FORMULA SHEET ON APPLIED MECHANICS & DESIGN

ENGINEERING MECHANICS
PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES

LAMIS THEOREM
P g b O a Q

q O

a P

P Q R = sin a = sin b sin g

The resultant force is given by, R=

P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQ cos q

PROJECTILES
Important equations used in projectiles are listed below. 1. The time of flight t of a projectile on a horizontal plane is given by t= 2.

Direction of the resultant force can be determined as below:

Q sin q tan a = P + Q cos q

where a is the angle between the resultant force of force P.

2 u sin a g
u 2 sin 2a g

TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES

Horizontal range (R) of a projectile is given by R=

R = P+Q
P

Maximum range is at 2a =90 a =45 Rmax =

u2 g

POLYGON LAW OF FORCES

R = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4
D P4 E P3 C

ANGULAR VELOCITY
w= w=
dq dt 2p N rad/s 60

P2 A B

ANGULAR ACCELERATION
a=
dw dt

P1

RELATIONSHI P BETWEEN CIR CULAR AND LINEAR MOTION

When a body moves in a circular path from point A to B as shown in Figure.
B S q O r A

and frequency of the oscillation n=

1 1 = t P 2p g/L .

Closely Coiled Helical Spring

S = rq
dS d (r q) dq =r = dt dt dt

A x B

A B

v=r

dq = rw dt

Periodic Time tP = 2p

m K
m = d/g K

d (r w ) dw dv =r = ra = dt dt dt

if d is the deflection of the spring is given by d=

mg K

a = ra

These are two components of acceleration tangential and normal acceleration at = r a

t P = 2p d / g
1 1 = t P 2p g / d Hz.

v 2 (r w)2 = an = = r w2 r r The total acceleration a t0t is the vector sum of the two components.
a tot = a tot =
2 a2 t + an

Frequency of the oscillation n =

If the mass of the spring m1 is also taken into consideration then n=

1 2p K m + m1 / 3

COMPOUND PENDULUM
2 2

(r a ) + (r w )
2

Angle between the total acceleration and radius is

a f = tan -1 t an
O q h

SIMPLE PENDULUM
G O q

A L

w = mg

The periodic time of a compound pendulum is given by

B A m C

t P = 2p

2 + h2 KG gh

For a simple pendulum Periodic time tP = 2p

and the frequency of oscillation

L g

1 1 h = t = 2p P

gh K2 G + h2

3 KG = Radius of gyration about an axis through the centre of gravity G and perpendicular to the plane of motion. and h = Distance of centre of gravity G from the point of suspension O. Where value of e lies between 0 and 1 0 e1 e = 0 for perfectly inelastic bodies e = 1 for perfectly elastic bodies

TORSIONAL PENDULUM
f l A B C

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESS TENSOR

Elongation of a bar Subjected to axial load P l d= Pl AE

q r

P Elongation of a tapered bar subjected to axial load P d= 4 PL p d1d 2 E

Body

d1

d2

The periodic time is given by tP =

2p K r

l g

Elongation of a prismatic bar under its self weight = g = self weight per unit volume
g/l

gL2 2E

and frequency of oscillation

1 r n = t = 2p K P

L d

where r = Distance of each wire from the axis of body K = radius of gyration l = length of each wire INELASTIC BODIES The losts of Kinetic energy (EL) during impact of inelastic bodies is given by ELoss = where m1 = mass of the first body m2 = mass of the second body u1 and u2 are the velocities of the first and second bodies respectively. In case both bodies are elastic bodies the Energy Loss during the impact is given by ELoss =
m1 m 2 (u1 - u 2 )2 (1 - e2 ) 2 (m1 + m 2 ) m1 m 2 (u1 - u 2 )2 2 (m1 + m 2 )

Elongation of a conical bar under its self weight =

gL2 6E

STRA IN
Consider a rod of length Lo subjected to load P

P Lo Lf
DL L f - L o = Lo Lo D d -( d o - d f ) = d do

elong = e x =

elateral = e y = e z =

where e = Coefficient of Restitution. Coefficient of Restitution is the ratio of relative velocities of the bodies after impact and before the impact. e =
v 2 - v1 u1 - u 2

eV =

dV = ex + e y + ez V

Relationship Between Elastic Constants E = 2G(1 + m) E = 3K(1 2m)

4
9KG 3K+G E 1 G= 2 1+ m

Eulers Formulae
Assumptions The self weight of column is neglected. Crushing effect is neglected. Flexural rigidity is uniform. Load applied is truly axial. Length is very large compared to cross-section. \ Pe f [E, Imin, end conditions, L2] \ Pe =
p 2 E Imin L2 e .

