verbs: Unspecified verbs are verbs in a sentence that do not indicate a full description of the action taking place. The meta-model response to an unspecified verb is: How specifically?
Client:
Therapist:
My husband hurts me. How specifically does your husband hurt you?
Client: Therapist:
My boss frustrates me. How specifically does your boss frustrate you? My children irritate me. How specifically do your children irritate you? My mother bores me. How specifii;.ally does your mother bore you? I know I'm tired. How specifically do you know you're tired? I realize my mistake. How specifically do you realize . your mistake?
Client: Therapist:
Client: Therapist:
Client: Therapist:
Client: Therapist:
3) Universal Quantifiers: Universal quantifiers are those words that, as generalizations, stand for an entire category of which one example is a representative. Examples of universal quantifiers are: all, always, every, everybody, nobody, and never. There are two ways to challenge universal quantifiers. The first way is to use exaggeration in order to bring forth a response that puts the generalization into a more appropriate perspective. Client: Therapist: Nobody loves me. You mean nobody in the entire world? I'm always right. You mean always. every single time?
Client: Therapist:
Client: Therapist:
All men stink. Every last one of them?
The second way to challenge universal quantifiers is to challenge the quantifier as a lack of referential index. Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist: Nobody loves me. Who specifically does not love you? I'm always right. When specifically are you right? All men stink. Which men specifically stink?
4) Complex Equivalence: Complex equivalence is a special case of generalization in which the client equates a definition/meaning to a certain behavior or set of behaviors that is not necessarily true. Complex equivalence is similar to mind reading in that the client claims to have knuwledge of another person's internal state(s). In complex equivalence, however, the client claims to have acquired this knowledge via sensory-based distinctions and the behavior mayor may not be an indicator of that internal state. There are two steps to challenging a complex equivalence.
1. Challenge the generalization by asking the client if the generalization is always true.
2. If the client agrees that the generalization is always true, switch referential index. In switching referential index, you hold the generalization constant. However, you change the role of the people involved. In most cases, this new generalization will not hold true and as such gives the therapist new information to explore.
Transcript
Client: Therapist: When my daughter raises her voice ... she is angry at me. Does your daughter's raising of her voice always mean that she is angry at you? No. When specifically does it mean that she is angry at you?
Client: Therapist:
Transcript
Client: Therapist: Jennifer frowns at me ... she is disappointed in me. DoesJennifer's frowning at you always mean that she is disappointed in you? Yes. Does your frowning atJennifer always mean that you are disappointed in her? No, that's a different situation. How specifically is that a different situation?
Client: Therapist:
Client: Therapist:
5) Lost Performative: Many times a client will make a statement that is indicative of a personal belief system and will present it as though it is a universal truth. Lost performative refers to a situation in which a client takes a generalization about his/her model of the world and presents it as a generalization about the world itself. In the English language, information about who is making a statement is often deleted from the surface structure. At the beginning of each utterance, one could
put the statement "1 am telling you that" which would indicate, in the surface structure, who is speaking the sentence. There are two ways to challenge violations of lost performatives: "Forwhom?" and "1 hear that you are telling me that." The purpose of these challenges is to have the client own the beliefs as personal truths and not as universal truths. Client: Therapist: It's wrong to love two people at the same time. It's wrong for whom to love two people at the same time? Relationships are painful. I hear that you are telling me that relationships are painful. Drinking beer is natural. Drinking beer is natural for whom?
Client: Therapist:
Client: Therapist:
Questions
Questions, in the context of psychotherapy, create a framework for the change process. When working with clients, it is essential to ask questions that define the goals of therapy and gather the information necessary to implement the desired change. The following questions are designed to elicit a full representation of the client's present state and desired state, and to facilitate the process of gaining access to the resources needed to achieve the desired outcome. 1) What are you currently experiencing? This question elicits information regarding the client's
present state. When using this question, as in all of the questions in this section, it is important to gather sensorybased descriptions. 2) In which context(s) are you having this experience? Delivered in order to gather additional information, this question regarding the client's present state begins to contextualize the presenting problem. 3) What are the positive gains of your current experience? A question of this nature is designed to identify the positive intent involved in the present state and to incorporate the satisfaction of the secondary gains into the desired change. By addressing the issue of secondary gains, this question begins to sort through positive intents in order to preserve personal ecology. 4) What specific change do you want for yourself? Within this question lies the presupposition that the client wants to make a change and that the change is for him/herself. This question sets the initial goal(s) or outcome(s) for the therapeutic sessions. In order for a goal to be well-formed, it must be within the client's model of the world. A well-formed goal cannot be that of changing another person's behavior, attitude, and/or personality. Also, the goal must be stated in positive terms so as to indicate what the client wants for him/herself rather than what is not wanted. 5) What will having the change do for you? This question requires that the client consider what this change will do for him/her. The effective use of this question insures that the change is valuable and will not negatively affect personal ecology. In addition, by using this question, a previously ill-formed goal can be transformed
into a goal that is well-formed. For example, a person whose desired goal is to be 10 years younger is presenting an ill-formed goal. However, by exploring what this change would do for him/her, this unattainable goal might be transformed into an attainable one, such as feeling more attractive, having a more positive self-image, or accessing more energy. 6) In which context do you want the change? A client may desire a change with little or no consideration made to the exact context(s) in which the change is desired. It is important for the therapist to assist the client in making the changes necessary. It is of utmost importance, however, that change occur only in the appropriate situations. Many times, changes are made which generalize randomly across numerous contexts in a hit-or-miss fashion. When change is implemented in this generalized manner, the change may be very appropriate in some of the contexts and totally inappropriate in others. The therapist, when precisely and clearly delineating the appropriate context(s), can implement change without negatively affecting the total-personal ecology of the client. 7) How will you know when you have made the change? This question requires that internal and/or external indicators of change are established in the goal-setting process. The therapist can, by using the above question, elicit from the client (either by verbal description or direct behavior) the internal or external responses which allow the client to know that the goals are achieved. For example: the indicator may be a certain body sensation, body posture, way of seeing the world, breathing rate or possibly the content of the client's internal dialogue. 8) What have you tried in the past in order to resolve your problem(s)?
This question further defines the problem as existing within the client's model of the world, thus, it indirectly assumes that the solution also exists within his/her world model. Also, this question elicits from the client information regarding past attempts at problem resolution. By gathering this information, the therapist can avoid trying unsuccessful treatment strategies over and over again. Unsuccessful attempts at problem resolution often create a meta-loop which further perpetuates and exacerbates the problem. For example: the person who becomes depressed may try to "pull" himself out of the depression. When this attempt to alleviate the depression fails, the person then becomes depressed about being depressed. The circular reinforcement of the symptom leads to further exacerbation of the symptom which in turn leads to the next level of symptom reinforcement. Thus, the loop, meta-loop and possibly meta-meta-Ioop are created. Information about failed past attempts at problem resolution assists the therapist and client in the development of a successful treatment strategy, which leads the client to the dissolution of the loop. (Fisch, Weakland, Segal, 1982) 9) What resource(s) do you need in order to make the change? This question both presupposes that the client has the resources needed to make the desired change and assists the client to identify these resources.
EVOLUTION POSTULATES
Evolution postulates are therapeutic interventions that facilitate the change process. These interventions are designed to assist the client to evolve from the present state to the desired state. Each of the postulates described in this section presuppose that rapport has been established and well-formed goals set. It is important that the use of these interventions are the natural outgrowth of the therapeutic experience and not just a series of techniques. Once upon a time a tree grew in the Ravine of Lung Men - a tree as old as the memory of mankind. From its wood, a sorcerer made a harp. It was a magnificent instrument, beautifully made, and perfect down to the very last detail. The most famous artists came to play this harp; but however great their skill, all they could produce was a lot of discordant noise, not in the least pleasing to the ear. As a result, the beautiful but unusable harp lay
idle for many long years among the treasures of the Emperor of China. Finally Pay Ya came along. At his touch the harp came to life and produced beautiful sounds which called to mind the old tree's memories; the seasons, and Nature being reborn; the songs of the birds, and the fights of wild beasts; the falling rain and the silence of the ice; and the loves and joys and sufferings of all those who had lain beneath the tree or even walked in its shade. When Pay Ya was asked how he had managed to tame the harp, he explained that instead of trying to impose his will upon it, he had left it free to choose its own theme; all he had done was follow this theme, and adjust himself to the harp, until he and it had become one single instrument; and thus they made their music together. (di Villadorata, 1974, p. 35)
Description
One of the most powerful tools of change is description. The very process of having a client describe fully his/her experiences has a profound effect on the client's model of the world. In order to explore the inheren t value of description, we will differentiate between description and explanation. The process of description provides answers to questions involving the "What?" and "How?" of experience. "What?" refers to the textures and fabrics, that is, the stuff of which experience is made. "How?" is a question which elicits process information, particularly sequence. Explanation, unlike description, is made of causal inferences and often produces information about the cause of the cause of the cause. Causal-based meta-loops are frequently the result of "Why?" questions.
Evolution Postulates 51
Description is a means by which a client can expand his/her model of the world. This process opens up new possibilities, offers new options, and affords access to internal resources. An important part of facilitating a client who is in the process of describing his/her experiences is working with the client to include all facets of experience in the description. A description should include both thoughts and feelings, or to be more specific, the visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory and gustatory parameters of experience. Description usually involves the use of language. As indicated earlier, language is not experience. It is a representation of experience. The process whereby words become connected to experience is called transderivational search. The process of description in and of itself generates subjective representations both for the client and the therapist. These representations, gained via description, call forth an extended model of the world. Thus, the process of description affords the client an opportunity to experience an enriched world model. An important distinction to be made when examining the issue of description is that of meta-experience versus congruent experience. Often when clients describe their experiences, they do so from the vantage point of being in the experience. A description of an experience that is derived from being in the experience is known as a congruent description. Congruent description helps facilitate the client's experiencing of an experience as it is represented. Often a client will begin a description with the portion of the experience that stands out foremost in his/her consciousness. As the description unfolds, including various facets of experience, the client will gain access to a fuller representation of his/her experience, thereby creating an extended model of the world. Meta-description occurs when a client describes his/her experience from the vantage point of being an
observer. From this disassociated position, the client will describe his/her representation of the experience from a different perspective, thus creating a new experience which in turn leads to an expanded model of the world. Congruent description tends to elicit experiences that are attached, via transderivational search, to the root experience. In most situations congruent description, by facilitating the re-experiencing of portions of the root experience, opens up new possibilities for the client. There are, however, cases when congruent description is contraindicated. Such cases occur when the root experience is so overwhelming for the client that he/she is not willing to have a direct experience of the representation. Examples of these experiences might include rape, a severe beating, the death of a significant other, or a traumatic accident. In these situations, meta-description allows the client to have an experience of the experience which is disassociated from the root experience. The distance created by this disassociation allows the client to describe the root experience from a new vantage point, thus creating a new experience. Meta-description allows the client to stand back, take a fresh look, and learn something new.
Transcript
Nick is a thirty-two year old married male who entered therapy with the stated problem ofjealousy. The following transcript was taken from Nick's third therapy session and illustrates the use of congruent description in working with his jealousy. Nick: Therapist: Nick: I had a terrible week. What are you currently experiencing? I'm overwhelmed with jealousy.
Therapist:
In what situations are you experiencing jealousy?

