INTRODUCTION

TO
KNITTING
TECHNOLOGY
HENRY JOHNSON
r2d
ABHISHEK PUBLICATIONS
CHANDIGARH (INDIA)
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Preface
Knitting is the art of using yarn or thread to make fabric from
interlocking loops. Its origin has been traced as far back as the
fourth or fifth century B. C.
In the past, knitting has been the occupation of shepherds who
kept on knitting while watching their flocks, sailors also used to
pass their time in the same way while whiling away the hours of
long voyages during the age of exploration, apprentices who stud-
ied it in 13th and 14th Century knitting guilds and royal knitters
in the court of England at the time of King Henry VIII. At cer-
tain times in history, only members of royalty were allowed to
wear knitted items. One of the knitted garments on display at the
Victoria and Albert Museum in London is a handsome handknitted
silk shirt, which King Charles I wore on the day of his beheading.
Handknitting is a popular pastime, producing items that are func-
tional, economical, fashionable and fun to make. In addition, knit-
ting offers an opportunity for creative selection of colour and style
and allows you to fashion garments that really fit. For all these
reasons and more, this book has been introduced. It deals with all
pros and cons of the knitting, starting from the primary level.
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
Contents
1. Knitting and its Origin ...................................................... 7
2. Five Centuries of Knitting ............................................... 84
3. Knitting for Beginners ..................................................... 99
4. Practice Knitting Patterns .............................................. 153
5. Knitting Hints ............................................................... 197
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
~ H P I E R
1
Knitting and its Origin
Defining knitting
Knitting is a way of interlocking a series of loops that creates
hand and machine knitted fabric. The loops (stitches) are
interlocked using a needle to hold the existing loop while a
new loop is formed in front of the old loop. The old loop is
then brought over the new loop to form the fabric. Knitting
differs from weaving in that a single piece of yarn can be used
to create fabric. The fabric consists of horiwntal rows known
as courses and venical columns of loops known as wales.
Knitted fabric has useful propenies that make it suitable for a
range of garments including tights, gloves, underwear and
other close-fitting garments. The loop structure of knitted fabric
stretches and moulds to fit body shapes. The air trapped by
the loops keeps the wearer warm.
Fashioning, loops and ladders
When knitting, increasing or decreasing the nwnber of stitches
in a row widens or narrows the garment being created.
Increasing is achieved by moving outer loops sideways on a
franle and creating e:\.1:ra loops. This process leaves a small eyelet
hole in the fabric known as a fashioning mark. When
decreasing, the process is reversed and the loops move inwards.
II
This time the fashioning mark appears where two loops are
compressed into one new loop. Garments shaped in this way
are fully-fashioned and regarded as high quality. Occasionally
some firms used fake fashioning marks to make garments
appear to be fully-fashioned.
If yarn in a traditional knitted fabric breaks, the loops unravel
and a run or ladder forms. To overcome the problem and to
sell more goods, knitters worked to design new fabric
structures that were less dependent on individual loops for
their strength and unlikely to run if a thread broke. Hexagonal
meshes, micromesh, non-run, run-proof and similar fabrics
were introduced and appreciated by consmners.
Origin of knitting
The earliest looped fabrics may have been produced in the
Middle East. Socks recovered from fourth century tombs in
Egypt were rp.ade using a form oflooping known as nalbinding.
N albinding uses a single sewing needle to make the loops
instead of two knitting needles. Further examples from Egypt
date from the seventh century and show loop patterns that
suggest they were knitted in the traditional hand-knitting
manner with two needles.
In Spain, knitted cushions have been found in tombs
dating from the thirteenth century. Purses for holding
religious relics, gloves worn du(ing religioUS-ceremonies and
knitted are also known from this period. Peasant knitting
of similar has. been recovered from a Polish cemetery.
Fdur paintings from the fourteenth century show
the Virgin knitting, suggesting that the craft was a familiar
activity for womel1. A rising demand for knitted caps led to
the development of the English hand knitting industry.
References to Coventry cappers were first recorded in 1424.
In 1488, the Cappers' Act was passed by Parliament to fix the
prices of caps ,and prevent cappers making excessive profits.
\\ Knitting and its Origin 9\\
By Tudor times, caps were flat with a narrow brim.
In the sixteenth century, an almost insatiable demand for knitted
stockings further stimulated the young industry.
The industry (1589-1750)
Fashionable stockings
The Tudor court
Hand knitting in England expanded as an industry in Tudor
times (1485-1603). Knitted caps and stockings were highly
fashionable. From the time of Henry VIII, fine knitted silk
stockings imported from Spain were part of court fashion.
Previously, a piece of cloth was cut to the shape of a leg and
the edges sewn together to create a stocking. By the time of
Elizabeth I, knowledge of how to hand knit stockings had
spread around England and documents refer to the industry
in places as far apart as London, Kingston (Surrey) and
Richmond (Yorkshire).
The first knitting frame
The increasing popularity of knitted stockings at court and
beyond created opportunities for entrepreneurs to make
money. In 1589, \Villiam Lee of Calverton, Nottinghamshire,
successfully converted the actions of hand knitting with two
needles into a mechanised process. This was the first knitting
fr" me. Like the hand knitting process, the knitting frame
produced a shaped piece of fabric that was then sewn together
to (:reate a garment.
Failure to get a patent
Lee wanted to protect his invention by obtaining a patent from
Queen Elizabeth. Lord Hunsdon, a courtier, promoted the
case for the knitting frame to the Queen, but without success.
II
The woollen fabric produced by the early frame was considered
coarse compared with fme silk stockings. The frame was also
seen as a threat to the hand knitting industry, which might
lead to many people losing work. Lee responded to the
Queen's comments and improved the frame by increasing the
number of needles per inch from eight to twenty. This knitted
a finer fabric. Unfortunately, for Lee, his supporter, Lord
Hunsdon, died in 1596, dashing any hopes of securing a patent
for the frame.
French tribulations
Convinced of the value of his machine, Lee crossed the
Channel to France where Henry IV promoted religious
tolerance and actively encouraged the development of industry.
Lee's brother James, nine workmen and nine frames,
accompanied Lee on the journey. From a base in the town of
Rouen, Lee began to establish his business. A contract was
drawn up with Pierre de Caux to supply frames and train
apprentices so that production of garments could commence
by 26 March 1610. The business seemed to be progressing
well, but unfortunately, for Lee, the political scene changed
rapidly when Henry IV was assassinated in 1610. In the
uncertainty, Lee travelled to Paris and died a broken man
around 1614.
London and Nottingham
Mter Lee's death, James Lee returned from France with eight
frames and seven of the workmen. James promptly disposed
of the remaining frames in London, returned to
N ottinghamshire where Lee's apprentice, Aston, had
continued to work on the frame and made a number of
improvements. The route of James Lee's return resulted in
the establishment of two knitting centres, one based in London
with the older frames and one in Nottingham using the newer
frames.
II Knitting atul its Origin
The Midlands woollen industry
Introduction to England
The English woollen industry- predates the arrival of the
Romans. The Norman invasion in the eleventh century
encouraged the industry to expand and fleeces and cloth were
exported across Europe. In many areas, land previously used
to grow corn was turned over to provide grazing for sheep.
By the time of James I, demand for wool in England was so
high that an export ban was introduced. This aimed to provide
a plentiful supply of fleeces for manufacturers in the various
divisions of the textile industry.
For the East Midlands region, the worsted sector of the woollen
industry was significant. The worsted industry developed an
early centre in East Anglia and the town ofWorstead in Norfolk
gave its name to the yarn. The arrival of Protestants in East
Anglia from the Low Countries in the sixteenth century
brought worsted production skills to England. This prompted
expansion of worsted production and the introduction of new
goods.
Making of worsted yarn
The East Midlands region, like East Anglia, had traditionally
reared sheep that produced fleeces with long fibres.
Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire and Lincolnshire sheep were
reputed to have some of the finest quality fleeces in the country.
Fleeces with long fibres or 'staple' were preferred in worsted
production. First, the fleeces were combed to place the fibres
in line with each other and remove the shorter fibres and dirt.
After combing, the fibres were SplU1 to create the worsted yarn.
The yarn was finer and stronger than yarn processed by the
wool spinning system. Woollen yarns were more bulky as the
fibres were not combed and they kept more of their natural
tangled characteristics.
II
In the knitting industry, worsted yarn became one of the main
fibres used, the others being linen, silk and cotton. Worsted
provided a cheaper alternative to silk and cotton and produced
garments that were more affordable for the wider population.
The Leicester knitting industry developed to specialise in the
production of worsted products while Nottingham was best
known for cotton hosiery and Derby for silk.
Foundation of the knitting industry
Investing in frames
During the early seventeenth century, knitting frames remained
an expensive investment and few were built. Even in the 1660s,
frames could cost as much as 20 to 30 each, more than a
worker's yearly wage. The hand knitters did not have to pay
such high costs and could knit as long as they had a pair of
knitting needles. Demand for the output of hand knitters and
framework knitters allowed both branches to expand during
the two centuries after Lee's invention.
To make the knitting frame profitable, framework knitters
generally only produced high value, fme-gauge garments using
silk and fme worsted yarns. The frame could also be used for
long runs of standardised products. In comparison with
framework knitting, hand knitting had low set up costs, new
knitters could be taken on without the need to buy or rent
expensive frames. Hand knitting was also cost effective in that
it used women, old people and children during the winter
months when agricultural work was at its lowest. It often
provided a second income for the knitter and lower rates of
pay were acceptable. The work was also undertaken during
the evenings by artificial light, unlike framework knitting which
needed daylight to operate the fine mechanisms of the frame.
With framework knitters focusing on high value products, the
lower value market was left open for hand knitters to supply.
\\ Knitting and its Origin 13\\
Hand knitting was also able to compete with the frame by
being more versatile in the creation of bespoke tailored
garments.
The early framework knitting industry still maintained its centre
in London with four or tlve hundred frames employed there
in 1664. Outside London, the East Midlands had built on the
work of William and James Lee. Around one hundred frames
were in use in Nottingham and fifty in Leicester. A further
fifty frames were located in Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire,
Surrey and Hampshire.
Industry moves to the East Midlands
Involvement in the knitting industry from this early period
started to generate considerable profits for its workers. A
petition by London framework knitters in 1655 noted that
raw materials cost only about 15 percent of the retail price of
silk stockings. The balance of between eight shillings and sixteen
shillings a pair was retained by the framework knitters, hosiers
and retailers. The worsted stockings, more commonly knitted
in the East Midlands at that time, were less favourably priced
at between one shilling and six pence and two shillings and six
pence. East Midlands framework knitters benefited from lower
house rents and food prices than framework knitters in
London. These factors together with the lower wages and
freedom from guild regulation were important in moving the
industry away from London to the East Midlands.
Fancy stockings in Leicester
A historian recorded that around the middle of the eighteenth
century 'The manufacture in Leicester chiefly consisted in
making pink stockings for the lower orders, and, for the higher,
pearl-coloured with scarlet clocks. In the dress of men, the
waistcoat flaps came down nearly as low as the knee and the
stockings made long enough to reach the top of the thigh
II
were gartered on the outside and the top rolled down as far as
the leg. The chief (export) article was white and brown thread
hose for Spain, Portugal and the West Indies.'
Origin of the Derby silk industry
Silk from Europe
Silk stockings that copied the Italian fashion leaders were highly
prized from their introduction in England in Tudor times.
Worsted knitting had located itself in the East Midlands by the
start of the eighteenth cenrury, but the silk industry remained
in London a little longer. Imported silk from the Continent
came iJ.?to London where it was processed for use in ~ v i n g
and knitting. Waste from the weaving process was often recycled
and turned into silk yarn for knitting. This link between the
two industries allowed London to compete with the East
Midlands on price. The London industry-also benefited from
being located close to the main market for tailor-made
garments.
The first mill
Early attempts to relocate the silk industry to the East Midlands
were made by Thomas Cotchett in 1704 when he tried to
establish a silk mill in the region. Described as a 'citizen and
merchant tailor of London', Cotchett leased Little Island in
the River Derwent from the Derby Corporation. Mter
spending 2,000 building the mill, a particularly high price
for a mill at that time, he went bankrupt in 1713. In 1715
John Lombe, a friend of Cotchett and silk merchant from
London, visited the mill and saw its decayed state. Lombe
- promptly bought the mill for 200 and began to rebuild on
the site based upon designs he saw on a visit he made in 1716
to Leghorn, Italy. John Lombe died soon after he had returned
from Italy and left his brother Thomas to carry on the work.
II Knitmvl
llntl
iu Origin
15
11
The mill on Little Island was well positioned to supply silk
yarn to the knitting industry centred near Nottingham. Ideally,
such a mill would have been located in Nottingham to avoid
the problem of transporting yarn to hosiers' warehouses, but
the Trent was considered too slow moving a river to power a
mill. The Derwent was seen as a fast moving river with enough
force to drive the mill's waterwheels. This early choice of
, Jocation by Cotchett and Lombe led to the development of a
focus for silk knitting around Derby, while Nottingham mainly
used cotton after Arkwright and Hargreaves set up their
factories and Leicester used worsted.
The remains of the silk mill now form part of Derby Industrial
Museum.
The development of the cotton industry in Nottingham
Yarn problems
The use of cotton for weaving had been established in
seventeenth century Lancashire. At this time, cotton yarn was
irregular in thickness and tended to break at thin, weak points.
The yarn was unsuitable for knitting on frames and produced
poor quality stockings that laddered easily. Henson reported
that the first pair of cotton stockings was knitted in Nottingham
in 1730.
To overcome problems with cotton, framework knitters needed
a suitable yarn with uniform thickness and strength. Yarn from
India had the required qualities but London framework knitters
found it difficult to work and rejected it. After this, a sample of
the cotton was sent to Draper, a stockinger from Bellar Gate
in Nottingham. Draper successfully knitted stockings on a
twenty-gauge silk frame. The pure white cotton stockings soon
became popular with customers and were sometimes preferred
to silk stockings.
IP6
11
The spread of cotton
The rising popularity of cotton encouraged workers across
England to experiment with cotton and cotton yarns. Spinners
experienced in working with short-staple wool in the west of
England were able to twist two threads of cotton together to
produce a cotton yarn suitable for knitting, although this was
not as fme as Indian yarn. A knitting industry developed around
Tewkesbury using this local yarn, which ~ ~ alleged by the
competing Nottingham hosiers to be inferior, the yarn used
by the Nottingham trade having 4-5 finer threads. The
inferiority of the Tewkesbury product was, however, difficult
to detect from appearance. To deal with this threat the
Nottingham hosiers petitioned Parliament for protection. The
result of the action was an act passed in 1766, commonly
referred to as the Tewkesbury Act. The Act required that eyelet
holes should be knitted into the stocking equivalent to the
number of threads used in the yarn. However, the effectiveness
of the Act is thought to have been limited.
It was not until the 1780s that the Notta.ngham industry
transferred its focus from the production of silk stockings to
cotton as the Arkwright mills brought down the price of yarns.
Dyeing
As hosiery was a fashion industry, colours and patterning were
of vital importance from its earliest years. The largest fortune
in the eighteenth century industry was made by William Elliot
(1707-1792) of Brewhouse Yard, Nottingham, who
developed a technique to produce a superior black for men's
stockings. Black hosiery was high fashion for the sober middle
class for many years. Elliot served most the merchant hosiers
of both Nottingham and Leicester. He later invested part of
his large capital in new methods of bleaching linen and cotton
(i.e., producing a superior white) that were brought from
Holland via Scotland. Elliot moved on to invest in three silk
II Knitting and its Origin 1711
mills in Nottingham and cotton mills on the Arkwright model
in the Leen Valley (Bulwell to Papplewick). His enterprise is
commemorated in the Brewhouse Yard Museum,
Nottingham.
Company of framework knitters
Establishing control
James Lee returned to London in 1612. He brought seven
framework knitters and eight frames with him and set up a
small industry. Workers and their apprentices gradually created
rules by which the industry and the prices charged could be
controlled. The quality of knitted goods produced by
framework knitters was widely recognised and by 1655, more
of their stockings were sold abroad than in London.
A charter from Cromwell
Concerned at the threat of overseas competition, the group
petitioned Oliver Cromwell for a chaner of incorporation to
regulate and protect the trade. In 1657, the Company received
its chaner. A Company seal indicated the quality of goods
produced by members and prevented members from taking
foreign apprentices. To avoid conflict with the East Midlands
industry, the chaner applied specifically to the silk knitting
industry within London and the four miles around the City.
Membership of the Company was, however, open to
framework knitters beyond the four-mile zone.
A new charter and powers
A new charter was obtained from Charles II in 1663.
Framework knitters from all branches, not just silk, were now
required to register with the Company within three months
of entering the trade, if they lived within 20 miles of London
or within six months if they lived beyond 20 miles. Failure to
register incurred a fme of 5 for every week beyond the limit.
Individuals could not enter the trade unless they had served a
seven-year apprenticeship with an authorised master. Masters
were only allowed to take on a maximum of two apprentices
atone time.
Export of knitting machines was a particular concern of the
Company because it provided overseas competition with access
to English technology and potentially jeopardised the future
of the English knitting industry. To deal with the matter, the
Company secured the power to seize machines they thought
were being prepared for export.
Deputies were appointed by the Company in knitting districts
such as Nottingham, Hinckley and Leicester to police the
industry and ensure that its byelaws were enforced. Quarterly
courts of representatives were held in districts to admit
apprentices and to prosecute those breaking the Company's
laws.
Rejecting the company
The Company's powers were met with a mixed response.
Whilst it protected those already in the trade from further
people entering the industry, it did not help hosiers looking to
expand and find more workers. Gradually complaints built up
from members who resented expenditure on ceremonial items
and the Company's hall whilst some members struggled to
make a living. The payment of fees to register apprentices
became another issue of conflict. Provincial hosiers began to
boycott the Company and ignore the apprenticeship control
system. In 1730, two dozen Nottingham hosiers came
together to challenge the authority of the Company. A case
was eventually brought by the Company against John
CartWright, aN ottingham hosier, who refused to pay the eight-
shilling charge for each indenturing of an apprentice. The
Company lost the case. Following this disastrous outcome for
the Company, the deputies in Nottingham, Leicester and
" Knitting and its Origin 1911
Hinckley resigned from their posts realising that the Company
had no power to enforce its rules. An attempt was made in
1745 to revive the Company, but without success and its role
became purely social.
Enterprise and innovation (1750-1810)
Early cotton spinners

Securing a reliable supply of quality cotton yarn was crucial to
the development and success of the cotton knitting industry
in the East Midlands. Lewis Paul made early attempts to
machine-spin cotton in order to increase the supply of yarn.
In 1738 he patented a machine for spinning cotton by drawing
threads with rollers, but this was not a commercial success as
the quality of yarn produced was still inferior to hand spun
yarn.
Success with the spinning jenny
Around 1764 a Blackburn weaver, James Hargreaves,
produced his 'spinning jenny'. The jenny took the principle of
the spinning wheel and enabled the operator to spin several
yarns at the same time. At first, Hargreaves kept the invention
secret and used the jenny_at home, but in 1767, he produced
further machines and made them available for sale. Soon,
individuals who felt their jobs threatened by the new
technology broke into Hargreaves' home and smashed his
machines.
To escape machine breakers in Lancashire, Hargreaves moved
to Nottingham. Supported by a partnership of Nottingham
hosiers, he set up a mill in Hockley and began to provide local
hosiers with a reliable cotton yarn for knitting. The jenny was
patented in 1770 and produced for sale to other spinners and
II
hosiers. Demand for the jenny increased and manufacturers
produced copies of Hargreaves' design. Hargreaves took the
manufacturers to court to protect his patent, but the judge
ruled that because the jenny had been used by the industry
before being patented, people could make copies of it.
Arrival of Arkwright
At about the same time as Hargreaves, Richard Arkwright also
left Lancashire for Nottingham. Arkwright had taken Lewis
Paul's technology of spinning with rollers and tried to improve
the quality of the yarn produced. Aware of the demand for
quality yarn in Nottingham's knitting industry, Arkwright
needed financial backing to establish himself there. Support
initially was secured from a Nottingham hosier, Samuel Need.
Arkwright's early attempts, like Paul's, produced poor quality,
irregular yarn and eventually success was achieved by fluting
the rollers.
Power was required to operate the rollers on the new spinning
machine. The Trent did not provide sufficient power to drive
a mill and the solution was to install a horse driven system in
the Nottinghan1 factory. Howevet; the cost of maintaining such
a system and expanding it to power further machines was
prohibitive and an alternative was sought. Following in the
footsteps of Cotchett and Lombe,in 1771, Arkwright moved
to Derbyshire and established a string of mills with the support
of J edediah Strutt, a hosier and inventor of the Derby Rib
Machine. Together they oversaw the construction of two mills
at Cromford and one at Masson. The partnership between
Strutt and Arkwright lasted until 1781.
The development of steam-powered cotton spinning
N ewcomen's engine
In 1712, Thomas Newcomen invented a steam-powered
II Knitting and its Origin 21 II
engine. He realised that steam produced by heating water
could be trapped in a cylinder and that sufficient pressure could
be built up to raise a piston. When the steam cooled, pressure
was reduced and this caused the piston to fall. The vertical
motion of this engine meant that it had limited applications,
but with a beam attached to the piston, it was successfully used
to pump water out of mines.
James Watt's improvements
James Watt realised the potential of Newcomen's invention
and began experimenting to see how the vertical motion of
the piston and beam could be harnessed to drive other
machinery. In 1782, he built a rotary-motion steam engine
which used a series of gears to convert vertical movements
into rotary motion. Watt marketed his engine in partnership
with Matthew Boulton, the Birmingham entrepreneur. To
highlight the capacity of the engine, Watt compared its strength
with the strength of horses: a twenty horsepower Watt engine
provided the same power as a team of twenty horses. ,
From waterwheel to steam engine
Arkwright's water frame was originally designed as a hand-
operated machine, but to control its use, the 1769 patent
restricted its use to large mills of at least one thousand spindles.
The system of water-powered mills was soon copied and by
1788 there were over 200 of them, many in Derbyshire and
Nottinghamshire and a few in Leicestershire. Following the
introduction of rotary motion, steam power was first used with
Arkwright'S frames in 1785 at Papplewick Mill,
Nottinghamshire. Steam power was only widely applied at the
end of the eighteenth century and was responsible for a quarter
of the cotton processed in 1800.
Competition from Lancashire
The East Midlands knitting industry and the Manchester textile
11
industry bought most of the cotton yarn produced by the new
mills. Due to technological improvements, mills in the East
Midlands were overtaken by mills in Lancashire. Adoption of
Cartwright's power loom after 1785 caused a rapid rise in
demand for cotton yarn which prompted further growth of
mills in the north-west of England. By 1836 competition from
the large numbers of mills in the north-west had affected the
numbers of mills elsewhere in Britain, though the knitting
industry in the East Midlands continued to support eight mills
in the Mansfield area and eight in Derbyshire.
With cotton yarn widely available in the East Midlands, cotton
was a popular choice for knitting. It rapidly became cheaper
than silk and finer than wool. Cotton, with the new technologies
to process it, was used for a wide range of cotton hosiery and
by 1815 production of cotton hose occupied the largest
numbers of frames in the knitting industry.
Worsted innovations
Spinning worsted
While Arkwright had successfully experimented with the
spinning of cotton yarn, the worsted-spinning sector had
watched developments with interest. Traditionally woollen
fibres taken from fleeces were combed and left in oil for a year
to gain strength before they were spun on a spinning wheel.
In 1788, a breakthrough was made in the spinning of worsted
when Brookhouse from Melton Mowbray transferred the
process of spinning yarn with rollers from cotton to worsted.
This avoided the yearlong resting period of the woollen fibres.
Once combed, the wool could be spun immediately.
Anger and destruction
The potential of this new technology was soon recognised by
Leicester's industrialists and led to a partnership between
II KnittinlJ and its Origin
23
11
worsted spinners, Coltman, Whetstone and Brookhouse. As
awareness of the new machine spread, workers in the worsted
spinning industry reacted in the same manner as workers in
Lancashire had to the spinning jenny. The workers felt their
livelihoods threatened by the advance of technology and
protested against the machine. For safety, the machine was
moved from Leicester to Market Harborough in the hope that
this would save it from the growing unrest. The determined
spinners tracked down the machine and smashed it, parading
the pieces back to Leicester. Anger boiled over to the extent
that Coltman and Whetstone's houses were attacked.
New worsted centres
To avoid further unrest, Leicester Corporation banned
Brookhouse's technology from the town. New centres of
worsted spinning developed in areas such as Worcestershire
and Yorkshire using Brookhouse's machine and gained from
the lack of competition in Leicester.
Improvements in the quality of yarn produced by the new
worsted spinning technologies led to a move away from the
industry's focus on coarse fabrics to finer, better quality
products. Despite the development of new locations for yarn
spinning, Leicester remained the leading centre for knitted
goods using worsted yarn.
Worsted knitwear was not so fine as that in cotton and silk so
Leicester and Hinckley were long regarded as the cheaper end
of the industry.
Distribution and warehousing
Travelling salesmen
In the earliest days of the knitting knitted clothes were
expensive and worn mainly by royalty and the aristocracy.
Gradually this changed as worsted and cotton yarns brought
II
more affordable knitted clothirig to the wider population. In
common with other expanding industries, manufacturers
developed distribution networks to supply their wares to towns
and cities across the country. Hosiers gathered flnished goods
together and travelled the country to fmd buyers. With a train
of packhorses, the journey would often continue until the
goods were all sold. Hosiers also employed salesmen to market
goods for them.
Regional markets opened up during the eighteenth century,
but London still operated as the country's main commercial
centre. To ensure that East Midlands sales continued to grow,
strong links were built up between East Midland hosiers and
London merchants. Frequently sons of hosiers would be
apprenticed to merchants to strengthen the links.
Wood street textile market
Knitted products were bought and sold in an area of the City
of London centred on Wood Street. Hosiers from the East
Midlands brought stock to coaching inns located there and
used them as a London base. William Iliffe II, an early
eighteenth century hosier from Hinckley, kept his stock at the
Cross Keys Inn on Wood Street.