E=

K=

E 1 3 1 - 2m

Value of any EC 0 Note : mcork = 0 E (Youngs Modulus) G (Modulus of Rigity/Shear Modulus) K (Bulk Modulus) m (Poissons Ratio)

Youngs Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity

s elong s = E = youngs modulus elong E elong d l \ A material having higher E value is chosen EMS = 200 GPa ECI = 100 GPa EAl =
200 GPa 3

Pe : Eulers buckling load. Imin : min [Ixx and Iyy]. Le : effective length of column. L : actual length of column. Le = a L length fixity coefficient
n= 1 a2 (end fixity coefficient)
End Conditions Both Ends Both Ends Fixed and Fixed and Free Hinged Fixed Hinged Values of (FF) (F & H) (BF) (BH) a and h a 1 1 a
2

\ (dl)MS < (dl)CI < (d)Al

Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity

t = Gg

1 \ for a given t, G . g

1 2 4

1 2 2

2 1 4

h=

Bulk Modulus (K)

Normal stress s = K= ev ev

If remaining all other parameters are same, (Pe)BF > (Pe)FH > (Pe)BH > (Pe)FF

Poissons Ratio
lateral strain m= longitudinal strain

Slenderness Ratio
S=
Le where K = K se : buckling stress
Imin A

Beams of Uniform Strength

To make beam a beam of uniform strength: (i) depth is varied. dx = d \ (ii)
x L depth should be varied parabolically.

width b is varied \ \

x bx = b L width should be varied linearly.

s2 \ S Pe buckling tendency is increased \ (S)SC < (SMC) < (SLC) SC : Short Column MC : Medium Column LC : Long Column For steels, if S 30 short column S > 100 long column 30 < S 100 medium column

se =

p2E

STRAIN ENERGY METHODS

1 P2 L s 2 s e AL Pd = . = AL = 2 2AE 2E 2 Strain energy of solid circular shaft subjected to torsion

Strain energy of bar =

cot f cot q = c/b c = Distance between the pivots of the front axles b = Wheel base f and q are angle through which the axis of the outer wheel and inner whel turns respectively. where

t=

T , Zp

DAVIS STEERING GEAR MECHANISM

where tan a = c/2b c = Distance between the pivots of the front axles b = Wheel base a = Angle of inclination of the links to the vertical

where T : twisting moment. Zp : polar section modulus for circular section.

p Zp = d3 . 16
1 1 T 2 L t2 \ SE = Tq = = ( AL) . 2 2 GJ 4G Strain energy of hollow circular section shaft. d : Inner diameter. D : Outer diameter.

HOOKS JOINT
N Driving N Driven = 1 - cos 2 q sin2 a cos a

K=

d D K = 0 for solid K<1

where NDriving = NDriven = q= a=

Speed of the driving shaft in r.p.m. Speed of the driven shaft in r.p.m. Angle through which the arms of the cross turn Angle of intersection of two shafts

Zp =

p 3 D (1 K4) 16

F R AC T I ON A L T O R QU E I N P I V O T A N D COLLAR BEARING
(i) Frictional torque transmitted in a flat bearing is given by
2 m WR while considering uniform pressure 3 And in case of uniform wear

T t2 . \ SE = (AL) (1 + K2), where t = Zp 4G

T=

STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING

U=

( M xx )2 dx
2EI xx

(ii)

U : strain energy Mxx : moment at section x-x

1 m WR 2 where m = Coefficient of friction W = Load transmitted to the bearing R = Radius of the shaft Frictional torque transmitted in a Conical Pivot bearing is given by
T=
2 m WR cosec a 3 while considering uniform pressure And in case of uniform wear

T=

THEORY OF MACHINES
GRUBLERS CRITERION
In a mechanism total no. of degrees of freedom is given by F = 3(n 1) 2j where n is no. of links and j = no. of joints (simple hinges) most of the mechanism are constrained so F = 1 which produces 1 = 3(n 1) 2j 2j 3n + 4 = 0 this is called Grublers criterion. If there are higher pairs also no. of degrees of freedom is given by F = 3(n 1) 2j h where h = no. of higher pairs.