It seems like every time my wife leaves the house, I become paralyzed with jealousy. What specific change do you want for yourself?
Nick:
Therapist:
Nick: Therapist:
I want my wife to stay home all the time. You mean every single moment of every single day? No. What I mean is that I want her to either let me know exactly where she is going to be or take me with her. What would this do for you? I would feel less fearful that she is with some other man. Since you can't change your wife, I wonder what it is that you want for yourself. I want to feel secure. In what context do you want to feel secure? I want to feel secure with or without my wife by my side. How are you feeling at this moment?
Nick:
Therapist: Nick: Therapist:
Nick: Therapist:
Nick: Therapist: (Pause) Nick:
I'm feeling intense jealousy.
Therapist:
Will you begin to describe your experience of jealousy? Well, I can feel the anxiety burning in my stomach. I feel tension in my chest and pressure around my face. I just feel real scared. My hands are feeling cold and clammy. I'm really having a hard time breathing. Are there any images that accompany those feelings? I see my wife in the arms of another man. I picture her laughing and having fun with this guy. I hear her telling him that she loves him and now they are kissing. I visualize them running off together and I'm feeling alone. This lousy movie keeps playing over and over again in my head and my jealousy gets worse. Do you have any facts that suggest your wife is having an affair? No. I heard you say earlier that you want to feel secure. Yes, that's what I want. Will you describe what feeling secure is like for you? For me, security is a warm feeling in my lower chest and stomach. With that feeling comes a sense of relaxation.
Nick:
Therapist:
Nick:
Therapist:
Nick: Therapist:
Nick: Therapist:
Nick:
Therapist: (Pause) Nick:
Can you feel that experience now?
Therapist:
Yes, I can feel the warmth in my chest and stomach. I'm beginning to feel my muscles loosening up. My skin is feeling warm and my face flushed. The lights in this room seem to have softened. My voice sounds more even and softer as I hear myself speak. Are you experiencing any internal images and/or sounds? I see myself standing tall and appearing confident. Are you with anyone in this image? No, I'm alone. And where are you? I'm at home. Now Nick, what I want you to do is take a moment and step into that picture, feeling those feelings of being there. Okay.
Nick: Therapist: Nick: Therapist: Nick: Therapist:
Nick: (Pause) Therapist: Nick:
What are you experiencing? Security.
Nick returned the following week and reported an absence of jealousy and a renewed sense of security. As
shown in the transcript, the therapist worked with the client to transform an ill-formed goal (his wife staying home all the time) into a well-formed goal (the feeling of security). Once a well-formed outcome had been established, the therapist facilitated the session by asking the client to fully describe both the present state and the desired state. In each of these descriptions, the therapist facilitated the client to develop a full representation of each state. The process of building a full representation, via description, allowed the client to extend his model of the world and to expand his awareness of the visual and auditory portions of experience that were formerly out of conscious awareness. Many times, a client will enter therapy with an issue that presents itself in only one of the sensory modalities, for example, the experience of an uncomfortable feeling or a visual "hallucination." By facilitating the client's building of a fuller representation of the experience, including all sensory modalities, the therapist can assist the client to extend his/her world model, thus creating more options and choices.
Transcript
Karen is a forty-two year old attorney with the stated problem of depression that is manifested by the symptoms oflack of concentration, insomnia, loss of energy, and free floating anxiety. Therapist: Karen: What do you want for yourself today? I want to get a handle on my depression. Is there anything currently happening in your life that warrants you feeling depressed?
Therapist:
Karen: Therapist: Karen:
No, I don't think so. Would you take a moment and describe your depression? I feel tired all the time. The quality of my work is suffering because I'm having a hard time concentrating. From time to time, I become overwhelmed with anxiety and, lately, I have been waking up in the middle of the night. What is the waking up all about? I've been having horrible nightmares. It seems that each of them is different. However, in each dream there is a tragedy, a loss, an accident, sometimes death. I feel frightened. (Karen begins crying as her skin color pales and her breathing rate becomes erratic.)
Therapist: Karen:
(Pause) Therapist: I understand that you are feeling upset and I'm wondering if you have ever experienced such tragedy in your life? (Continues crying) Yes, a long time ago. Will you describe that experience? I was only twenty-three, just out of nursing school, and Ijoined the army. I wanted to help but I wasn't prepared for the horrors of Vietnam.
Karen:
Therapist: Karen:
There was so much suffering, so much death. (Karen begins to sob heavily and places her face in her hands.) Therapist: (Reaches out and takes Karen's hand) I understand that Vietnam was a painful experience for you; however, you are here now with me.
(Pause) Karen: That was a horrible experience. (Stops crying) So terrible that when I came back from Vietnam, I gave up my nursing career and went to law school. I'm wondering if you could comfortably sit here with me, feeling a sense of safety and protection, as you describe your experience of Vietnam as though you were narrating a movie? As you do so, you can continue feeling the comfort and safety of the present while experiencing the images and sounds of your past.
Therapist:
(Pause) Karen: I can see the chaos of war. The hospital is filled with injured and dying soldiers. The corridors are lined with patients, many of whom are screaming in agony. I can see myself being overwhelmed by the
pain and sorrow of the patients. I can see the tension and tiredness in my face. There was just too much to do and not enough time or energy to take care of all those who needed help. (Pause) Therapist: Now that you have experienced your past from a different perspective, what new understandings have you gained? I realize that I have attempted to block much of those experiences. However, they have continued to haunt me in the forms of depression and nightmares. Mter witnessing my past, I realize that my depression and anxiety was appropriate back then, but now with this new perspective, I can let go of the past and get on with my life.
Karen:
In the previous transcript, the therapist worked with the client utilizing meta-description in order to create a new experience of a traumatic event in her past. This intervention assisted the clien t in extending her model of the world.
Referential Index Shift