By the 1770s, the larger, more successful hosiers had developed
new relationships with the inns and constructed their own
storage facilities in the inn yards. Some partnerships eventually
acquired their own warehouses. John Morley of! & R Morley,
Nottingham, moved to London and built a warehouse to sell
the firm's goods. The success of Morley'S warehouse enabled
the company to become an important wholesaler in the
nineteenth century.
George Brettle & Co of Bel per
George Brettle & Co became the biggest firm of London
wholesalers by about 1830. It opened its warehouse in London
II Knitting and its Origin
25
11
on Cateaton Street around 1801. Previously, the company had
sold its goods through other hosiers, but with its own
warehouse was able to sell directly to retailers. The impact of
the warehouse on the company was reflected in the company's
yarn purchases. Between 1800 and 1802 its yarn supply from
Strutts doubled. By 1802 the company had written to other
local hosiers and offered to act as a middleman and sell their
hose in London.
Brettle's records provide little guidance on the firm's
spectacular success, but it was probably to do with easy access
to capital (Southwell Bank had a Brettle partner) and early
connections with the fast-growing cut-price drapers of London.
Corah
In contrast with Morleys and Brettles, Nathaniel Corah focused
his wholesale activities on Birmingham rather than London.
After the failure of an earlier knitting business venture in
Leicestershire, Corah found a job in a Birmingham gun factory.
There he noticed that Birmingham's economy was expanding
and that opportunities existed to sell knitted goods to its people.
In 1815 Corah remrned to Leicester and bought a house on
St Nicholas Street. On a Saturday morning, Corah would go
to the Globe Inn in Silver Street, Leicester where stockingers
met to sell their goods. While he bought stock at the illl, his
wife would also buy stock taken to their house. The goods
were then taken by wagon to the Rose Inn, Edgbaston Street,
Birmingham where Corah rented a stock room. Corah would
then remain at the Rose Inn until the goods were sold.
Changing products
New technology
In the second half of the eighteenth century there were a
number of advances in the development and use of knitting-
II
frame technology. These followed on from Jedediah Strutt's
patent for his Derby Rib machine in 1758, which created a
more elastic fabric. Hose made using this type of fabric soon
became more popular than hand-knitted stockings. With
money to be made from successful inventions
r
many
individuals invested time and money in experimenting with
new adaptations and patterns.
Simulated lace
In 1763 John Morris, a hosier from Nottingham, patented a
frame that produced an eyelet hole mesh. The fabric created
simulated lace and was widely used for Spanish silk mitts,
gloves, aprons, handkerchiefs, hoods and caps. The frame
produced eyelet holes by placing a set of needles on the presser
bar and using them to transfer loops sideways between the
frame's main needles. Demand for Morris's products was such
that his business operated forty-nine frames with this
attachment. The sales achieved by Morris encouraged others
to work specifically in the development of open lace-style
fabrics. Their collective endeavours provided the starting point
for the famous Nottingham lace indUstry.
Point net machine
Morris was determined to stay in control of the knitted lace
market and he bought the patent for the point net machine
invented by Thomas Taylor, a Nottingham framesmith. Mter
Morris's retirement, the business and the patents were sold to
John, William and Richard Hayne, three brothers from
Ashbourne, Derbyshire. The Haynes continued to improve
the point net frame and by 1786, they had managed to
overcome the tendency of the fabric to run if a thread broke.
A hexagonal net fabric was used to produce sunshades, aprons,
handkerchiefs, caps, mitts, gloves, purses, waistcoats, shawls,
cauls and a range of other goods.
II Knitting and its Origin 2711
In 1786, there were only around twenty point net frames in
existence. By 1810 there were over 1,500 frames providing
employment for 10,000 to 15,000 lace workers in
Nottingham. The Haynes family still dominated the sector and
owned two thirds of the point net frames. Much of their output
was exported to Paris, but the silk lace trade suffered heavily at
the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and lead to the decline
of the Haynes family business and other early lace merchants.
The industry was revived after the introduction of John
Heathcoat's bobbin net Plachine. Heathcoat's invention was
based on the operations of a cushion lace wo,:"ker rather than
that of a stocking frame.
Warp knitting
Run-resistant fabrics were also created by the technique of warp
knitting, developed in 1776 by a Leicester-born framesmith,
William Honon. Warp frames differed from traditional frames
by feeding a separate yarn to each needle. Individual threads
were formed into loops and transferred between neighbouring
needles in a zigzag pattern across alternate courses. Frames
were capable of producing plaited, corded, open-work and
fancy fabrics for a range of goods. 'Vandyke' stockings of silk
or fine cotton with zigzag patterns were produced in large
quantities in Nottingham. The cost of using a warp frame led
to the technology being used mainly to create high value nets,
laces, trims and ornamental products.
William Dawson, a Leicester mechanic, improved Horton's
frame and increased its speed, making it more cost-effective to
operate. Despite the improvement the warp frame was not
widely used. The fabric it produced was used for the cut-up
work that workers disliked and considered a threat to their
fully-fashioned work. However, warp knitting emerged in the
twentieth century as a major part of the knitting industry.
11
28
II
In the doldrums (1810-1850)
Luddite frame breaking
Wage rates
Early framework knitters were a prosperous group. An average
Nottingham framework knitter in 1714 earned ten shillings
and six pence for a four day week, those that produced fine
embroidered work could earn as much as 20 shillings a week.
Others soon entered the industry hoping to enjoy the same
standard of living, but rising numbers diluted standards and
earnings in the less skilled branches. Like all fashion-based
industries, knitting was vulnerable to sudden shifts in demand
and earnings were affected.
Protests begin
Unemployment in the industry sometimes resulted in
framework knitters taking direct action to. In 1778, knitters
petitioned Parliament for a Bill to regulate their wages and
prevent hosiers or their agents underpaying them. Framework
knitters also formed friendly societies to provide support in
hard times. Workers paid subscriptions to societies on the
understanding that they would receive money from the society
if they were sick or laid off. Knitters reacted further at the
introduction of wide frames in 1776. Wide frames used more
needles in a row than earlier frames and produced a wider piece
of fabric. The shape of the garment was cut out of the fabric
and sewn together. This type of garment was commonly
referred to as a 'cut-up'. The shorter production time and less
skill required meant that 'cut-ups' were cheaper to produce.
As a result, knitters were paid less to produce them.
Workers riot and smash
The first two decades of the nineteenth century saw a downturn
II Knitting and its Origin
29
11
in the knitting industry as fashion changes reduced demand
for hosiery. Workers felt their standard of living threatened.
Wages were often less than they were a hundred years earlier.
Work also became scarce as the demand for men's hosiery
collapsed during the turbulent Napoleonic War period. The
tensions fmally erupted with the outbreak of a series of Luddite
riots.
In March 1811, workers tried to negotiate higher wages and
force hosiers to abandon the use of cut-ups. As talks failed,
groups .from across N ottinghamshire gathered in
Nottingham's marketplace. Troops were brought in to control
the situation in the town, but they were unable to prevent
widespread destruction across the county. Sixty-three frames
were smashed at Arnold (north-east of Nottingham) and a
further two hundred frames were destroyed across the county
over the following three weeks. The riots continued into 1812,
by which time the Luddites had broken up over eight hundred
frames.
Rebellion spreads
During 1812, the rebellion against new technology spread to
Leicestershire and Derbyshire. The plight of the workers was
made worse by a rapid rise in the price of wheat. In response
to the extension of Luddite actions, attempts were made to
deter further disruption, 12,000 troops were ordered to take
control of Luddite areas and four Nottingham rioters were
sentenced to transportation. An Act was also passed making
the destruction of frames punishable by death.
Controlling the Luddites
By the summer of 1812, Luddite frame breaking had ceased
in Nottinghamshire. Elsewhere, occasional outbreaks of
destruction continued until 1817. Heathcoat's lace factory in
Loughborough was attacked on 28 June 1816 and 6,000
II
worth of damage was done. Transportations to Australia and a
series of hangings forced the workers behind the Luddite
movement to reconsider their plans. The Luddites smashed
an estimated thousand stocking frames between 1811 and
1817.
The emergence of trade unions
Early associations
The Stocking Makers' Association for Mutual Protection,
fonned in 1776, was the first association in the knitting industry
to fonnally represent the workers. The Association campaigned
for a Bill to regulate framework knitters' wages, but when the
Bill failed in 1779, the association fell apart. Workers
continued to campaign against low wages with the suppurt of
their trade societies. If framework knitters went on strike
against a hosier that had reduced pay rates, the society would
use its subscription income to provide the strikers with money.
Acting against the unions
The Union Society of Framework Knitters became one of the
most succes"ful societies, with members across
N ottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Leicestershire, London,
Godalming, Tewkesbury and Northamptonshire. From its
foundation in 1812, the Union had established a set of
minimum rates, which if not met, resulted in strike action being
taken against the hosier. However, such groups were illegal.
The Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 banned societies
formed with a political purpose or that interfered with trade.
Despite its success, the Union collapsed after three of its
committee members were prosecuted under the Acts and
sentenced to a month's hard labour.
The threat of prosecution delayed the formation of further
organisations. Periodically, hosiers would meet with knitters
II Knitting and its Origin 31 II
and receive their complaints about wage levels. Where
agreements were reached at these meetings a new list of rates
was drawn up, but without a body to police them, the agreed
rates were soon ignored as people agreed less pay in order to
gain work.
Lobbying Parliament
Informal groups of framework knitters campaigned for a new
Bill in 1819. The Bill proposed to ban production of cut-ups
and bring a stop to downward pressures on wages. Mter
discussion in Parliament, the Bill was thrown out. Framework
knitters reacted by agreeing to a widespread strike across
Derbyshire, Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire with the aim
of increasing wages. 14,000 workers joined the strike and there
was wide support from the public, who contributed in the
region of 800 to fmance the striking workers. The strike in
Nottingham forced sixty-seven out of ninety hosiers to sign an
agreement that raised stocking rates from eight to twelve
shillings a dozen. The strikers, with their funds spent, were
forced to return to work before all the hosiers had signed up
to the new rates. Within a year, gains made by the strike were
lost. Leicester knitters were the only exception to this, they
were able to keep the rates for two years.
Striking again
A further major strike was called in 1821. Knitters again
campaigned for rates to be increased in the industry. For over
eight weeks the strike was widely supported and virtually
nothing was produced across the three counties. An upturn in
demand for knitted goods encouraged the hosiers to raise their
rates temporarily and end the strike. The achievements of the
strike were soon lost as knitters undercut each other to gain
work. This cycle was repeated again in 1824 when knitters
were on strike for four months. The lack of money and food
forced the strike to end with only a few small temporary gains.
II
The ending of the 1824 strike fmally broke the will of knitters
to continue the fight and union activity declined until the
transition of the industry to a factory system in the 1850s and
1860s. The Combination Acts that prevented the formation
of unions were repealed in 1824, but in the depressed first half
of the nineteenth century unionism was slow to take hold.
The 1844 Royal Commission
Poor framework knitters
After the strikes of framework knitters in the 1810s and 1820s,
wages in common branches of the industry remained at a low
level for a further twenty years. Repons highlighted the poor
conditions faced by workers. A factory commissioner noted
in 1833 that 'The men sat at their work back to back, there
was just enough space for the necessary motion, but not
without touching each other'. He also commented that the
majority of men over twenty looked 'sickly and emaciated'.
However, demand developed in new sectors for workers who
were adaptable. Innovations in products included cut-ups,
gloves, drawers, shirts, caps, fancy goods and socks. Wages of
11 shillings a week could be earned in these new lines, while
basic stocking, knitters were paid around seven shillings a week.
The industry continued to grow as population in Britain
expanded and new markets were developed overseas. Between
1812 and 1844, the number of stocking frames in use increased
from 29,595 to 48,482.
Petitions to Parliament
In 1843, framework knitters took action to campaign for
improved conditions. Over 25,000 framework knitters signed
a petition and submitted it to Parliament. The petition
complClined about wages, unemployment, new machinery,
frame rents and imports of knitted goods. The Government
II Knittino and its Origin 3311
responded by appointing Richard Muggeridge as the
commissioner responsible for compiling a report on the
industry.
. Commission officials spent several months in the East Midlands
taking evidence from a range of people connected with the
knitting industry. Framework knitters, hosiers, masters, local
officials, professionals (doctors, clergymen) and the mayor of
Leicester were all received and presented their accounts of the
industry.
Frame rents
The payment of frame rents was one area that particularly
concerned workers. Most knitters were unable to afford to buy
a knitting frame and were forced to rent their frame from the
hosier. The report recorded that frame rent and other expenses
(candles, oil, etc. ) could amount to a third of the knitter's wage.
The impact of frame rents was made worse where hosiers rented
out more frames than they needed to complete the work
available. The practice became known as 'stinting'. Knitters
had to pay a full week's rent even when the work supplied by
the hosier only took a few days. The report recorded that
between 1814 and 1844 wages fell by up to 40 percent, while
frame rents continued to rise. A John Woodward complained
to the Commission that he had paid 180 in rent over twenty-
two years on a frame worth 9.
Bagmen
Middlemen or bag men collected work from the knitters'
houses and took it to the hosier's warehouse. A taking in fee
was charged for the service by the middleman and deducted
from the knitter's wages. Framework knitters complained to
the Commission that middlemen or bag men commonly
underpaid them for their work, not passing on the full rate
paid by the hosier. Knitters frequently demanded that lists of
II
'prices should be printed and distributed so that they knew
how much they should be paid.
Knitters also complained that they were forced to buy goods
from specified shops or risk not being given any further work
by the employer. The employer or members of his family often
owned the shops and used their position to charge higher prices
or just gain an unfair advantage over other local shops.
The outcome of the commissions report
The commissioner's repon concluded that low wages were
associated with the high number of people wanting to work
in the industry. Oversupply of labour had forced wage rates
down. Employers who rented out more frames than required
allowed people to enter the industry easily and this did not
help the situation. Some witnesses acknowledged that the
merchant hosiers had been sluggish in responding to the new
technical and market opponunities while others complained
of competition from cheap labour in Saxony. The repon also
recognised that higher wages could be gained by turning to
new designs in better quality lines. The impact of the
Commission was limited. The output of the domestic industry
at the centre of the report was gradually transferred to factory
production in the years following 1845.
The advent of factories (1820-1900)
Thansition to factory production
Working at home
Framework knitting was traditionally carried out in workers'
homes. Hosiers supplied yarn to the workers, children
commonly wound the yarn onto bobbins, men knitted it into
stockings and women seamed and embroidered the stockings.
The industry could keep the whole family occupied.
II Knitting lind its Origin
Resisting the factory
During the eighteenth century; many industries, including
other branches of the textile industry; transferred from domestic
to factory production. By the middle of the nineteenth century;
the knitting industry had still not made the transition to
factories. A number of reasons were suggested for this.
Framework knitters were resistant to any move that brought
greater control over their work. Working at home, the knitter
could determine his hours of work and share his workload
with other members of the family. In contrast, the factory
environment was associated with regulated hours and being
watched over by supervisors.
The system of renting frames provided employers with a
reason to continue domestic production. Individuals had
invested heavily in frames and benefited from the good rate of
return from frame rents. The cost of frame and workplace
maintenance (machine oil, candles, heating, etc.) was also the
responsibility of the knitter at home under the domestic
system. Transition to a factory system would require the
employer to cover these costs. In addition, if the employer
had insufficient work for his frames, the frames had to be shut
down and earned no money.
While these reasons were widely suggested at the time and
have some substance, they miss the crux of the problem.
Hosiers and knitters alike were hostile to the new technologies
of warp knitting and circular knitting, which they regarded as
inferior to the traditional fully-fashioned knitting on Lee's
principles. The initiative was left to the French and Americans
(circular knitting) and the Germans (warp knitting) so the
British industry gradually lost the competitive edge.
Redesigning the workplace
Despite these resistance factors, some factory-style
developments started in the eighteenth century. Property
developers and hosiers realised tHat money could be made by
'building houses with rooms designed to accommodate knitting
frames. The houses were often built in rows and focused
knitting activities in one location. Houses in Bramcote,
Nottipgham was built with a communal workshop on the third
floor that ran through all the properties in the row.
Separate workshops were built to accommodate a dozen or
more frames, particularly the new wide frames. Too large for
domestic living accommodation, these frames were often
located in 'frameshops' at the rear of properties. A Wigston
hosier built a two-storey workshop to the rear of his house to
accommodate around twenty frames. The building survives
today as the Wigston Framework Knitters Museum. Similarly,
a Ruddington bag hosier called Parker built large workshops
behind his cottage, which survive as Ruddington Framework
Knitters Museum. Frameshops were common throughout the
regIOn.
The larger frameshops can be seen as the early factories of the
knitting industry. They brought the framework knitters to a
single location and enabled the hosier to control his workers.
Elements of the domestic industry continued to exist with the
frameshops. Hand frames were still used and they continued
to be rented to the workers operating them. Employers also
introduced a new charge, 'standing rent', to cover the cost of
the knitter using the workshop instead of his house.
Steam powered technology
BruneI's breakthrough
During the early nineteenth century, framesmiths began to
make discoveries that paved the way for steam power to be
applied to knitting technology. William Lee's frame required
a sequence of horizontal and vertical moves to be made by the
framework knitter in order to produce knitted goods. The
1/ Knitting and its Origin
37
11
automation of these movements was difficult, panicu1arlywhen
steam engines provided only rotary motion. However, BruneI,
a French engineer and father of Isambard Kingdom BruneI,
built a machine in 1816 that arranged the needles in a circular
form rather than a flat bed. The machine produced a tube of
fabric suitable for cut-ups, but it could not create fully-
fashioned work. Against the background of resistance to cut-
ups, the technology was slow to be introduced in Britain.
Applying power
Warners of Loughborough made the first attempt to apply
steam power to a frame in 1829. Success was limited and
problems continued to be experienced in controlling the shape
of garments. Luke Barton, a hosier from Arnold, patented a
device to overcome this problem in 1838. Barton continued
to work on his design as an employee ofHine & Mundella in
Nottingham. In 1854, this resulted in a machine capable of
producing several fashioned stockings at once.
William Cotton of Loughborough secured a patent in 1864
for his rotary-driven machine. This steam-powered machine
used a flat bed to produce fully-fashioned garments. The
capacity of the machine continued to grow and models were
built with sufficient beds to produce in excess of twelve
garmentsat once. Initially Cotton's machines were supplied
exclusively to Hine & Mundella. After 1878, Cotton supplied
his machinery to the open market and it remained a key
machine in the industry for the next hundred years.
Circular machines
On the continent, away from resistance to the cut-up, circular
knitting technology continued to be investigated. Peter
Claussen from Belgium developed Brunel's idea and patented
an improved circular machine in 1845. It could produce a
substantial tube of knitted fabric for cutting and be powered
"
by hand or steam. A Claussen machine was brought to
Nottingham the same year and was not well received by hosiers
wary of the potential reaction from workers. Shortly after 1845,
an upturn in the economy created an increased demand for
knitted goods and a shortage of knitters. This provided hosiers
with an opportunity to introduce the circular machine,
although a newspaper from the Great Exhibition noted that
'In addition to this large number known to be employed, many
others ... are worked secretly in various parts of the town and
neighbourhood of Nottingham'. Felkin estimated that 1,200
circular machines were in use by 1864. Old-established firms
of merchant houses such as I. & R. Morley, however, continued
to resist circulars and remained loyal to its fully-fashioned
knitters.
Invention of the latch needle
A huge leap forward for the knitting industry was the invention
of the latch needle by Matthew Townsend of Leicester,
patented in 1849. Since William Lee's invention of the bearded
needle in 1589 all machines had used this needle to operate.
The bearded needle required a presser bar and a staged process
to pass courses of loops over the beard. Townsend, from
Leicester, realised that with a shorter hook on the needle and a
hinged latch the process could operate without the need for a
presser bar. The latch needle was particularly valuable for
circular machines, so it was taken up with more enthusiasm in
the USA than in Britain, particularly after Townsend migrated
to New England.
Workshop to factory
Investing for the future
The development of steam-powered knitting machines
encouraged firms to invest in new machinery and buildings to
II Knitting aM its Origin
39
11
house these large machines. Companies that had previously
only operated warehouses to collect goods brought in by
knitters now had large premises from which workers
manufactured their goods. Pagets of Loughborough
established their first steam-powered factory in 1839 followed
by Hine & Mundella in Nottingham in 1851. Corah
established its St Margaret works, Leicester in 1865 and L &
R. Morley opened its first factory in Nottingham in 1866.
Hine & Mundella
Hine & Mundella (known as the Nottingham Manufacturing
Company (NMC) from 1864) benefited from its exclusive
access to the Cotton machine. The company had expanded its
workforce from 52 framework knitters in 1844 to 2,000
employees by 1887. The new factory, built in 1851, was
extensive in scale and had long high galleries that were
compared with the interior of Crystal Palace. The company
built a further factory in Loughborough in 1852 __ and
established a European factory in Chemnitz, the centre of the
German knitting industry, in 1866. Expansion was also achieved
through takeovers, LL & I. Wilson were bought out in 1866
and their warehouse in Wood Street, London became a
valuable resource for NMC.
Richard Mitchell
Richard Mitchell, a successful merchant hosier, pioneered the
factory system in Leicester. In 1851, he opened a steam-
powered factory with around 60 powered wide frames. He
also continued to use 700-800 old-style frames for high quality
work. However, his reliance on older technology led to rivals
overtaking his leadership in Leicester.
Corah
In 1865, Edwin Corah laid the foundation stone ofCorah's St
Margaret's works. The factory was the largest in Leicester at
the time, with around a thousand people employed at the site.
The site's 50 horsepower steam engine powered 50 rotary
machines, 47 circulars and 77 sewing machines. The factory
also used 28 hand frames for high quality products.
St Margaret's works allowed the company to move from
domestic to factory-based production. In 1855, the company
had over 2,000 domestic workers and around 20 factory
By 1886, all of the company's employees were
factory based. Improvements in technology allowed the
company to maintain its output levels and cut its workforce.
Morley's makes its move
By the late 1860s, Hine & Mundella were starting to lose
ground to other competitors, particularly I. & R. Morley.
Samuel Morley had taken control of Morleys in 1860 and
started to make changes. A new warehouse was built on Wood
Street with a design to impress visitors and look grander than
other warehouses on the street. The company also constructed
a series of factories across the East Midlands region including
Nottingham, Leicester, Sutton-in-Ashfield and
Loughborough. By the time of Samuel Morley's death in 1886
the company's payroll had peaked at 10,000 employees. The
company's reputation for quality won many customers and
enabled it to become suppliers to the royal fanlily. The product
range was also extensive with around 5,000 lines by 1860.
Later catalogues sent to potential customers were up to 500
pages long and contained between 40,000 and 50,000 items.
Circulars in Hinckley
Hinckley's early factories were founded in the 1850s for
circular-machine production. Thomas Payne opened the town's
first factory in 1855 with 40 circular machines. An 1863 report
recorded that five steam-powered factories had been
II Knitting and its Origin 4111
constructed in the town during the previous decade to replace
hand frame production.
Homework continues
In many cases, the opening of a factory did not end a company's
relationship with framework knitters working from home.
Companies had significant capital invested in frames and
continued to pass work out to them and receive frame rents
back. Hine & Mundella employed 300 workers in its factory
in 1857 and around 3,000 domestically based framework
knitters and workers. Even at the turn of the century (1900),
I. & R. Morley employed more domestic workers (3,950) than
factory workers (3,173) or warehousemen (1,241). Brettles
employed a number of women outworkers known as
'cheveners'. The cheveners embroidered decorative designs on
stockings and socks.
Regulation of the workplace
Protecting the workforce
Growth in the number offactory workers across Britain during
the nineteenth century raised awareness of factory conditions.
From 1833 a series of Factory Acts were passed by Parliament
to control working hours and who could work in factories.
The knitting industry remained largely unaffected by the early
acts as before the 1850s it was still a domestically based
industry.
Children in the industry
The Children's Employment Commission in 1862 investigated
the use of children in industry and introduced a section on the
knitting industry. The Commission report noted that despite
the move towards steam-powered factory production, domestic
production of high quality work was likely to continue for a
"
nwnber of years. With many yOWlg people working at home
in the industry, the Commission considered that legislation
should protect these workers. Common jobs for children were
winding and seaming, with reported cases of children as yOWlg
as three and a half being given tasks to do. The report noted
evidence from child workers that they worked long hours in
factories, often outside the hours set out in the 1850 Act.
Workshop watch
The 1867 Workshops Act extended the protection of the
Factory Acts to workers in small workshops employing less
than 50 people. The Act was difficult to enforce due to the
nwnber of workshops in existence. Villages associated with
the knitting industry often had a workshop in almost every
house and the task of checking them all was almost impossible.
This was part:jcularly a problem at night when inspectors had
to fmd workers who did not follow the correct working hours.
The 1876 Factory Acts Commission recorded that people
continued to work over the ten and a half hour working day
and beyond the times set out for the working day.
Education for children
The growth of factory employment enabled inspectors to more
closely monitor working conditions in the knitting industry.
The transition to factories was delayed by the continued
availability of cheap labour in the domestic industry, particularly
that provided by children. A requirement for those fewer than
thirteen to receive part time education was included in the
Factory and Workshop Acts. The lack of school places
prevented the clause being effective. The 1870 Education Act
provided elementary education to tackle this problem. In 1876,
a further act introduced compulsory education for children.
With the supply of cheap child labour gone, the transition to
factory production rapidly increased.
II Knitting and its Orioin
Frame rents abolished
The abolition of frame rents by the Hosiery Manufacture
(Wages) Act in 1874 also reduced the incentive of employers
to continue to use domestic workers. Employers were no
longer able to charge workers for the use of their frames. This
ended a contentious but profitable source of income for the
frame owners.
Women at work
The role of women
Women played an important role from the earliest days of the
knitting industry. While men operated the frames, women
performed other tasks related to the knitting process. Generally,
they wound yarn onto bobbins or seamed and finished the
stockings. This division of work continued and evolved in the
factories. High quality fully-fashioned work continued to be
produced by men operating William Cotton machines. Women
seamed, sewed and mended as before and took on new tasks.
Many framework knitters considered the new circular machines
and cut-up work an inferior part of the industry and this work
were often undertaken by women.