T=

1 m WR cosec a 2

where a = semi angle of the cone (iii) Frictional torque transmitted in a trapezoidal or truncated conical pivot bearing is given by T= r3 - r3 2 2 mW 1 cosec a 2 2 3 r1 - r 2

while considering uniform pressure. And in case of uniform wear T=

1 m W (r1 + r2 ) cosec a = mWR cosec a 2

ACKERMAN STEERING GEAR MECHANISM

Equation for the correct steering is

6 where r1 and r2 are the external and internal radii of the conical bearing respectively
r1 + r2 is the mean radius of the bearing. 2 (iv) Frictional torque transmitted in a flat collar bearing is given by

m= Arc of recess: Contact Ratio =

D 1 = T Pd

R=

m Pd = 1
Length of arc of contact Circular Pitch

T=

r3 - r3 2 2 mW 1 2 2 3 r1 - r 2

Contact ratio is the number pairs of teeth in contact. Length of Arc of contact: Length of Arc of contact = where f is pressure angle
Length of path of contact cos f

while considering uniform pressure And in case of uniform wear T=

1 m W (r1 + r2 ) 2

BELT DRIVE Centrifugal Tension Tc = mV2 where m = Mass per unit length of the belt V = Linear velocity of the belt Velocity Ratio The velocity ratio of speeds of driver and driven pulleys is given by
w2 N2 d1 + t S = = 1w1 N1 d 2 + t 100 d1, d2 = diameters of driver and driven pulleys w1, w2 = angular velocities of driver and driven pulleys N1, N2 = rotational speeds of driver and driven pulleys expressed in revoluations per minute (r.p.m.) S = S1 + S2 + 0.01S1S2 is percentage of total effective slip S1 = Percentage slip between driver and the belt S2 = Percentage slip between belt and the follower (driven pulleys)

Gear Trains 1. Simple gear train:

Velocity ratio =
Speed of the driving wheel Speed of the driven wheel no. of teeth on the driven wheel no. of teeth on the driving wheel

where

N T T N1 N N T T = 1 2 3 = 2 3 4 = 4 N4 N 2 N 3 N 4 T1 T2 T3 T1

Train value = 2.

N 4 T1 = N1 T4

Compound gear train: Velocity ratio =

N1 N1 N3 N5 T2 T4 T6 = = N6 N2 N 4 N 6 T1 T3 T5

3.

GEARS AND GEAR DRIVE

Dedendum circle: Root circle diameter = Pitch circle diameter cos f where f is the pressure angle. Circular pitch: Pc = where Diametral pitch:
T p Diameter pitch Pd = = D Pc

Reverted gear train: If D1, D2, D3, D4 be the pitch circle diameters of the respective gears and corresponding speeds are N1, N2,N3, N4 then
D1 + D2 D3 + D 4 = 2 2 D1 + D2 = D3 + D4
N1 T2 T4 = N 4 T1 T3

Velocity ratio = 4.

pD T D = Pitch circle diameter T = Number of teeth on the wheel.

Epicyclic gear train: N T Velocity Ratio B = 1 + A NC TB

FLY WHEEL
Coefficient of fluctution of energy: DEmax = Emax Emin

Module:

Pc Pd = p

7 Cenergy = where

DE max Wper cycle

FTmin = - 2 (1 C) m w2 r Swaying Couple:

a (cos q + sin q) 2 where a = distance between the central line of two cylinders Swaying couple is maximum or minimum when q = 45 or 225 Value of minimum and maximum swaying couple

DEmax = maximum fluctuation of energy Cenergy = coefficient of fluctuation of energy Coefficient of fluctuation of speed: Dwmax = wmax wmin Cs =
Dwmax wmean