Referential index shift is a process that allows a client to make shifts in his/her sensory representations in order to perceive an experience from a different perspective. The use of this pattern is an example of the creative utilization
of distortion. Referential index shift can be utilized by having the client describe a particular situation from different vantage points. In this case, the therapist has the client describe a situation from various spatial coordinates similarly to having a person walk around a piece of sculpture and describe it from different angles. A variation on this process is to have the client describe how another person (friend, family member, spouse) would perceive the situation. As in all descriptive interventions it is important, when using referential index shift, to assist the client to create a description that includes all parameters of experience.
Transcript
The client is a twenty-eight year old male who was referred by the Employee Assistance Program at a local automotive plant with the stated problem of conflict with co-workers and supervision on the job. The client was seen three times prior to the following session and the therapist noticed that the client had a tendency to view issues from a rather one-sided perspective. Therapist: Client: Therapist: Client: How are you today? Not so good. What's going on? Well, I got into trouble at work again yesterday. What happened? My foreman yelled at me for missing the day before and, when I came back late from my break, the line was backed up andJohn, the guy
Therapist: Client:
who works next to me, asked me why I always make a mess of things. Therapist: Client: How do you feel about this? I feel that it's unfair. I've worked there for eight years and I pay my union dues monthly. Nobody there likes their job. It's just that I'm more honest about it. I have the right to miss a few days here and there and a lot of people come back late from breaks. If I had a good union, the boss wouldn't be harassing me. I understand how you feel, but I wonder if you can see this issue from a different perspective, perhaps that of a co-worker? Well, I think John probably sees me as being irresponsible which makes his job harder. He would say that work would go smoother and faster if I had a better attitude about work. How about from the perspective of your foreman? My foreman would see me as a good worker when I am there but that I miss too much time and I'm late too often. I think he would also say that people like me make his job harder. I guess he gets angry. What about from the perspective of your union steward? He sees me as a pest and would
Therapist:
Client:
Therapist: Client:
Therapist: Client:
probably say that I'm a complainer. I guess he gets pretty frustrated with me too. Therapist: Client: What have you gained from viewing these different perspectives? I need to be more aware of how my behavior affects me and other people.
Time Projection
Time projection is a process whereby a client moves backward or forward in his/her experience of time in order to describe experiences that exist in these other time frames. The process of description, when used in time projection, assists the client to expand his/her model of the world by freeing up resources that are either frozen in the past or unrevealed in the future. There are clients who, upon entering treatment, state that a particular event in their past is somehow restricting their options in the present. In such a case, time projection is a tool that assists the client to re-experience the event and then describe it. This process facilitates change byexpanding the client's model of the world and increasing his/her choices. Time projection can also be used to assist the client to move forward in his/her experience of the future in order to gain access to resources that exist in the realm of possibilities and/or to "try on" a change. In addition to being an effective method for gaining access to the desired state and verifying the desirability of a change, future time projection can serve as a test for possible ecological ramifications.
Transcript
Terry is a twenty-six year old single female who entered therapy with the stated problem of depression and anxiety. Terry's case history revealed that she is an only child and that her father died of cancer when she was eight years old. Terry's mother is retired and in good health. Terry also disclosed that she is in a six year relationship in which she is verbally and physically abused. Therapist: Client: How is the situation at your home? Unbearable, I can't stand being with him anymore. What stops you from leaving? I've tried leaving in the past and each time I get so overwhelmed with fear, I return to be with him. It's the same feeling as when my dad died. I'm still afraid of being alone. I still carry around a sense of embarrassment about being alone and the anxiety of wondering if I can make it. I wonder if you would be willing to go into your past and describe how you experienced the loss of your father. .
Therapist: Client:
Therapist:
(Pause) Client: I feel helpless and scared. I feel angry and even embarrassed that I don't have a dad. I worry about how my mother and I will make it. I also
worry that my mother might die and then I will really be alone. My future looks dim. I never want to be left again. I never want to be alone. Therapist: Client: What have you gained from descrilr ing that experience from your past? I realize how much the death of my father has affected me in my relationship with my boyfriend. I also realize now that I'm not eight years old anymore and I'm capable of taking care of myself.
In the previous transcript, the therapist utilized time projection to assist the client with moving into her experience of the past in order to free her from the restrictions imposed by early life experiences.
Transcript
Chris is a twenty-six year old single male who entered therapy in order to explore self-esteem issues. The following transcript illustrates the use of future time projection as a method of facilitating goal achievement. Therapist: Chris: Therapist: Chris: Therapist: What specific change do you want for yourself? I would like to feel more attractive. In what context would you like to feel this way? When I'm in a social situation. What would having this change do for
Chris:
you? I would feel better about myself, more relaxed and more confident. Let's pretend for just a moment that it is three months into the future and you have achieved your goal of feeling more attractive. Okay. Close your eyes and make a clear visual image of what you look like being attractive. I see myself standing erect, shoulders nicely held back, head high with a slight smile on my face. I'm five or ten pounds thinner. Also, I see that my hair is professionally styled and I have on a well-tailored suit, white shirt, and silk tie. Good, now take a moment and step into the image.
Therapist:
Chris: Therapist:
Chris:
Therapist:
(Pause) Chris: Therapist: Chris: Okay. Describe your experience of being attractive. I feel relaxed and confident. My voice tone sounds deep and smooth. I'm aware that my breathing rate is even (pause) and the voice in my head is saying positive things. How does the world look to you?
Therapist:
Chris: Therapist:
Bright, friendly, and alive. Will you stand up and walk around my office in order to get a feel for an attractive gait? Okay (stands up and begins walking about the room). I feel graceful and sturdy. It must be nice to know that you have the resources of being attractive available to you and can now utilize them in your day-to-day life.
Chris:
Therapist:
Paradoxical Intervention
Down through the ages, the issue of paradox has fascinated logicians, philosophers and linguists. In simple terms, a paradox is a contradiction. That is, a paradox by its very nature is a situation in which the impossible appears to exist. One of the most famous paradoxes is Epimenides' Paradox or the liar's paradox: Epimenides, the Cretan, states, "All Cretans are liars." Paradox, in formal logic, occurs when logical levels are mixed. An illustration of the role oflogicallevels in paradox may be found in the following example of a librarian attempting to fully catalog the contents of a library. If the librarian develops a book that is an index containing all of the books in the library, how should the index itself be indexed? Since the index contains information about the other books in the library, it is at a higher logical level than the other books. In order to completely catalog the library, the index must be included in an index. Thus, there would need to be a meta-index that in turn would need to be included in a meta-meta-index if the cataloging is to be
complete. This process could be infinite and the catalog would never be all inclusive. Another example of a paradox is illustrated by the following:
The statement within this frame is untrue.
A paradox can be presented behaviorally as well as linguistically. The paradoxical injunction "be spontaneous" is an example of both a behavioral and a pragmatic paradox. A pragmatic paradox is a paradox in which a person is placed in a double bind; that is, a person is placed in a situation in which he/she has no choice. In the aforementioned pragmatic paradox, as soon as a person attempts to act on the injunction, he/she cannot. (Weeks, L'Abate, 1982) In 1956, Gregory Bateson, Don D. Jackson, Jay Haley and John H. Weakland published a paper entitled Toward a Theory of Schizophrenia. Within this paper, the authors described the role which the double bind (pragmatic paradox) plays in the development of schizophrenia. In the following passage, the ingredients necessary for a pathogenic double bind are described:
l. Two or more persons. Of these, we designate one, for purposes of our definition, as the "victim." We do not assume that the double bind is inflicted by the mother alone, but that it may be done either
by mother alone or by some combination of mother, father, and/or siblings. 2. Repeated experience. We assume that the double bind is a recurrent theme in the experience of the victim. Our hypothesis does not invoke a single traumatic experience, but such repeated experience that the double bind structure comes to be an habitual expectation. 3. A primary negative injunction. This may have either of two forms: (a) "Do not do so and so, or I will punish you," or (b) "If you do not do so and so, I will punish you." Here we select a context of learning based on avoidance of punishment rather than a context of reward seeking. There is perhaps no formal reason for this selection. We assume that the punishment may be either the withdrawal of love or the expression of hate or anger - or most devastating - the kind of abandonment that results from the parent's expression of extreme helplessness. 4. A secondary injunction conflicting with the first at a more abstract level, and like the first enforced by punishments or signals which threaten survival. This secondary injunction is more difficult to describe than the primary for two reasons. First, the secondary injunction is commonly communicated to the child by nonverbal means. Posture, gesture, tone of voice, meaningful action, and the implications concealed in verbal comment may all be used to convey this more abstract message. Second, the secondary injunction may impinge upon any element of the primary prohibition. Verbalization of the secondary injunction may, therefore, include a wide variety of forms; for example, "Do not submit to my prohibitions"; "Do not think of what you must not do"; "Do not question my love
of which the primary prohibition is (or is not) an example"; and so on. Other examples become possible when the double bind is inflicted not by one individual but by two. For example, one parent may negate at a more abstract level the injunctions of the other. 5. A tertiary negative injunction prohibiting the victim from escaping from the field. In a formal sense, it is perhaps unnecessary to list this injunction as a separate item since the reinforcement at the other two levels involves a threat to survival, and if the double binds are imposed during infancy, escape is naturally impossible. However, it seems that in some cases the escape from the field is made impossible by certain devices which are not purely negative, e.g., capricious promises of love, and the like. 6. Finally, the complete set of ingredients is no longer necessary when the victim has learned to perceive his universe in double bind patterns. Almost any part of a double bind sequence may then be sufficient to precipitate panic or rage. (Bateson, 1972, pp. 206-207) A person who is placed in a pathogenic double bind is stuck in a no-win situation and, as such, often retreats into a "schizophrenic" world as a way out of the pragmatic paradox. In contrast to the pathogenic double bind, the therapeutic paradox places the client in a no-lose situation. In the therapeutic paradox, any response made to the paradoxical intervention is an expansion of the client's model of the world and, therefore, involves movement towards the desired state. By therapeutic double binds we mean situations, imposed upon the client by the therapist, in which
70. Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality
any response by the client will be an experience, or reference structure, which lies outside the client's model of the world. Thus, therapeutic double binds implicitly challenge the client's model by forcing him into an experience which contradicts the impoverishing limitations of his model. This experience then comes to serve as a reference structure which expands the client's model of the world. (Bandler, Grinder, 1975, p.169) In order to adequately describe the role of paradoxical intervention in the change process, it is necessary to differentiate between first-order change and second-order change. First-order change is a change that is made within a system or reference structure. Second-order change is a change in the system or reference structure itself. Thus, second-order change is at a higher logical level than firstorder change. Second-order change is change of change. Paradoxical intervention is an example of second-order change because such intervention allows the client to create a new reference structure regarding the identified problem or symptom. (Watzlawick, Weakland, Fisch, 1974) One of the most widely used forms of therapeutic paradox is that of symptom prescription. In symptom prescription, the therapist not only paces the client by accepting his/her presenting symptom(s) but encourages the client to continue experiencing the symptom, however, with some qualifications. These qualifications usually involve issues such as the following: when the symptom will occur, to what degree of intensity, how often, and/or in which con text (s). By using this form of pragmatic paradox, the therapist: (1) paces the client by accepting the symptom, (2) refuses to enter into a power struggle with the client regarding the symptom, (3) gives directives that presuppose that the client has control of the symptom, (4) assists the client to break free of the circularly reinforcing meta-
loop which is further perpetuating the symptom, and (5) creates a double bind in which the client either gives up the symptom or gains control over the symptom, thus facilitating movement toward the desired state. The following case studies, the first from the work of Victor Frankl, M.D. and the second from that of the late Milton H. Erickson, M.D., are excellent examples of symptom prescription: A young physician consulted me because of his fear of perspiring. Whenever he expected an outbreak of perspiration, this anticipatory anxiety was enough to precipitate excessive sweating. In order to cut this circle formation I advised the patient, in the event that sweating should recur, to resolve deliberately to show people how much he could sweat. A week later he returned to report that whenever he met anyone who triggered his anticipatory anxiety, he said to himself, "I only sweated out a quart before, but now I'm going to pour at least ten quarts!" The result was that, after suffering from his phobia for four years, he was able, after a single session, to free himself permanen tly ofit within one week. (Frankl, 1959, p. 196)
Concerning psychotherapy, most therapists overlook a basic consideration. Man is characterized not only by mobility but by cognition and by emotion, and man defends his intellect emotionally. No two people necessarily have the same ideas, but all people will defend their ideas whether they are psychotically based or culturally based, or nationally based or personally based. When you understand how man really defends his intellectual ideas and
how emotional he gets about it, you should realize that the first thing in psychotherapy is not to try to compel him to change his ideation; rather, you go along with it and change it in a gradual fashion and create situations wherein he himself willingly changes his thinking. I think my first real experiment in psychotherapy occurred in 1930. A patient in Worcester State Hospital, in Massachusetts, demanded he be locked in his room, and he spent his time anxiously and fearfully winding string around the bars of the window of the room. He knew his enemies were going to come in and kill him, and the window was the only opening. The thick iron bars seemed to him to be too weak, so he reinforced them with string. I went into the room and helped him reinforce the iron bars with string. In doing so, I discovered that there were cracks in the floor and suggested that those cracks ought to be stuffed with newspaper so that there was no possibility (of his enemies getting him), and then I discovered cracks around the door that should be stuffed with newspaper, and gradually I got him to realize that the room was only one of a number of rooms on the ward, and to accept the attendants as a part of his defense against his enemies, and then the hospital itself as a part of his defense against his enemies, and then the Board of Mental Health of Massachusetts as part, and then the police system - the governor. And then I spread it to adjoining states and finally I made the United States a part of his defense system; this enabled him to dispense with the locked door because he had so many other lines of defense. I didn't try to correct his psychotic idea that his enemies would kill him, I merely pointed out that he had an endless number of defenders. The result was; the patient was able to accept
ground privileges and wander around the grounds safely. He ceased his frantic endeavors. He worked in the hospital shops and was much less of a problem. (Erickson, Zeig, 1980, pp. 335-336) In the aforementioned case studies, both therapists accepted their client's symptoms and prescribed the symptoms with some qualifications. In each of these studies, the paradoxical intervention provided relief from the anticipatory symptoms and allowed the client to give up the presenting symptoms. Paradoxical intervention, byaccepting the client's symptoms and working to expand his/her model of the world, facilitates the change process. The following case studies further illustrate the use of paradoxical intervention.
Case Study A
Jane is a thirty year old woman who is successfully self-employed.Jane entered treatmentwith the stated problem of anxiety relating to business issues. Jane described an inability to erUoy leisure time as a result of constantly worrying over her business. When Jane began treatment, it was apparen t that her anxiety served a positive inten t in that it motivated her to achieve results in her business transactions. The problem, however, was thatJane's anxiety had become overgeneralized and was intruding into other areas of her life. I decided to use paradoxical intervention in order to assist Jane in achieving her treatment goal of remaining efficient in business while also enjoying a social life. During the second therapy session, I instructed Jane to spend one hour per day, from 8:00 to 9:00 a.m., writing down everything that she should worry about for that day and to be sure that her list included everything! Jane agreed to follow my directive and when she returned two weeks
later she reported that she was handling her business much more efficiently. In addition,jane stated that her social life had improved immensely because she no longer was taking work home or worrying about business matters during her leisure time.
Case Study B
Roberta entered treatment stating that she was a compulsive cleaner and had previously been diagnosed as an obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. Roberta reported that she is constantly looking for dirt in her house and she is always either cleaning or yelling at other family members to do their chores. Roberta also indicated that she often re-cleans after her family members have completed their chores because they don't know how to "clean right." Mter a couple of interviews, I instructed Roberta to spend the following week waking up one hour earlier and, with pencil and pad in hand, make a listing of all things that she would do if she was a "really good housekeeper." The client, after laughing for a few moments, reluctantly agreed to follow my directives. During the next session, Roberta stated that she followed my directives for two days until she saw how silly her list had become and then decided to enjoy the extra hour of morning sleep. Roberta also stated that she no longer felt compelled to clean house.
Exaggeration
Exaggeration is a type of paradoxical intervention that is similar to symptom prescription. However, when using exaggeration the therapist not only paces the client's symptoms but does so in an extremely amplified form. The use of exaggeration often elicits a polarity response from
the client; that is, the client will adopt a position directly opposite to that of his/her original position (symptom). In other cases, the use of exaggeration will bring forth a response that qualifies the symptom, thus placing it into a more reasonable perspective. Exaggeration opens up new possibilities and expands the client's often restricted model of the world either by eliciting a yet-unrevealed polarity or by placing the symptom in a less severe frame of reference. The following case study from the work of Frank Farrelly illustrates the use of exaggeration with a severely disturbed client. As an example, a student therapist in a supervisory conference asked, "Now what do I do? I've got a patient that claims she's Christ's mistress." Mter a brief discussion, we decided that the student would become the third woman in the eternal triangle, beating her patient's time with Jesus. With coaching, the student (who was physically attractive and a plausible-looking candidate for the role of Christ's mistress in contrast to the patient who looked like a Mack truck with elephantiasis) was encouraged to ridicule the patient's ideation by claiming that she, the student, was Christ's real, favorite mistress! The student was urged to make statements such as "When I had my legs around Jesus the other night, He told me He was going to drop you in favor of me. He told me all about you and what a dull lump you are to screw." She was to tell the patient lengthy and specific details about her highly satisfying sexual and personal relationship, while making invidious comparisons between her and the patient's relationship with Jesus. I also assured the student, who had religious sensibilities, that God would not strike her dead, that He would not regard this as "blasphemy", and
that since God was omniscient, it was a cinch that He understood the purpose and meaning of provocative therapy. And, who knows, He might even give it His blessing with this poor delusional woman. Three interviews later the patient in a very embarrassed manner was asking the student to "Quit talking in that crazy way. I didn't even half believe it when I was saying all that nutty stuff." And thus endeth a four year delusional system. (Farrelly, Brandsma, 1974, p.107) In the previous case, the therapist entered into the non-shared reality of the client in an exaggerated way, thus eliciting responses that was more closely aligned with consensus reality.
Case Study C
The client, a thirty-six year old woman, entered the session stating that she was having problems with her fourteen year old daughter, Mary. The client reported that her daughter constandy stayed home from school and complained of being ill; however, when taken to the physician, she was always found to be healthy. When Mary stayed home from school, she spent the day drinking pop, watching t.v., listening to the radio and wandering around the house "having a good time." However, when she was forced to go to school, she told her teacher that she was sick and was then sent home. I suggested to the client that the next time her daughter stays home from school that she treat her as if she were really sick. That is, to keep her in bed with no lV, radio or phone, give her plenty ofjuices and especially lots of pampering. Furthermore, if Mary makes any inquiry as to the reason for the special treatment; the only explanation that is to be given is, "Mter all, you are sick and I want
you to get well." The client followed through with my directives and after a couple days of pampering, Mary began to attend school as scheduled.
Case Study D
A very attractive young woman was referred to me by a psychiatrist who recommended supportive substance abuse counseling in addition to weekly psychiatric care. I saw this client over a period of several weeks for chemical dependency related issues. At the onset of one of our sessions, the client began by saying: "I'm leaving for Hollywood tomorrow. You are aware that I am Brooke Shields. I have been offered a wonderful part in a love story and guess what? I will be playing opposite Robert Redford." The client spoke for several moments on her new movie script and the preparations for her trip to Hollywood. Mter listening to the client describe her experience, I responded: "I've seen pictures of Brooke Shields and saw her once in a movie. I think you are much, much prettier than her." I looked intensely at the client as we simultaneously took a deep breath and endured a moment of silence. The client's skin flushed as she said, "I'm not Brooke Shields, I'm Penny."
Reframing
Reframing is a therapeutic tool that allows the therapist to assist the client in transforming experiences that were once perceived as liabilities into assets. The process of reframing takes an experience that the client considers to be negative and places it into a positive frame, thereby changing the entire meaning of the experience.
To reframe, then, means to change the conceptual and/ or emotional setting or viewpoint in relation to which a situation is experienced and to place it in another frame which fits the "facts" of the same concrete situation equally well or even better, and thereby changes its entire meaning. (Watzlawick, Weakland, Fisch, 1974, p. 95) Experience in and of itself has no meaning. It is the judgments (thoughts and feelings) about the experience which renders it meaning. Reframing is an example of second-order change because reframing works to change the context in which an experience is perceived. That is, in reframing, the experience itself is not changed, it is the client's perceptions of the experience that are changed. A client's thoughts and feelings aboutan experience are metato the experience and, as such, are at a higher logical level. Since reframing operates at a meta-level, it provides tools for changing one's perceptions of an experience even though the experience itself may be unchangeable.
Content Reframing
Content reframing is a linguistic pattern that allows the therapist to systematically redefine the meaning of a specific experience. This redefinition changes the client's internal response to the experience which thereby provides an additional reference structure in the client's model of the world. By providing an additional reference structure, the client's world model is expanded, thus resulting in the opportunity for additional choices/ options. The following case study is an exquisite example of content reframing: During a seminar in New York, a couple asked for help with a very specific and somewhat unusual
problem. It seemed that the carpeting in their house was very plush and showed every footprint. Now this was, of course, not a problem in and of itself, but the woman was compulsive about vacuuming the carpet so no footprints showed. Since everytime anyone walked on it there were footprints, she did a lot of vacuuming. This drove everyone crazy, and was a source of tremendous tension between her and her husband. Everytime she looked at the footprinted carpet, she felt bad and did not feel good until she had vacuumed it. Mter listening to this description, I asked myself how footprints on the carpet could be experienced as a positive occurrence by this woman in a way that she will not feel the need to constantly vacuum. The answer made my task an easy one. I asked her to close her eyes and see her carpeted home - to see that the carpet was perfect, not a single strand out of place. And as she was enjoying seeing the carpet so perfect, I told her she could become aware that there was also complete silence in her house; and as she listened to the silence, she could realize she was all alone. Her loved ones were gone and she was all alone with her perfect carpet. It was only now, I told her, that she would finally realize that every footprint that appeared on that carpet was a sign that her loved ones were near, and that she was with her family. So each time in the future, whenever she would see a footprint on the carpet, she could feel the closeness of her family and the love she felt towards them. Like Mother's Day presents saved year after year, each footprint could be looked upon warmly. Mter all, I said to her, whose small or large foot had stepped there for her to see? By doing what I did, I reframed "footprints on the carpet" to trigger warm, loving feelings rather
than compulsive cleanliness. As strange as this may sound, it worked with her and, really, it makes more sense to feel good about footprints than it does to feel bad about them. (Cameron-Bandler, 1985, pp.161-162) The following brief transcripts are further illustrations of content reframing. 1. My childhood was terrible. My Client: mother was always too busy for me, my father was never home, and my older brother was constantly hitting me. Isn't it a relief to know that your pain Therapist: is in the past and that having lived through those experiences made you the strong person that you are today?
2.
Client: My mother is really driving me nuts. She is constantly bugging me. She wants to know where I go, what I do, who I see. She wants me to get good grades in school and dress nice. Ijust wish she would quit bugging me. Thank God that she loves you enough to put that much energy into your well-being.
Therapist:
Six-Step Reframing
The six-step reframing model rests on the presupposition that all behavior is adaptive given the context in which it was learned and that behind all behavior there exists a
positive intent. (Dilts, 1983) The purpose of this formal six-step procedure is to work with the client in order to separate the behavior (symptom) from the intent and to satisfy the secondary gains involved in the situation. The following are the six steps of the reframing model (Cameron-Bandler, 1985, Kostere, Malatesta, 1985):
(I) Identify the behavior/symptom and contact the part that generates the behavior. (2) Separate the intention from the behavior. (3) Verify that the intention is positive. (4) Have the creative part generate three new ways to satisfy the intention and verify that the part responsible for the old behavior agrees that the new ways will satisfy the intention. (5) Determine ifthe part responsible for the behavior is willing to use these new options in place of the old behavior. (A time limit may be necessary.) Have the part responsible for the behavior implement these three new options in the place of the old behavior. (6) Verify that all parts agree to this new arrangement (ecological check). Ifthere are any objections to this arrangement, backtrack to step 2. If there are no objections, have the client thank all parts for their cooperation.
Transcript
Ethel is a fifty-five year old woman who has a long history of excessive alcohol usage. Within the past two months, she completed a twenty-eight day inpatient rehabilitation program. Therapist: Ethel: How are you today? I've been feeling terrible.
Therapist: Ethel: Therapist: Ethel:
About what? I can't stop thinking about alcohol. How specifically are you thinking about alcohol? Well, I keep having this picture in my mind of a cold glass of beer and, you know, sometimes I can even taste it. What feelings go along with that picture? I feel anxious and afraid that I'm going to take a drink. Are there any particular times when you have this experience? Yes, when I'm alone. How often are you alone? A great deal of time. Have you always spent a great deal of the time alone? No, I used to go to bars, parties and I belonged to a bowling league but all those activities involved drinking. Since I've been sober, I've become more and more isolated. All right. What I want you to do is to go inside and ask the part of yourself responsible for thinking about alcohol ifit has a positive intention?
Therapist: Ethel:
Therapist: Ethel: Therapist: Ethel: Therapist: Ethel:
Therapist:
(Pause) Ethel:
(Eyes closed) I don't know.
Therapist: Ethel: Therapist:
What did you experience? I saw a cold glass of beer. Okay, go inside and ask the part of yourself responsible for thinking about drinking if it has a positive intent, and if the answer is yes, have that part signal you with the image of a cold glass of beer. I saw a cold glass of beer. Are you aware that you have a creative part? Yes. Go inside and ask your creative part to make contact with the part responsible for thinking about drinking and ask if your creative part will create three new ways to satisfy that positive intent. If the answer is yes, have the image of a cold glass of beer appear. I saw the image. Good. Have your creative part signal you with the image once it has generated the three new ways to satisfy the intent.
Ethel: Therapist: Ethel: Therapist:
Ethel: Therapist:
(Pause) Ethel: Therapist:
I saw the image. Fine. Now ask the part responsible for thinking about drinking if she would review these three new ways to satisfy the positive intent. If she
agrees that they will take care of you in the place of the old behavior (thinking about drinking), to signal you with the image. (Pause) Ethel: Therapist: I saw the image. Now go inside and ask if the part responsible for thinking about drinking is willing to be responsible to implement these three new ways in place of the old behavior for the next three months, and if so, to signal you with the image. I saw the image. Now, thank your creative part and the part responsible for thinking about drinking for working with you in this special way.
Ethel: Therapist:
(Pause) Ethel: Therapist: Okay, I thanked them. Ask your creative part and the part of yourself responsible for thinking about drinking to be still and ask if any other parts have any objections to these new arrangements.
(Pause) Ethel: I didn't get any objections.
Therapist:
Fine, these arrangements will cover the next three months and if they work for you they can continue indefinitely. However, if any new arrangements need to be made, this can occur in the naturally integrative time known as sleep and dreaming.
Contextual Reframing
In some cases, a behavior (symptom) causes a problem in a person's life because it has become detached from the context in which it was useful. In other words, the behavior has become overgeneralized. Contextual reframing is a process whereby the therapist works with the client to reattach the behavior to the context(s) in which it is appropriate and eliminate it from all other contexts. (Cameron-Bandler, 1985; Kostere, Malatesta, 1985) The following are the six steps used in contextual reframing: 1. Identify the behavior/symptom and contact the part that generates the behavior. 2. Separate the intention from the behavior. 3. Verify that the intention is positive. 4. Have the part responsible for the behavior along with the creative part determine in which context(s) the behavior serves the positive intention. 5. Have the part responsible for the behavior be responsible to implement the behavior only in the appropriate context(s) .
6. Verify that all of the parts agree to this new arrangement (ecological check).
Transcript
Jennifer is a twenty-two year old woman who entered therapy with the stated problem of anxiety. During the initial interview, Jennifer reported that she was molested several months ago by her former boss and has since generalized her anxiety in such a way as to fear all men. Therapist: Jennifer: What change do you want for yourself today? I want to be able to be comfortable around men. All men? Well, no. I would like to feel comfortable around the men I work with and I would like to begin dating again. Fine. Go inside and ask the part responsible for generating your anxiety if it has any positive intention.
Therapist: Jennifer:
Therapist:
(Pause) Jennifer: Therapist: All I got was a feeling of anxiety. All right. Now, go inside and ask the part of you responsible for the anxiety if it has a positive intent and, if so, to signal you by having those feelings recur. I had the feelings again.
Jennifer:
Therapist:
Since that part of you has a positive intent, ask that part along with the help of your creative part to sort through the possible contexts or situations where the anxiety truly serves the positive intent and functions in a useful way. Once those parts have secured the contexts where the anxiety does serve a positive function, have it signal you with the feelings.
(Pause) Jennifer: Therapist: Okay. I had the feelings again. Go inside and ask the part of yourself responsible for the anxiety if she would be in charge of allowing the anxiety to occur only in the contexts where it serves the positive function for the next three months. If she grees, have her signal you.
(Pause) Jennifer: Therapist: I got the feelings. Okay. Now, thank those parts for cooperating with you in this way. However, ask them to be silent and ask if any other parts object to this new arrangement.
(Pause)
Jennifer: Therapist:
There are no objections. These arrangements will cover the next three months and may continue indefinitely. However, if at any point you need to make any new negotiations, they can occur during the dream process.
Paradoxical Intervention With Reframing