Growth of female employment
Demand for cut-up goods continued to rise during the
nineteenth century creating more knitting and sewing jobs for
women. The Rogers & Black cut-and-sew factory in
Nottingham employed hardly any men in the 1880s. Statistics
show the growth of female employment throughout the
nineteenth century. In 1851, 30,076 of the 65,499 workers in
the industry (45.9 percent) were women. By 1911, this figure
had increased to 73.5 percent of the workforce, with 41,431
women employed out of the industry's 56,360 workers.
1/44
1/
Quality work
Work undertaken by women was not always linked to the
production of cheaper goods. The value added to goods by
women workers in some sectors of the industry, was greater
than that made by the men knitting them. High quality
stitching and embroidery was a skilled task and added
significantly to the costs of manufacturers. The accounts of
William Ball & Son from the 1850s show that to manufacture
a pair of fme silk gloves 8.6 percent of the costs were related to
the knitter of the fabric, whilst 19 percent of the costs were
paid for stitching and embroidery. In the 1830s, an estimated
150,000 women worked in hand embroidery in the knitting
industry and wider textile industry.
Women in demand
New technology in the knitting industry further moved the
balance of employment in the favour of women. Machines
produced goods quicker and less manpower was required
to operate them. The large number of goods produced still
required several predominantly women-operated tasks to
be undertaken. For every male employed in hand frame
knitting, an average 1.77 women were employed. Where
rotary machines were used the ratio was 2.3 females for
every male. The ratio peaked in the favour of women for
powered circular machines, where 11 women were
employed for every man.
The demand for women soon started to create shortages and
technology was used to make the most of the women available.
Rows of sewing machines were connected to belt-powered
systems within factories and were use by women to assemble
cut-up garments. The Singer factory in Glasgow had, by the
start of the twentieth century, developed a range of eighteen
different models, designed to undertake specific tasks in the
knitting industry. The Singer Handbook for the Hosiery Trade
II Knitting and its Origin
II
was regularly updated to provide manufacturers with guidance
on how long tasks should take operators.
Raising standards
Early patents
Since the fifteenth century, patents have been granted to
encourage inventors to make new discoveries. The award of a
patent provides the inventor with legal protection against others
copying the idea within the kingdom. The Crown controlled
early patents and applications were often refused if the monarch
did not like the idea. William Lee had his application turned
down by Elizabeth I because she thought Lee's frame
produced an inferior product and could threaten jobs in the
hand knitting industry.
Patent legislation
Up to the eighteenth century, patents were generally applied
to mechanical inventions or processes and not to artistic
designs. The situation allowed knitters to freely copy the
designs of other firms. The 1787 Design and Printing of Linen
Act was the first attempt to apply legal protection to designs.
The Act provided copyrights to people involved in the 'arts of
designing and printing linens, cottons, calicos and muslin'.
The copyright holder, under the terms of the Act, had the sole
right to print the design for a period of two months. The two-
month period was extended to three months in 1794.
The Copyright of Design Act, passed in 1839, updated
legislation and extended the protection provided to designers.
The Act covered designs in wool, silk, hair and mixes of fibres
containing two materials from linen, cotton, wool, silk or hair.
Legal protection provided by the Act included the shape,
decoration and construction of the garment. A Registrar was
appointed by the Board of Trade to manage the registration
II
system. To receive protection under the Act, the design of a
garment had to be registered with the Registrar before it was
made publicly available. A further act in 1843 offered extended
protection for designs and revised the application procedure.
The new Act made provision for applicants to provide a
description of the design and note which parts were not new.
Registering designs
East Midlands companies sent representatives to the Board of
Trade office in London to register their new designs. A charge
was made for the registration, which ranged from a few shillings
to several pounds. An example of the garment was then glued
into a register for official records and a second example attached
to a certificate for the company to keep. The certificate
recorded the registration number, the name of the copyright
holder, the date of registration, the length of the copyright
period and the copyright mark to be shown on registered
designs when they were sold. Details were also entered into a
logbook. Usually the copyright period was for one or two
years. Between 1843 and 1883 all registered designs were
marked with a diamond motif that could be used to identify
registration details. The marks were either stamped onto the
fabric or a paper label.
The introduction of legal protection for designs led to the
production of a range of unique designs by manufacturers.
The registered design books held today by the Public Record
Office contain many examples of knitted garments from the
Victorian period.
The Trade Unions
Associations and unions
Trade unions made an eady appearance in the hosiery industry.
An association of framework knitters in the midland counties
II KnittingandiaOrigin 47"
existed as early as the 1770s. At this period they were closely
connected with the friendly societies that developed in the
towns and villages throughout the region. In those early years,
the unions were a spontaneous response to threats of cuts in
traditional wage rates.
Fluctuations in the economy in the 1840s and 1850s led to
demands from workers for increased wages in the good times
and resistance against reductions during recessions. To aid them
in their battle against the employers a number of new unions
were formed. In 1857, the Nottingham Circular Framework
Knitters' Society was formed after circular machine knitters
had been out on strike for a numbers of weeks as a protest
against falling rates of pay. This was followed in 1865 by the
United Rotary Power Framework Knitters' Society,
representing workers on the newly mechanised fully-fashioned
machines.
Union membership
Mid-nineteenth century union membership was often restricted
to men and union activities sometimes sought to limit
opportunities for women. The Circular Framework Knitters'
Society campaigned against the employment of women on
circular machines, with little success. The Rotary Power Society
men felt less threatened by female employment and recruited
female members in the 1870s including winders, seamers and
linkers. The introduction of powered sewing machines led to
a rapid increase in the number of women on cut-
and-sew knitwear and provided an opportunity for the Society
to expand its membership. However, most women were not
interested in union membership and within the Rotary Power
Society the women's department was abandoned as
uneconomIc.
The growth of union activity in factories encouraged home-
based framework knitters to form unions to fight for their
II
interests. In Leicester in 1858, two new unions were fOWlded,
the Hose Shirt and Drawers Union and the Sock and Top
Union. By 1870 the Hose Shirt and Drawers Union had
aroWld 2000 members and the Sock and Top had 800. With
the domestic industry in decline, framework knitters' Wlions
lost members and they were closed in the 1880s.
Piece rates
Victorian unions worked to raise the wages of their members.
In the knitting industry they fought for printed lists of
employers' rates, aiming to bring low paying firms up to the
level of the best. In the 1860s, '70s and '80s, when disputes
occurred between the employers and workers or Wlions, the
Board of Arbitration and Conciliation of the Hosiery and Glove
Trades provided a mechanism to resolve disagreements.
Many disputes concerned the setting of piece rates. The
continuous introduction of new machinery and products
required the calculation of further piece rates. To keep the
workforce happy, the rates for both the old and the new
machinery had to reflect the effort put into creating a given
number of pieces. New machinery generally produced more
garments in a day than older machines and often needed
less skill to operate them. A lower piece rate would, therefore,
be set for garments produced on the new machine. Similar
issues occurred with new garments, where the rate had to
reflect how difficult the garment was to make and how long
it took.
The division of unions into separate groups, representing
different sectors of the industry in different areas, diluted their
power in negotiations. In 1888 the Leicester Union, the
Nottingham Rotary Union and the Ilkeston Union combined
to form the Midlands COWlties Hosiery Federation. The
federation worked to co-ordinate activities across the region
and Hinckley was brought into its membership in 1891.
II Knitting and its Origin
49
11
Boom time and heyday (1860-1960)
Workshop of the world
A resourceful Britain
Between 1840 and 1860 Britain experienced a period of rapid
growth that saw many changes in the workplace and in society.
The rail network in Britain expanded to around 10,000 miles
of track, cutting travel times between many cities and towns.
For the first time in history, goods could be trans po ned across
the country within a matter of hours. Opportunities for
business opened up and the economy boomed. The
construction of the railways alone employed 200,000 people
and at its peak used 40% of the country's expanding output of
lron.
The new steamships and the railways enabled Britain to trade
with the world and outperform other industrialising nations,
such as France and Germany. Between 33% and 50% of the
world's shipping tonnage was British. The empire and
developing countries supplied raw materials and Britain used
them to manufacture goods. In the knitting industry, wool
canle from Australia and cotton from India. Countries that
supplied raw materials could use their export income to buy
the manufactured goods produced by Britain and they
provided important markets for British companies. Other
industrialising nations also bought large amounts of British
goods.
Clothing the world
Markets opened up and provided wider opponunities for sales,
especially in the USA and the Empire. I & R Morley of
Nottingham extended its sales force overseas to increase
exports. Sales offices were opened in Australia, New Zealand,
Canada, South Mrica, France, Germany, Belgium, Denmark
II
and Switzerland. Similarly, Wolsey of Leicester sold extensively
overseas. In many companies, export sales kept the workforce
busy at times of the year when demand was lower in the British
market. Mter sufficient goods had been made between July
and December ready for the British winter, Australian orders
and Canadian orders followed on from January to June.
Between 1861 and 1910 exports of hosiery increased from
791,000 to 1,908,000. Much of this expansion was due to
increased sales of high quality woollen goods. Sales of lower
quality and cheaper cotton goods were being lost (from the
1890s) to producers in Germany. This had an impact on the
industries in Nottingham and Hinckley where cotton was an
important part of the production.
Export of machinery
Britain's position as the leading industrial nation enabled it to
sell its technology to the other industrialising nations. Overseas
industries followed closely behind the British expansion and
often purchased British machinery when they did not have
their own machinery manufacturers. Knitting machine
manufacmrers such as A Paget & Co and William Cotton &
Co. Ltd supplied machines to France, Germany and USA.
Overseas companies were able to examine the machines they
bought and develop their own technology. Towards the end
of the nineteenth cenmry, the British machinery industry
experienced problems as these markets were supplied by their
own domestic industry.
The competition catches up
The end of the American civil war in 1865 created demand in
the USA for knitted goods and Britain, France and Germany
cdmpeted for sales. France and Germany invested in powered
machinery after realising how investments made by British
companies in new technology had increased output. Mundella
of Hine and Mundella, Nottingham commented to a
II Knitting and its Origin 51 II
parliamentary committee in 1868 that ' ... the French and
Germans are catching up in the design and manufacture of
knitting machines due to the excellence of their technical and
scientific education. Some years ago, although the French
invented the circular knitting machine such improvements were
made by the English that the French re-imported them'. He
also noted that ' ... they have succeeded by the aid of our
machines and their greater intelligence in developing their
manufacture more rapidly than we have'. Mundella recognised
the strengths of the European industry and bought a factory
in Chemnitz, Germany.
Growing business
Leading the industry
The end of the nineteenth century saw an upturn in the British
and world economy. Growth in 1. & R. Morley's sales created
a turnover of 3.06 million from a workforce of 8364
employees, a considerable proportion of whom (3,950) still
worked from home. In Leicester, Corahs was a leading firm in
the town. The company employed 2500 factory workers in
1891 and reached a turnover of 598,000. Production
concentrated on the growing outerwear market for cardigans,
jumpers and jackets.
The domination of the industry by 1. & R. Morley ended in
1920 when Wolsey took the lead as the industry'S biggest firm.
Two Leicester hosiery manufacturers, Robert Walker and Sons
and W Tyler, Sons & Co. merged together with Boswell Brown,
a London-based merchant house selling to retailers. With the
purchase of spinning mills in the West Riding of Yorkshire,
Wolsey became a vertically integrated company with the ability
to receive materials into one division of the company and
process goods through to the retailer. Mergers in the British
industry had been rare and the industry remained mainly
composed of small firms. In contrast, the merger of firms into
single companies had been common in Germany and the US
since the nineteenth century. Size enabled companies to benefit
from economies of scale, thereby allowing them to compete
more effectively.
Financing new enterprise
New firms continued to crowd into the industry in boom
periods. Some employees, with their knowledge of the industry,
set up independently. A good example is John Hall, a foreman
in a Hinckley knitting factory, who saved up 500 out of his
2 a week wage and borrowed 500 from a local bank in
order to set up a factory in Stoke Golding, near Hinckley in
1882. The company produced fme quality socks and continues
today as H J Hall & Son. By 1930, the foundation of small
companies had increased the number of factories operating in
the industry to 1,392.
Individuals with assets to act as a security found that banks
were willing to lend money to them to start up a new business.
Banks in Leicester were supportive of entrepreneurs than
Nottingham banks and led to many new businesses being
located in Leicester. The low credit rating and greater risk
associated with new firms often led to higher interest rates being
charged and restrictions placed on loan amounts. John Henry
Bull of Nottingham founded his business in 1879 to produce
a range of goods on circular machines. The business survived
until 1892 when Bull went bankrupt, attributing the
bankruptcy to a lack of capital and borrowing at high interest
rates.
Foreign entrepreneurs move in
In the 1920s and 1930, foreign enterprise came to Britain.
Howard Ford, a menswear retailer, started to import flesh-
coloured stockings from the US in 1920. These sold well and
a factory was set up in Liverpool four years later. With the
II Knittinp and its Origin
53
11
brand name, 'British Bear Brand Luxury Stockings', the
company soon became Britain's largest producer of stockings.
Kayser Bondor is another example of a company that built its
business by importing affordable US stockings for the mass
market. A further wave of company arrivals occurred in the
1930s when Jewish families fled Nazi persecution in Germany.
The Djanogly Brothers moved to Mansfield, Noskwith
(Charnos) to Ilkeston, H.Dessau & Co. to Nottingham and
Louis Goldsmith to Leicester. British companies increasingly
cut trade links with Nazi Germany and this further prompted
the move to Britain.
The home of the knitting industry
A major change occurred in the knitting industry during the
twentieth century when the East Midlands ceased to be the
automatic choice for the location of a factory. The pull of the
London fashion market reasserted itself, particularly in
women's hosiery, between the wars. The availability of workers
and cheap redundant cotton mills in Lancashire saw the
knitting industry expand there to employ 9,500 by 1935.
Companies arriving from Germany or principally involved with
imports from overseas often did not have established links with
the East Midlands and were able to set up where economic
circumstances were favourable. The location of the London
warehouses encouraged companies to locate in the southeast.
Pasold Brothers set up their factory in Langley,
Buckinghamshire, Klinger was founded in Edmonton and
Ballito in St Albans.
Changing cities
Urban living
By 1851, more people lived in towns than in the countryside
in Britain. Leicester's population expanded by 40% during
1/
the 1860s from 68,000 to 95,000. To accommodate the
population growth in towns, new houses were built. The
middle classes moved to new suburbs, such as South Highfields
in Leicester, while the working classes were crowded into
houses that were tightly packed together, creating an unhealthy
environment.
Civic pride
The growing economic power of Britain during the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries created vast wealth. Expansion of the
domestic economy, export growth and returns on worldwide
investments generated surplus money for individuals and
organisations. In many towns and cities across Britain, money
was invested in large civic buildings and facilities intended to
impress and display status.
Town halls, towers and toilets
The wealth acquired by Leicester from the knitting industry
was used to fund a new town hall. The area once occupied by
the town's cattle market was cleared to make way in 1876 for
a grand Queen Anne style redbrick and cream stone building.
A new square was laid out in front of the hall, complete with a
bronze fountain. The square became home to Leicester's
memorial to the dead of the Boer War. A few hundred metres
away at the junction of the High Street and Gallowtree Gate, a
grand clock tower with pink granite and marble columns was
built. The tower provides a focal point for the city and
incorporates statues of famous Leicester residents, Simon de
Montfon, William Wigs ton, Sir Thomas White and Alderman
Gabriel Newton.
Expenditure on grand buildings did not just include sites at
the centre of a town or city, money was also spent on unseen
functional buildings. Large quantities of waste created in the
towns had to be taken away from urban areas via networks of
II Knitting and its Origin 5511
sewers. In 1891, Leicester built Abbey Pumping Station some
two miles out of the centre, to pump sewage from the town to
Beaumont Leys. The Pumping Station (now a museum)
housed four huge or nately decorated, Gimson and Co. beam
engines in a room with elaborate Corinthian columns. Such
buildings were built in towns to overcome the health problems
caused by population growth.
Marketing the city
In Nottingham, a late example of civic pride is the Council
House, completed in 1929. Built on the site of the former
Exchange Building, the structure was designed to dominate
the landscape and match the impact of the castle on the skyline.
A grand columned facade and dome of Portland Stone could
be viewed across the newly laid out Great Market Place with
its broad pavements, lawns and fountains.
Gifts to the town
Civic developments were not always funded by public money.
The first public park in Britain (Derby Arboretum) was
donated by the Strutt family to the town of Derby. The Strutts
made their fortune in the hosiery industry following Jedediah
Strutt's patent for Derby rib stockings (1758) and partnership
at Belper with Sir Richard Arkwright.
Post war recovery
Planning for the future
The rationing and controls imposed during the Second World
War remained in place in the immediate post war period. The
fragile econo(l1Y needed careful management to ensure that
the country recovered from the effects of the war. Demand
for goods and services was high, blitzed towns and cities had
II
to be rebuilt, wardrobes replenished and nm-down factories
refurbished with new, more efficient plant.
Due to shortages, the building of new factories was subject
to official approval. Priority areas for investment had been set
up before the war in locations with high employment. The
policy resulted in companies opening factories across Britain.
Corah opened a site at Aberbargoed in Wales and Y\blsey
developed factories at Welshpool in Wales and Dumfries in
Scotland. The post war redistribution of factories continued
to reduce the concentration of the knitting industry in the East
Midlands. Within the region, small firms continued to be
established by ex-employees of the larger firms. Using available
factory accommodation, many of them achieved profitable
turnovers in this period of growth.
Investing in machines
Companies also had to source new machinery and raw
materials. A 1946 Working Party estimated that the British
industry required further 300 to 700 Cotton's patent machines
in addition to the 1205 in use at the time. Many of the fully-
fashioned machines in use had been imported from Germany,
but the source of the machines was now in East Germany under
the control of the Soviets. In Britain, William Cotton & Co.
had produced an average of 32 machines a year over the
previous three decades. The solution to the problem was to
import over 2,000 machines from the Textile Machine Works
in the USA. It was not an easy solution though, as the
availability of dollars to pay for them was limited.
The rage of nylons
Clothes rationing (and the utility mark) continued until 1949 ,
controlling production levels of garment ranges within firms.
Nylon had been brought into production by Du Pont in the
USA in 1938 and was largely unexploited in Britain due to the
II Knitting and its Origin 5711
war. Nylon stockings or nylons'found their way over to Britain
with American forces during the war. Nylon was superior to
rayon and demand for nylons seemed insatiable. Only two
small plants had the ability to produce nylon prior to the war
and it wasn't until 1948 that Britain had a factory capable of
large-scale nylon production in Pontypool.
Twin sets and panties
Despite the problems that faced the manufacturers, the British
knitting industry continued to grow in the 1940s and 1950s.
The move away from Victorian and Edwardian formal wear
continued and demand increased for knitted outerwear and
underwear. Women commonly wore woollen jumpers and
started to combine them with cardigans. The development of
a matching jumper and cardigan became known as a twin set.
Cami-knickers were replaced by closer fitting panties. Men's
underwear also became lighter with the introduction of y:.
fronts. The 'Teddy Boy' look brought in brightly coloured
socks of fluorescent pink, green or yellow. Cardigans and
sweaters also continued to be popular in men's' wear and the
Italian style cardigan jacket was knitted with no collar, lapels
or top pocket.
The knitting machine building industry
Improving on Lee
Since the time of William Lee, the knitting industry has been
supported by the knitting machine building industry. Before
the nineteenth century, knitting frames closely followed the
design of Lee's frame. The mid-nineteenth century saw the
development of circular knitting machines and automatic fully-
fashioned machinery. Leading companies of the industry for
the next century were founded around this time. Moses Mellor
and G. Blackburn & Co. (initially known as Attenborough &
"
Mellor & Co.) were founded in the 1840s and 1850s in
Nottingham. The next wave of innovations occurred in
Loughborough during the 1860s, where A. Paget & Co. Ltd
and William Cotton & Co. Ltd. developed fully-fashioned
machines.
The British knitting industry traditionally favoured fully-
fashioned garments and saw circular knitting machines and
wide flat frames as producing an inferior product. The Paget
and Cotton machines quickly became popular in British
factories and many were exported. They offered reliable service
and with maintenance, some of the early Cotton machines were
still in use a century later. When the Cotton patent ran out in
1879, other companies copied the design and produced their
own version. The machines were commonly referred to as
Cotton's Patents.
Knitting in circles
Overseas competition and the demand for cheap goods in the
British market forced firms to use circular knitting machines.
To avoid wage cuts, companies had to use a technology that
would increase output, cut costs and produce a saleable
garment. The introduction of new automated processes to
circular machines in the last quarter of the nineteenth century
further encouraged manufacturers to invest in them. In the
USA and Europe, technicians worked to develop machines
capable of automatically producing heels and toes on stockings
and socks. Large diameter circular frames continued to be used
to produce fabric for cut-and-sew knitwear and underwear.
Selling for the competition
During the early twentieth century, the British knitting machine
industry was heavily influenced by developments in the USA.
Blackburns became agents for the American company Scott
& Williams in 1890. The company was subsequently appointed
II Knitting and its Origin
59
11
the sole licensee, outside of the USA, for the Scott & Williams
Interlock machine. The fully-fashioned industry that the UK
had pioneered and led became dominated by German designs.
The German company, Schubert & Salzer, was the largest
knitting machine manufacturer in the world by 1928. The
Textile Machine Works of Reading in the US also developed
their version of a fully-fashioned machine, popularly known
as a 'Reading'. Between 1945 and 1949, over 2,000 Readings
were imported into the UK.
British innovation
The outlook was not entirely bleak for machine builders as
companies were still able to introduce their own new machines
and capture a sector of the market. Spiers and Grieves latmched
their 'XE machine in 1902. The ~ , through its various
models, was the main double cylinder-knitting machine tmtil
the 1970s. The success of the ~ w a s closely followed by the
Bentley 'Komet', a double cylinder circular machine.
The British industry was given some help in 1932 when high
tariffs were introduced on imported knitting machinery.
However, companies such as G. Stibbe & Co. Ltd and Wildt
& Co. Ltd, both of Leicester, who had imported and sold
machinery, fotmd that it was no longer profitable to do so.
Forttmate1y, these companies had gained an tmderstanding of
the technology by making adaptations for clients to imported
machines. Stibbe manufactured such machines as the Maxim,
Challenger, Model T and the PBjDR 8 feed interlock machine.
Wildt introduced its Model E and Auto-Express RJ.
War timeout
At the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, the knitting
machine building industry employed 2,766 workers. For the
duration of the war, the production of knitting machinery
stopped and factories were turned over to other uses. Industries
II
vital to the war effort were moved from the areas lUlder threat
of air raids, such as the West Midlands, to the East Midlands.
When peace returned, demand increased for knitting machines
to replace those worn out during the war and British
companies enjoyed full order books.
Reaching the customer
The beginning of brands
During the Victorian era, railways made it easier for producers
to sell goods across the whole cOlUltry. To ensure that the
customer knew whose product they were buying, firms began
to label their goods. If the customer liked the producer's goods,
they could then go and buy more of them, asking for them by
name. Gradually brand names were promoted by using
advertisements to increase awareness of the brand. The earliest
in the hosiery industry was I. & R. Morley, who inserted an M
in the selvedge of their stockings from the mid-nineteenth
century.
Robert Walker & Sons looked to the local area to fmd a name
for their brand. Close to the company's factory was Leicester
Abbey where Cardinal Wolsey had been buried, this inspired
the company to choose Wolsey as the brand name. The merger
with W Tyler, Sons & Co. saw the brand name emerge as the
new name for the combined company, Wolsey Ltd. Press
advertising highlighted the quality of the Wolsey product.
'Unshrinkable' combinations and socks were two of the
promoted ranges. Meanwhile John Smedley & Co of Matlock
developed a strong brand name (Smedleys Knitwear) based
on quality Egyptian cottons knitted on fully-fashioned
machines.
U clocking sales
The development of brands based on new fabrics was also
II Knitting and its Origin 61 II
used as a way of selling goods. The 'interlock' fabric, produced
on a machine developed by Scott & Williams of the USA, was
carefully controlled in its use. Mter Scott & Williams had
patented the interlock design in 1909, G Blackburns was
awarded the only licence outside the USA to manufacture the
interlock machine. Subsequently, agreements were made with
George Spencer of George Spencer & Co. Ltd and P.J. and B.
Lewis ofJ.B. Lewis & Sons to share the rights to produce and
use the interlock fabric. Spencers used its 'Vedonis' brand to
promote its interlock women's and children's wear and Lewis
and Sons created 'Meridian' for its menswear. The agreement
with Scott & Williams protected both the Meridian and
Vedonis brands from competition until the interlock patent
ran out in 1929. The interlock fabric used two threads knitted
alternately on two sets of needles. The stability of the fabric
made it popular for cut and sew work.
Leaving out the middleman
In addition to firms advertising their products to the customer
in journals and newspapers, they also had to arrange for goods
to reach the shops. From the eighteenth century, firms had
sent their goods to warehouses based around the Wood Street
area of London. The warehouse acted as a middleman between
the manufacturer and the retailer, taking on stock-holding and
marketing risks in return for a margin of fifteen percent or so.
Warehouses faced losing their business if the manufacturers
and retailers cut them out of the supply chain and traded
directly with each other. Growing connections between
manufacturers and retailers, together with a range of other
problems, encouraged warehouses to form the Wholesale
Textile Association (WTA) in 1912. The membership of the
Association increased over the next two decades from an initial
figure of 80 to 500 by 1935.
The WTA stated in 1913 that warehouses should give
preference to manufacturers that did not sell directly to retailers.
The threat of being boycotted by the WfA faced those firms
dealing directly. If they were blackballed, to survive they would
have to rely on their own sales team to find buyers. Corahs
was struck off in the 1930s after it had emerged that it had
secretly been selling goods directly to Marks & Spencer.
Manufacturers became increasingly angered by the WfA and
its powers, forcing them to take action. In 1926, the Leicester
manufacturers made a series of complaints to the WfA about
their business practices. They maintained that buyers from
warehouses would often not look at samples of new products
or that they would only order smail, less cost effective quantities
and, therefore, companies were forced to sell directly to
retailers. Retailers also took action against the WfA. Self::"idges
banned purchases from 176 WfA member warehouses in
1936.