Swaying couple = (1 C) m w2 r

POWER OF GOVERNOR Power =Mean effort Lift of sleeve

a (1 C) m w2 r 2

Types of Governors (1) Simple governor-Watt type: Height of the governor is given by 895 h = 2 metres N where N = speed of the arm and ball about the spindle axis. (2) Porter governor: If hp is the height of porter governor (when length of arms and links are equal). and hw is height of watts governor then hp m + M = hw m where m = mass of the ball M = mass of the sleeve (3) Hartnell governor: y lsleeve = Xcompression = (r 2 r 1) x where r1 = Minimum radius of rotation r2 = Maximum radius of rotation x = Lenth of ball arm of lever y = Length of sleeve arm of lever Stiffness of the spring is given by S - S1 S= 2 h where S1 = Spring force at minimum radius of rotation S2 = Spring force at maximum radius of rotation
BALANCING OF RECIPROCATING MASSES Inertia force due to reciprocating parts is given by
cos 2q =FR = m w2 r cos q + n where q = angle made by the crank. Tractive Force: FT = (1 C) mw2 r (cos q sin q) where m = mass of the reciprocating parts w = angular velocity of crank r = radius of crank C = fraction of balanced reciprocating mass FTmax or FTmin occurs when q = 135 or 315

Hammer Blow: P = B w2 b

VIBRATIONS
Mass Moment of Inertia about z-axis and passing through centre of mass Rod
Ml2 M l2 Iyy = 3 12 l : length of rod M : mass of rod Circular disc
IM =
MR 2 2 M : mass of disc R : radius of disc

IM =

Sphere (Hollow) 2 IM = MR2 3 M : mass of hollow sphere R : radius of hollow sphere Sphere (Solid)
2 IM = 5 MR2 M : mass of solid sphere R : radius of sphere

Ring
IM =
MR 2 2 M : mass of ring R : radius of ring

FI

Solid Cylinder
MR 2 2 M : mass of solid cylinder R : radius of cylinder Linear Springs F = kx where F : force applied
IM =

FTmax =

2 (1 C) m w2 r

8 x : deflection k : spring constant / stiffness For a linear spring, Potential Energy =

1 kx2 2

Transverse Vibrations in Beams D=

mgL3 3 EI Cantilever subjected to concentrated load at free end.

Linear Torsion Spring t (q) = Kt q t : moment q : angular deformation of spring PE (Potential Energy) of a torsion spring is 1 PE = Kt q2 2 Combination of Springs (i) Springs in Series 1 1 1 = + k eq k1 k 2
k eq = w=
keq
k1 k 2 k1 + k 2

DESIGN
Bearing stress or crushing stress: sb or sc = where d t d t n
P d tn

= diameter of the rivet = thickness of the plate = projected area of the rivet = no. of rivets per pitch length in bearing or crushing. Bearing Pressure: Pb =
P P = A ld

m For n number of springs in series having stiffness k1, k2, ... kn 1 1 1 1 = + ... k eq k1 k 2 k n

where P is load along the radius of the journal l = length of journal in contact d = diameter of the journal l d = projected area is contact Stress concentration factor: s Kt = max s0 where Kt = stress concentration factor smax = maximum stress at the discontinuity s0 = nominal stress at the same point Notch sensitivity: Increase in actul stress K -1 over nominal value = q= f K t - 1 Increase in theoretical stress over nominal value

(ii)

SPRINGS IN PARALLEL keq = k1 + k2, w =

k eq /m

For n number of springs in parallel having stiffness k1, k2, ... kn keq = k1 + k2 + k3 ... + kn

ENERGY METHOD
E=
1 1 mV 2 + sx 2 2 2 dE = 0 dt

1 dv 1 dx m (2V) + ks (2n) = 0 2 dt 2 dt && x+

k x=0 m VIBRATIONS IN BEAMS Longitudinal Vibrations in Beams

Longitudinal vibrations mean along the axis of the rod. Consider a rod the end of which contains a mass m. E : Young modulus of rod A : Cross-section area of rod L : Length of rod w=
k m

Theories of Failure under the Static Load Maximum principal or normal stress theory (Rankins Theory): Failure occurs when smax = slimiting Maximum shear stress theory (Guests theory): tmax = tyield at that point Maximum principal strain theory (Saint Venants theory): emax = elimiting or yield at that point. where e = Strain Maximum strain energy theory (Haighs theory):
S.E.yield S.E. = V V

where k =

EA L

where

S.E. = Strain energy V = Volume

9 Maximum distortion energy theory (Hencky and Von Mises theory):

Shear Stress Energy Shear Strain Energy at Yield Point = V V

given by t= where
16 T p (d c )3

where

V = Volume

Factor of Safety
F.S. =
Maximum strength of the material Design or working stress of the material Yield point strength For static loading Working or design stress Ultimate strength For static loading Design or working stress Endurance limit Design or working stress