Often paradoxical intervention and content reframing are used together in order to assist the client in achieving his/her goals. The following case study from the work of the late Milton H. Erickson, M.D. is an excellent example of how these powerful therapeutic tools can be used together. A twenty-one year old girl came to Erickson and said she wanted help. She would like to get a husband and have a home and children, but she had never had a boyfriend and felt she was hopeless and destined to be an old maid. She said, "I think I'm too inferior to live. I've got no friends, I stay by myself, and I'm too homely to get married. I thought I'd see a psychiatrist before I committed suicide. I'm going to try you for three months time, and then if things aren't straightened out, that's the end." The young lady worked as a secretary in a construction firm and had no social life. She had never dated. A young man at her office showed up at the drinking fountain each time she did, but even though she found him attractive and he made overtures, she ignored him and never spoke to him. She
lived alone and her parents were dead. The girl was pretty, but she managed to make herself unattractive because her hair was straggly and uneven, her blouse and skirt didn't match, there was a rip in her skirt, and her shoes were scuffed and unpolished. Her main physical defect, according to her, was a gap between her front teeth, which she covered with her hand as she talked. The gap was actually about one-eighth of an inch wide and not unsightly. Generally, this was a girl going downhill, heading for suicide, feeling helpless about herself, and resisting any acts that would help her achieve her goal of getting married and having children. Erickson approached this problem with two major interventions. He proposed to the girl that since she was going downhill anyhow, she might as well have one last fling. This last fling would include taking the money she had in the bank and spending it on herself. She was to go to a particular store where a woman would help her select a tasteful outfit, and to a particular beauty shop where she would have her hair properly done. The girl was willing to accept the idea, since it was not a way of improving herself but part of going downhill and merely having a last fling. Then Erickson gave her a task. She was to go home and in the privacy of her bathroom practice squirting water through the gap between her front teeth until she could achieve a distance of six feet with accuracy. She thought this was silly, but it was partly the absurdity ofit that made her go home and practice squirting water conscientiously. When the girl was dressed properly, looking attractive, and skillful at squirting water through the gap in her teeth, Erickson made a suggestion to her.
90 Maps. Models. and the Structure of Reality
He proposed that when she went to work the following Monday she playa practical joke. When that young man appeared at the water fountain at the same time she did, she was to take a mouthful of water and squirt it at him. Then she was to turn and run, but not merely run; she was to start to run toward the young man and turn and "run like hell down the corridor." The girl rejected this idea as impossible. Then she thought of it as a somewhat amusing but crude fantasy. Finally she decided to do it. She was in a mood for a last fling anyhow. On Monday she went to work dressed in her new outfit and with her hair done. She went to the water fountain, and when the young man approached, she filled her mouth with water and squirted it on him. The young man said something like "you damn little bitch." This made her laugh as she ran, and the young man took after and caught her. To her consternation, he grabbed her and kissed her. The next day the young lady approached the water fountain with some trepidation, and the young man sprang out from behind a telephone booth and sprayed her with a water pistol. The next day they went out to dinner together. She returned to Erickson and reported what had happened. She said she was revising her opinion about herself and wanted him to do a critical review of her. He did, pointing out, among other things, that she had cooperated well with him, that she had dressed badly before but now dressed well, and that she had previously thought she had a dental defect instead of an asset. Within a few months, she sent Erickson a newspaper clipping reporting her marriage to the young man and a year later a picture of her new baby. (Haley, 1973, pp. 71-72)
In the aforementioned case study, Dr. Erickson used a combination of paradoxical intervention and reframing in order to facilitate the change process. Dr. Erickson used symptom prescription in working with his client by prescribing her symptom (suicidal plans) with some qualifications (buying new clothes and getting a different hair style). Erickson also reframed the client's space between her teeth, thus transforming a physical characteristic that she believed to be a liability into an attractive asset.
Metaphor
The purpose of medicine is power. You go to a psychiatrist and he tells you your head is fouled up. What he's doing is helping you to introspect and learn about your own character. But since native people have observed the four-leggeds and winged ones and all the forces of nature for thousands of years, we know your closest kinship. When I tell you you're the black wolf, you look within yourself and you know that you truly are. When you understand the powers of the black wolf, you too will have those powers. All the medicines are good and have power. White people have this thing that says, "I'm not a snake. I'm not a squirrel. I'm something important." They separate, and that's their tragedy. (Andrews, 1981, p. 107) Therapeutic metaphors are teaching stories that facilitate the change process. Sheldon Kopp (1971) defines metaphor in the following passage: Generally, a metaphor is defined as a way of speaking in which one thing is expressed in terms of another, whereby this bringing together throws
new light on the character of what is being described. (p. 17) There are two types of therapeutic metaphor: isomorphic and elicitation. An isomorphic metaphor is a story that parallels, at a formal level, the presenting problem of the client. Within an isomorphic metaphor, there is a pacing and leading component, an access to conscious and/or unconscious resources and often a solution set that allows the client to choose from a number of possible solutions to the presenting problem. The theoretical construct and utilization of isomorphic metaphor has been described fully in a number of books (Gordon, 1978; Lankton, 1980; Cameron-Bandler, 1985; Kostere, Malatesta, 1985). Therefore, the remainder of this chapter is devoted to presenting the principles and applications of elicitation metaphors. An elicitation metaphor is a story that is designed to elicit a specific response. This type of metaphor is used to call forth states of consciousness and the resources that lie within them. Assisting clients to gain access to additional resources facilitates the expansion of their world models, thereby making more options/choices available. There are two concepts that are central to understanding metaphor: displaced referential index and transden'vational search. Displaced referential index refers to the "as if' quality that exists in all metaphor. Within each metaphor, there is a certain element of symbolism. The symbolism can either be abstract or concrete. Metaphors that contain abstract symbolism are known as deep metaphors. Those containing symbolism that is more concrete are called shallow metaphors. In either case, the client will usually identify with one or more of the symbols in the story and, from that perspective, interpret and internalize its meaning. Transderivational search is the means by which language is connected to experience. It is by the process of
transderivational search that the client associates the words used in the metaphor to his/her model of the world. Thus, each client's interpretation of the metaphor will be unique because the words used in the story become associated to his/her personal internal sensory representations. It is our belief that each client interprets the presented metaphor in the way that is most congruent with his/her own being and in accordance with the desired goal. The following stories are examples of elicitation metaphors:
Learning
Nan-in, a Japanese master during the Meiji era (1868-1912), received a university professor who came to inquire about Zen. Nan-in served tea. He poured his visitor's cup full, and then kept on pouring. The professor watched the overflow until he no longer could restrain himself. "It is overfull. No more will go inl" "Like this cup," Nan-in said, "you are full of your own opinions and speculations. How can I show you Zen unless you first empty your cup?" (Reps, 1939, p. 5)
Motivation
A hundred or so years ago, Pecos Bill rode into a small Texan town. Mter tying up his horse, Pecos Bill walked into the town hotel and found that no one was there. He then walked over to the saloon and found it to be empty. Pecos Bill decided to help himself to a few drinks. Mter finishing his whiskey, he walked over to the general store and again, no
one was there. Pecos Bill, being a little on the shady side, helped himself to the supplies he needed and loaded them onto his horse. As he started to untie his horse, he looked up and noticed that the front door to the bank was wide open. Pecos Bill decided to investigate further, and as he entered the bank, much to his surprise the safe was unlocked and nobody was there. Swiftly, Pecos Bill began loading all the gold into his saddle bags. Pecos Bill then mounted his horse and rode out of town heading for the Rio Grande River. A few hours later, the town's people returned from a Founder's Day picnic to find that they had been robbed. The sheriff immediately formed a posse and with great expediency, they fled to capture the culprit. By this time, Pecos Bill had reached the Rio Grande and found the river to be swollen. He thought, "My bags are so heavy, I'll surely drown." He looked toward the west and saw the great desert, sand and cactus as far as one could see. He looked toward the east and saw a range of towering mountains with snow covered caps. He looked toward the north and could see a cloud of dust far off into the distance and realized that he was being followed. Pecos Bill didn't know what to do, which way to turn, which path to take, so he sat down and pondered. He thought and thought and thought, until finally the posse arrived. The sheriff rode up to Pecos Bill, drew his gun and shot him three times until he was dead. (Grinder, 1978)
Trusting the Self