Despite the growth of the manufacturer-to-retailer trade, it was
estimated that 60 to 70 percent of the trade was still going
through warehouses in 1950. The rise of chain stores in the
following decade had a dramatic impact on this figure and the
power of the warehouses collapsed. What remained of them
was bought up by Courtaulds during the period of takeovers
in the late 1960s.
Mergers and takeovers (1960-Present)
A new way of living
Choice again
The 1960s saw the post war baby-boom generation come of
age, complete with new expectations and aims for life. Previous
decades had seen the controls and rationing of wartime Britain
gradually removed. Prosperity increased and people were able
to buy an expanding range of consumer goods. Televisions,
II Knitting and its Origin
63
11
washing machines, cars and many other goods, previously
unavailable or unaffordable to a large pan of the population,
were being bought to improve the lifestyle of families.
People's houses were also being improved. Council houses
and private houses were built to house the growing population
and replace war damaged propenies or poor quality slum
dwellings. Former luxuries such as telephones and central
heating became common in the average house and changed
the way people lived. For the knitting industry, warmer,
centrally heated houses meant that people did not need to wear
heavy clothes to keep warm at home.
Jobs for the world
The influence of overseas cultures also began to have a major
impact on lifestyles. Cheaper travel made it possible for people
to holiday abroad and experience the way peoples from other
cultures and civilisations lived, ate and dressed. Cultural
influences also entered Britain with people from across the
world and the commonwealth settling in the UK. The
economic boom in the '50s and '60s created labour shonages.
To overcome this, employers looked to commonwealth
countries where unemployment was high and opponunities
were limited. Because of the campaign to recruit people,
residents arrived from India, Pakistan, East Mrica and the
Caribbean. Leicester offered job oppornmities in the knitting,
shoe and associated industries and became a popular centre
for settlers in the East Midlands. Between 1951 and 1971,
Leicester's population of residents from the Commonwealth
increased from 1,500 to 26,419.
Swinging minis
In addition to technological changes, moral and social codes
continued to relax. The young adult population took advantage
of the change in attitudes and enjoyed the 'swinging sixties'.
The availability of family plarming meant that people were older
when they started families. This created a larger proportion of
the British population without family commitments and a
higher disposable income to spend on more extravagant items.
The development of a pop culture saw a number of fashions
come and go, from the Beatles to punk.
Some of these changes brought benefits to the hosiery and
knitwear industry. Mini skirts brought ab'Jut a demand for
stylish stockings to wear with them. Brightly coloured designs,
elaborate patterns and fishnets were all supplied by the industry
to meet the demand. The 'flower power' culture and 'hippies'
sought to associate more closely with nature. Long hair, loose
clothes, sleeveless coats and boots came into fashion. In the
1980s, casual sportswear became popular fashion, items with
designer labels and brands were bought as soon as they could
be afforded.
Developments in knitting technology provided new garments
and looks. The late 1960s introduced tights, which removed
the need for suspenders to hold up the stocking. Early examples
were produced by sewing two stocking legs to a pair of pants.
A body knitted in the same fabric as the legs subsequently
replaced the pants.
Joining forces
Growing competition
British companies, since the nineteenth century, had faced
increasing competition from overseas. Germany, Italy, the USA
and other countries with growing knitting industries, started
to impact on the sales made by British manufacturers. The
development of the Italian machine building industry, the
availability of cheap labour and EEC grants, led to the
development of a significant knitting industry in Italy. Cheap
Italian goods sold across Europe and the USA.
II Knitting and its Origin
The era of takeovers (1960s)
The difficult trading environment weakened many companies.
Staff costs were increasing, stocks were increasing, some areas
of production had experienced losses and customer relations
were becoming more strained. Low profitability and depressed
share prices left companies open to the threat of takeover.
Between 1957 and 1970, Courtaulds, a yarn manufacturer,
took advantage of the state of the industry and began to build
a textile super-company through a series of takeovers. The
theory was that once control of a company had been secured,
Courtaulds could ensure that it supplied the company's nylon
yarn. Famous names taken over by Courtaulds included I. &
R. Morley, Brettles, Wolsey, Meridian and Aristoc. Courtaulds
had by 1968 taken control of around 20% of the knitting
industry. The expansion plans of Courtaulds . also included
companies in the Lancashire cotton industry and major
warehousing firms.
Courtaulds was not the only company to expand through
takeovers during this period. Courtauld's rival yarn supplier,
Coats Paton, also bougHt out several firms in the knitting
industry. Byfords, the Driver Group, Paso Ids and Jaeger all
fell to become part of the Coats Paton group. The expansion
of companies was not just restricted to yarn suppliers,
companies within the knitting industry played a role in the
takeover activities. The Djanoglys (Nottingham Manufacturing
Company) took control of nine companies between 1960 and
1972, creating a group of companies that employed 10,650
staff.
Takeover troubles
The strategy pursued by Courtaulds and Coats Paton failed to
achieve the anticipated outcomes. The problems of managing
diverse companies, at a difficult time in the industry, did not
lead to a long-term revival of the industry. The assumed sales
11
of yarn to the acquired companies did not materialise as
Courtauld's companies fought to retain their ability to choose
whom they bought their yarns from. The performance of the
merged companies in comparison with independent
companies is highlighted by the payroll figures between 1969
and 1983. Courtauld's workforce went from 22,746 to 11,886
and Coats Paton declined from 12,954 to 5,732. Both
companies cut their work force by around 50 percent. The
workforce of leading independent chain store suppliers only
declined by 0.5 percent from 21,728 to 21,610. Employment
peaked in the knitting industry at 159,000 in 1973-4.
A management consultancy report produced for Courtaulds
in 1983 identified that there were key weaknesses in the
business. The Meridian knitwear division was seen as
uncompetitive and its profit margin on sales to Marks &
Spencer was only 6-7% compared with Nottingham
Manufacturing Company's 9-10%. The hosiery division
secured 13% of the British market, but this was less than half
that of Pretty Polly at 28%. The report highlighted that if the
company was to turn itself around action was required.
The Marks and Spencer effect (1900-Present)
Supplying Marks and Spencer
Challenging the warehouses
The late nineteenth and early twentieth century saw attempts
by London warehouses to monopolise the supply of knitted
goods to retailers. The formation of the Wholesale Textile
Association in 1912 was designed to co-ordinate activities of
warehouses and combine their power against manufacturers
who tried to sell direct to retailers. Firms found to be dealing
with retailers were blacklisted and their goods banned from
warehouses in the WfA.
" Knitting and its Origin 6711
Simon Marks sought to bypass warehouses in the 1920s and
held secret talks with manufacturers. Many companies rejected
the approaches made to them by Marks for fear of being
blacklisted. Corahs of Leicester became one of the first
companies to enter into an agreement with Marks & Spencer,
in 1926. A slump in the company's order book led to Corahs
taking the risk of dealing directly. To keep the arrangement
secret, a code number was used for Marks & Spencer orders.
The arrangement was, however, eventually discovered and the
WfA took Corahs off their list of approved suppliers. The list
of suppliers dealing directly with Marks & Spencer continued
to expand as a Leicester agent, Leslie Hinmer of Turk Smith
Ltd, negotiated deals with Wolsey, Pool, Lorrimer & Tabberer
and Foister, Clay & Ward.
A quality product
The Marks & Spencer philosophy behind the direct orders
was that it would result in the company being able to offer its
customers a better product. Marks & Spencer had initially
bought stockings through warehouses at 9 shillings and 6
pence a dozen, but were able to buy directly from Corahs for
8 shillings and 6 pence. Instead of using the saving to increase
profit margins, Mark & Spencer negotiated with suppliers to
improve the quality of the product with the shilling saved.
The aim was to secure Marks & Spencer's reputation for
supplying quality products.
Selling to Marks & Spencer
The success of Marks & Spencer between 1922 and 1938 led
to its mrnover increasing by over thirty five times its 1922
level. Encouraged by the prospect of a lucrative sales deal with
Marks & Spencer, many companies were willing to deal with
the company and risk the consequences with the wrA. In 1933
Marks & Spencer claimed to have significantly increased
.employee numbers in forty-two of it leading suppliers.
It
A close relationship with Marks & Spencer offered
manufacmrers a number of benefits. High volume orders were
regularly placed by Marks & Spencer and goods were paid for
promptly upon delivery. Warehouses could sometimes take
between three and four months to pay for orders. Marks &
Spencer also launcht><"i a technical team to research new
technologies and designs. The team advised manufacmrers
about processes, new fashions and which machines to invest
in. In some cases money was lent to fund investment in new
machinery.
For some companies orders from Marks & Spencer soon
became a major part of their sales. Marks & Spencer aimed to
take no more than 60 percent of a company's output, but when
products sold well this figure could reach 80-90 percent. The
cost that many companies paid for a heavy reliance on Marks
& Spencer orders was the loss of their own brands. Corahs
had registered their St Margaret brand in 1875, but this was
eventually given up in favour of the Marks & Spencer St
Michael brand. Other major suppliers such as Nottingham
Manufacmring Company were never able to develop their own
brand.
Changing the industry
New blood
Family control of the Marks & Spencer boardroom ended in
1984 when Marcus Sieff retired as chairman. The new
chairman, Derek Raynor, broke with the past and brought new
ideas to Marks & Spencer. In the 1980s there was a lull in the
performance of the company due to growing competition from
fashion chain stores. Consumer demand became more diverse
and hard to please, demanding small runs of products that
sold before fashions changed. Marks & Spencer needed to
respond to this situation to maintain its position.
II Knitting and its Origin
The way ahead
Investment in new technologies had improved the efficiency
of firms and reduced production costs per unit. Marks &
Spencer, aware of falling manufacturing costs, sought to
negotiate a better deal with their suppliers and increase their
profit margins and secure savings by placing orders with fewer
suppliers. A preference was stated for dealing with a small
number of factories dedicated solely to Marks & Spencer
production. In 1987, after initial investigations, Marks &
Spencer suggested to suppliers that they should consider
opening overseas factories to achieve further cost savings.
Courtaulds, with its previous international experience, was one
of the few companies that took up this idea.
Marks & Spencer's specification and control
Suppliers to Marks & Spencer became increasingly dependent
upon the design and technical services provided by Marks &
Spencer. Orders were usually placed with companies based on
a specified number of units of a Marks & Spencer designed
garment in a specified yarn, needle gauge and dye, for delivery
on a particular date. Companies that mainly supplied Marks &
Spencer had no need to maintain an extensive product
development section when Marks & Spencer was undertaking
most of the work for them. In the 1980s, this approach
changed and Marks & Spencer turned to its suppliers to
undertake more of the design work and come up with new
ideas. The Marks & Spencer Merchandising Development
Department closed in 1985. For many smaller companies, the
change created resource problems. Skills and expertise that had
previously been supplied by Marks & Spencer now had to be
developed within the company. New relationships with
innovative overseas companies were adopted by Marks &
Spencer as a fallback against suppliers failing to develop new
products.
II
The introduction of electronic technology in the 1990s
increased the level of information available to Marks & Spencer
buyers. EPOS (Electronic Point of Sale) tills fed details of sales
of goods back to head office where buyers could electronically
order further supplies from the manufacturers. The system
helped to ensure that stocks of goods were continuously
replaced as they were sold.
Old and new suppliers
For over half of the twentieth century a number of knitting
manufacturers had enjoyed a secure and profitable relationship
with Marks & Spencer. In the 1980s, competition in the retail
world began to threaten this relationship and Marks & Spencer
began to look at new ways of working with their existing
suppliers as well as finding new suppliers. The safety of the
relationship had, however, created two weaknesses in
companies, loss of brands and over-reliance on one customer
for orders. Of the clothing brands sold in the UK in 1996, 85
percent were owned and developed by the retailers. Only 15
percent were brands owned by the manufacturers. In such
circumstances, the loss of a contract with a retailer would leave
companies without the strength of a brand behind them. Some
companies tried to reintroduce brands, but it required major
financing to pay for advertising and none succeeded.
Regular orders from retailers like Marks & Spencer
discouraged suppliers from looking elsewhere for customers.
In comparison with other European countries, British textile
companies were exporting only a small proportion of their
output. Before 1950, wholesalers had played an important role
in securing overseas sales, but the rise of major retailers had
weakened the wholesale sector to the extent that it was no longer
able to undertake this role. If a contract with a retailer was lost,
the company could find that it was left desperately looking for
new customers to stay in business.
II Knitting and its Origin
Difficult times for Marks & Spencer
Billion pound business in crisis
In the 1980s, high street competition intensified for Marks &
Spencer. Companies like Next took customers away and forced
Marks & Spencer to look at how it could change to compete
in this new environment. By the mid-1990s, Marks & Spencer
directors had turned the business around and it reached profits
of over one billion pounds a year. It was estimated that the
company still bought 75 percent of the UK domestic textile
production in 1995. Other fashion chain stores bought as little
as 14 percent of their supplies from British companies. The
success or failure of Marks & Spencer was critical to the
prosperity of the British knitting industry.
A slump in sales hit the fashion retail sector in 1999 and marked
the beginning of funher problems for Marks & Spencer. Profits
were halved to between 500 and 600 million, market share
fell from 15 percent to 11 percent and its shares lost two thirds
of their value in three years. Other companies faced similar
problems and did not survive. e&A closed all its UK stores
after losing a million pounds a week for two or three years.
The cost of recovery
Marks & Spencer responded to the crisis by underraking a
funher review of its strategy. For the British knitting industry,
a devastating blow was struck when Marks & Spencer sought
to save 110 million by sourcing supplies from overseas.
Major companies, including Richard Roberts of Leicester, lost
their Marks & Spencer contract. Other contracts were
reallocated to focus the production of specific ranges on
individual companies. Lingerie contracts were increased with
the Marrin Emprex Group, Sutton in Ashfield, at the expense
of their knitwear contracts, which were transferred elsewhere.
The security provided by a contract with Marks & Spencer had
II
been wiped out for many companies and the knitting industry
was left with an uncertain future. For those companies that retained
a contract, competitive pressures had reduced the profits made
on them. Coats Viyella decided that it was time to close its knitwear
division, four factories were closed and three sold off. Courtaulds
had diversified and opened up overseas factories to cut costs in
the previous two decades, but the Marks & Spencer problems led
to a fall in sales and left the company vulnerable. The Sara Lee
Corporation from the US subsequently bought Courtaulds for
150 million. In the 1980s, Marks & Spencer still bought 90
percent of its supplies from British companies. The policy of
sourcing goods from overseas meant that by 2000 this figure
had fallen to 40 percent. This change had a significant knock on
effect on the industry, with over 50,000 jobs in the knitting industry
lost in Nottingham, Leicester and Loughborough between 1992
and 2001.
Marks & Spencer's sales
While Marks & Spencer looked to overseas companies for
supplies, the company itself was selling overseas subsidiaries.
Stores in France, Belgium, Spain and the US amongst others
were sold off to respective national chains. In 2002, Marks &
Spencer reported that its business had turned the corner and
its clothing business was recovering. By 2003, company profits
had increased by 21 percent to 761.8 million and it had
recovered 0.7 percent of the British clothing market share to
give it 11.3 percent. But this was all too late to arrest a further
decline in the East Midlands manufacturing base.
Globalisation ( 1970-Present)
A global world
Moving abroad
Improved transport networks and communications
II Knitting and its Origin
73
11
technologies made global trade in the twentieth century easier.
Jet planes move packages quickly around the world and
telephones, faxes and email enable people to share thoughts
and make instant decisions. Companies used these
developments to expand their businesses. Courtaulds and Coats
Paton opened up overseas factories where they employed
workers on a lower wage than in the UK. Courtaulds opened
factories in Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, the Philippines, China,
Thailand and Sri Lanka. By 1986, Coats had interests in thirty
countries including India, Pakistan, Turkey, Philippines and
Hong Kong. Coats' Clothing Division opened cut and sew
factories in Morocco and Mauritius in 1992.
Counaulds and Coats because of the takeovers in the 1960s
and 1970s, were the two largest European companies in the
textiles and clothing industry in 1980. Courtaulds employed
153,003 and Coats 60,000. Both companies continued to
invest outside of the UK following demands by retailers for
low cost clothing. In 1997, 65% of Coats' turnover was
generated outside of the UK.
Protecting markets
Western governments became concerned by the level of
imports from low cost countries and introduced the Multi
Fibre Arrangement (MFA). The 1974 MFA established an
annual negotiation of quotas between nations. The exporting
nation allocated quotas to its manufacturers to ensure that the
national quota was not exceeded. The MFA has been phased
out by January 2005 and the textile market is now open to the
international competition.
Production of clothing and textiles has continued to move to
Asia. Industries in Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan,
Thailand, India and China have all grown. The end of the MFA
has brought about a rapid growth in the Chinese and Indian
textile and garments industries. Within Britain and other
"
developed cOWltries employment is expected to fall in the
industry as imports increase from low cost cOWltries.
Free trade areas
Since World War II, cOWltries have formed trading blocs based
upon common interests. Particularly significant was the
'COMECON' trade agreement formed in 1949 between the
Warsaw Pact Nations. Eastern European cOWltries dominated
by the USSR were joined by Cuba, Mongolia and Vietnam in
the bloc. When this fell apan in 1991 there was a release of
manufacturing capacity particularly in the nations bordering
on the European Economic CommWlity. In 1957, the
European Economic Community was founded with six
member states (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the
Netherlands, Luxembourg). The European Union (the current
name for what was the EEC) now contains fifteen member
states, including the United Kingdom. The introduction of
the 'Single Market' in 1992 removed internal trade barriers
across the EU and allowed free trade between member states.
The NOM American Free Trade Area (NAFTA) was fOWlded
with similar objectives. Also of importance was the
Commonwealth.
The European knitting industry is now dominated by Italy.
British and German companies have lost business to the Italian
industry. The introduction of advanced multi-feed circular
knitting machines in Italy led to a rapid growth in the hosiery
and tights division, followed by expansion in most other sectors
of the industry. In 1994 the Italian industry employed 141,000
workers while the British and German industries employed
58,900 and 40,300.
New entrepreneurs
A new life in knitting
The 1950s and 1960s saw the arrival in the East Midlands
II Knitting and its Origin 7511
of people from across the Commonwealth. Labour
shortages in the region provided jobs for the new arrivals.
Leicester experienced high levels of shortages and welcomed
people into the knitting and shoe industries. By 1971, over
26,000 Commonwealth citizens from India, Pakistan, East
Mrica and the Caribbean had arrived in the city. The Belgrave
and Highfie1ds suburbs of Leicester housed many of these
people.
Entrepreneurial individuals who wanted to set up their own
business often looked to the knitting industry. The set up costs
in the industry continued to be relatively low and enabled
people to start a garment making up business with small swns
of money. Large companies invested money in new technology
and sold off their old machines at low prices. In 1990, 77 of
the 215 Asian and Mro-Caribbean businesses recorded in
Leicester were in the knitting industry. Firms were mainly
small with less than 100 employees and rented rooms in old
factories across the city.
The Leicester Asian Business Association (LABA) and Leicester
Mro-Caribbean Business Association (LACBA) have been
founded to support businesses established by members of these
communities, including those in the knitting industry.
Under new management
Companies like Courtaulds and Coats expanded rapidly in the
1960s and 1970s by taking over companies in the textile
industry. The takeover was expected to increase profits for the
company, but that was not always achieved. Failure of takeovers
to deliver the expected results forced the big conglomerate
companies to review their businesses. Reviews revealed that
some divisions did not fit the group's business plans. To solve
the problem loss-making divisions were restructured, closed
or sold to new owners. Some existing managers gained
financial backing and bought their particular enterprise.
II
Between 1968 and 1998 Counaulds and Coats sold thirteen
divisions to their managers.
Coats Viyella sold a group of three factories in the Mansfield
area to its managers in 1990. Wrightwear Fabrics, J. K. Lace
and Stevenson's dyeworks were brought together under the
company name Welbeck. Welbeck produced stretch fabric for
lingerie, lcisurewear, swimwear and other clothing. Around
half of the company's output was exported and the remainder
mainly supplied to Marks & Spencer.
Management buyouts were not just restricted to demerged
companies, company owners looking to retire or leave the
company often sold the business to managers. A third of
management buyouts were of this type. Brian DeZille sold off
the Sweater Shop he had founded in 1995. The sale included
a factory at Syston, Leicester, a dyeworks and 78 shops. The
Sweater Shop buyout did not repeat the success of Welbeck
and the company subsequently went into liquidation.
Advances in knitting technology
Computerised production
The 1970s saw the introduction of early computer-aided design
(CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) systems.
Designers used the CAD system to create product designs and
transferred them to CAM machines to manufacture the fmal
product. CAD/CAM technology replaced the mechanical
shaping and patterning devices on machines with electronic
controls. The systems enabled companies to respond quickly
to changes in demand. New designs could be set up using
CAD and instantly produced on the CAM machine.
Early systems were expensive and only the major companies
could afford them. In the 1980s and 1990s CAD/CAM fell in
price and small and medium sized companies invested in the
new technology.
II Knitting and its Origin 7711
The introduction of computerised technology enabled
companies to work globally. Fast communication systems have
encouraged production to move away from East Midlands'
factories to other countries. Designs produced in the UK can
now be instantly transferred electronically across the world to
low-cost producers.
Wholegarment knitting
Cutting fabric into shapes and sewing the pieces together has
been used to create since the eighteenth century. From
the 1970s companles researched more efficient technologies
that produced a complete garment in one process without
the need for sewing. Garments could be knitted quickly and
without the loss of fabric associated with tut and sew
techniques.
Wholegarment technology was funher developed in the 1990s
by Shima Seiki of Japan. Shima Seiki achieved this advance in
knitting technology by developing the slide needle. The slide
needle resulted from research into the latch needle and the
knitting process. The needle consists of a hook located centrally
between a flexible two-piece slider mechanism. Stitches are
transferred by the sliders during the knitting process.
Wholegarment clothes provide greater comfort than cut and
sew clothes. The absence of seams means that the fabric can fit
close to the body and stretch more easily. Wholegarment
machines are also capable of producing complex designs. 2D
fabric is replaced by 3D knitwear shaped and pleated as
required.
Digital printing
Textile printing on garments such as sweatshirts, t-shirts and
baby wear has been dominated by screen-printing technology
since the 1970s. Set-up costs for screen printing have, in recent
years, conflicted with the trend for short production runs.
"
Advances in digital ink jet printing teehnology during the 1990s
and early 2000s have enabled machines to be built that can
cost-effectively produce small print-runs on textiles.
Designs can be transferred directly from a computer and
printed onto fabric in almost the same way as a word-processed
document is printed onto paper. Colours, sizes, shapes and
looks of designs can be changed quickly using computer
software. The flexibility of the technology allows samples and
short runs to be produced easily without the costs of setting
up screens and wasted ink. To prepare fabrics for digital
printing, they are treated to ensure that fibres absorb the ink at
the correct rate. The printed garments are steamed to fix the
dye on the fabric.
It has been estimated that by 2010, 10 percent of all rrinted
textiles will be digitally printed.
The industry in the 21st Century
Falling payroll
The British knitting industry has been in decline since the mid-
1970s. Post-war employment peaked at 159,000 in 1973-4
and then started to fall. The figure fell below 100,000 in the
early 1980s, 50,000 in the mid-1990s and reached around
30,000 in 2002. Periods of bankruptcies and closures in 1979-
82,1989-91 and 1998 to present (2003) have led to many of
the job losses. An estimated two-thirds of employees still in
the industry are women.
East Midlands cluster
Despite the fall in employment in the knitting industry, the
East Midlands remains, in terms of numbers employed, the
largest clothing cluster in the UK (23% of UK employment
in the industry). The UK itself is second only to Italy in terms
of output in Europe. The East Midlands industry is
II Knittino and its Origin
79
11
concentrated in Leicester, where etlmically owned businesses
provide nearly half of the employment in some sectors.
Nottingham has approximately half the number of employees
as the Leicester industry, although it has larger firms than
Leicester.
Relationship with retailers
The direct relationship between manufacturer and retailer, as
promoted by Marks & Spencer, continues to exist for around
50% of large companies. Relationships often involve long
production runs, input by the retailer to the design process
and frequent deliveries to the retailer. Low cost producers from
overseas have forced companies to look at new ways of working
with retailers. Costs to the retailer have been reduced by the
use of 'just in time' production (small quantities of stock
delivered regularly from the manufacturer to the retailer before
stock in the shop runs out), which minimises stock levels and
avoids the need for surplus stock to be sold off at a reduced
pnce.
Smaller manufacturers have focused on sales of goods to low
price outlets including markets, small retailers and wholesalers.
Mail order, small retail chains and retailers requiring rapid stock
turnover also provide sales for small companies in the industry.
Niche markets
The knitting industry is leading the development of technical
textiles in the East Midlands. Technical textiles have specialised
uses for industrial or medical purposes. The properties of
knitted fabrics have been used to make medical implants for
use in operations.
The high quality end of the market has provided security for
some East Midlands companies. For example, John
Smedley, Pantherella and Commando Knitwear have focused
on the production of high quality knitwear, socks, hosiery and
II
underwear. Attractive designs, high quality yarn and strict
attention to detail enable these companies to produce premium
products. Export markets are often important sources of
,income for these companies. Across the industry only 20-30%
of companies actively export their products.
The future
Regional advantages
Despite the problems of recent decades the East Midlands
region still has a significant knitting industry and a number of
advantages over other areas. The scale of the industry compared
with other regions in the UK makes the provision of specialist
support possible (e.g. education/training, business support
services). The Region's lower cost of living and a surplus of
workers, compared with other regions in the south of the
country, make lower wages more acceptable to employees.
Links to the country's specialist clothing distribution network
enable the industry'S output to be delivered quickly across the
country.
The workforce of the future
The past three decades have seen a decline in the number of
jobs available in the industry. The ageing workforce and lack
of young people entering the industry is forecast to create skills
shortages in the future. Reports suggest that the industry needs
to change its image to attract new workers.
Universities, local colleges and other training providers offer
courses that will equip individuals with the necessary skills to
work in the indusuy and encourage them to fill the skills gap.
Increasingly complex technologies and sophisticated markets
mean that high levels of education are required. The
Nottingham Trent University, De -Montfort University and the
University of Derby offer degrees in fashion, textiles and
II KnittinganditsOrigin
81
11
knitwear that produce around 400 graduates a year. KLITRA,
the national training organisation for the industry, is
responsible for supporting the education and training needs
of the sector. It offers National Vocational Qualifications,
Modern Apprenticeships and other training courses.