T = applied torque dc = minor diameter Compression or crushing stress on threads: The value of crushing stress on threads is given by p d - (d c )2 n d = major diameter dc = minor diameter n = number of threads employed during engagement
2

sc =

4P

where

F.S.ductile materials=

F.S.brittle materials =

Design of Keys Condition :

w sc = t 2t width of the key thickness of the key permissible crushing stress permissible shearing stress

F.S.fatigue loading =

Fatigue Failure Criteria for Fluctuating Stress

Table Method Name Mathematical Relation

where

w= t= sc = t=

Torsional load: Gerber Method valid for ductile material Goodman Method
s s 1 = m + v F.S. s u se
sy s 1 = m + F.S. s y se

s s 1 = m F.S. + v F.S. s u se

t= where Bending load:

16T N/m2 for solid shaft p d3

d = shaft diameter in m T = torsional moment in N-m sb =

Soderberg Method

Elliptic Method

sy F.S. se

s + F.S. m = 1 sy

32 M for solid shaft p d3 where sb = bending stress and for a hollow shaft 32 M sb = d 4 3 p do 1 - i do

where

sm = mean stress =

s max + s min 2

Lewis Equation
My I where M is maximum bending moment (i.e. at BC) M = Ft h

su = ultimate stress se = endurable limit for reverse loading stress sv = variable stress = sy = yield point stress F.S. = Factor of safety Torsional shear stress caused by the frictional resistance of the threads during its tightening: Value of torsional shear stress is
s max - s min 2

Maximum value of bending stress = sw =

Ft =

M h

Barth Formula: sw = so Cv where Cv = velocity factor

10 Cv =
4.5 for carefully cut gears operating at 4.5 + v velocities upto 12.5 m/s 3 = for ordinary cut gears operating at 3+ v velocities upto 12.5 m/s

A = prejected area of the bearing t b = bearing surface temperature ta = ambient temerature

Bearing Characteristic Number

The factor
ZN is known as bearing characteristic number and it P is a dimensionless number. where Z = Absolute viscosity of the lubricant in kg/m-s N = Speed of journal in r.p.m. P = Bearing pressure on the projected bearing area in N/mm2 W , W = Load on the journal P= l d Dynamic load rating:
3

Static Tooth Load FS = se b Pc y = se b p my where se = Flexural endurance limit For safety against breakage FS > FD Diametral clearance ratio:
Diametral clearance ratio = Eccentricity ratio (Attitude): e = C2 Sommerfield number:
ZN d Sommerfield number = P C1 where N = Journal speed in r.p.m., Z = lubricant viscosity, P = bearing pressure normally we take its value as 14.3 106 Critical pressure in journal bearing: d l 2 N/ mm 6 4.75 10 C1 l + d where N = Journal speed in r.p.m. Z = Absolute viscosity of the lubricant Coefficient of friction:
2

C1 d

C Rating Life L = P where P = load C = dynamic basic load rating

1 P= C L If N is r.p.m. the Life in hours is given by 10 6 C L= hours P 60 N
3 1/3

P=

ZN

or Cone clutch:

106 P = C 60 NL

1/3

33 ZN d m= 8 +K 10 P C1 where K is a factor for end leakages l for 0.75 < < 2.8, K = 0.002 d Short and long bearings: l < 1 then bearing is said to be short If d l = 1 bearing is called square bearing d l > 1 then bearing is said to be long d Heat generation and rejection in bearing: Qgen = m WV N-m/s where W = load on the bearing V = rubbing velocity in m/s Heat rejection is given by Qrejection = Kh A (tb ta) J/S where Kh = heat dissipation coefficient in W/m2/C

r3 - r3 2 2 mW 1 cosec a 2 2 3 r1 - r 2 where a = semi-angle of frictional surfaces with the clutch axis. Centrifugal clutch: T = m (C S) ri n where C = Spring force acting on shoe = m r w2 m = mass of shoe r = distance of centre of gravity of shoe from centre w = angular velocity of rotating pulley in rad/s ri = inside radius of pulley rim S = Inward force due to spring-m (w12) r 3 w1 = w 4 n = number of shoes 9 7 C S = m r w2 m r w2 = m r w2 16 16 Tcone =

Single Block or Shoe Brake : Braking torque is given by Tb = m Rn r

Tb =
mPl r a

11

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