Once upon a time, long long ago there lived a very magical wizard. This wizard's name was Nicola
and he lived with his many friends in an enchanted forest. Nicola was a very conscientious wizard and spent long hours studying potions, spells, illusions and other such tricks of his trade. Even though Nicola was a skilled wizard who was held in high esteem by his peers, he sometimes felt like something was missing in his life. Nicola often thought of a story told to him by his mentor when he was a young apprentice. The story was about a crystal pyramid, located in the purple desert, that held the secret to the magic of reflections. Nicola remembered that his teacher told him that learning the magic of reflections was the most important lesson of wizardry. One day Nicola set out on a journey to find the crystal pyramid and learn its secrets. The journey was long and as he crossed the sands of time he met many perils, encountered numerous hardships. On several occasions, Nicola considered turning back, returning to his comfortable forest and giving up his quest; however, driven by the desire to learn, he continued on. Finally, the now-tired wizard came upon the crystal pyramid and was in awe of its wondrous beauty. The wizard, determined to discover the secrets of its magic, gazed into the colorful glass but each time saw only an image of himself. No matter which angle he chose, he was able to see only himself, with each image being slightly different due to the formation of the crystal. After quite some time, Nicola began the journey back home taking with him a deep sense of confusion. The disappointed wizard felt that he had gained no new insight and he continued to ask himself, "What did this experience mean?" Suddenly, with a flash of insight, the answer to Nicola's question became clear and he was able to live peacefully in the
enchanted forest knowing that he had truly found the most powerful magic of all. (Kostere, Malatesta, 1988)
Congruency
A mother brought her young son to Mahatma Gandhi. She begged, "Please, Mahatma. Tell my son to stop eating sugar." Gandhi paused, then said, "Bring your son back in two weeks." Puzzled, the woman thanked him and said that she would do as he had asked. Two weeks later, she returned with her son. Gandhi looked the youngster in the eye and said, "Stop eating sugar." Grateful but bewildered, the woman asked, ''Why did you tell me to bring him back in two weeks? You could have told him the same thing then." Gandhi replied, "Two weeks ago, I was eating sugar." (Millman, 1980, 1984, p. 185)
Humility
Zen students are with their masters at least ten years before they presume to teach others. Nan-in was visited by Tenno, who, having passed his apprenticeship, had become a teacher. The day happened to be rainy, so Tenno wore wooden clogs and carried an umbrella. Mter greeting him Nan-in remarked: "I suppose you left your wooden clogs in the vestibule. I want to know if your umbrella is on the right or left side of the clogs." Tenno, confused, had no instant answer. He realized that he was unable to carry his Zen every minute. He became Nan-in's pupil, and he studied six more years to
accomplish his every-minute Zen. (Reps, 1939, p.