Globalising production
The survival of firms in the East Midlands may depend on the
overseas production of some products. The transfer abroad
of products that cannot be economically made in the UK will
increase the profitability of companies and allow higher paid
workers in the Region's factories to focus on the production
of high value items.
Key skills
While the low value mass-market may no longer provide the
East Midlands with the wealth that it once did, the Region still
has the ability to remain in the knitting industry. Beyond the
knitting stage of the manufacturing process, 'know-how' can
be used to earn income from higher value activities. The ability
to identify market opponunities, create designs, source supplies
and co-ordinate deliveries to the marketplace can be used by
businesses to generate profits.
High-level research in the Region has allowed the development
of sectors in the industry that focus on technical textiles. The
specialist nature of these sectors, however, limits the nun1ber
of jobs available. Niche markets also provide opponunities for
companies to charge premium prices for their products. To
maintain their niche market, many companies have to
continually develop their products to ensure that they stay
ahead of competitors. The ability to respond quickly to fashion
changes is an imponant asset for a company to be successful
in the future.
11
82
II
Preserving the heritage
A new lease of life
Relocation of companies has left a wealth of empty buildings
in town and cities. Alternative uses for some of these structures
have helped to preserve them and ensure that the industry'S
inbuilt heritage survives. Conversion to flats has regenerated
city centre sites and provided valuable living accommodation.
Between 1996 and 2002, 49 of the 84 conversion schemes
submitted to Leicester City Council involved factories and
warehouses. Student housing accounted for 32 of the 84
schemes and provided accommodation for 5,698 students.
Buildings have also found commercial uses. For example, West
Bridge Mills on the banks of the River Soar in Leicester was
built in 1850 as a worsted spinning factory and in the twentieth
century the building was used for knitting. Known as the Pex
factory, the building suffered a serious fire in 1979. In the late
1990s, the building was converted to office accommodation
and now houses the Land Registry.
Museums tell the story of the past
Buildings across the region associated with the knitting
industry have been opened as museums and allow the public
to access the industry'S past. The Ruddington Framework
Knitters Museum in Nottinghamshire opened in 1971 as a
small independent working museum. The museum's site
consists of frameshops, workers' cottages and outbuildings
built around a courtyard. Visitors to the museum can return
to the nineteenth century when they visit, witnessing the living
conditions of the tens of people that would have lived and
worked in the cramped conditions. Staff and volunteers at the
museum have learnt how to operate and maintain the knitting
technology of the period and regularly provide demonstration.
II Knitting fl,nJ its Origin
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11
Wigston Framework Knitters Museum in Leicestershire is
based in a master hosier's house complete with a two storey
frameshop built in the garden. The site records the
development of three knitting workshops during the
nineteenth century. A two storey workshop extension was
added to the rear of the house early in the century, followed by
a single storey frameshop (second half of the nineteenth
century) and the two storey frameshop (1890). Frames and
yarn winders can be seen and heard in action. Each year the
museum trustees present a pair of socks to the mayor of
Wigston in payment of the rent for the site, which is owned
by the local council.
Calverton Museum in William Lee's Nottinghamshire home
village is housed in a framework knitter's cottage. Evidence of
the wide windows that provided light by which the framework
knitter could work, can still be seen.
Belper North Mill (Derwent Valley Visitor Centre) and Masson
Mills in Derbyshire both supplied the knitting industry with
yarn. Today museums preserve machinery and objects relating
to the industry in the setting of the mill buildings. The heritage
ofJedediah Strutt and Richard Arkwright lives on.
Heritage at work
Knitting machines from the nineteenth century continue to
work commercially in the twenty first century. Martin Green
of Kirby Muxloe, Leicestershire produces fine lacy wraps,
shawls, stoles, squares and scarves on a Lee-type frame. Eleganti
Ltd of Moorgreen, Nottinghamshire has renovated Cotton
machines and brought them back into production. With the
expertise of Bill Partridge, a former manager with Atkins of
Hinckley, the correct conditions have been provided in the
factory to ensure the Cotton machines work effectively.
(iHAPIER
2
Five Centuries of Knitting
Sixteenth century fashions
William Lee invented his knitting frame at a time when the
demand for knitted stockings was increasing. Stockings became
an important part of men's fashions during the flfteenth and
sixteenth centuries and can be seen in many portraits of the
time. Henry VIII is frequently shown wearing stockings, shirt,
skirted doublet, covering breeches and a gown. Up until the
1570s, the stockings were usually made from a woven material,
cut to shape and sewn together. Hand-knitted stockings of
worsted yarn were also available as an alternative during the
sixteenth century.
Early hand knitted silk stockings were imported from Spain and
Italy. Sir Thomas Gresham presented a pair of Spanish silk
stockings to Edward VI (1547-1553). The smooth silk flnish of
the stockings was achieved by knitting with pins made from frne
wire. Decorative designs, known as clocks, were created with gold
and silver threads to add status to the frnest pairs.
By 1589, flne silk stockings were regularly worn by men at
the Elizabethan royal court. When William Lee flrst applied
to Queen Elizabeth for a patent for his knitting frame, the coarse
woollen stocking presented to Elizabeth was quickly rejected.
Such a stocking had no place at court.
II Five Centuries of Knitting
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During the sixteenth century; the ladies of the court also began
to wear stockings. Generally, these were simpler in design than
those worn by men and were hidden underneath long dresses
and gowns. Hand knitted gloves and sleeves were worn.
Knitted caps were worn in the fifteenth century and continued
in popularity for much of the sixteenth century. Those that
survive arc often 'flat caps' with a circular or half-circular brim
and a flat crown. The famous Monmouth cap was head
hugging with a double brim and a button at the top.
Seventeenth century knitted caps often have deep crowns.
There were various cappers' acts to protect the industry. The
most famous of these was Elizabeth I's statute of1571, which
directed most of the population above the age of six to wear a
knitted cap on Sundays and holy days or be fined.
Seventeenth century fashions
Men's fashions of the sixteenth century continued into the
seventeenth century, but with more elaborate designs. The
doublet became more decorative with slashes across the chest
and sleeves that revealed the shirt underneath. The skirts of
the doublet shortened revealing the breeches, worn from the
waist down to the knee. Stockings covered the lower leg from
above the knee to the foot and were often worn with strap
garters buckled below the knee. Only the rich in society wore
expensive decorative silk stockings while woollen stockings
were more widely affordable. To protect delicate silk stockings
when wearing boots, a pair of over-stockings with lace frilled
tops was often worn.
Hand knitted stockings continued to be produced despite the
introduction of the knitting frame. The cost of the frame and
the demand for customised stockings helped to keep hand
knitters in work. Leg shapes, colours, patterns and clock
designs were easily varied to meet the requests of the customer.
Scarlet and grey were popular colours in the early seventeenth
II
century. Woven stockings were also widely worn at this time.
The Civil War brought about a change in fashions and the
extravagant designs of previous generations were replaced by
simpler designs. Plain stockings without embroidered clocks
became popular. Embroidering was a slow task and formed a
bottleneck in the manufacturing process, without it, stockings
were completed more quickly. The plain stockings were
produced in a variety of colours including white, pea green,
yellow and peach. In the late 1660s, the doublet was replaced
by a coat and waistcoat. About 1670 to 1680 it became
fashionable for the stocking colours to match the colours of
other garments worn. Many of these were knitted in London
where the main buyers lived. Framework knitters in the East
Midlands competed by producing high quality fine silk
stockings that weighed only four oz a pair.
The decline of boots and the rise in popularity of shoes during
the reign of Charles II brought about the end of boot over-
stockings. Shoes encouraged the development of stockings
with decorative designs around the lower leg and ankle. A
wedge-shaped piece of fabric known as a gore was knitted into
the stocking between the heel and stocking front. Often the
gore was knitted in a contrasting colour to the stocking and
embroidered designs (gore clocks) were added around the
gore.
Improvements in knitting frame technology widened the range
of objects produced on them. Waistcoats of silk were frame
knitted and decorated, sometimes being co-ordinated with a
matching pair of stockings produced in the same thread.
Breeches and gloves were also produced using fabric from
frames. Nightcaps of silk or wool were knitted with side straps
that were buttoned under the chin.
Women continued to wear sixteenth century fashions in the
early seventeenth century. Generally a stiffened bodice was worn
with a skirt which, however, lost its supporting farthingale by
II Five Centuries o/Knitting
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about 1620. Ruffs were replaced by falling collars. In the 1680s
both the bodice and the skirt became undergarments under a
loose fitting gown. As it tightened up in the late seventeenth
century the gown became more open in front to reveal a
decorated bodice or embroidered stomacher (a triangular panel
from bust to waist) and a more or less richly decorated petticoat.
As they were rarely seen, stockings were plain or with simple
decoration. Women as well as men wore gore clocks. Knitted
petticoats were introduced during the century but were rare.
Eighteenth century fashions
Towards the end of the seventeenth century, waistcoats and
knee-length coats had replaced the doublet in men's wear. Lace
or linen frills extended beyond the cuff of the coat and a cravat
was worn arow1d the neck. Wigs were commonly worn from
the time of Charles II, starting with shoulder-length wigs with
ringlets and moving in the 1720s to shorter wigs with curls to
the side and a shoulder-length tail. Breeches were tighter fitting
and extended to below the knee.
Stockings were either gartered below the knee or pulled up
over the breeches to above the knee. Black and coloured silk
stockings continued to be worn by the rich until the 173-Os.
Gore clocks also continued to be popular. Worsted stockings
kept the less well off clothed and were often dyed blue using
cheap indigo dye. In the 1730s, the fashion for co-ordinating
stocking colours and suits or dresses declined and white
stockings increased in popularity.
In the second half of the eighteenth century, knee-length coats
no longer covered the front of the legs as from waist level they
sloped away to the sides. A variety of collars also became
popular on coats, including stiff upright 'standing collars' and
turned 'stand fall' collars. Decorative embroidered coats were
worn by the wealthy until about 1780 when fashions became
plainer. Beneath coats, the waistcoat reduced in length to waist-
level and frilled shirts were worn. Breeches still reached below
the knee, but the waistband tended to be higher.
J edediah Strutt's invention of the Derby Rib frame in 1758
enabled the production of ribbed stockings. The frame
alternated the right side and wrong side of the fabric face across
the Wales and created a close fitting garment. The invention
of the warp frame in 1776 allowed a separate thread to be
used for each needle. The frame knitted courses by moving
threads from side to side and was often used for the production
of stockings with zigzag stripes (known as Vandyke stockings).
Cotton stockings also became popular for their fineness and
pure white colour.
Women's fashion saw the return of dresses supponed by under-
petticoats with cane or whalebone hoops sewn in. The dress
often consisted of a gown with a low cut bodice open at the
front to reveal a stomacher (a stiff panel, usually triangular in
shape inserted in an open bodice). Towards the middle of the
century, designs became elaborate and included frills, patterned
fabrics, ribbons and lace trimmings. Shawls, cloaks and scarves
were worn over dresses when outdoors. Hooped skirts made
it difficult to wear long coats.
From the 1780s, women's fashions matched men's fashions
and demanded simpler designs. Excavation of Greek and
Roman sites provided inspiration for garments with a classical
influence. The chemise dress had a low neckline, high waistline
gathered lU1der the bust and a straight-hanging skin. The
sleeves were often tight and extended to between the elbow
and wrist. Dresses were long, to the ground or the foot, for
much of the century, but were sometimes shortened to above
the ankle in the 1770s and 1780s. The visibility of the ankle
brought more elaborate stockings, such as those with lace
clocks, into women's fashions. Framework knitters who
produced stockings with lace clocks were able to earn up to
three times the wage of those knitting plain stockings.
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A knitted stocking purse became popular during the century
for carrying money. More elaborate versions were knitted in
silk and finished with tasselled ends and metal slides.
Nineteenth century fashions (1800-1850)
The early nineteenth century saw the development of a men's
fashion that had devastating impact on the knitting industry.
Trousers were widely worn in place of breeches and stockings
were no longer required to cover the lower leg. Halfhose were
worn to provide a covering over the lower leg, ankle and foot
(Half hose were effectively a half-length stocking with a welt).
Towards the middle of the nineteenth century half hose and
socks developed. Ribbed tops that survive on seeks today
replaced stocking welts.
On the upper body, shirts gradually lost their frills as they
became closer fitting and decorated with vertical pleats.
Stiffened high standing collars and cravats were worn around
the neck. Waistcoats in striped designs remained popular and
were visible from beneath the tailcoat. Eighteenth century
tailcoats had sloped from the front of the waist down to the
tails, but during the nineteenth century, the front of the coat
was cut square above the waistline. Doubled-breasted fronts
and 'M' -cut collars were also introduced. Frock coats were also
introduced in the early nineteenth century to offer a further
layer of protection against the elements. The coats were single-
breasted, close fitting at the waist and had a full skirt reaching
to knee-length.
For women, the classically influenced dress continued in fashion
during the early decades of the century. The below the bust
waistline gradually lowered to the natural level. Two forms of
bodice developed, one that gathered at the centre front
waistline and another that was fitted to the body shape. Sleeves
becanle more decorative and puffed on the upper arm. Below
the waistline, dress skirts widened to balance the puffed sleeves
II
on the upper body. Petticoats were worn to spread the dress
outwards. Printed cottons were popular for daytime wear and
silks and muslins were often worn in the evening.
The broadening dress shoulders required a more flexible form
of outerwear. Cloaks, shawls and scarves were wrapped around
the shoulders to provide additional warmth and protection in
poor weather conditions. Wide-rimmed bonnets with bows,
ribbons and flowers were worn on the head.
Shorter skin hems in the 1820s and 1830s continued to create
demand for stockings. The declining demand for stockings in
men's fashions meant that hosiers competed for the women's
market. Brooks & Co of Nottingham and Derby offered 20
percent discounts on their stockings. The Napoleonic wars
reduced silk supplies and cotton stockings became a popular
replacement. Openwork (lace-like) designs were knitted into
the stocking round the front of the foot and shin. Stockings
with coloured embroidered designs were also widely worn.
Flesh coloured stockings became fashionable in the 1820s:
Ladies who wish to have their feet well dressed, wear very flne
stockings of open work, but, lest they should suffer from the
cold, they have underneath very long stockings of flesh colour,
which serve as drawers and are tied to the waist like those of
children. However, skirts lengthened to the ground in the
1840s and stockings became invisible again.
Gloves were often worn to complement shon sleeve dresses.
Black silk mittens were popular daywear while long white silk
mittens were often worn in the evening. Openwork designs
were knitted into many mittens.
Nineteenth century fashions (1850-1899)
By the second half of the nineteenth century, a wide range of
clothing items was available for people to wear. Shops were
selling ready to wear clothing to the mass market.
II Five Centuries o/Knitting 91 II
Men's coats and waistcoats were often made of the same fabric
and worn with contrasting plain or checked trousers in the
1850s and 1860s, followed by stripes in the 1870s. Frockcoats
were formal daywear, tailcoats were worn in the evenings. In
general, coats became looser in the 1860s and 1870s,
tightening up in the 1880s and 1890s. The lounging jacket
introduced in the late 1840s for seaside wear was smartened
up and with matching waistcoat and trousers became the
lounge suit. The evening version of the lounge suit was
introduced in 1888, becoming the 'dinner jacket' ten years
later. Originally, it was only worn when ladies were not present.
Socks continued to develop in men's fashions and replace
stockings. Cotton, wool and merino (a thread of cotton and
wool) were widely used to knit socks and silk was occasionally
used for expensive luxury socks. From the 1850s to 1880s
even bands of two different coloured yarns were used to
provide a decorative fmish. Gradually designs became more
complex and multicoloured bands were created. The
availability of new chemical dyes encouraged the production
of brightly coloured socks. In the 1890s, black, scarlet, bright
blue and green dyes were regularly used.
Men sometimes wore stockings with breeches on formal
occasions. Knickerbockers stockings were worn with
knickerbockers, a daytime form of breeches. Such stockings
were often ribbed and their tops were turned down over a
garter. Knickerbockers were a popular form of sportswear
worn for tennis, golf and cycling.
In women's fashions the skirt hem touched the grOlmd and
petticoats bulked out the skirt. A support of steel hoops and
tapes was introduced in 1856 as an alternative to petticoats.
By the end of the 1860s, the bustle was in fashion. The bustle
was flat at the front and used a wire frame to make the skirt
project to the rear.
Many of the dresses worn over these variou'i forms of support
II
were made in two pieces, the skirt and the bodice. The bodice
increasingly became tighter at the waist as fashions turned to
the small waist look. Sleeves were flared from the 1850s to the
1860s, tight in the 1870s and 1880s and very large and puffed
in the mid 1890s.
The bustle went out of fashion in the late 1880s and was
replaced by a long skirt that fitted closer to the hips. The thin
waistline continued and bodices were boned to help contour
the body. Jackets worn with blouses and skirts also became
popular at the end of the century.
Increased wealth in the Victorian period enabled women to
have many pairs of stockings in their wardrobe. With a number
of stockings to choose from, women were able to match their
stockings to the colour of their dress. The fashion for co-
ordinated dresses and stockings became significant when
wearing wire framed skirt supports that had a tendency to
swing and reveal the stockings worn beneath. Other accessories,
such as bonnets, boots, parasols, gloves and handbags, were
selected in a matching colour to provide an exclusive outfit.
Chemical dyes were used to produce a wide selection of
coloured stockings including magenta, olive green, moss green,
plum, maroon, grey, blue, scarlet and black. Black stockings
were popular in towns for their ability to hide dirt.
In the 1880s, Dr Jaeger promoted the benefits of woollen
clothing. At the 1882 International Health Exhibition he
recommended that knitted natural wool clothes should be
worn as they did not compress or distort the body and were
more comfortable to wear. Woollen vests and underpants had
gained popularity from before 1850 and from the 1880s were
often joined together to form what were known as
combinations.
Twentieth century fashions (1900-1949)
Early twenty first century designs retain characteristics of the
II Five Centuries afKnitting
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11
fashions that were being developed in the early twentieth
century. Short jackets were preferred over tailcoats and worn
by all classes. Waistcoats were often made to match the jacket
and turned-down shirt collars replaced stiff upright collars.
Trousers had continued to be worn, but with the addition of
turn-ups and sharp creases. Dark striped and grey trouser
fabrics were popular.
Knickerbockers and pullovers allowed the body to move easily
and were often worn as sportswear. Baggier knickerbockers
evolved into plus fours during the 1920s. Pullovers were
knitted in bright colours or shades of red, green, blue, brown
and grey. The image of the golfer wearing plus fours, a colourful
sweater and long pair of socks still survives today.
Socks with colourful patterns were usually reserved for
sportswear and informal occasions. Plain or discretely patterned
socks were required for formal occasions. Black silk or rayon
socks were popular for eveningwear and were sometimes plated
with a different lining fabric. Cotton, rayon, silk, wool, lisle
and cashmere were all used for socks. Technological
improvements allowed Lastex, a rubber thread, to be used for
ribbed tops. In 1929 Tenova, self-supporting socks were
patented with a Lastex rib top.
For women, the corseted body and long skirt continued until
the First World War. High blouse and dress collars wrapped
around the throat with the support of wires or bone. A change
in attitudes brought about by the War impacted dramatically
on women's fashions. Skirts and dresses no longer covered
the feet and it was acceptable to have the hem at knee-level. By
the 1920s most dresses had lost, the thin waist look and the
fabric was left to drape straight down from the waist. V shaped
and straight necklines replaced high collars. Sleeves were
generally worn to the elbow or full length, with the exception
of 1920s evening dresses that were often sleeveless.
New knitted garments came into fashion in the 1920s. Hip-
11
level woollen cardigans and stockinette costwnes became
popular. The jumper-dress consisted of a jumper worn with a
matching skirt. The jumper was often a three-quarter or knee
length jacket with the low waistline marked by a belt or button
fastening. The twin set was fashionable during the 1930s and
1940s. It consisted a jumper and matching cardigan.
The liberation of legs from beneath long skirts provided
knitting manufacturers with the opportunity to design and
sell a range of new stockings. Simple clocks were added to
some stockings. Up to the 1920s, stockings were worn in a
variety of colours (black, silver-grey, mole, champagne, pastel,
pink, sky blue, beige, white) to match the dress being worn.
During the 1920s, flesh-coloured stockings came into feLhion.
Companies added shades such as nude, putty, fawn, beaver,
golden tan, sand, sunburn and camel to their range of flesh-
colours. Suntans became fashionable in the 1920s and women
wore stockings that gave a tanned appearance.
The introduction of rayon (artificial silk) provided stockings
with the look of silk, but at a fraction of the cost. In 1925, fine
silk stockings cost 1 9s 6d a pair and mercerised Lisle
stockings were -6s 6d, but a year later, rayon stockings could
be bought for 2s lId.
Circular knitting machines helped to reduce the cost of
stockings. Stockings were produced cheaply from a knitted
tube offabric shaped on a stocking board. Unfortunately, after
wearing the stockings for a period or washing, the board shape
was lost and the fabric bagged around the ankles. Mock
fashioning marks were added to some seamless stockings to
give them the appearance of being fully-fashioned.
The outbreak of World War II delayed the revolutionary
introduction of nylon (discovered in 1938 in the USA) to
Britain. From 1941, clothes were rationed and the government
required heavy cotton, rayon and woollen stockings to be
manufactured, as they were harder wearing than fine stockings.
:1 Fin Centuries of Knitting
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11
Stockings were carefully maintained and repaired to make them
last. As an alternative to stockings, gravy browning and other
solutions were painted on legs to give the appearance of
stockings.
'IWentieth century fashions (1950-1999)
Women
Dior, Cardin, Givenchy, Chanel and Ricci were a few of the
post war designers to have an impact on women's fashions.
Design houses created an extensive range of new looks for
women. H-line outfits consisted of slender jackets and skirts
that were tight at the hem around the legs. A few years later in
1957, the A-line was introduced. The A-line was close fitting
around the body and the skirt widened to the knee-length hem.
Twin set, consisting of a colour co-ordinated cardigan and
jumper, continued in fashion among older women during the
1950s and early 1960s. Chunky-knit sweaters were more
fashionable for the younger generation. Jersey knit and drip-
dry wool fabrics gained in popularity during the 1950s and
thick patterned Aran sweaters from 1966.
The 1960s saw skirt levels rise. Courreges raised skirts above
the knee and a year later Mary Quant dared to take them higher.
The mini skirt became fashionable for young women and an
icon for the decade. Women also widely wore co-ordinated
trousers and jackets as suits for the first time in the 1960s.
" Fashions imitated men's wear with masculine styled jackets,
flared jeans, baggy trousers and waistcoats. Skirts lengthened
again in the 1970s. Simple dresses of flower-printed cotton
were popular. Matching headscarves were also worn.
During the 1960s and 1980s, retailers manufactured matching
sets of skirts, trousers and suit jackets to give women the option
of buying trousers or a skirt with their jacket. Garments were
sold in a range of themed colours and designs to allow them
,
II
to be mixed and matched within other items in the range. Shorr
skirts rerurned in the 1980s, including the frilly ra ra skirt.
Dresses lost popularity as separate blouses and skirrs were
widely worn by women. Close fitting fabrics and low cut
designs made clothes were more revealing in the 1990s.
Sweaters and cardigans continued to achieve high sales with
designs in wool, cotton, synthetic fibres and cashmere.
Women's underwear evolved during this period to be less
restrictive than garments worn by earlier With
simpler styles in the 1960s, the corset was abandoned in favour
of the bra and panties. Some women even abandoned the bra.
Underwear became increasingly luxurious in the 1980s.
Nylon revolutionised the stocking industry in the post war
period. By 1952, post war recovery had reached a level that
allowed resources to be used for the production of large
quantities of nylon. Experimentation with the new yarn
produced the finest stockings available, 75 gauge stockings in
12-denier nylon. Fully-fashioned stockings remained the most
desirable and more efficient technology allowed the leg and
foot to be knitted in one process. Techniques were also
developed that heated seamless nylon stockings on boards in
order to give the stocking a permanent shape. Seamless
stockings no longer bagged around the ankles and became
more popular than fully-fashioned stockings because they were
invisible. New ladder-resistant 'micro mesh' stockings were
worn from the 1950s.
Rising skirt levels created a problem of how to hide stocking
tops and suspenders. The solution to the problem was to knit
a body onto the stocking legs and produce a pair of tights.
Early tights consisted of a long rube of fabric that had feet
formed at both ends. The tube was slit in the middle and seamed
to create a body piece the width of the rube. Other early tights
simply sewed two legs to a pair of pants. Eventually a process
was developed to create a fuller body piece.
II Five Centuries of Knitting
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The popularity of trousers in the 1960s and 1970s encouraged
women to wear socks. Between January and June 1976 twenty
one million dozen pairs of tights were produced compared
with an annual production of fifty two million in 1972.
The 1980s saw an array of new designs for tights enter
women's fashions. Bright colours, ankle decorations, diaper
patterns, lacy patterns, tie-and-dyed, stamped, printed and even
tasselled tights were produced for the market.
Men
Wartime clothes rationing ended in 1949 and fashions
underwent a further radical change. The younger generation
rebelled against their war-hardened parents and developed their
own unique look to become teddy boys, mods, rockers and
hippies. Teddy boys wore long jackets (sometimes knee-
length), thin drain pipe trousers, bright fluorescent socks and
thick crepe-soled shoes. Slick suits with shin and tie provided
mods with their characteristic style, while their counterpans,
the rockers, were more casual and wore black leather jackets
and matching trousers. Hippies turned to nature and wore
brightly coloured shirts with flowery prints, flared trousers
and bead necklace accessories.
Casual clothes were increasingly accepted as suitable for
wearing on most occasions. Only the most formal events
required tailcoats or morning suits to be worn. Modern
weddings continue to use the fashions and dress of Victorian
Britain, the key panicipants being in top hat and morning or
frock coats. The 1980s and 1990s saw trousers cut straight
and either plain or pleated to the waist. Turn-ups became
popular in the 1990s. Casual wear included denim jeans, chinos
or corduroy trousers.
The American coat-style shirt popular in the 1930s continued
to be worn with trousers and remained relatively unchanged.