34)
Metaphoric Reframing
Metaphoric reframing is a technique that involves . delivering a story which is designed to reframe an experience. The elegance of this technique, as in all metaphor, is that the client assigns his/her own meaning to the newly reframed experience.
A very old Chinese Taoist story describes a farmer in a poor country village. He was considered very well-to-do, because he owned a horse which he used for plowing and for transportation. One day his horse ran away. All his neighbors exclaimed how horrible this was, but the farmer simply said, "Maybe." A few days later the horse returned and brought two wild horses with it. The neighbors all rejoiced at his good fortune, but the farmer just said, "Maybe." The next day the farmer's son tried to ride one the wild horses; the horse threw him and broke his leg. The neighbors all offered their sympathy for his misfortune, but the the farmer again said, "Maybe." The next week conscription officers came to the village to take young men for the army. They rejected the farmer's son because of his broken leg. When the neighbors told him how lucky he was, the farmer replied, "Maybe." (Bandler, Grinder, 1982, p.l)
Cinnamon Face
A woman whom I had treated for pain came to see me. She said "I'm not seeing you for myself now. I want to see you about my daughter. She is eight years old. She hates her sister; she hates me; she hates her father; she hates her teacher, her schoolmates; hates the mailman, the milkman, the man in the gas station - she just plain hates everybody. She hates herself. I've tried, for a long time, to get her to go to Kansas for the summer to visit her grandparents. She hates them butshe doesn't know them." So I asked, "What's all this hate about?" "A mass of freckles on her face. The kids in school call her Freckles and she hates those freckles terribly." I said, "Where is the girl?" "She's out in the car, doesn't want to come in. She hates you because she's got freckles." I said, "Go out and bring the girl in, even if you have to use force. And bring her into this room." I sat at my desk in the other room. The mother didn't have to use force. The girl came in and stood in the doorway, her fists clenched, her jaw jutting out, glowering at me and ready for a fight. As she stood there, I looked at her and said, "You're a thiefl You steal!" She said she was not a thief and she did not steal. She could do battle on that score. "Oh, yes, you're a thief. You steal things. I even know what you stole. I even have proof that you stole." She said, "You haven't got proof. I never stoled nothin'." I said, "I even know where you were when you stole what you stole." That girl was thoroughly angry with me. I said, "I'll tell you where you were and what you stole. You were in the kitchen, setting the kitchen table. You were standing at the kitchen table. You were reaching up to
the cookie jar, containing cinnamon cookies, cinnamon buns, cinnamon rolls - and you spilled some cinnamon on your face - you're a Cinnamon Face." (Erickson, 1982, pp. 152-153)
The Eucalyptus Tree

A rancher brought his wife in to see me. He said, "She's been depressed and suicidal for nine whole months. She's got arthritis. We haven't been married very long. She developed severe arthritis and she has gone to the orthopedic surgeon for therapy. I've taken her to psychiatrists for psychotherapy. They all recommended electric shock or insulin shock when she's in her fifties." "She wants to have a baby and the orthopedist told her, "Getting pregnant may make your arthritis worse and I would advise against it since you are already sufficiently handicapped." She went to an obstetrician who said, "I wouldn't advise a pregnancy. You are very greatly handicapped and the arthritis may get worse. You may be unable to deliver the baby." Her husband brought her in to see me, carrying her. I let her tell me her story. She said pregnancy was worth more to her than life. The husband said, "I have to keep every sharp knife out of her reach." Because a suicidal patient will commit suicide despite your care - because there are many delays that can occur before suicide happens. I said, "Now madam, you say that a pregnancy is more important to you than your life. The obstetrician advises against it. The orthopedic surgeon advises against it; our psychiatrists have, also. My advice is: Get pregnant as soon as you can. If
your arthritis gets worse, you stay in bed and you can enjoy your pregnancy. Now when it comes time to deliver, you can have a caesarean section. There is no law against it. It's the sensible thing to do." So she promptly got pregnant and her arthritis improved. She lost her depression. It was a very happy nine-month pregnancy. She delivered the baby without incident and she really enjoyed Cynthia, the name she gave the baby. Her husband was very happy. Unfortunately, at the age of six months, Cynthia died of crib death. Mter some months, her husband brought her in and said, "She's worse then ever." I asked the woman about it. She said, "I just want to die. I've got no reason for living." Very harshly and meticulously, I said, 'Woman, how can you be so stupid? For nine long months, you had the happiest time of your life. You want to kill yourself and destroy those memories? That's wrong. For six long delightful months, you enjoyed Cynthia. Are you going to destroy those memories? I think it's criminally wrong." "So your husband will take you home and get you an eucalyptus sapling. You tell him where to plant it. Eucalyptus trees grow very rapidly in Arizona. I want you to name that eucalyptus sapling, Cynthia. I want you to watch Cynthia grow. I want you to look forward to the day when you can sit in the shade of Cynthia." I went out a year later to see her. The sapling had grown very rapidly (I had one at least 60 feet tall in my backyard, and it was only six years old). She welcomed me. She was no longer confined to bed or a chair. She was walking around greatly improved in her arthritis. She had flower beds that occupied more space than this entire building does. She
showed me all around her flower beds. She showed me all different kinds of flowers. She gave me an armful of sweetpeas to bring home. (Erickson in Zeig, 1980, pp. 287-288)
ECOLOGY POSTUlATES
Our model of communication and change is holistic in nature; therefore, an important issue is personal ecology. The idea of personal ecology rests on the premise that any change within a system will have an effect on the entire system. Any shift in a person's model of the world will have an impact on all parameters of that person's world model. This concept, coupled with our belief that each person makes the best choice possible given the resources that he/she has available, is the structure ofthe positive intent which underlies secondary gains. The ecology frame and reframing the reframe are two techniques that are designed to work with issues regarding personal ecology.
The Ecology Frame