Shon-sleeved shirts were popular during the summer season.
"
Successful casual wear products from the knitting industry
included T-shirts, sweatshirts and polo shirts. Pullovers in ~
cashmere, cotton or mixed yarns were made with bright or
neutral colours in a range of patterns and neck styles.
Sportswear, such as tracksuits and ski jackets, was widely worn
as an alternative to casual wear.
Men's unde.rwear changed considerably during the second half
of the twentieth century and Y-fronts and boxer undershorts
replaced heavy combinations and long johns. Polyester and
cotton blends and nylon were widely used for underwear.
Bright colour co-ordinated underwear and bikini briefs became
popular in the 1960s. During the 1980s and 1990s boxers
and mini briefs were widely worn and Y-fronts became less
fashionable.
In the 1950s and 19605, socks were mainly produced in nylon.
These were in subdued shades and incorporated Jacquard
patterns. Bright coloured socks became more popular in the
late 1960s and early 1970s. Terry knit sports socks were worn
with tracksuits and casual wear. Rising oil prices in the 1970s
encouraged manufacturers to use cotton and other natural
fibres. 'Fun' socks with cartoons and colourful designs first
became popular in the 1980s.
(iHAPIER
3
Knitting for Beginners
The art of knitting is supposed to have originated during the
4th or the 5th century in the Middle East. While knitting, yarn
or thread is used to make loops that interlock with each other
and a fabric is produced. At one time, only royalty used knitted
garments and some of the garments used are still displayed in
museums in London. Knitting was once the chief occupation
of shepherds, sailors, apprentices who studied in guilds and
royal knitters. Today knitting is taken up by anyone who wants
to produce something creative and functional. The colours
and styles that are prevalent make the art of knitting fun.
Stitches, which are used in the art, can be either Continental or
American, and although there is not much to choose between
the two, you can fmd which one you are more comfortable
with.
Start knitting with wool and use size 7 needles. American
needles range from 15 to 1, size 15 being the largest. English
needles are descending in size, larger the number, smaller the
needle. However, size 7 is the same in both American and
English needles. The word ply needs to be explained. If the
wool is 2 ply, it means the yarn consists of2 plies. A ply pertains
to a single strand of yarn. Once you have a skein of wool, first
wrap a few yards arow1d your fingers, which should be spread
apart. This forms the base for your ball of wool. Wrap the
11
100
II
remaining wool arowld this base in a vertical and horizontal
manner so that you get a ball of wool. This is easier to knit
with.
The next thing that you have to do is to hold the needles, one
in each hand and make a slipknot with the wool. Place this on
the left needle. Insert the right needle into this cast on stitch,
wrap the wool around and pull the loop. This would be your
first cast on stitch. Repeat the process till you get the required
number of stitches on the left needle. This requirement will
differ from garment to garment and from person to person.
Two basic stitches are used in knitting - the knit and the purl.
Different permutations and combinations of knit and purl
produce different designs. When you want to shape a garment,
add multiple stitches either at the end or at the beginning. If
you want to create a buttonhole, an increase in stitches is used.
A decrease, which is a reduction in stitches, is often used in
combination with an increase. Binding off implies the removal
of stitches in such a way that they do not come undone. If a
decorative pattern is required, crossing of stitches is resorted
to. Errors are common while knitting and that too when you
are doing it for the first time. When a collar needs to be added
or a neck needs to be finished, stitches are 'picked up'. Once
the garment is finished, the knitted sections need to be joined
edge to edge in a way that they are not visible. Weaving or
grafting can do this.
Types of knitting needles
There are several kinds of knitting needles, and figuring out
which one you need can be a kind of challenge at first.
The most important distinction is between straight and circular,
and confusingly the 3rd type - double-pointed needles. These
needles look straight but function as circular ones. The main
point here is whether you want to knit flat or in the round.
Straight needles are the most simple and probably the ones
" Knittingfor Beginners 101 "
your grandmother used. They are just like stick with tapered
ends. The other ends of these needles have some sort of
stops like knob. They are also called single-pointed. The
tapered end is necessary to let you get the needle into an
existing stitch and the stop is required to keep your knitting
from running off the other end, allowing you to knit
something much wider than the needle length, since knitting
compresses easily. However, that should be within reason,
since a longer needle is a bit harder to manoeuvre than a
shorter one, so skinny objects can be done on relatively
shorter needles. You can do pretty much any flat object with
these, but only flat objects.
Circular needles usually consist of two short straight pieces,
tapered as usual at one end but with the other ends joined by
something flexible, usually a strong cylindrical piece of plastic.
The gauge is determined by the end pieces, which also allow
for stitch manipulation, so it actually does not matter that the
central plastic is much thinner. The important thing here is
that the joint between the end piece and the plastic should be
both strong and extremely smooth, so that you do not have to
fight every stitch back onto the other side's needle. Circular
needles are used to make largish objects in the round,
depending on total needle length, which can be as small as 11
inches and as large as 47 inches. The limitations here are that a
too long needle can be unwieldy, imagine 3lb of wool hanging
off your needle and needing to be moved along. And, it could
be worse at the opposite end of the spectrum - a too short
needle is really hard to handle. If the end pieces are too short
you end up knitting with your fingers instead of your whole
hands and if they are too long, the needle will not bend well
enough and you'll be fighting for every stitch.
But the real point here is that circular needles are necessary
to make a cylindrical object, yet they can also make any flat
one. It is easy enough to knit back and forth on a flat object
11
102
II
and get exactly the same result, as if you had been using
straight needles, you just turn the circular needle over at
the end of every row. There is a huge advantage to circulars
if you are not just sitting home in the same spot and knitting
- they are less likely to fall out and they do not separate.
Double-pointed needles come in sets offour (usually in the
US) or five (usually in the rest of the word). They're meant
to be used circularly - you use one needle as a spare (i.e .
. you would have your knitting divided into four for a five-
needle set) and knit from one of the needles in the circle
onto it, then use it as a spare to knit with the next one in the
sequence. They are very practical and it takes no time at all
to get the hang of working from one to the next. However,
unless they are very long, they are best suited to small pieces
of knitting. They come in different lengths and people with
small hands tend to love the 6" ones for socks, but they are
a bit specialised. And obviously, a circular needle would be
better for a larger piece - you worK cootinuously without
having to switch needles. This is where total subjectivity
comes in. The upshot is that many projects require both
kinds, for example a sweater could easily require a long
circular needle for the body, a smaller one for the upper
sleeve and neck, and a double-pointed one for the lower
sleeve. You can see where some people hang on to the
straight needles and do everything flat.
Now that you are ready to knit, sit on a nice armchair, relax
and enjoy the act of knitting. Purls and plains will sort
themselves as you knit and before you know it, you will have
produced a work of art.
Casting on
Put simply, knitting is making fabric from interlocking loops
of yarn. Each loop counts as one stitch. A stitch is formed
when a knitting needle pulls a loop of yarn through another
II Knitting for Beginners
103
11
stitch on another needle. Stitches are worked from one needle
to the other. The result is a pliable, interlocked fabric. Since all
stitches and rows of stitches are linked, the resulting fabric will
lll1ravei if just one stitch is cut.
The first row of any knitting project is the 'cast-on' row. This
provides the fOlll1dation for the stitches. The last row, which
finishes the loops so they don't lll1ravei, is called the 'bind-off'
or 'cast-off' row.
In this chapter, you will learn the basic stitches callect. 'knit' and
'purl'. Different combinations of knit and purl stitches can
create literally hlll1dreds of patterns, the simplest being the
'garter stitch' pattern. Garter stitch is a knit stitch worked on
every row. In garter stitch, the right and wrong sides of the
fabric look the same and the fabric stretches more lengthwise
than crosswise. .
If you alternate rows of knit and purl stitches, you are doing
the 'stockinette' stitch (also known as the 'stocking' or 'jersey'
stitch). This pattern has a right side (the knit stitch side) and
stretches more crosswise than lengthwise.
Casting on is the first step in knitting. These stitches become
the first row of stitches and one selvage of your work, usually
the bottom or hem.
There are many ways to do
this and each way has i1
different benefits depending
on the elasticity or firmness
required.
All methods of casting on
begin with a slipknot.
To form slipknot for first
stitch, make a loop with yarn, Slipknot
insert needle w1der one length and draw through a loop and
tighten.
" 104
Knitting on
"
Knitting on uses two needles and one strand of yarn. Each
new stitch is knit and then transferred to left needle. The process
is versatile and soft when worked through front loop or firm
if worked through the back loops.
A B
Hold the needle with slipknot in the left hand. Insen right
needle into stitch and bring yarn around it for knitting (A),
draw yarn through to form a new stitch, but do not drop first
loop from the left needle (B). Instead, transfer new stitch to
left needle and knit into it to form the next stitch.
Cable Cast on
Cable cast on is formed in the same way as knitting on, except
that for each new stitch, the needle is insened between the two
previous stitches. The resulting edge is decorative, elastic and
well suited to ribbing and for edges of socks and hats.
II Knitting for Brginners
A B
10511
II
Make slipknot and knit first stitch on. For each new stitch after
that, insert the right needle between two stitches and wrap
yarn for knitting(A). Draw through a new stitch and transfer
it to the left needle(B).
Doing Casting on
Single cast on
/
A
Single Cast on is done with one needle an a single length of
yarn. It forms a delicate selvage particularly good for laces.
II
B
Make slip knot on right hand needle. Wrap yarn from ball
around the left thumb as shown, grasping end between palm
and back fmgers.
Turn thumb so that the back of it is facing you. Insen needle
into front of the loop formed by twisting the thumb.
c
Slip thumb out of loop and pull yarn downwards to tighten
around needle.
Double cast on
It is called double cast on because it uses two strands of
yarn.
It is often recommended for first-time knitters and produces
an elastic edge.
II Knitti1UJfor lkD
innen 107
11
Measure off a length of yarn, allowing 1 inch for each stitch
you will cast on. Your pattern instructions will indicate this
number. Make a slipknot, it will be your first stitch.
To cast on the second stitch and all subsequent stitches, hold
the needle with the slipknot in your right hand. Drape the
short end of the yarn over the thumb and the yarn from the
ball over the index fmger. Gently pull the two ends of yarn
apart to tighten the loop. Take care not to tighten it too much.
The stitch should glide easily over the needle. Both strands of
yarn should rest in the palm of the left hand, with the last two
fmgers holding them down.
Pull the needle downward, then inllert the point of the needle
up through the loop that is on your thumb.
B
Move the point of the needle over, then around the index fmger
strand of yarn.
11
108
II
c
Bring the point of the needle back down through the thwnb
loop. Drop the thwnb loop, and then pull on the short end of
. the yarn with your thwnb. This will tighten the stitch. You
now have two stitches on your needle. Repeat this process until
the desired nwnber of stitches have been cast on. Remember
not to pull your foundation row stitches too tightly. They
should glide easily over the needle and be elastic.
Looped cast on
Looped cast on employs one needle and two lengths of yarn -
one yarn forms the foundation and the other is wrapped around
it. Left intact, the edge is very flexible. If the foundation yarn is
removed, stitches can be picked up for knitting.
A
II Knittingfor Beginners
109
11
Make a slip knot in the foundation yarn. Take foundation yarn
over the thumb and casting yarn over the index fmger, grasping
both yarns against the palm.
B
Wrap casting yarn around the needle from front to back and
foundation yarn around the needle from back to front (yarns
should cross as shown).
C
Wrap casting yarn around the needle again from front to back.
Pull downward so that yarns are under the needle. Repeat steps
two and three.
Holding the yarn and the needles
Knitting uses only two basic stitches - the knit stitch and the
purl stitch. It is the variations and combinations of these two
stitches that create all the different stitch patterns which are
possible in knitting. First, you will learn the knit stitch.
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110
The knit stitch is one of the two fundamental movements in
knitting.
There are two basic styles of knitting-English and Continental
and the difference between the two is in how you hold the
yarn. In the English method, the yarn is held in the right hand.
In Continental knitting, the yarn is held in the left hand.
Whatever is your natural hand-preference, you should be able
to master either method because the nature of knitting is
basically ambidextrous. The right hand technique prevails in
English speaking countries. In this approach the yarn is drawn
around the right needle with the right index fmger. Tension is
maintained by wrapping yarn in various ways around the hand.
It is helpful to know Continental knitting when you knit with
two or more different yarns.
Forming the knit stitch (English)
Hold the needle with, cast on stitches in left hand. Wrap the
yarn over your index finger, under the middle and ring fingers
and around your pinky. This creates the proper tension in the
yarn which is necessary for creating stitches that are not too
loose or too tight.
!
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i . " .... ....... - .... '.'.
\ ".",," \

", ) "-
""'1 ,;., . ..," "-
i ,"
,
: .
/""
i
:1 Knitting for Beginners III II
Holding the yarn behind work, insen the right needle into the
first stitch. Hold it there with your left hand. With the right
index fmger, take the yarn around the right needle from back
to from, so that it rests between the two needles.
I

\ !
\:
'i
I
Slide the right needle down, then bring the point forward
through the stitch, bringing the yarn with it. At me same time,
pushing the stitch on the left needle toward the top. (With
time and practice this becomes almost one movement and will
increase your speed.)
Allow the stitch to slide off the left needle. Be careful to slip
only the one stitch that was worked off the left needle. Do not
allow any others to slip off.
New Stitch
Repeat the above steps for each stitch on the left needle, pushing
stitches forward on left needle with thumb, index and middle
fingers, moving stitches back on the right needle with the
thumb. Notice that at the beginning and end of each stitch,
the yarn is at the back of the work. At the end of the row, all
the new stitches will be on the right needle and the left needle
will be empty.
11112
II
It is important to learn good habits early, so they will stay with
you. Try to use this method of holding your work from' the
very beginning.
Controlling the yarn with the left hand is customary in Eastern
countries. The basic action is to scoop yarn from the left index
fUlger onto the right needle. One method of controlling tension
is with the last two fingers and the index Any method
for controlling the tension you work out is acceptable. Speed
is the ultimate goal, and to achieve this you need to hold the
needles lightly and minimise all movements. They should be
natural and comfortable for you. If you are straining, then
you need to revise your techniques.
It is helpful to know continental knitting when you knit with
two or more colour yarns.
Forming the knit stitch(Continental)

.-
f
/ ;
. \ \
/ \ \
Hold needle with cast on stitches in the right hand. Wrap the
yarn over your left hand as shown. This creates the proper
tension in the yarn, which is necessary for creating stitches
that are not too loose or too tight.
i
I
I
!
II Knittingfin' Beginners
113
11
Holding the yarn behind work, insert the right needle into the
first stitch, from left to right.
d ~ I ~ _;::
~ 9
I ; "
!
I
I
Twist the right needle ~ d pull tip under the yarn to draw a
loop through the stitch at the same time, pushing the stitch on
the left needle toward the top. (With time and practice this
becomes almost one movement and will increase your speed.)
Allow the stitch to slide off the left needle. Be careful to slip
only the one stitch that was worked off the left needle. Do not
allow any others to slip off.
New Stitch
Repeat the above steps for each stitch on the left needle, pushing
stitches forward on the left needle with the thumb, index and
middle fingers, moving stitches back on the right needle with
the thumb. Notice that at the beginning and end of each stitch,
the yarn is at the back of the work. At the end of the row, all
the new stitches will be on the right needle and the left needle
will be empty.
11114
Increasing
II
An increase (inc) is the addition of a stitch. Its main function is
for shaping, but it is also used in combination with decreases
for lacy pattems. There are four basic increases, yarn over (YO),
raised, lifted and bar (Ml). Casting on is also used for
increasing, mainly for buttonhole or for adding multiple
stitches at the beginning or the end of a row.
Yarn-Over (YO) increase
YO-increase is made by wrapping ~ r n around the needle
between two stitches. Because a hole is made, this method is
used for laces. The basic technique is to wrap the yarn around
the needle once to be knit or purled on the next row. The
direction of wrap depends on the type of stitch that precedes
and follows the YO.
"
YO-before first stitch. (For picot edge and some laces. Can be
done either knitwise or purlwise.)
YO-after knit stitch, before purl stitch.
II Knitting for Beginners
t . _
YO-after knit stitch, before knit stitch. (For stockinette and
lacy stitches. )
YO-after knit stitch, before knit stitch. (For Garter stitch.)
YO-after purl stitch, before knit stitch.
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II
YO-after purl stitch, before purl stitch. (For reverse stockinette
and lace stitches.)
YO-after purl stitch, before purl stitch. (For a purl garter stitch. )
Raised increase
Raised increase is made by picking up a horiwntal strand
between two stitches and working it as if it were a stitch. There
are two ways for this strand. If you work in the front, a hole is
left beneath, suitable for lace or decorative stitches. If you work
into the back of the strand, the stitch is twisted and the increase
is barely visible.
lies between the two stitches.
II Knitting for Beginners 11711
On a knit row for a decorative stitch, increase knit into the
front of the stitch.
On a knit row for an invisible raised stitch, knit into the back
of the stitch.
On a purl row for a decorative raised stitch, increase the purl
into the front of the stitch.
On a purl row for an invisible raised stitch, purl into the back
of the stitch.
Lifted increase
Lifted increase is made by working into the stitch below as
well as into the stitch itself. The result is almost invisible, but
//118
"
there is a definite slant to the stitches. It is good to pair increases
to each side of a centre point.
To pair lifted increases on the either side of a centre stitch work
a left increase before the centre stitch and a right increase after
it.
For a lifted knit right increase, insert a needle in the top of a
loop just below the stitch, knit loop and then knit stitch on
needle.
For a lifted knit left increase, insert left needle in the top of the
completed stitch, and then pull it back gently and knit it.
II Knittingfor Beginners
119
11
For a lifted purl right increase, insert needle in the top of the
loop just below the stitch, purl loop and then purl stitch on
needle .
. , ".-n.- --tr,
"" .. 1 ~ - 1.:t'YI."'1"f)r , ~
For a lifted purl left increase, insert the left needle in the top of
the just completed stitch, pull back gently and purl it.
Bar and moss increase
Bar and moss increase is made by working into the same stitch
twice. For a bar increase, you knit into the front and the back
of the stitch. For a moss increase, knit into the front and purl
into the back of the stitch.
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120
II
Fora' bar. increase on a knit row, knit into the front and the
back of the same stitch.
For a bar increase on a purl row, purl into the front and the
back of the same stitch.
I
For a moss increase on a knit row, knit into the front and purl
into the back of the same stitch.
Double lace increase
YO before centre stitch and after centre stitch.
II Knittingfor Beginners
Double moss increase
12111
Knit and purl in the stitch just before the centre, knit centre
stitch, knit and purl in the next stitch.
Double bar increase
Knit into the front and back of the stitch just before the centre,
knit centre stitch and then knit into the front and back of the
next stitch.
Double lifted increase into one stitch
~
Knit loop below centre stitch, knit into the back of the centre
stitch, knit again into loop below the centre.
11122
II
Double lifted increase
In the stitch before the centre, make lifted increase left, knit
centre stitch, and make a lifted right increase.
Double raised increase
Knit into the back of the horizontal bar just before the centre,
knit centre stitch, knit into the back of the next bar.
Decreasing
A decrease (dec) is the reduction of one or more stitches. It is
not just used for shaping, but is also used in combination with
increasing for bobbles and lace knitting.
There are two basic methods with little difference in their
appearances but the slipstictch method pulls less tightly and is
easier to work when tension is tight. Each method pulls stitches
on a definite slant. When working random decreases, slant is
not imponant. However, when doing raglan shaping or lace
work, slant is very imponant.
On the left side of the centre, decrease slant to the right, and
on the right side of the centre, decrease slant to the left. On the
knit row of stockinette stitch, do KI, S11 KI PSSO, with three
stitches of end and k2tog.
Generally, decreases are done every other row or every 4th,
6th row, etc. but if you require more shaping, you can decrease
every row. Just watch the slant of your decreases.
II Knittingfor Bro
inners
123
11
Knit decrease left sl1 Kl psso
,
Slip.a stitch knitwise, knit the next stitch.
Insert left needle into the front of the slipped stitch and pull it
over the knitted one.
11124
"
Knit decrease right Kl psso
Knit the next stitch and return it to the left needle.
Pass the next stitch over it. Replace stitch on the right needle.
Knit decrease left K2togtbl
Knit two stitches together through the back of both the loops.
Knit decrease right K2tog
.
Knit two stitches together through the front of both the loops.
/I Knittingfor Beginners
125
11
Purl decrease right (sll,kl,psso)
{\.:. h .
Slip a stitch knitwise, purl the nextsntch.
Insen left needle into the front of the slipped stitch and pull it
over the knitted one.
Purl decrease left (p 1 psso)
Purl the next stitch and return it to the left needle.
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126
II
Pass the next stitch over it. Replace stitch on the right needle.
Purl decrease left (P2togtbl)
Purl two stitches together through the back of both the loops.
Purl decrease right (p2tog)
Purl two stitches together through the front of both the loops.
Double decreasing
Double decrease left (k3tog tbl)
Knit 3 stitches together through all the back loops.
II Knittingfor Beginners
12711
Double decrease left sl1 kl psso
Slip a stitch knitwise, knit the 2 stitches together.
Insert left needle into the front of the slipped stitch and pull it
over the knitted one.
Double decrease right K3tog
Knit 3 stitches together through the front of all the loops.
Double decrease vertical
Knit next stitch, pass the 2 slipped stitches over the knit.
Binding off
Binding off (also called casting off) is the way stitches are
removed from the needle so they will not unravel.
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128
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Of the various methods, the most versatile are the Plain Bind-
off and the Suspended Bind-off. Binding Off is normally done
on the right side and the stitches are worked as you see
them(purl the purls, knit the knits).
Plain bind-off
)\ i
~ i
It is the simplest and most frequently used method. Work 2
stitches at the beginning of a row.
Holding the yarn in back, slip the first stitch over the 2nd and
II Knittingfor Beginners
off the needle.
129
11
Work the next stitch and do the same. Continue until the last
stitch is bound off.
Cut a 5 to 8 inches tail and pull it through the last stitch.
Suspended bind-off
It is similar to the plain bind-off. Work 2 stitches at the
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130
II
beginning of a row.
Holding the yarn in back, slip the first stitch over the 2nd as
for plain, but keep pulled stitch on the left needle.
Work the next stitch, drop both the stitches off the left needle
at the same time.
Repeat until two stitctIes remain and k2tog.
Cut a 5 to 8 inch tail and pull it through the last stitch.
Ending a bind offrow
Cut a 5 to 8 inch tail and pull it through the last stitch.
Then weave in ends.
This little bit of instruction should at least get you started.
Plain bind off two pieces
Plain bind off two pieces forms a neat seamless joining. It can
be used for two straight edges having an equal number of
stitches or for the shoulder edges that have been shaped by
turmng.
II Knitting for BqJinners
131
11
"-
With the right sides together and both the pieces held in the
left hand, work the first stitch on each needle simultaneously.
Work next two stitches together the same way. Slip the first
stitch over the second stitch. Repeat across row. Ridge will be
on the wrong side.
Invisible bind off
Invisible bind off makes an inconspicuous finish for 1 x 1
ribbing. It is ideal for a cuff or turtleneck.
11
132
II
To begin, cut yam, leaving an end four times the knitting width,
and thread the yarn in a tapestry needle. Insert tapestry needle
knitwise into the knit stitch at end of the needle and drop stitch
off. Skip next purl stitch, insert needle purlwise in the next
stitch, draw yam through, insert needle purlwise in purl stitch
at end of the needle, draw yarn through and drop stitch off.
Take the needle behind the knit stitch and insert it knitwise
into the next purl stitch (bring yarn forward between the stitches
first). Repeat across row.
Crocheted bind off
In crocheted bind off, the stitches are worked off in a chain
II Knittinofor Be.fJinners
133
11
stitch. The results are a firm and decorative, edging appropriate
for a blanket.
Holding the crochet hook in your hand as if it were a needle,
insen it knitwise in the first stitch and take the yarn around the
hook. Draw through a loop and let the first stitch drop off the
needle. Draw a loop through the next stitch in the same
manner. Draw a loop through two loops on the hook. Repeat
to end.
Cables
Crossing stitches is a way to produce cenain decorative effects
such as braid.
Basketweave or honeycomb pattern
The stitches appear to be twisted because they are pulled
diagonally right or left. The left twist direction is determined
11
134
"
by the way the stitches are worked-to the front or the back. To
work two stitches, you work the second stitch on the left and
then you work the first. Three stitches can also be exchanged
in this manner, working the third stitch, then the first and the
second. Crossing more than three stitches is called cabling.
This technique requires a double pointed or cable needle to
hold the first stitches out of the way until worked. The holding
needle should be the same size or smaller than the working
needle. The look of a cable is varied by the number of stitches
exchanged, the number of rows between twists and the
direction of twist. If stitches are held at the front, the cable
twists to the left, ifheld in back, a cable twists to the right.
Cross two stitches right (2RK)
Knit into the front of the second stitch on the left needle, but
I
II Knittinofor Jkeinners
135
11
do not drop stitch off. Knit into the first stitch and drop off
both.
Cross two stitches left, (2Ik)
Knit into the back of the second stitch on the left needle, but
do not drop stitch off. Knit into the back of the first stitch and
drop off both.
" 136
"
Cross two stitches right, (2rp)
Purl into the front of the second stitch on the left needle, but
do not drop stitch off. Purl into the front of the first stitch and
drop off both.
Cross two stitches ~ (2Ip)
Purl into the front of the second stitch on left needle, pass it
II Knittingfor Beginners
137
11
over the first stitch and off the needle. Purl into the front of
the first stitch and drop off the needle.
Cross through two stitches right (2rk)
Knit 2 stitches together through the front, knit the first stitch
again and drop both off the needle.
Cross through two stitches right (21k)
Knit two t i ~ h e s together through the back, knit the first stitch
again through the front and drop both off the needle.
Cross through two stitches right (2rp)
1/138
II
Purl two stitches together through the front. Purl the first stitch
again and drop both off the needle.
Cross through two stitches right (2Ip)
Purl two stitches together through the front, purl the first stitch
again through the back and drop both off the needles.
Twisted cable right
Slip the cable stitches onto a cable needle, hold at back, knit
stitches from" the left needle, knit from the cable holder and
continue the pattern.
II Knittinefor Jkeinners
1Wisted cable left
Slip the cable stitches onto a cable needle, hold at front, knit
stitches from the left needle, knit from the cable holder and
continue in the pattern.
Correcting errors
Sometimes it is necessary to correct a mistake in your knitting.
A crochet hook is a necessary tool for this. You may have to
drop a stitch several rows down in order to correct an error.
Retrieve a rWl in stockinette
11
140
II
To retrieve a run in stockinette, insen a crochet hook front to
back, hook it over the horizontal bar and draw through a loop.
Retrieve a run in garter
To retrieve a run in ganer, insen a crochet hook front to back,
in each knit loop, hook it over the horizontal bar and draw
through a loop.
Purl stitch in garter stitch
For a purl stitch in ganer stitch, insen a crochet hook back to
front. In each purl loop, hook it over the horizontal bar and
draw through a loop.
II Knitting for Beginners
14111
Retrieve a dropped knit stitch
To retneve a dropped knit stitch, insen the right needle through
the loop and under the strand. Insen the left needle from front
to back and lift the stitch gently over the strand. The strand,
thus, becomes a stitch facing the wrong way. Slip needle into
the loop and slip stitch to the correct the position for knitting.
Retrieve a dropped purl stitch
11142
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To retrieve a dropped purl stitch, insen the right needle through
the loop and under the strand. Insen the left needle from front
ito back and lift the stitch gently over the strand. The strand,
thus, becomes a stitch facing the wrong way. Slip the needle
into he loop and slip the stitch to the correct position for
purling.
Correct an error several rows down
:1 Knittingfor BfiJinners
143
11
To correct an error several rows down, mark the row error is
in, and then unravel the stitches to within 1 row of error.
Carefully unravel the remaining row and correct the mistake.
When picking up stitches after unravelling, use a smaller needle,
a size 1 or 2 works well. There is no pull on stitches to further
unravel.
Picking up stitches
Picking up stitches permits you to add a collar or finish a
neck, or in some cases sleeves, without having to sew. Before
picking up stitches, mark your work so you can figure out
an even distribution of stitches. There are a number of ways
to pick up stitches. You should use the method most
comfortable for you.
Hold work in the left hand and knit sideways. Insert right
needle under the edge stitch, take the yarn around the needle
to knit. Bring stitch through to the right side.
Work proceeds from right to left, first row is knit on wrong
side.
II
Hold yarn, needle and work in the left hand and knit
sideways.
Insert the hook under the stitch, pull through a loop, place on
the needle and pull it snug.
Work proceeds from left
i
to right, first row is knit on right
side.
Hold yarn, needle and work in the right hand facing wrong
side.
Insert hook under the stitch, pull through a loop, place on the
needle and pull it snug. Work proceeds from right to left, first
row is knit on the right side.
Assembling a garment
The joining of knitted sections edge to edge makes for a smooth
bulkless seam that is nearly invisible. There are two ways to do
this - weaving and grafting.
II Knitting for Brtfinners
Stockinette-side seams
Lay sections right side up corresponding stitches aligned.
Attach yarn at the right end. Insert needle under the next
horizontal loop adjacent to edge stitch on one section, then
under corresponding loop on the other side.
Stockinette-shoulder seams
Lay sections right side up corresponding stitches aligned.
Attach yarn at the right end. Insert needle w1der the r ~ x t knit
stitch adjacent to bindoff stitch on one section, then w1der
corresponding stitch on the other side.
11
146
II
Ribbing-side seams
Lay sections right side up corresponding stitches aligned.
Attach the yarn at the right end. Bring needle up through the
centres of next two corresponding stitches, then down through
the centres of next two stitches.
Garter stitch-side seams
Lay sections right side up corresponding stitches aligned.
Attach yarn at the right end.
Bring needle up through the lower loop on one edge, then
down through corresponding upper loop on the other edge.
Grafting, also called the kitchener's stitch, is weaving the stitches
together directly from the needles. The seam is smooth and
elastic.
II Knittingfor Bt'ifinners 14711
To graft, both edges must have the same number of stitches.
It is used for the toes of a sock and for some shoulder seams.
There are two ways to position work for grafting:
1) Hold both the needles in the left hand with wrong sides
together.
2) Lay two sections face up on a flat surface. Use a tapestry
needle to weave, removing stitches as completed.
Stockinette
To stan, bring the needle purlwise through the bottom and
top end stitches, re-insen knitwise in bottom stitch, purlwise
through the next stitch on the needle.
Insen needle knitwise in top stitch where thread emerges,
purlwise through the next stitch on the needle.
Insert needle knitwise through the bottom stitch where the
11
148
II
thread emerges, purlwise through the next stitch on the
needle.
Garter stitch
To start, bring the needle purlwise through the bottom and
top end stitches, insert knitwise in the next top stitch, purlwise
through the next stitch on the needle.
Insert needle knitwise in the bottom stitch where the thread
emerges purlwise through the next stitch on the needle.
Insert needle purlwise through the top stitch where the
thread emerges, then knitwise through the next stitch on
the needle.
II Knittingfor Beginners
149
11
Knitting with a circular needle
To knit a tubular fabric, join cast on stitches, being very careful
not to twist the stitches on the needle. Place a marker between
the 1st and the last stitches. Knit around until you are back at
the marker. That is your first round. Work in rounds until the
desired length.
To knit a flat fabric, work the circular needle back and forth as
if it were straight needles.
11
150
II
Knitting with double pointed needles
Tv knit a tube with 4 (or 5) dp needles, cast on 1/3(or 1/4)
total number of stitches on each or 3 (or 4) needles. As you
complete one needle, place the next one parallel and directly
above it, with the point a little bit forward of the lower one.
Lay the three needles in a triangle (or 4 needles in a square),
with the bottom needles of all the stitches facing the centre.
Using the 4th (or 5th) needle, knit into the ttrst cast-on stitch,
thus closing the triangle (or square). Pull extra firmly on the
II Knittingfor Beginners
151
11
yarn for this stitch, so there will not be a gap. When you have
knitted all the stitches of the first needle, use that one for the
working needle, placing it behind the others as you knit.
\
Krut each section of the circle until you reach the beginning.
That is 1 round. A marker is helpful, but it cannot be used at
the end of a needle. It has to be between two stitches. Place the
first 2 cast-on on the 3rd needle so you can use a marker.
To knit a flat item, started at the centre, crochet a chain, having
one loop for each stitch, join in a ring. Transfer the loop to 1
dp needle, then pick up and knit the correct number of stitches
on each needle.
11
152
II
To knit a square from the centre out, crochet 8 chains, join in
a ring and pick up two stitches on each of the four needles. On
the first round, increase one stitch between each 2-stitch group.
On the next and subsequent rounds, increase two stitches at
the centre of each section. A triangle is worked in the same
way, but with six stitches in 3 sections. A circle is made
summarily, but with ten stitches on five needles - 1 increase is
made in each section every round, moving its location 1 stitch
forward in each round.
(iHAPIER
4
Practice Knitting Patterns
Abbreviations
The following are the abbreviations and their full forms,
used in knitting technology:
Abbreviations Meaning
*
[ ]
approx
beg
BO
CC
em
en
co
cont
dec
dp/dpn
foll
repeat instructions following or between
asterisk as indicated
repeat instructions inside brackets as
indicated
approximately
begin(ning)
bind off
contrasting colour
centimetre (s )
cable needle
cast on/cast off
continue (ing)
decrease (ing)
double pointed needles(s)
follow(s) (ing)
11
154
II
g gram(s)
garter knit all rows
inc increase (ing)
k knit
kl, sl, psso knit one, slip one, pass slipped stitch
over
k2tog or k2tog knit 2 together
k2tog tbl or knit 2 together through back loop
k2tog tic
kb knit in back of stitch
Kine K st reach into loop 2 rows below and K into
st.
LH left-hand
Ml make one
Me main/master colour
mmetre(s) millimetre(s)
ndl(s) knitting needle ( es)
oz oWKe(s)
p
purl
p2tog purl 2 together
p2tog tbl purl 2 together through back loop
patt pattern
pm place marker
psso pass slip stitch over
rem remammg
rep repeat
rev St st reverse stockinette stitch
RH right hand
rod rowld
II Pmcti&e Knitting Patterns
155
11
RS right side
sk2p slip 1 knit 2 stitches together, pass slip
stitch ( es) over
skp slip1, knit 1, pass slip stitch(es) over
sl slip
sl st slip stitch
sl1, kl, psso slip 1, knit 1, pass slipped st over
ssk slip 1, slip 1, knit 2 together
st stJss stockinette stitch, stocking stitch
st(s) stitch(es)
tbl through back loop ( s)
tog together
WS wrong side
wyib with yarn in back
wyif with yarn in front
yd yard(s)
yfon yarn forward over needle
yfrn yarn forward and round needle
yo yarn over
yon yarn over needle
yrn yarn round needle
Ytb yarn to back of work
Big Block Easy Afghan
Materials Used
Worsted weight yarn, about six 6 oz. skeins
One 36 inches circular needle, size 10
1
/2
" 156
Gauge
4 sts. and 5 rows to the inch
Note
II
To make a longer version, allow about 6 oz. for every 9 inches
of added length wanted. To make a bedspread size for a twin
bed, use 2 extra 6 oz. skeins or a total of 8 skeins. The finished
size will be approximately 50 inches x 72 inches.
Directions
Cast on 200 sts. K each row for 5 rows.
Method
Rowl
K 5, (border), *K 10, P 10*, repeating across row, ending K
10, K 5 (border)
Row 2
K 5, *P 10, K 10,* repeating across row, ending P 10, K 5.
Repeat rows 1 and 2,10 more times (a total of12 rows).
Rowl3
(Reverse Pattern) K 5, *P 10, K 10*, repeating across row,
ending P 10, K 5.
Rowl4
Repeat Row 1 as above.
Repeat rows 13 and 14 for 12 rows.
Now, repeat these 2 pattern sequences of 24 rows until the
afghan is about 54 inches from beginning, ending on any
pattern row, as long as the 12 rows have been completed.
K across for 5 rows. Bind off in K st.
Weave in yarn ends.
II Practice Knitting Patterns
157
11
It may be used as an afghan or a blanket. It is also a good size
for car travelling.
Ancient Bib Pattern
Materials Used
1 ball of White Knitting Cotton.
Needles
1 pair - 2 V2 ffiffi. (US 2)
1/2 yard of ribbon.
Gauge
8 sts make 1 inch
12 rows make 1 inch.
Starting at lower edge, cast on 38 sts.
Method
Rowl
* p2, K2. Repeat from * across, ending with p2.
Rows 2 &3
* K2, P 2. Repeat from * across, ending with K2.
Row 4
Same as first row.
These 4 rows constitute the pattern.
o ~ k in pattern until the piece measures 3 % inches in all. In
the next row, work in pattern across first 10 sts, bind off 18 sts
and work in pattern across remaining 10 sts. Work over the
last 10 sts for 2 1/4 inches. Bind off.
. Attach thread to opposite side of neck edge and work other
10 sts to correspond.
" 158
"
The directions are to sew ribbon to both neck edges, but you
may rather use a button or Velcro.
Dishrag
Materials Used
1 ball of knit worsted weight cotton 50 gm size
Size 9 to IOYl needles
Method
Cast on 4 sts.
Rowl
Knit one row.
Row 2
K2, YO, knit to the end of the row.
Repeat row 2 until there are 40 sts (for dish scrubber) or 50
sts (for face doth).
Next row
KI, K2tog, YO, K2tog, knit to the end of the row.
Continue decreasing until 4 sts left.
Castoff.
Easy Knit Shawl
Materials Used
Eight 50-gram balls (82 yards per ball) of Rust (or colour
of chQice) novelty yarn, such as mock velour.
1 pair of knitting needles, size no. 9 or size to give gauge.
Finished shawl is triangular shaped and measures 80 inches
across top and 45 inches in length.
II Practice Knitting Patterns
159
11
Gauge
10 sts = 4 inches. 18 rows = 4 inches with no. 9 needles in
garter st.
Pattern
Begin by point of shawl.
Cast on 2 sts and work in garter st and every other row, work
1 increase at the beginning and end of rows.
Work 202 rows and bind off the 204 sts. No fringe is required
for this pattern, however, if desired you may add your own
fringe.
Raglan Sweater
Materials Used
This pattern takes about 24 ounces of yarn. Sweater is knit in
one piece, starting at neck and increasing for raglan sleeves.
Any sized yarn and needles will do. If you use very thin or very
thick yarn, you may need to adjust number of sts cast on to fit
neck.
For pullover, start with 18 inches round needles and change
to larger size when the piece becomes too big.
Method
Pullover
Start at neck with 18 inches round or double pointed needles
cast on 80 sts.
Place red marker to mark beginning. Join, being careful not
to twist stitches.
Work Kl, pI ribbing for 1 liz inches.
Change to pattern st, Kl, place black marker, increase by
knitting and purling in next st, work 25, increase in next st,
11
160
II
place black marker, Kl, place green marker, increase, work 9,
increase, place green marker, Kl, place black marker, increase,
work 25, increase, place black marker, Kl, place green marker,
increase, work 9, increase.
Cardigan
Start at neck
Cast on 80 sts.
As you work pattern do garter st or seed st on the first and last
6 sts of every row. (Work buttonholes evenly down front, left
side for men, right side for women.) Work Kl, pI ribbing for
1112 inches.
Nextrow
Change to pattern st and maintaining border sts, work 13 sts,
increase in next st by knitting and purling in same st, place
black marker, Kl, place green marker, increase, work 9,
increase, place green marker, Kl, place black marker, increase,
work 24, increase, place black marker, Kl, place green marker,
increase, work 9, increase, place green marker, Kl, place black
marker, increase, work 13 sts. Continue in pattern and/or
border increasing each side of marker pairs every-other-row
until yoke is correct size. Seam will be approx. II inches for
size 12,12 inches for size 14, 13 inches for size 16-18. To
insure correct fit sl a string through loops and remove needles.
Try the sweater on. When the seams meet comfortably lU1der
the arms you are ready to break for body and sleeves.
Body
K across body sts, * sl K seam st to CN, sl sleeve sts to holder
keeping green marker * , sl st from holder and K both seam sts
tog, K across back maintaining pattern, rep from * to * .
Finish
Up front sts for cardigan. For pullovel; keep red marker to
mark the beginning of front. Continue working body in pattern
II Practice Knitting Patterns
161
11 '
st until desired body length.
For a tapered fit, decrease at underarm each side every 2 inches.
When desired length is reached, change to smaller size needles
and work Kl, pI ribbing for 2 inches or to taste. Bind off.
Sleeves
Take up sts from one sleeve and K in stockinet st for desired
length. For tapered fit, decrease at underarm every 2 inches.
Measure wrist with ribbing at bottom of body to determine
proper number of sts for r-robing.
Decrease to desired number by knitting 2 sts tog all around
and/or adjusting to proper number.
Finish off in 2 inches ribbing or to taste.
Clown Shelf Doll
Materials Used
In 8ply/DK/Sport weight for
America & Canada, allow
50 gms(2 ozs) of red and yellow
and oddments of blue, cream
and green.
No.ll (3mm)(USA2) knitting
needles, toy stuffing.
Tension and Size
Worked at a tension of26 stitches and 36 rows to 10 x 10 cm
over stocking stitch, using No.ll(3mm) needles throughout
Height: 34 em (17 inches) .
The Legs
(Both alike)
Using green yarn, cast on 18sts and knit increasing into every
" 162
st (36sts).
Row 2
p.
Row 3
K
Row 4
p.
RowS
Using yellow yarn, K 6th row.
p.
Row 7
Using blue yarn, K 8th row.
p.
Row 9
Using red yarn, K lOth row.
p.
Rowll
Using green yarn, K 12th row.
p.**
"
Repeat from * to ** 3 times (36 rows). Leave these stitches
on spare needle and repeat process for 2nd leg.
The Body
Continuing with the 2nd leg and using yellow yarn knit 34sts,
K2tog, and then joining first knitted leg K2tog K to end.
Next row
p.
Continue stripe sequence work for 37 rows.
II Pmctiu Knitting Patterns
Next row
p3 purl 2 tog to last 3 sts p3 (38sts).
The Head
Using cream yarn, ss 33 rows.
Next row
p2tog to end (19sts).
Next row
K2tog to last st Kl. (1 Osts).
163
11
Break yarn, leaving a long end and thread yarn through the
remaining sts loosely.
To make up the body, join row ends of each leg together, and
then join back and head seam.
Stuff, head, body, legs and then sew/close head.
The Shoes
(Both alike)
Using red yarn, cast on 16sts and ss 16 rows.
17th row
K and cast off 1st each end of row.
18th row
p.
19th row
Same as the 17th.
20th row
p. (mark each end here).
21st row
K and inc 1 st each end of row (14sts).
11
164
22ndrow
p.
23rdrow
Same as the 21st.
ss 21 rows, cast off.
II
Fold in half at markers and join side seams, easing the long
side to fit to the shoner side and lcm around back offoot. Fill
with stuffing and sew up opening and then attach to the body.
Arms
(Both alike)
With green yarn, cast on 14sts and Kl row, increasing in every
stitch (28sts).
Next row
p.
INextrow
K
Next row
p
Continue in stripe sequence and use yellow yarn ss 29 rows.
Next row
p2tog to end of row (14sts)
Next row
Use cream yarn ss10 rows
Next row
K2tog to end of row (7sts)
Leave long end, thread yarn through sts, pull up tightly and
sew up. Stuff and attach to the body at the second stripe down
from neckline.
II Pmaice Knitting Patterns
The Hat
165
11 '
Using green yarn, cast on 60sts and working in single rib KI
pI work 6 rows.
7th row
Use yellow and continue in stripe sequence throughout, ss 4
rows.
11th row
*K4 K2tog** repeat from * to ** to end (50sts).
ss5 rows
17th row
*K3 K2tog** repeat from * to ** to end (40sts).
ss5 rows
23rdrow
*K2 K2tog** repeat from * to ** to end (30sts).
ss5 rows
28th row
*KI K2tog** repeat from * to ** to end (20sts).
ss5 rows
34th row
K2tog to end (IOsts).
Bobble
It is knitted in with the hat and using red yarn
K and inc. in every stitch (20sts) ss8 rows.
Next row
K2tog to end (1 Osts) and break off yarn and thread through
stitches loosely.
Sew up side seams and stuff the bobble and pull stitches up
tightly.
11
166
Stuff hat lightly and sew to head.
Neck ruftle
Using yellow yarn, cast on 120 sts and K 6 rows.
Next row
K2tog to end (60sts)
Next row
K2tog to end (30sts)
Cast off and sew side seams and attach to neck.
Wrist ruftles
(Make 2)
Using yellow yarn, cast on 56sts and K2 rows.
Next row
K2tog to end (28sts)
Next row
K2tog to end (14sts)
Cast off and sew side seams and attach to wrist.
Ankle ruftles
(Make 2)
Using yellow yarn, cast on 64sts and K 2 rows.
Next row
K2tog to end (32sts)
Next row
K2tog to end (16sts)
Cast off and sew side seams and attach to ankle.
Bobbles for front
II
II Practiu Knitting Pattems
(Make 2)
Cast on 4 sts.
K and increase in every stitch (8sts) .
ss 7 rows.
Next row
167
11
Break off yarn and thread through sts loosely. Sew sides and
stuff and then pull up stitches and attach to body.
Hooded Scarf
Materials Used
6 ounces of 4-ply knitting wor-
sted weight yarn
Number 10
1
12 standard knitting
needles
size H crochet hook.
Gauge
(Garter st) 3 sts equal one inch, 6 rows equal one inch
Pattern St
(Multiple of11 sts).
Rowl
(K 2 tog) twice, * (yo, K 1) 3 times, yo, (K 2 tog) 4 times,
repeat from * to end of row, ending K 2 tog twice.
Row 2
P
Rows 3,4
K
11
168
Scarf
Cast on 33 sts.
K in pattern for 23 inches (or desired length).
K 2 inches in garter st (K each row).
Increase rows
Rowl
II
K 16, inc 1 st in next st by knitting in back and front of same
st,
Ktoend.
Row 2
K this arid all even rows.
Row 3
K 18, inc in next st,
K to end.
RowS
K 20, inc in next st,
Ktoend.
Continue in pattern as established until there are 40 sts on
needle.
K 4 inches in garter st.
Peak
(Right Side)
Bind off 4 sts at the beginning of next row for back of hood.
K 10 rows.
Cast on 4 sts at the same edge as bound off sts. K 4 inches in
garter st
Begin decrease row at face edge (opposite edge from bound
offsts)
II Prrutiee Knitting Patterns
Rowl
K 7, K 2 tog, K to end of row.
Row 2 and all even rows
K
Row 3
K 8, K 2 tog, K to end of row.
RowS
K 9, K 2 tog, K to end of row.
Continue decrease as established until 33 sts remain.
K 2 inches in garter st.
K 23 inches in pattern st, bind off.
Finishing
169
11
Sew back of hood. Join fringe. Make a chain 46 inches long,
thread through eyelets just below hood. Fold back face edge
to desired depth.
Shimmering Slip-On
Instructions are for size 8. Changes
for sizes 10, 12, 14, 16 and 18 are in
parentheses.
Materials Used
Spon Yarn weight in metallic (2-
oz.) 3 (4-4-5-5)
1 pair each of No. 3 and No. 5
needles (or size to give gauge).
Finished measurements
(in inches) Bust 32, (34,36,28,40,42).
Back
With No.3 needles, cast on 94 (102-106-114-118-126) sts.
11
170
Rowl
K 2, * P 2, K 2, rep from * to end
Row 2
p 2, * K 2, P 2, rep from * to end.
Repeat these 2 rows for 2 inches, inc 2 (0-2-0-2-0) sts on last
row. 96 (102-108-114-120-126) Sts.
Change to No.5 needles.
Rowl
(Right side)
K 3 (6-9-12-5-8), * P 10, K 10, repeat from *, end last repeat
K 3(6-9-12-5-8).
Row 2
K the knit sts and p the purl sts. Repeat these 2 rows 5 times
more (12 rows).
Rowl3
p 3(6-9-12-5-8), * K 10, P 10, repeat from *, end last repeat p
3(6-9-12-5-8).
Rowl4
K the knit sts and p the purl sts. Repeat last 2 rows 5 times
more. (12 rows). Repeat these 24 rows for pattern. Work to
15 inches from beg or desired length to underarms.
Armholes
Bind off from each armhole edge 4(4-5-5-6-6) sts twice, 4(4-
5-5-5-6) sts once and 2(3-2-3-3-3) sts once. Work on 68(72-
74-78-80-84) until armholes measure 21f2 (2V2 -3-3-31f2 -3
1
/2)
inches.
Neck
Work 18(19-19-19-20-21), place centre 32(34-36-40-40-42)
on holder, join a 2nd ball of yarn, work to end. Working each
side with separate yarn, decrease 1 st at each neck edge every
II Pmctice Knitti"" Pllttems 17111
2nd row 6(7-7-7-8-9) times. Work on 12 sts until armholes
measure 6
1
/2 (6V2 -7-7-7V2 -7V2 ) inches. Bind off 12 sts at
each side.
Front
Work same as back until armhole measures 1 V2 (1 V2 -2-2-2 V2
-2V2) inches.
Neck
Work 27(28-28-29-30-31), place centre 14(16-18-20-20-22)
on holder, join a 2nd ball of yarn, work to end. Working each
side with separate yarn, bind off 3 sts from each neck edge
every 2nd row 4(4-4-5-5-5) times. Dec 1 st at each neck edge
every 2nd row 3(4-4-2-3-4) times. Work on 12 sts each side
until armholes are same length as back armholes. Bind off all
sts.
Finishing
Sew left shoulder seam.
Neckband
With No.3 needles, from right side, pick up 1 st in each row
and each st at back of neck, 1 st in each row and each st around
front neck edge.
Row 1
Rib in K 2, P 2 (adjusting if necessary to have a multiple of 4
sts).
Rib 4 rows more. Bind off in rib. Sew other shoulder seam.
Armhole Bands
Pick up sts around armhole as on neck. Rib in K 2, P 2, decrease
1 st each side on 2nd and 4th row. Bind off in rib. Sew
underarm seams. Block between wet towels.
Sausage Socks
These spiral socks make a warm indoor slipper sock, or they
11172
maybe worn inside of boots. There is
no heel, but they conform to the
shape of the foot, since they are very
flexible. Make them as long as desired,
at least twice the length of the child's
foot.
Materials Used
About 4 ounces acrylic sport
weight yarn
1 set number 3 double pointed
needles
Gauge
11 sts equal 2 inches
Pattern
Multiple of 4 sts
Child's Size
3 years and older. Stretches to 7-inch circumference.
II
Cast on 40 sts. Arrange 12 sts on each of two needles, 16 sts
on third needle, being careful not to twist sts.
K 2, P 2 for 20 rnds or desired length for cuff.
Place safety pin in the ribbing to mark end of rnd. Begin spiral.
Spiral Pattern
p 3, * K 2, P 2, * repeat between * for 3 rnds. At end of 3rd
rnd, p 3 instead of p 2. Continue K2, p 2 for 3 rnds. The spiral
will progress to the left in small steps.
Move the safety pin up the spiral as work progresses, so that
end of rnds can be seen.
II Pmaice Knitting Patterns
The Shaping
173 "
K 2 tog so there are 39 sts. Arrange 13 sts on each needle. K
one rnd.
NextRnd
* K 1, sll, psso, K to last 3 sts on needle, K 2 tog, K 1, *
repeat on other two needles. Continue these 2 rnds until 9 sts
remain (3 sts on each needle).
Cut yarn 6 inches long. With large yarn needle, pull the 9 sts
tog. Fasten securely. Weave yarn into wrong side.
Make second sock to match.
Thigh High Cardigan Sweater
Size
(8-10) medium (12-14) and large (16-
18).
Materials Used
All wool knitting worsted
Sweater takes about 20 (24, 28)
ounces rust (or colour desired) and
about one ounce copper (or accent colour desired.)
1 pair each sizes 5 and 8 standard knitting needles
9 one-inch plastic rings
Crochet hook size H.
Gauge
5 sts equal 1 inch on size 8 needles, 7 rows equal 1 "
Blocking Measurements
Bust- 35 (39,42) inches.
11174
Pattern St
Rows 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
Small Size
K 5, P 2, * K 4, P 2, repeat from * to last 5 sts, K 5.
Medium and Large
* K 4, P 2, repeat from * to last 4 sts, K 4.
Row 2 and All Even Rows
p each st. Rows II, 13, 15, 17, 19.
"
Small Size- K 2, P 2, * K 4, P 2, repeat from * to last 2 Sts, K
2. Mediwn and Large-K 1, p 2, * K 4, P 2, repeat from *
across to last st, K 1.
Back
With size 5 needles, cast on 84 (94, 106) Sts. Work K I, p 1
ribbing for 8 rows. Change to size 8 needles and work pattern
st until entire piece measures 21 or desired inches, end with a
wrong side row.
Shape Raglan Armholes
At the beginning of each of next 2 rows, bind off 1 (2, 3) Sts.
Row 3
K 2, K 2 tog, work in e$tablished pattern to last 4 sts, sll, K I,
psso, K 2 .
. ---
Row 4
p each St.
Repeat last 2 rows until 28 (32, 36) sts remain. Bind off all Sts.
Left Front
With size 5 needles, cast on 51 (55,61) sts. Work in ribbing
same as back. Change to size 8 needles, work row 1 of pattern
st to last 9 sts, put a marker on needle, work in ribbing as
II Prtutiee Knitting Pattemr
175
11
established to end of row (front band). Keeping 9 sts offront
band in ribbing, work remaining sts in pattern st. Shape
armhole same as back until 31 (35, 39) sts remain.
Shape Neck
Starti.'1g at front edge,work 17 sts and sl these sts on holder,
work to end of row. Continue to dec 1 st at arm edge in same
manner as before 10 (12, 14) times more and at same time at
neck edge dec 1 st every row 4 (6, 8) times. Fasten off.
Right Front
Work to correspond ~ left front, reversing placement of all
shaping and placement of front band and forming first
buttonhole when piece measures 1 1,4 inches.
Buttonhole
Row 1
Starting at front edge, work 3 sts, bind off next 3 sts, work to
end of row.
Row 2
Cast on 3 sts over those bound off previous row.
Make 8 more buttonholes, evenly spaced-place last 1112 inch
below start of neck shaping.
Sleeves
With size 5 needle, cast on 42 (46, 46) sts. Work ribbing same
as back. Change to size 8 needles and work pattern st, inc 1 st
each end of needle every 1 inch, forming new patterns as sts
are inc, until 60 (66, 72) sts on needle. Work even in pattern st
as established until piece measures 17 (18, 18) or desired inches.
Shape Raglan Cap
At the beginning of each of the next 2 rows, bind off 1 (2, 3)
I: 176 II
and dec in same manner as on back until 2 sts remain. Place sts
on holder.
Belt
Using size 5 needles, cast on 14 sts. Work K 1, P 1 ribbing
until piece measures 60 inches. Bind off in ribbing.
Pockets
With size 8 needles cast on 28 sts. Work pattern st as for large
size for 30 rows (about 5V2 inches). Change to size 5 needles
and work K 1, P 1 ribbing for 3 rows. Bind off in ribbing.
Work 1 row in sc along sides and bottom.
Finishing
Sew sleeves to back and front armholes. Sew underarm seams.
Collar
With right side facing and size 5 needles, pick up 102 sts across
neck edge, including sts from holders. Work ribbing same as
back for 1 inch. With size 8 needles work ribbing until collar
measures 4 inches. Bind off in ribbing.
Buttons
Make 9. With Copper, work 26 sc over ring, join with a sl st in
first st, fasten off, leaving 7-inch end. Thread end in tapestry
needle and from wrong side draw yam through back lp of
each sc and draw up tightly, fasten off. With rust, overcast entire
centre of button as fill-in. Sew on buttons.
Fringe
With copper and wrong side of sweater facing, work 1 row sc
along front edges including short edges of collar. Then cut 3- ,
inch lengths of copper for fringe. At lower edge with wrong
II Practice Knitting Patterns 17711
side facing, double 1 strand to form lp at top. Insert crochet
hook in each sc and draw lp through, then draw loose ends
through lp and pull up tightly. Make fringe in the same manner
along top edge of each pocket. Trim fringe ends. Sew pockets
in place.
4 Needle Mittens
Size
This pattern makes a nice set for small
ladies hand or most teenage girls and
boys with small hands.
Materials Used
Use 4 needles, #3, with 4 ply yarn.
Red heart, 75 percent acrylic 25 percent rayon (preferably).
Method
Cast on 44 sts on 3 needles (12,16,16).
K 2, purl 2 for about 2.5"
K6 rows
On the 7th row K2, inc 1, Kl, inc 1, K to end of row
K 8th & 9th row
On the 10th row K2, inc 1, K3, inc 1, K to end of row
K 11th & 12th row
On the 13th row K2, inc 1, K5, inc 1, K to end of row
K 14th & 15th row
On the 16th row K2, inc 1, K7, inc 1, K to end of row
K 17th & 18th row
On the 19th row K2, inc 1, K9, inc 1, K to end of row
K 2, 3 or 4 more rows, knit until you have about 2.5" from
11
178
end of cuff.
Then, slip 2 stitches from #3 needle over to # 1 needle
Then, K3 drop, 13 sts on pc of yarn (will be 11 plus 1)
On each side of the stitches you have cast on.
Then, cast on 3 stitches over needle and pc of yarn
Continue to knit around.
Then, knit about 27 rows or until you get about 5%"
To narrow or decrease
K 4, K2tg, repeat to end of row
K 3 rows
K 3, K2tg, repeat to end of row
K2 rows
K 2, K2tg, repeat to end of row
Klrow
K 1, K2tg, repeat to end of row
Kl row
K2tg, repeat leaving 6 sts
II
Draw end of yarn thru the 6 sts and pull inside and fInish off.
Thumb
Put the 13 stitches you dropped on 2 needles
Put the 3 you have cast on over pc of yarn plus whatever you
need to close the hole. Pick up at least 2 on each side of the 3.
Knit around
Reduce to 18 sts on 3 needles
K total of 15 rows.
Reduce to 14 sts
K 1 row
II Pmctice Knitting Patterns
Kl, K.2tg (repeat leaving 6 sts.
Finish as with end of hand.
Adult Bed Slippers
Materials Used
About 3 ounces 4-ply wor-
sted weight yarn, number
10V2 standard knitting
needles
One darning needle
Method
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11
Cast on 29 sts, leaving an allowance of 12 inches of yarn for
sewing up heel of slipper.
Rowl
Kacross.
Row 2
K 9, P I ,K 9, P I,K 9.
Rows 3 through 26
Repeat rows 1 and 2, with each 2 rows forming pattern, end
withrow 2.
Row 27
K 10, add extra strand of yarn from smaller ball, K 9 with two
strands, drop one strand and K 10 to end of row.
Row 28
With single strand, K 7, pI, pick up second strand, K 1, inc 1
st, K 9, inc 1 st, K 1, drop extra strand of yarn, p 1 and K to
end of row-31 sts.
Row 29
K across, adding extra strand only for middle 11 sts.
11
180
II
Continue working 31 sts, adding the extra strand only for
middle 11 sts, as for rows 1 and 2, until you have 46 rows.
Fasten off extra strand, ending with row 2.
Row 47
K across 31 sts with single strand.
Row 48
l( 9, P 1, K 1, K 2 tog (dec), K 2, K 2 tog, K 2, K 2 tog, P 1,
and K last 9 sts- 28 sts.
Rows 49 through 59
K 2, P 2 across
Finishing
Fasten off yarn, leaving a strand eighteen inches long on slipper.
Thread needle with strand, pull through and draw 28 sts
together, continue sewing for 3
1
/2 inches above toe. Sew back
of heel with 12-inch strand left at start of work. Draw elastic
cord through top of slipper to hold it on foot. Sew pompon
on slipper.
Pompon
Make a pompom and attach to front as show. Make second
slipper the same way.
Thigh High Cardigan Sweater
Size
About 8" square.
Materials Used
Lily cotton Yarn (1 ball, colour of choice)
Knitting Needles - # 3
Steel Crochet hook No. 0
II Practice Knitting Patterns
Gauge
5 sts = 1"
7 rows = 1"
Pot Holder
Cast on 40 sts loosely.
Rows 1-8
* K 5, P 5, repeat from * 3 times
Rows 9-16
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11
* P 5, K 5, repeat from * 3 times. Repeat rows 1-16 twice,
then rows 1-8 once. Bind off loosely. Make another piece the
same.
Finishing
Single crochet the two pieces together on all sides, working 3
single crochet in each corner.
Loop
At one corner, join yarn in the first of the 3 single crochet,
chain 10, skip 1 single crochet, slip stitch in next single crochet,
turn. Work 12 single crochet in loop, join and fasten off.
Porn Hat
Materials Used
2 skeins Yarn 100 percent Wool
1 pair needles size 4
Method
Cast on 61 sts
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182
II
Row 1
K
Row 2
K inc 10 sts evenly across the row. Repeat rows 1 & 2 twice
more for a total of 91 sts
Row 7
Kl, *p9, Kl, * repeat from * to * to end of row
Row 8
pI, *K9, pI, * repeat from * to * to end of row. Repeat rows
7 & 8 for 51/2" or desired length.
Shape For Crown
Working with the wrong side of the work
pI, *sll, Kl, psso., KS, K2 tog, pI, * repeat from * to * to
end of row
Next Row
Kl, 'p7, Kl, ' repeat from * to * to end of row
Next Row
pI, *sll, Kl, psso., K3, K2 tog, pI * repeat from * to * to end
of row
Next Row
Kl, *pS, Kl, * repeat from * to * to end of row
Next Row
pI, *sll, Kl, psso., Kl, K2 tog, pI * repeat from * to * to end
of row
Next Row
Kl, p3, Kl, * repeat from * to * to end of row
Next Row
* p2 tog, K2 tog* repeat from * to * to last
II Practice Knitting Patterns
Next Row
* p2 tog, K2 tog* repeat from * to * to last stitch, pI
Next Row
KI *pI, KI,* repeat from * to * to end of row
Next Row
p2 tog across the row to last stitch, pI
183
11
Cut yarn and leave an end about 18" long. Thread this yarn
through the stitches remaining on the needle and draw up
tight. Sew the side seam with the same end of yam. Trim with
a porn-porn or as desired.
Ribbed Hat
Materials Used
2 skeins Yarn 100 percent Wool
1 pair needles size 1.
Cast on 65 sts
Method
Rowl
* K2, p2 *, repeat from * to * to last stitch, Kl. Repeat this
row until the work measures 8 inches or desired length.
Shape For Crown
Rowl
K2, p2, 'K2 tog, p2 *, repeat from * to * to last stitch, KI
Row 2
*K2 tog, pI *, repeat from * to * to last 2 sts, pI, KI
Row 3
pI, KI across the row
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184
Repeat row 3 twice more
Next Row
K2 tog across the row
Next Row
p
Next Row
II
K2 tog across the row, cut the yarn leaving an 18" end. Thread
this yarn through the stitches remaining on the needle and
draw up tight. Sew the side seam. Fold back the cuff to the
desired depth. Make a porn-porn from the remaining yarn and
sew to the top of the crown.
Brimmed Bonnet
Materials Used
One skein yarn 100 percent wool
One pair needles size 1
Method
Cast on 24 sts and knit 8 rows
Next Row
K
Next Row
p to last 8 sts, K8
Repeat these last two rows until the work measures IS". Work
8 more rows, knitting every row.
Cast off. Fold work in half and sew together the seam for the
centre back of the hood.
Make strings from 2 lengths of yarn twisted together.
II PmcticeKnitting Patterns
Knitted Washcloth
Finished cloth measures 6 inches square.
Materials Used
1 skein cotton classic yarn
Needles size 8
Method
Cast on 4 stitches.
K2 rows
K 2 stitches, yarn over, K to end of row.
Repeat until you have 44 stitches on the needles.
K 1, K 2 together, yarn over, K 2 tog, K to end of row.
Repeat until you have 4 stitches on the needles.
K 2 rows. Cast off.
Sleeveless Shell
Directions are given for small size (10-12), changes for
medium (12-14) and large (14-16) are in parentheses. You
will need heavy rug yarn, 5 (6, 7) 70-yard skeins in desired
colour, one pair number 10
1
/2 knitting needles and a size G
aluminium crochet hook.
Gauge
7 sts equal 2 inches 5 rows equal 1 inch
Back
Cast on 58 (62,66) sts.
Work in K 2, P 2 pattern for 2 rows.
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186
Next 2 Rows
p 2, K 2 across each row.
Repeat these 4 rows for pattern for 12 inches.
Shape Armholes
Bind off 4 sts at the beginning of next 2 rows
dec 1 st at beginning and end of next row
Work even for 3 more inches.
Shape Necldine
"
Work across 17 (19, 21) sts, bind off 14 sts, work across
remaining sts.
Working 1 shoulder at a time, dec 1 st at neck edge every row
6 times, then dec 1 st at neck edge every other row until 5 (6,
7) sts remain, bind off.
Join yarn and complete other shoulder to correspond.
Front
Work same as back to armholes. Bind off same as back
armholes, then work even for 1 inch. Work neck shaping same
as back. Continue even until armholes measure same as back,
bind off shoulder. Complete the other shoulder.
Finishing
Sew or weave shoulder and side seams. Work a row of sc
around neck edge, armholes and lower edge.
Duck Shelf Doll
Materials Used
In 8ply/DK/WW oddments of yellow or ange, green and
black
II Practice Knitting Patterns
187
11
N 0.11 (3mm) (USA2) knitting needles, child safe toy stuff-
mg
1ension & Size
Worked at a tension of26 stitches and 36 rows to 10 x 10 cm
over stocking stitch, using No.ll(3 mm)(USA2) needles
throughout.
Height
From base to top of hat 15 cms (6 inches); not including legs.
Head
19cms (7.V2 inches) around centre.
Waist
19cms (7.V2 inches) around centre
Body
(Make 1 piece)
Starting at the base edge and using orange yarn, cast on 40
sts. Placing a coloured marker in 18th and 23rd sts in the first
row, ss6 rows.
Join in green yarn and ss2 rows.
ss2 rows orange.
Repeat last 4 rows twice.
ss2 rows green.
Shape for shoulders
Break off green and using orange yarn, K4, (K2tog) six times,
K8, (K2tog) six times, K4 (28sts).
Next Row
p4, (p2tog) three times, p8, (p2tog) three times, p4 (22sts)
ss3 rows
Break off orange and join in yellow yarn and purl one row.
Head
(Make 1 piece)
"
Using yellow yarn and starting at neck edge, cast on 22sts and
ss2 rows.
Next Row
K2, inc, in each st to last two sts, K2 (40sts).
Ss17 rows
Shape for top of head
1st dec, row
(K3, K2tog) to end of row (32sts). p every alternate row.
2nd dec, row
(K2, K2tog) to end of row (24sts)
3rddec, row
(K1, K2tog) to end of row (16sts)
4th dec, row
(K2tog) to end of row (8sts). Leaving a long end, break off
yarn and thread through sts and put aside.
Base
(Make 1 piece)
Using orange yarn, cast on 18sts and ss12 rows. Cast off all
sts.
II Practice Knitting Patterns
Arms
(Make 2 pieces)
1891\
Using green yarn and starting at top of sleeve cast on 12sts
and ss2 rows.
Join in orange yarn and ss2 rows.
Ss2 rows green.
Knit one row orange.
Next Row
Purl inc, one st each end of row (14sts).
Break off orange and join in green yarn and ss2 rows.
Break off green and join in yellow yarn and sslO rows.
Next Row
K1, (K1, K 2tog) to last st, K1 (lOsts)
Next Row
p.
Next Row
K2tog, to end of row (5sts). Cast off all stitches.
Legs
(Make 2 pieces)
Using green yarn and starting at the foot, cast on 12sts and
purl one row.
Next Row
K1, (inc) in next 10sts, K1 (22sts).
Starting with a purl row, ss7 rows.
Next Row
KS, (k2tog) six times, K5 (16sts).
/1190
Next Row
p.
Next Row
K5, (K2tog) three times, K5 (13sts).
Next Row
p.
Break off green and join in yellow yarn and ss18 rows.
Break off yellow and join in orange yarn and ss6 rows.
Cast off all sts.
Beak
(Make 1 piece)
Using orange yarn, cast on 22sts and ss2 rows.
1st dec row
K4, K2tog, sKpo, K6, K2tog, sKpo, K4 (18sts).
Next Row
p.
2nd dec row
K3, K2tog, sKpo, K4, K2tog, sKpo, K2 (14sts).
Next Row
p.
3rddecrow
K2, K2tog, sKpo, K2, K2tog, sKpo, K2 (lOsts).
Next Row
p.
Cast off all sts.
Hat
(Make 1 piece)
II
II Prturi&e Knitting Patterns
II
191
11
Using green yarn, cast on 42sts and placing coloured yarn in
13th and 30th st of first row, knit two rows.
Starting with a knit row, ssS rows.
1st dec row
K1, (K3, K2tog) to last st, K1 (34sts).
Next Row
p.
2nd dec row
K1, (K2, K2tog) to last sr, K1 (26sts).
Next Row
p.
3rddecrow
K1, (K1, K2tog) to last sr, K1 (18sts).
Next Row
p.
4th dec row
K1, (K2tog) to last st, K1 (10sts)
Leaving a long end, break off yarn and thread through sts.
Peak
Pick up and knit 16sts between the coloured markers and purl
one row.
Next Row
dec 1st at beg, of next 6 rows (1 Osts ).
Next Row
dec 1st each end of next 2 rows (6sts). Cast off all sts.
Making up
Legs: Sew row ends together from cast on edge to cast off
11
192
II
edge. Fold the cast on edge in half to form foot seam and sew
together. Turn leg to right side. Stuff foot firmly, stuff boot
lightly and leave rest of leg empty.
Body: Sew row ends together. Turn so that the right side of
the work is facing you. Pin the legs to base either side of markers,
leaving a 4 st gap in the middle and the front oflegs facing the
body. Boots should be facing the neck line VlTith the back seam
of legs now facing outwards. Pin cast on edge of base to legs
with one st overhanging each side of legs. Turn body and legs
to wrong side and continue to pin base to cast on edge of
body. Sew base to body. Turn body right side out and stuff
firmly.
Head: Pull up sts tightly and sew row ends together. Turn
head right side out and stuff firmly (see measurements for
correct head size) and attach to body at neck opening.
Arms: Pull stitches up tightly and sew side seams together.
Stuff hands and 2 cms(l inches) of arm, leaving the rest of
arm empty. Fold arm so that side seam is in the centre and
facing body. Sew arm to body on first row of shoulder
decreasing through the first cast on row of arm.
Hat: Sew row ends together. Threading a needle with a length
of green yarn, work a row of overstitches round the peak edge.
Stuffhat lightly and sew to head (See photo 1 for placement).
Beak
Sew row ends together. Fold beak in half so that the dec sts are
at the side of the beak and the row ends seam is now underneath
and in the centre of the mouth. Sew cast off edge seam together.
Turn work to right side and work a row of backstitches one
row in from edge of beak around the outside but not including
cast on edge. Stuff beak lightly and sew to head. Using black
yarn, work one long stitch either side of centre of beak to form
nostrils.
II Practice Knitting Patterns
Eyes
193
11
Leaving a gap of 3sts between eyes and using black yarn, work
a daisy st in one st and work a second daisy st around the first
st.
Bed Socks
Materials Used
Worsted floss, 2-1 oz. Balls - blue
or any colour desired
1-1 oz. Ball - white for trim, 1 V2
yes. narrow ribbon
4 double pointed knitting needles
#3. Crochet Hook #2 or #3.
Cast on 3 needles 48 sts (16-16-16) and K 3 rounds
Method
4th Round
Begin spiral pattern * K 3, P 3, repeat from * all around.
Repeat the 4th round 3 times.
Next 4 Rounds
** P 1, * K 3, P 3, repeatfrom * all around ending each round
with p 2.
Next 4 Rounds
p 2, * K 3, P 3, repeat from * all around ending each round
with p l.
Next 4 Rounds
p 3, K 3, repeat from * all around.
Next 4 Rounds
K 1, * P 3, K 3, repeat from * all around ending each round
with K2.
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194
II
Next 4 Rounds
K 2, * P 3, K 3, repeat from * all around ending each round
with K 1.
Next 4 Rounds
K 3, P 3, repeat from * all around.
Repeat from ** until work measures 10 inches completing a
pattern.
Next Round
dec 1 st in each knitted section, moving pattern forward 1 st.
Work 3 rounds even.
Next Round
dec 1 st in each purl section, moving pattern forward 1 st and
work 3 rounds even.
Next Round
*K 2, slip 1, K 1, pass sl at over K st, repeat from * all around
and K 2 rowlds even.
Next Round
K 1, slip 1, K 1, pass sl st over K st, repeat from * all around
and K 2 rounds even.
Next Round
K 2 tog all around, break yarn leaving an end. Thread into
needle and draw through all sts twice, fasten firmly.
With White work a row of sc all around top working 1 sc in
each st, join.
Next Round
ch 4, skip 1 s c, d c in next s c, * ch 1, skip 1 s c, d c in next s c,
repeat from * all arow1d, ch 1, join.
Next Round
51 st into mesh, ch 4, d c in same space, * ch 1, d c in same
space, repeat from *, ch 1, s c in next mesh, ch 1, * 4 d c with
ch 1 between each d c in next mesh, ch 1, s c in next mesh, ch
II Practice Knitting Patterns
1, repeat from * all around, join, break yarn.
Lace ribbon through beading.
Trimmed Knit Top
Materials Used
11 (12) oZ'). Sport yarn or knit-
ting wool
1 pair each knitting n e e l e s ~
nos. 12 and 10
Measurements
Length from shoulder: 23
1
/2 (241/2) in.
To fit: 34-36 (36-38) inch bust.
Tension
Approx. 7 sts. to 1 in.
Work back and front the same
With No. 10 needles caston 136 (144) sts. Work 6 rows ganer
st., then continue in st. st. until 16 (16
1
/2) in. from beg.
Shape Cap Sleeves
Cast on 2 sts. at the beg. of the next 6 rows, then 6 (8) sts. at
the beg. of the next 2 rows. Work 6
1
/2 (63/4) inches.
Shape top of sleeves and shoulders
Cast off 6 sts. at the beg, of the next 14 rows, then 6 (8) sts. at
the beg. of the next 2 rows. Cast off remainder.
Sleeve edgings
With No. 12 needles Cast On 8 sts. Work 13 (13
1
/2) in. g. st.
Cast off.
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Neck Edging
With No. 12 needles cast on 8 sts. Work 17 (17V2) in. g. st.
Castoff.
Side Facings
Work 2. With No. 12 needles cast an 6 sts. Work 6 in. g. st.
Castoff.
Finishing
Sew left side seam. Sew 10 (10lh) in. of right side seam, leaving
6 in. open at lower edge. Sew sleeve and shoulder seams. Sew
seams of edgings and stitch to sleeves and neck. Stitch the
facings to the wrong side of the lower opening. Press lightly
on the wrong side, using a hot iron over a damp cloth.
~ H P I E R
5
Knitting Hints
Here are some hints that will help you while knitting:
Always check the gauge listed on the yarn against the gauge
required for your pattern to make sure you are buying the
right yarn.
Be sure that you know if your instructions were written in
America or in Europe! There IS a difference.
Particularly in the needles. American needles go from 1 -
15. The larger the number the larger the needle.
English needles go from 15-1. The larger the number the
smaller the needle. If you do not have a conversion chart,
remember that a 7 is a 7 in both American and English. A
little figuring will give you the correct size.
It takes X amount of stitches to make an inch.
It takes Y amount of inches to cover your body.
x times y divided by 2 = the amount of stitches you cast
on.
If you tend to cast on too tight, try using a larger needle or
you can hold two needles together while casting on.
Keep unwanted patterns from forming when using hand
dyed yarns.
Makers of hand dyed yarns recommend that you al-
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198
II
ways work from two balls of yarn and alternate every
other row.
The same technique works very well if you find yourself
having to use different dyelots. Before you run out of one
lot, start 'stranding' in the new dyelot and you will never
see the difference. The transition will be gradual. For that
cuddly wrap-around scarf
Use a # 17 needle and work the 'Mistake Rib' in thick,
textured yarn. Quick and sensational.
How to knit with elastic:
Do not cast on with the elastic but add it to the first row.
Drop the elastic to the floor and unwind I or 2 yards (you
will want to feel a slight pull.) Wrap the yarn and elastic
around your index fmger and knit your ribbing as usual.
Keep a tension on your elastic, but do not over stretch.
When the ribbing is the size, you desire, cut the elastic and
tie it around your knitting yarn. Do not forget that the
most important place for knitting elastic is in your sleeve
cuffs! If you do not fmd the exact colour of elastic to match
your yarn, we recommend going a shade lighter.
Read your label carefully!
It tells you how your garment will perform and how it
should be treated. Needle recommendation not only gives
you the gauge, but will lead to the best performance by
the yarn. It is, for instance, very important not to exceed
the recommended needle size when knitting with Chenille
as it will stretch. Yarns will not hold their shape as well
when knitted too loose.
Put your test swatch to good use.
Measure it well in all directions and wash it the way you
would wash your finished garment. Measure again care-
fully to compare to the original. You now know how it
II Knitting Hints
199
11
will look after washing, without jeopardising your whole
garment.
Save all your leftovers. Sort them by colour families. Some
of the most beautiful and original garments can be cre-
ated. All you need is a basic pattern and a little imagination
to combine colour, texture and design. It does not even
have to be all the same weight. A good start is to use an 8
or 9 needle and then double some of the thinner yarns,
reduce the number of stitches in a section for a bulky yarn
and then increase back to original for regular weight.
Double strand two different textures and even colours to
create your own effect. That is what the designers do.
Do not forget that you can combine yarns to get different
weights. If you need a sport weight yarn ... combine two
fingering yarns. If you need a worsted weight yarn .... com-
bine two sport yarns. If you need a bulky yarn ... combine
two worsted weight yarns. Always check your gauge, but
many times this is a great way to use up extra yarns you
have.
,.
I-
11
200
II
Notes