The ecology frame consists of assisting the client in establishing an internal indicator that functions as a signal to notify the client if the newly acquired change in some
way violates his/her personal ecology (Grinder, 1985). This internal indicator can take the form of an internal image, sound, feeling, taste or smell, and it is usually most effective to use an indicator that is involuntary. Many clients have the ecology frame as a natural part of their internal organization. For example, a client may enter a therapist's office, establish a well-formed goal, and complete a piece of work that achieves the desired goal. However, after the goal is achieved, the client has an intuition that notifies him/her that something is not right. Frequently, this intuition is the result of the client's automatic ecology frame which is attempting to signal the client that the change has in some way violated his/her personal ecology. In this case, a secondary gain has not been taken into consideration; that is, the change may have a negative effect on some area of the client's life. Once the client becomes aware that his/her personal ecology has been violated, the therapist can work with the client to satisfy the secondary gain involved by using the six-step reframing model. This model will provide a means whereby a negotiation can take place among the client's internal parts so that the change can remain without jeopardizing personal ecology.
Reframing the Reframe

Reframing the reframe is often the last step in the therapeutic process. This step involves reframing the return of any symptom or relapse in such a way that it triggers the need for further negotiation among parts rather than the onslaught of anticipatory symptoms. Many times, the return of a symptom elicits an "Oh no, not again" response from the client, which then leads to anticipatory symptoms and symptom-bound meta-loops. The return of a symptom is often the result of either a shift in the client's environment or a change in his/her internal organization.
Ecology Postulates 105
Bya shift in the environment, we are referring to a situation in which factors in a client's life have shifted in such a way as to render the change no longer adaptive. When referring to a shift in the client's internal organization, we mean a situation in which the arrangement of the client's internal parts has changed, thus making the achieved therapeutic goal no longer the best choice possible. In either case, if the client experiences a return of the symptom, the six-step reframing model is an effective intervention that will assist the client in the process of internal reorganization, thus satisfYing the new secondary gain (s) which has developed.
Transcript
Joseph is a thirty-six year old married male who was referred by his physician with the stated problem of insomnia. During the initial interview, Joseph described a history of inability to fall asleep at night. The following transcript was taken from the second therapy session. Therapist: Joseph: Joseph, what change would you like for yourself? I would like to be able to fall asleep more readily at night. What is your sleeping pattern now? I go to bed around 1l:00 p.m. However, I often lie there, feeling anxious and restless, not falling asleep until 2 or 3 o'clock in the morning. Will you describe the anxiety and restlessness? (description) As I lie there in bed, looking at the ceiling with an occasional glance at
Therapist: Joseph:
Therapist: Joseph:
the clock, I say to myself, "Oh no, not another night of sleeplessness." While lying there, I can feel my body tensing up which leads to more dread about not being able to sleep. My house is so quiet. All of my children are sleeping and I lay in bed listening to my own heart beat, wondering if I will ever fall asleep. Therapist: Once you fall asleep, is your sleep uninterrupted or do you experience multiple awakenings? When I finally get to sleep, I average 3 to 4 hours of uninterrupted sleep. Take a moment, go inside, and ask the part of you responsible for your total well-being if he would signal you if any of the changes which we implement during this session in any way violates your personal ecology. (ecology frame)
Joseph:
Therapist:
(Pause) Therapist: Joseph: Therapist: Did you get a response? My heart began to beat really fast. Go inside and ask that part to repeat the response, if he is willing to signal you with a fast heart beat should there be any ecological violations.
(Pause)
Joseph:
My heart began to beat really fast again. I am willing to work with you if you are willing to follow my directives to the letter. I will do anything in order to get more sleep. Fine. Tonight at 10:30, I want you to leisurely prepare yourself for bed so that by 1l:00 you can be ready. Ready for what? What I want you to do is to find a good book, set your alarm clock for 6:00 a.m., and then go sit in a comfortable chair. Place your alarm clock where you can easily notice the time and then begin reading. Your task is to continue reading until 6:00 a.m. and to count each hour as it passes. I would like you to continue this procedure for the next three evenings which will be until our next appointment. (symptom prescription) All right, but I feel my heart beating really fast. Take a moment, go inside, and ask the part responsible for the rapid heart beat if it is trying to signal you and if so have your heart beat fast again.
Therapist:
Joseph:
Therapist:
Joseph: Therapist:
Joseph:
Therapist:
(Pause) Joseph: Therapist: It's beating fast again. Go inside and ask the part responsible for the insomnia if it has a positive intent. (six-step reframing)
(Pause) Joseph: Therapist: I got the fast heart beat. Good. Now ask that part if he would let you know in consciousness what the positive intent is.
(Pause) Joseph: I saw an image of my wife and I sitting at the kitchen table, in the middle of the night, talking. You see, often when I can't get to sleep, I end up waking my wife and she and I either sit at the kitchen table and talk or watch T.V. together. The house is quiet, the kids are asleep, and its a good time for us to be together. I see. Now, go inside and ask your creative part to generate three new
ways to satisfy that positive intent
Therapist:
which will not result in any negative symptoms. (Pause)
Joseph:
Okay, I have them. I saw three new pictures. One of my wife and I walking in the park together after dinner. There is a park one block from our house. The second picture was of my wife and I going to see a movie together. We haven't done that in years. The third picture was of my wife and I going out to dinner together. Good. Now go inside and ask the part of you responsible for the insomnia if he would be willing to implement these three new options in the place of the old symptom; if so, to signal you with the fast heart beat.
Therapist:
(Pause) Joseph: My heart began to beat really fast again. Now, thank your creative part and the part of you responsible for the insomnia for working with you in this way. However, ask them to be silent for a few moments and ask if any other part has an objection to this new arrangement. (ecological check)
Therapist:
(Pause) Joseph: I received no signals.
Therapist:
Joseph:
Good. Now you have my instructions for the next three evenings and I will see you in three days. Okay, thanks.
Joseph returned, three days later, for his next scheduled appointment. Joseph reported that the first night, he stayed awake all night. However, the second night, he fell asleep reading in the chair at 1l:30 p.m. The following night, he fell asleep in his own bed at 1l:15 p.m. Joseph also reported that he and his wife had been out to dinner once and had taken two walks in the park. During this final interview, the therapist told the client that if the insomnia should ever reappear that it was only an indicator that he needs to go inside and renegotiate among his internal parts (reframing the reframe). In the previous transcript, the therapist used symptom prescription to break the meta-loop which was creating anticipatory symptoms. The therapist employed the ecology frame to iden tify the violation of personal ecology and then utilized the six-step reframing model to satisfy the secondary gains. Finally, the therapist implemented reframing the reframe as a method of inhibiting the creation of further meta-loops by the return of any symptoms.
REFLECTIONS
Once upon a time, far into the future, there was.a place called the Land of Shadows. This exotic and beautiful place was marked by a lush valley located between two towering mountains. The Land of Shadows boasted of its midnight sun whose rays delightfully bounced over the mountains. This dance between the sun and the mountains created mysterious and awesome shadows. The Native Land People had forever lived in the valley. They were childlike in their innocence and, with soft eyes, welcomed the ever-changing shadow formations. The Native Land People embraced each moment with a sense of newness and wonder. Each year, many people journeyed to the Land of Shadows. These visitors were graciously welcomed by the Native Land People. Nevertheless, many of the visi tors were initially confused by the illusive nature of this enchanting land. They feared that the everchanging shadows were foreboding signs of evil lurking in hidden places. Fruitlessly, they spent countless hours attempting to distinguish, analyze, and interpret the shadows in order to discern their "true" nature. . Some of the visitors became fascinated by the provocative ways of the Native Land People and sought them out as mentors. The mentors accepted the visitors' experiences of confusion and their thirsts for new understandings. By way of their mentorships, the visitors learned that confusion was but the gateway to worlds-upon-worlds of new experiences. The visitors were told enchanting stories which described the intimate relationship between the sun and the mountains and the shadows that they bore. Soon, the visitors began to value the uniqueness and solitary
beauty of each shadow. Their fears changed to wonder and, finally, many of the visitors grew to love the Land of Shadows. Mter their mentorships had ended, some of the visitors journeyed back to their places of origin taking with them the magic they had acquired. Others decided to stay in the Land of Shadows making it their home.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Andrews, L. (1983). Medicine Woman. New York: Harper and Row. Ashby, W. (1956). An Introduction to Cybernetics. London, England: Chapman and Hall Ltd. Bandler, R., Grinder,]. (1975). The Structure of Magic. Palo Alto, California: Science and Behavior Books, Inc. _ _ . (1979). Frogs Into Princes. Moab, Utah: Real People Press. _ _ . (1982). &.framing: Neuro-linguistic Programming and the Transformation ofMeaning. Moab, Utah: Real People Press. Bateson, G. (1972). Steps to an Ecology ofMind. New York: Ballantine Books. _ _ . (1979). Mind and Nature. New York: Bantam Books, Inc. Bateson, G., Bateson, M. (1987). AngelsFear: Towards an Epistemology of the Sacred. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. Buber, M. (1937). I and Thou. Edenburgh: T. and T. Clark. Calder, N. (1979) . Einstein's Universe. New York: Penguin Books. Cameron-Bandler, L. (1985. Solutions. San Rafael, California: Future Pace, Inc. Capra, F. (1975). The Tao of Physics: New York: Bantam Books, Inc. _ _. (1982). The Turning Point. New York: Bantam Books, Inc. _ _ . (1988). Uncommon Wisdom: Conversations with Remarkable People. New York: Simon and Schuster. Dell, P., Goolishian, H. (1979). Order Through Fluctua-
tion: An Evolutionary Epistemology Jor Human Systems. Paper presented at the Annual Scientific Meeting of the A.K. Rice Institute, Houston, Texas. Dilts, R., Grinder,J., Bandler, R., Bandler, L., Delozier, J. (1980). Neuro-linguistic Programming: Vol. L Cupertino, California: Meta Publications. Dilts, R. (1983). Roots oj Neuro-linguistic Programming. Cupertino, California: Meta Publications. di Villadorata, M. (1974). Aikido. Cambridge, Ontario: Collier Macmillan Canada Ltd. Ellenberger, H. (1958). A Clinical Introduction to Psychiatric Phenomenology and Existential Analysis. In R. May, E. Angel, H. Ellenberger (Eds.) Existence. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Erickson, M. (1965). The Use OJ Symptoms As An Integral Part OJ Hypnotherapy. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis,8. Erickson, M., Zeig, J. (1980). Symptom Prescription For Expanding The Psychotic's World View. In E. Rossi (Ed.) Innovative Hypnotherapy. New York: Irvington Publishers, Inc. Erickson, M. (1982). In S. Rosen (Ed.) My Voice Will Go With You: The Teaching Tales OJ Milton Erickson, M.D .. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc. Farrelly, F., Brandsma, J. (1974). Provocative Therapy. Cupertino, California: Meta Publications. Fisch, R., Weakland,j., Segal, L. (1982). The Tactics Of Change: Doing Therapy Briefly. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers. Frankl, V. (1959). Man's Search For Meaning. New York: Pocket Book. Gordon, D. (1978). Therapeutic Metaphors. Cupertino, California: Meta Publications. ' Grinder, J. (1978). Pecos BilL (This story was paraphrased from an audio tape recorded at a seminar on metaphor). _ _ . (1985). Perceptual Styles And Masks. (Videotape)
Bibliography 115
Boulder, Colorado: NLP of Colorado. Grinder,]., Bandler, R. (1976). The Structure Of Magic, Volume II. Palo Alto, California: Science and Behavior Books, Inc. Grof, S. (1985). Beyond The Brain. Albany, New York: State U niversi ty of New York. Haley,]. (Ed.) (1967). Advanced Techniques of Hypnosis And Therapy. New York: Grune and Stratton. _ _. (1973). Uncommon Therapy. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc. _ _. (1987). Problem Solving Therapy, Second Edition. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers. Heisenberg, W. (1958). Physics And Philosophy. New York: Harper and Row. Huxley, A. (1954). The Doors Of Perception. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers. Jones, R. (1982). Physics As Metaphor. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. Kopp, S. (1971). Guru: Metaphors From A Psychotherapist. Palo Alto, California: Science and Behavior Books, Inc. Korzybski, A. (1933). Science And Sanity. Lakeville, Connecticut: The International Non-Aristotelian Library Publishing Company 4th Edition. Kostere, K., Malatesta, L. (1985). Get The Results You Want: A Systematic Approach To NLP. Portland, Oregon: Metamorphous Press. Kostere, K., Malatesta, L. (1988). (A metaphor presented at a seminar on Metaphor in Ericksonian Psychotherapy at The Center For Humanistic Studies, Detroit, Michigan.) Kuhn, T. (1970). The Structure Of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Lankton, S. (1980). Practical Magic. Cupertino, California: Meta Publications. McCall, R. (1983). Phenomenological Psychology. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press.
Miller, G. (1956). The Magic Number Seven, Plus Or Minus Two: Some Limits On Our Capacity For Processing Information. The Psychological Review. Vol. 63, March. Millman, D. (1980, 1984). Way Of The Peaceful Warrior. Tiburon, California: H.]. Kramer, Inc. Pearce, J. (1974). Exploring The Crack In The Cosmic Egg. New York: Pocket Books. Porter, A. (1970). Cybernetics Simplified. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Reps, P. (1939). Zen Flesh, Zen Bones: A Collection Of Zen AndPre-zen Writings. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books. Rogers, C. (1961). On Becoming A Person. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Miffiin Company. Rosen,J. (1953). Direct Psychoanalysis. New York: Grune and Stratton. von Foerster, H. (1981). Observing Systems. Seaside, California: Intersystems. Wardhaugh, R. (1972). Introduction To Linguistics. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. Watzlawick, P., Weakland,]., Fisch, R. (1974). Change. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc. Weeks, G., L'Abate, L. (1982). Paradoxical Psychotherapy: Theory And Practice With Individuals, Couples And Families. New York: Brunner and Mazel, Publishers. Zeig, J. (Ed.) (1980). A Teaching Seminar With Milton H. Erickson, M.D .. New York: Brunner/Mazel, Publishers.
117
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Linda Malatesta received a M.A. degree in clinical and humanistic psychology from The Center For Humanistic Studies in Detroit, Michigan. Over the past several years, she has conducted workshops and training seminars on models of communication and their application to the change process. Linda is the co-author of Get The Results You Want: A Systematic Approach To NLP (Metamorphous Press). Currently, Linda is involved in a psychotherapy practice in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. Kim M. Kostere received a Psy.S. degree in clinical and humanistic education and psychology from The Center For Humanistic Studies in Detroit, Michigan and a Ph.D. degree in clinical psychology from the Union Graduate School in Cincinnati, Ohio. During the mid and late 1970s, he studied NeuroLinguistic Programming with Richard Bandler and John Grinder, Ph.D. Subsequently, he cofounded the Ontario NLP Institute in Toronto, Ontario. Kim has studied hypnosis with the late Milton H. Erickson, M.D. and existential/phenomenological psychology with Clark Moustakas, Ed.D, Ph.D. Kim has led numerous workshops and training seminars throughout the United States and Canada and is the co-author of Get The Results You Want: A Systematic Approach To NLP (Metamorphous Press). Currently, Kim is involved in a psychotherapy practice in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. Both authors can be contacted through Metamorphous Press and are available for workshops and seminars.
INDEX
Andrews, L.: 91 Ashby, W.: 21 Bandler, R.: 5-6, 8, 24, 32, 69-70, 97 Bateson, G.: 4-5, 67 Bohr, N.: 3 Brandsma, J.: 75-76 Bruner, 1.: 12-13 Buber, M.: 24 Cameron-Bandler, L.: 24, 32, 78-S I, 85, 92 Capra, F.: 24 Cause and Effect: 37 Circular Reinforcement: 47 Chomsky, N.: II Comparative Deletion: 33 Complex Equivalence: 4243 Content Reframing: 78-S0, 88-91 Contextual Reframing: 85-S8 Crossover Mirroring: 24-25 Deep Structure: I\, 31-32, 35 Deletion: 5-6, 31-35 Description: 46, 50-59 Descriptive Pacing: 25-26 Dilts, R.: 8, 81 Displaced Referential Index: 92 Distortion: 5-6, 31-32, 35-39 Double Bind: 67-71 Ecology: 4546 Ecology Frame: 103-110 Ecology Postulates: 103-110 Einstein, A: 2 Einsteinian: 2 Elicitation Metaphor: 92-93 Erickson, M.: 26-29, 71-73, 88-91, 98-101 Exaggeration: 41, 74-77 Experience of Experience: 6, 8-10, 17-18 Farrelly, F.: 75-76 First-<>rder Change: 70 Fisch, R.: 78 Fran kl, Y.: 71 Generalization: 5-6,22,31-32, 3944 Generative Change: 19-20 Gordon, D.: 92 Grinder, 1.: 5-6, 8, 24, 32, 69-70, 93-94, 97, 103-104 Haley, J.: 16-17,67,88-90 Heisenberg, W.: 2-3 Huxley, A: 7-S, 11-12 Ill-formed Goal: 56 Implied Causatives: 37-38 Internal Dialogue: 8, 13 Intersubjectivity: 14-15, 17,21 Isomorphic Metaphor: 92 Jackson, D.: 67 Jones, R.: 14-15, 18 Kopp, S.: 91-92 Korzybski, A: I Kostere, K.: 24, 32, 81,85,92,94-96 L'Abate, L.: 67 Lack of Referential Index: 40 Language: 6,10-13,3147
Lankton, S.: 24, 32, 92 Law of Requisite Variety: 21 Levels of Modeling: 6,17-18 Linguistics: 13-14 Logical Types: 4-5, 8, 66 Lost Performative:4344 Malatesta, L.: 24, 32, 81, 92, 94-96 Meta-loop: 47 Meta-Model: 3144 Metaphor: 18,91-97 Metaphoric Reframing: 97-101 Miller, G.: 9 Millman, D.: 96 Mind Reading: 39 Mirroring: 24-25 Modal Operators: 33-35 Modeling: 1-18,20 Newton, I.: 24 Newtonian: 24 Nominalization: 35-37 Observer-dependent: 14-15,21 Pacing and Leading: 24-29 Paradox: 4-5, 66 Paradoxical Intervention: 66-74, 88-91 Pearce, 1.: 12-13 Positive Intent: 21-22,45 Pragmatic Paradox: 67, 70 Questions: 4447 Referential Index Shift: 59-62 Reframing: 77-91 Reframing the Reframe: 104-110 Remedial Change: 19-20 Reps, P.: 93, 96-97 Representational Systems: 8-10 Rogers, C.: 23
Simple Deletion: 32-33 SiHtep Reframing: 80-85,104-110 Second-order Change: 70, 78 Secondary Gains: 45 Semantic: 12-13 Semantics: 11, 14 Sensory Experience: 6-8,10,17-18 Surface Structure: 11,31-33, 46-37,3940,4344 Symptom Prescription: 70, 74, 88-91, 107, 110 Syntax: 14 Therapeutic Paradox: 69-70 Transderivational Search: 10, 51-52, 92-93 Transformational Grammar: II Time: 7 Time Projection: 62-66 Universal Modeling Processes: 5-6, 31-32 Universal Quantifiers: 4142 Unspecified Verbs: 4041 Wardhaugh, R.: 11 Watzlawick, P.: 78 Weakland, J.: 67, 78 Weeks. G.: 67 Well-formed: 13-14,4546 Well-formed Goal: 49, 56, 104 World at Large: 6-7, 20 Zeig, 1.: 71-73, 99-101
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Kim Kostere & Linda Malatesta - Maps, Models & The Structure of Reality - NLP in Psychotherapy (1990) (OCR)

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Kim Kostere & Linda Malatesta - Maps, Models & The Structure of Reality - NLP in Psychotherapy (1990) (OCR)

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Maps, Models and the Structure of Reality

NLP Technology in Psychotherapy

Kim Kostere Linda Malatesta

MetamorPhous PreSS P.O. Box 10616 Portland, OR 97210-0616

Appreciation is given for permission to reprint from the following publishers:

Pecos Bill Crystal Pyramids and The Big Picture

Distortion Generalization Questions

74 77 78 80 85 88 91 97 103 103 104 III 113 117

Leslie Cameron-Bandler San Rafael, California

2 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

4 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

Universal Modeling Processes

6 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

8 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

10 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

12 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

Minimum Requirements for a Model

14 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

The Primacy of Experience

1. Human beings build models of the world.

The Structure of Reality

16 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

Internal vs. External

18 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

20 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

Modeling and Change

22 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

24 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

Pacing and Leading

26 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

28 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

32 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist:

I'm confused. About what? I'm scared. Of what?

34 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

Modal Operators of Necessity

Modal Operators of Possibility

Each of the two challenges for modal operators will

36 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist:

Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist:

38 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

40 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist: Client: Therapist:

42 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

All men stink. Every last one of them?

44 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

46 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

50 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

52 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

In what situations are you experiencing jealousy?

Therapist: Nick: Therapist:

Nick: Therapist: (Pause) Nick:

I'm feeling intense jealousy.

54 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

Therapist: (Pause) Nick:

Can you feel that experience now?

Nick: Therapist: Nick: Therapist: Nick: Therapist:

Nick: (Pause) Therapist: Nick:

What are you experiencing? Security.

56 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality

Karen: Therapist: Karen:

58 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality