Carnatic music terminology

ruti
ruti is musical pitch. It is considered equivalent to tonic of western
music. This is the pitch at which the drone is set, which is usually
played by a tambura.
ruti types
Canonically there are 22 ruti in the octave although systems with
more or fewer ruti have been proposed. Here they are given in
terms of just intonation, although many authors assume schismatic
temperament implicitly.
There are infinite ratios, and therefore kinds of rutis, in Indian
music as there is full freedom; yet the classical values described are
Chatuh ruti : 9/8
Tri ruti : 10/9
Dwi ruti : 16/15
Single or Mono ruti : 81/80 which is called pramana ruti.
Furthermore, there are Antar-ruti which give distances within one
ruti and show how distances were formed:
1. 2:1 is taken as distance between same Swar ruti Sa to Sa, Re
to Re Ga to Ga & likewise. this was placed on "4th ruti"
2. 3:2 is distance between Sa & Pa that is ist tone & 5th tone. this
was placed on "17th ruti"
3. 4:3 is taken as distance between Sa & Ma Shuddha this was
placed on "13th ruti"
4. 5:4 is taken as distance between Sa & Ga Shuddha this was
placed on "9th ruti"
5. 6:5 is taken as distance between Sa & Ga Komal which was
called teevra in old ages as moving Ga towards Re makes Re
Suddha


Swaram
Swaram or Swara is a single note. Each swaram defines the position
of note in relation to the ruti.
The seven notes of the scale (swaras), in Indian music are named
shadja, rishabh, gandhar, madhyam, pancham, dhaivat and nishad,
usually shortened to Sa, Ri (Carnatic) or Re (Hindustani), Ga, Ma, Pa,
Dha, and Ni and written S, R, G, M, P, D, N. Collectively these notes
are known as the sargam (the word is an acronym of the consonants
of the first four swaras). Sargam is the Indian equivalent to solfege,
a technique for the teaching of sight-singing. Sargam is practiced
against a drone. The tone Sa is not associated with any particular
pitch. As in Western moveable-Do solfege, Sa refers to the tonic of a
piece or scale rather than to any particular pitch.
Notation
A dot above a letter indicates that the note is sung one octave
higher, and a dot below indicates one octave lower. Or, if a note with
the same name-Sa, for example-is an octave higher than the note
represented by S, an apostrophe is placed to the right: S'. If it is an
octave lower, the apostrophe is placed to the left: 'S. Apostrophes
can be added as necessary to indicate the octave: for example, ``g
would be the note komal Ga in the octave two octaves below that
which begins on the note S (that is, two octaves below g).
The basic mode of reference is that which is equivalent to the
Western Ionian mode or major scale (called Bilawal thaat in
Hindustani music). All relationships between pitches follow from
this. In any seven-tone mode (starting with S), R, G, D, and N can be
natural (shuddha, lit. 'pure') or flat (komal, 'soft') but never sharp,
and the M can be natural or sharp (tivra) but never flat, making
twelve notes as in the Western chromatic scale. If a swara is not
natural (shuddha), a line below a letter indicates that it is flat
(komal) and an acute accent above indicates that it is sharp (tivra or
tivar). R, G, D, and N may be either shuddha or komal; M may be
either shuddha or tivra. Sa and Pa are immovable (once Sa is
selected), forming a just perfect fifth.
In some notation systems, the distinction is made with capital and
lowercase letters. When abbreviating these tones, the form of the
note which is relatively lower in pitch always uses a lowercase
letter, while the form which is higher in pitch uses an uppercase
letter. So komal Re/Ri uses the letter r and shuddha Re/Ri, the
letter R, but shuddha Ma uses m because it has a raised form-tivra
Ma-which uses the letter M. Sa and Pa are always abbreviated as S
and P, respectively, since they cannot be altered.
The chart below assumes Sa to be at C.
Full form
(Carnatic)
Abbreviated
form
(Carnatic)
Full form
(Hindustani)
Abbreviated
form
(Hindustani)
Western
Shadjam Sa Shadj Sa C
Shuddha
Madhyama
Shuddha Ma
Shuddha
Madhyama
Ma F
Prati
Madhyama
Prati Ma
Tivra
Madhyama
M'a F#
Panchama Pa Panchama Pa G
Swaras in Carnatic music
The swaras in Carnatic music are slightly different in the 12 note
system. There are 3 types each of Rishabha, Gandhara, Dhaivatha
and Nishadha. There are 2 types of Madhyama, while Panchama and
Shadja are invariant.
Position Swara Short name Notation Mnemonic
1 Shadja Sa S sa
2 Shuddha Rishabha Ri R1 ra
3 Chathusruthi Rishabha Ri R2 ri
3 Shuddha Gandhara Ga G1 ga
4 Shatsruthi Rishabha Ri R3 ru
4 Sadharana Gandhara Ga G2 gi
5 Anthara Gandhara Ga G3 gu
6 Shuddha Madhyama Ma M1 ma
7 Prati Madhyama Ma M2 mi
8 Panchama Pa P pa
9 Shuddha Dhaivatha Dha D1 dha
10 Chathusruthi Dhaivatha Dha D2 dhi
10 Shuddha Nishadha Ni N1 na
11 Shatsruthi Dhaivatha Dha D3 dhu
11 Kaisiki Nishadha Ni N2 ni
12 Kakali Nishadha Ni N3 nu
As you can see above, Chathusruthi Rishabha and Shuddha
Gandhara share the same pitch (3rd key/ position). Hence if C is
chosen as Shadja, D would be both Chathusruthi Rishabha and
Shuddha Gandhara. Hence they will not occur in same raga together.
Similarly for two swaras each at notes 4, 10 and 11.
What the Swaras Mean
Each shuddha swara (i.e., Sa, Re/Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha/Da, and Ni) is
traditionally held to have originated in the sound of a different
animal, and some have additional meanings of their own. Also, each
swara is associated with one of the seven chakras of the body. Just
as the swaras ascend through the saptak, so they are mapped onto
the chakras in the body in ascending order. Komal notes are
associated with the left side of each chakra; the left channel, Ida
Nadi, is the side of emotion and intuition. Shuddha and tivra notes
are associated with the right side; the right channel, Pingala Nadi, is
the side of logic. Ragas, therefore, have more or less of an effect on
a given chakra depending on the notes they contain.
Swar
a
Expansio
n
Meaning Animal Chakra God
Sa
Shadja
(q )
Sagar peacock
mldhra

(anus)
Brahman
Re
Rishabha
( )
bull bull/skylark
svdhih
na 18
(genitals)
Agni
Ga
Gandhar
a (7 )
Gagan goat
maipra

(solar
plexus and
stomach)
Rudra
(Shiva)
Ma
Madhya
ma
( )
middle dove/heron
anhata

(heart and
lungs)
Vishnu
Pa
Pancham
a ( )
fifth
cuckoo/nighting
ale
viuddha

(throat)
Naarada
Dha
Dhaivata
()
Dharti horse
j
(third eye)
Ganesha
Ni
Nishada
( )
outcast/hunt
er
elephant
sahasrra
P
(crown of
the head)
Surya(Su
n)
In certain forms of Indian classical music and qawwali, when a rapid
16th note sequence of the same note is sung, different syllables may
be used in a certain sequence to make the whole easier to
pronounce. For example, instead of "sa-sa-sa-sa-sa-sa-sa-sa" said
very quickly, it might be "sa-da-da-li-sa-da-da-li" which lends itself
more to a quick and light tongue movement.
Rgam
A rgam prescribes a set of rules for building a melody - very similar
to the Western concept of mode. Different combination of swarams
and swaram phrases form different rgams.
Rga (Sanskrit, lit. "colour" or "mood"; or rgam in Carnatic music)
refers to melodic modes used in Indian classical music. It is a series
of five or more musical notes upon which a melody is made. In the
Indian musical tradition, rgas are associated with different times of
the day, or with seasons. Indian classical music is always set in a
rga. Non-classical music such as popular Indian film songs or
ghazals sometimes use rgas in their compositions.
Nature of Rga

1

(
"That which is a special dhwani, is bedecked with swara
( notes) and varna and is colorful or delightful to the minds of
the people, is said to be rga" - Matanga in the Brihaddeshi.
The basic mode of reference in modern Hindustani practice (known
commonly as the shuddha - basic - form) is a set which is equivalent
to the Western Ionian mode this is called Bilawal thaat in
Hindustani music (the Carnatic analog would be Sankarabharanam).
In both systems, the ground (or tonic), Shadja, Sa, and a pure fifth
above, Pancham, Pa, are fixed and essentially sacrosanct tones. In
the Hindustani system, in a given seven-tone mode, the second,
third, sixth, and seventh notes can be natural (shuddha, lit. 'pure')
or flat (komal, 'soft') but never sharp, and the fourth note can be
natural or sharp (tivra) but never flat, making up the twelve notes in
the Western equal tempered chromatic scale (Western enharmonic
pitch equivalences like, for example, A and B do not apply; e.g. Re
tivra may, to a Western musician appear enharmonic to Ga shuddha
in that system, but in practice is not.) A Western-style C scale could
therefore theoretically have the notes C, D, D, E, E, F, F, G, A, A,
B, B.
The Carnatic system has three versions a lower, medium, and
higher form of all the notes except Sa, Ma and Pa. Ma has two
versions (lower and higher), while Sa and Pa are invariant. Rgas
can also specify microtonal changes to this scale: a flatter second, a
sharper seventh, and so forth. Tradition has it that the octave
consists of (a division into) 22 microtones ("rutis"). Furthermore,
individual performers treat pitches quite differently, and the precise
intonation of a given note depends on melodic context. There is no
absolute pitch (such as the modern western standard A = 440 Hz);
instead, each performance simply picks a ground note, which also
serves as the drone, and the other scale degrees follow relative to
the ground note. The Carnatic system embarks from a much different
shuddha (fundamental) scalar formation, that is, shuddha here is
the lowest-pitched swara.
By comparison, using the common tonic "C" for a western musician:
Carnatic

Hindustani Western E.T.
Sa

Sa "C"
Shuddha Ri "Ri 1" Komal Re "D"
Chatusruti Ri "Ri 2" Shuddha Re "D"
Shatsruti Ri "Ri 3" (Komal Ga) "D"
Shuddha Ga "Ga 1" (Shuddha Re) "D"
Sadharana Ga "Ga 2" Komal Ga "E"
Antara Ga "Ga 3" Shuddha Ga "E"
Shuddha Ma "Ma 1" Shuddha Ma "F"
Prati Ma "Ma 2" Teevra Ma "F"
Pa

Pa "G"
Shuddha Dha "Dha 1" Komal Dha "A"
Chatusruti Dha "Dha 2" Shuddha Dha "A"
Shatsruti Dha "Dha 3" (Komal Ni) "A"
Shuddha Ni "Ni 1" (Shuddha Dha) "A"
Kaisika Ni "Ni 2" Komal Ni "B"
Kakali Ni "Ni 3" Shuddha Ni "B"
Rgas and their seasons
Many Hindustani (North Indian) rgas are prescribed a time of day
or a season. When performed at the suggested time, the rga has its
maximum effect. During the monsoon, for example, many of the
Malhar group of rgas, which are associated with the monsoon and
ascribed the magical power to bring rain, are performed. However,
these prescriptions are not strictly followed, especially since modern
concerts are generally held in the evening. There has also been a
growing tendency over the last century for North Indian musicians
to adopt South Indian rgas, which do not come with any particular
time associated with them. The result of these various influences is
that there is increasing flexibility as to when rgas may be
performed.
Notations
Although notes are an important part of rga practice, they alone do
not make the rga. A rga is more than a scale. Many rgas share
the same scale. The underlying scale may have five, six or seven
tones made up of swaras. Rgas that have five swaras are called
audava () rgas; those with six, shaadava (); and with seven,
sampoorna (

) (Sanskrit for 'complete'). Those rgas that do not

follow the strict ascending or descending order of swaras are called
vakra () ('crooked') rgas.
It is the mood of the rga that is more important than the notes it
comprises. For example, Rga Darbari Kanada and Rga Jaunpuri
share the same notes but are entirely different in their renderings.
Northern and southern differences
The two streams of Indian classical music, Carnatic music and
Hindustani music, have independent sets of rgas. There is some
overlap, but more "false friendship" (where rga names overlap, but
rga form does not). In north India, the rgas have been categorised
into ten thaats or parent scales (by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande,
1860-1936); South India uses an older, more systematic
classification scheme called the melakarta classification, with 72
parent (melakarta) rgas. Overall there is a greater identification of
rga with scale in the south than in the north, where such an
identification is impossible. Rgas in north Indian music system
follow the 'law of consonances' established by Bharat in his
Natyashastra, which does not tolerate deviation even at the shruti
level.
As rgas were transmitted orally from teacher to student, some
rgas can vary greatly across regions, traditions and styles. There
have been efforts to codify and standardise rga performance in
theory from their first mention in Matanga's Brhaddesi (c. tenth
century).
Carnatic rga
In Carnatic music, rgas are classified as J anaka rgas and J anya
rgas. Janaka rgas are the rgas from which the Janya rgas are
created. Janaka rgas are grouped together using a scheme called
Katapayadi sutra and are organised as Melakarta rgas. A Melakarta
rga is one which has all seven notes in both the rhanam
(ascending scale) and avarhanam (descending scale). Some
Melakarta rgas are Harikambhoj i, Kalyani, Kharaharapriya,
Mayamalavagowla, Sankarabharanam and Todi.
Janya rgas are derived from the Janaka rgas using a combination
of the swarams (usually a subset of swarams) from the parent rga.
Some janya rgas are Abheri, Abhogi, Bhairavi, Hindolam and
Kambhoj i. See the full List of Janya Ragas for more.
Each rga has a definite collection and orders of swaras (the basic
notes). In Carnatic music, there are 7 basic notes of which there are
12 varieties. The seven basic swarams of Carnatic music are: Sa, Ri,
Ga, Ma, Pa, Da, Ni.
Related rgas
Even though Janya rgas are subsets of Janaka rgas in notation and
representation, the differences between the child ragas are clear due
to the differences like
some notes that figure more in a particular rga compared to
another, while other notes used sparingly
some notes may be sung with gamaka, stress, elongation, etc.,
in one rga compared to other
specific phrases used and other phrases to be avoided in a rga
(so as to avoid deviation into another rga's domain)
The effect of the rgas are different from each other, even if they
notationally use same swarams (or subset of swarams between each
other) due to above subjective differences related to bhava and rasa
(mood caused in the listener). The artists have to ensure the same
when elaborating on a rga, as has been followed and expected on
each rga, without digressing into the phrases of another related
rga. As we all know, science and notations cannot fully represent
emotions and feelings.
Rga-rgini
The rga-rgini scheme is an old classification scheme used from the
14th century to the 19th century. It usually consists of 6 'male'
rgas each with 6 'wives'(rginis) and a number of sons (putras)
and even 'daughters-in-law'. As it did not agree with various other
schemes, and the 'related' rgas had very little or no similarity, the
rga-rgini scheme is no longer very popular.
rhanam
rhanam of a rgam is the ascending scale of the rgam. It
describes the rules for singing ascending notes of a rgam, including
the swarams to use and swaram patterns that form the rgam.
Avarhanam
Avarhanam of a rgam is the descending scale of the rgam. It
describes the rules for singing descending notes of a rgam.
Melakart
A Melakart rgam is one which has all seven swarams, namely, Sa,
Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni (sampoorna rgam). The rhanam and
avarhanam of a melakart ragam are strictly ascending and
descending scales. It is also known as j anaka rgam (parent rgam),
because other rgams are derived from it.
Chakra
A chakra consists of a group of 6 Melakart rgams, which differ
from each other only in the Dhaivatham and Nishadham.
Janya
A J anya rgam is one which is derived from a Melakart rgam. It
may have (a) a subset of the seven swarams Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha
and Ni (varj ya rgam), (b) an external swaram (anya swaram) not
found in it's parent or (c) vakra praygam of swarams in rhanam
or Avarhanam (zig-zag sequence of notes, instead of strictly
ascending or descending scales).
Tlam
Tlam refers to the rhythm cycle or beat cycle for a particular song.
Tala (Sanskrit tla, literally a "clap") is the term used in Indian
classical music for the rhythmic pattern of any composition and for
the entire subject of rhythm.
A tala is a rhythmic cycle of beats with an ebb and flow of various
types of intonations resounded on a percussive instrument. Each
such pattern has its own name. Indian classical music has complex,
all-embracing rules for the elaboration of possible patterns, though
in practice a few talas are very common while others are rare.
Carnatic music uses a comprehensive system for the specification of
talas, called the suladi sapta tala system. According to this system,
there are seven families of talas, each of which has five members,
one each of five types or varieties (j ati or chapu), thus allowing
thirty-five possible talas.
In Carnatic music each pulse count is called an aksharam or a kriy,
the interval between each being equal, though capable of division
into faster matras or svaras, the fundamental unit of time. The tala
is defined by the number and arrangement of aksharams inside an
avartanam. There are three sub-patterns of beats into which all talas
are divided; laghu, dhrutam and anudhrutam.
A dhrutam is a pattern of 2 beats. This is notated 'O'.
An anudhrutam is a single beat, notated 'U'.
A laghu is a pattern with a variable number of beats, 3, 4, 5, 7
or 9, depending upon the type of the tala. It is notated '1'. The
number of matras in an aksharam is called the nadai or gati.
This number can be 3, 4, 5, 7 or 9, and these types are
respectively called Tisra, Chatusra, Khanda, Misra and
Sankeerna. The default nadai is Chatusram:
Jati Aksharams in laghu
Tisra 3
Chatusra 4
Khanda 5
Misra 7
Sankeerna 9
The seven families are:
Tala
Description of
avartanam
Default length
of laghu
Total Aksharas according
to the Saptha Alankaras
Dhruva 1O11 4 14
Matya 1O1 4 10
Rupaka O1 4 6
J hampa 1UO 7 10
Triputa 1OO 3 7
Ata 11OO 5 14
Eka 1 4 4
For instance one avartanam of Khanda- j ati Rupaka tala comprises a
2-beat dhrutam followed by a 5-beat laghu. An avartanam is thus 7
aksharams long. With all possible combinations of tala types and
laghu lengths, there are 5 x 7 = 35 talas having lengths ranging
from 3 (Tisra- j ati Eka) to 29 (sankeerna- j ati Dhruva) aksharams.
Chatusra- gati Khanda- j aati Rupaka tala has 7 aksharam, each of
which is 4 matras long; each avartanam of the tala is 4 x 7 = 28
matras long. For Misra- gati Khanda- j ati Rupaka tala, it would be 7 x
7 = 49 matra.
In practice, only a few talas have compositions set to them. As in the
table above, each variety of tala has a default family associated with
it; the variety mentioned without qualification refers to the default.
For instance, J hampa tala is Misra- j ati J hampa tala.
The most common tala is Chatusra- nadai Chatusra- j aati Triputa tala,
also called Adi tala (Adi meaning primordial in Sanskrit). From the
above tables, this tala has eight aksharams, each being 4 svarams
long. Many krtis and around half of the varnams are set to this tala.
Other common talas include:
Chatusra- nadai Chatusra- j aati Rupaka tala (or simply Rupaka
tala). A large body of krtis is set to this tala.
Khanda Chapu (a 10-count) and Misra Chapu (a 14-count),
both of which do not fit very well into the suladi sapta tala
scheme. Many padams are set to Misra Chapu, while there are
also krtis set to both the above talas.
Chatusra- nadai Khanda- j ati Ata tala (or simply Ata tala).
Around half of the varnams are set to this tala.
Tisra- nadai Chatusra- j ati Triputa tala (or simply Triputa tala). A
few fast-paced kritis are set to this tala.
Sometimes, pallavis are sung as part of a Ragam Thanam Pallavi
exposition in some of the rarer, more complicated talas; such
pallavis, if sung in a non-Chatusra- nadai tala, are called nadai
pallavis.
Eduppu or Start point
Compositions do not always begin on the first beat of the tala: it may
be offset by a certain number of matras or aksharas or combination
of both to suit the words of the composition. The word Talli, used to
describe this offset, is from Tamil and literally means "shift". A
composition may also start on one of the last few matras of the
previous avartanam. This is called Ateeta Eduppu.


Rarer Carnatic talas
Other than these 35 talas there are 108 so-called anga talas. The
following is the exhaustive pattern of beats used in constructing
them.
Anga Symbol Aksharakala Mode of Counting
Anudrutam U 1 1beat
Druta O 2
1 beat + Visarijitam (wave of
hand)
Druta-
virama
(OU) 3

Laghu
(Chatusra-
jati)
l 4 1 beat + 3 finger count
Laghu-
virama
U) 5

Laghu-druta O) 6

Laghu-
druta-
virama
OU) 7

Guru 8 8
A beat followed by circular
movement of the right hand in the
clockwise direction with closed
fingers.
Guru-virama (8U) 9

Guru-druta (8O) 10

Guru-druta-
virama
(8OU) 11

Plutam ) 12
1 beat + kryshya (waving the
right hand from right to left) + 1
sarpini (waving the right hand
from left to right) - each of 4
aksharakalas OR a Guru followed
by the hand waving downwards
Pluta-virana U) 13

Pluta-druta O) 14

Pluta-druta-
virama
OU) 15

Kakapadam + 16
1 beat + patakam (lifting the right
hand) + kryshya + sarpini - each
of 4 aksharakalas)
Compositions are rare in these lengthy talas. They are mostly used
in performing the Pallavi of Ragam Thanam Pallavis. Some examples
of anga talas are:
Sarabhandana tala
8

O l l O U U)
O O O U O) OU) U) O
U O U O U) O (OU) O)
Simhanandana tala : It is the longest tala.
8 8 l ) l 8 O O
8 8 l ) l ) 8 l
l +

Another type of tala is the chhanda tala. These are talas set to the
lyrics of the Thirupugazh by the Tamil composer Arunagirinathar. He
is said to have written 16000 hyms each in a different chhanda tala.
Of these, only 1500-2000 are available.
lpana
lpana is a preface to a song, which explores the rgam of the
song, without any lyrics. It is a slow improvisation with no tlam
(rhythm).
An Alapana is defined as the introduction and elaboration of a raga
(musical scale). The flavor of the raga is outlined in the alapana by
rendering the raga's permitted notes in structures and phrases
unique to the raga (known as "raga lakshanam"). Alapana typically
precedes a song that is going to be sung in the same raga.
Alapana is rendered in different speeds, with a gradual increase in
tempo. Likewise, the complexity of the patterns increases steadily as
the alapana progresses.
Alapana is divided into three parts:
Akshipthika
Ragavardhini
Magarini
In Carnatic Music, the alapana is sung in a free-flowing format,
without adherence to a specific beat or taalam. In a Carnatic music
concert, the vocalist or instrumentalist may spend anywhere from 30
seconds to 10 minutes or more on the alapana prior to beginning the
song that is in that raga. Performers and instrumental accompanists
often render the alapana together and individually (for example,
vocalists's phrases shadowed by that of a violinist, as well as
vocalist's rendering followed by that of the violinist).
Niraval
Niraval or Neraval is the repeated singing of one or two lines of a
song, with improvised exposition in each repetition.
Niraval also known as Neraval or Sahitya Vinyasa is considered to be
one of the important features in the extempore improvisation aspect
(Manodharma Sangita) of Carnatic music.
Niraval is essentially the extempore construction, elaboration and
improvisation of swaras for a particular line in the kriti, within the
framework of a talam which brings out the Raga bhava effectively. It
is usually just one line from the charanam part of the kriti and has to
sit within the framework of a tala and highlight every rasa and
bhava singularly.
For example : 4-beat niravals for Shyama Sastri's "sarojadala netri
himagiri putri" set to Adi talam (double) in the Raga
Shankarabharanam can be constructed for the line "sama gana
vinodhini guna" (like this : gpmgrs | s,ndpmgrs) in the charanam of
the song.
Kalpanaswaram
Kalpanaswaram literally means imagined swarams. It is the singing
of swarams of the rgam of a song, following the completion of the
song. Though many phrases of the swarams may have been
practiced, experienced artists may spontaneously play new phrases
within the rgam's rules - hence the term Kalpana. It is an
improvisation of the rgam, by singing the swarams, namely Sa, Ri,
Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni.
In classical music of south India Kalpanaswaram (also called swara
kalpana, svara kalpana, manodharmaswara or just swaras), is raga
improvisation within a specific tala in which the musician improvises
in the Indian music solfege (sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, da, ni) after
completing a composition.
The kalpanaswaram start may start at at any place in the tala, but
the artist must end their improvisation at the first note of the first
phrase of the composition, at the place in the rhythm cycle, where
that note is. To arrive at that note, one has to approach it from the
closest note below.
Kalpanaswaram improvisations increase in intensity the more tala
cycles used. One complete tala cycle is called an avartanam. While
improvising, the musician must abide by the rules of the raga and
should sing kalpanaswaram phrases that have been sung over the
years. Some ragas omit notes and others have zigzagging ascents or
descents. The great musicians develop a vocabulary of phrases in
kalpanaswaram as in an alapana, especially when doing
kalpanaswaram at low speeds, which allow for more gamaka. The
place where the first note of the first phrase of the composition
exists in the rhythm cycle is called the eduppu.
Kalpanaswaram is performed in a Carnatic Concert for the main
song, the singer chooses to perform the Raga Alapana. However in
concerts, artists will choose a difficult raga to perform a
Kalpanaswaram in. Although there are no set rules, there can be
confusion.
Take the Raga Sahana (janya of 28
th
Melakarta raga Harikambhoji):
Arohanam : S R G M P M D N S
Avarohanam : S N D P M G M R G R S
In this raga, when the artist improvises, when ascending in pitch
after the Pa (Panchamam), the Ma (Madhyamam) needs to be sung,
or the raga will be wrong. So with a raga like Sahana or
Anandabhairavi, Purvi Kalyani etc, which have Dhattu (jumping)
swarams in their arohanam and/or avarohanam the Kalpanaswaram
is harder to master and perform.


Rgamlika
Rgamlika, which literally means garland of rgams, is a
composition that has different verses set to different rgams.
Rgamlika swarams refers to singing of Kalpanaswarams in
different rgams.
Rgam Thnam Pallavi
Rgam Thnam Pallavi is a rendition of Carnatic music which lends
to total improvisation, in different forms. It consists of Rgam
lpana (rgam), Thnam and a Pallavi line. The pallavi line is sung
many times in different speeds, different ranges of the rgam and
different octaves. This is usually followed by Kalpanaswarams,
sometimes in multiple rgams (rgamlika).
Ragam
"Ragam" in the context of "Ragam Thanam Pallavi" refers to ragam
alapana - the first component. In this form of pure melodic
improvisation, the musician starts with a refrain to create the mood
of raga and lays a foundation for composition to follow. Each ragam
thanam pallavi has at least one raga associated with it.
Thanam
Thanam is one of the most important forms of improvisation, and is
integral to ragam thanam pallavi. It is the second component of this
composite form of improvisation. Originally developed for the veena,
it consists of expanding the raga with syllables like tha, nam, thom,
aa, nom, na, etc. Thanam is a rhythmic version of the raga alapana.
Although tanam is often rendered without percussion support, the
element of rhythm is more obvious in this type of improvisation. It is
rendered in medium speed and just before commencing the third
component of this composite form of improvisation; the pallavi.
Pallavi
The word Pallavi is derived from the three syllables Pa - Pada
(words), La - Laya (rhythm) and Vi - Vinyasam (variations). Pallavi
is the equivalent of a refrain in Western music. The Pallavi is usually
a one-line composition set to a single cycle of tala. The tala could
range from the simple to the complex and there may also be
different gatis being employed.
Pallavi has 2 portions to it. The first half of Pallavi is an ascending
piece of notes and the first half of the Pallavi should always end at
the strike of the beginning of the second half of the Talam cycle,
called the Ardhi. Between the first half of the Pallavi and the second
half of the Pallavi there will be a brief pause called as the Vishranthi
and then the second portion of the Pallavi starts. Executing niraval
far a pallavi is unique, as, unlike in a krithi, the artist is not allowed
to change the locations of each syllable in the sahithyam, as this
lessens the innate beauty of the pallavi. The basic style in Pallavi
rendition is to sing the Pallavi in different speeds or Nadai. In most
cases the Pallavi is set to Chathushtra Nadai meaning each beat
carries 4 units. So the singer will then sing the Pallavi in 3 different
speeds, once with each Beat carrying one unit, then 2 units and then
4 units per beat. Once this is completed then they would sing the
Pallavi in a different Nadai called Tisra Nadai meaning each beat now
carries 3 units. Once these aspects are covered, the singer explores
in the Kalpanaswara phase and they would start exploring different
Ragas during the Kalpanaswara.
Pallavi can be sung in 2 different aspects, one called as Prathiloma
and then the Anulomam. In Carnatic music the Talam is always
constant and only the Swaras or the Pallavi set for the Talam can
undergo Nadai bedam.
But in theory if you sing Pallavi without changing any speed but
increase the Talam cycle in a geometric progression, it would be the
other kind.
The Pallavi challenges the musician's ability to improvise with
complex and intricate patterns. The whole exercise is very
demanding, both technically and musically, since all the artiste's
musicianship is put to test.
Viruttam
Viruttam is a devotional verse or phrase sung in an impromptu
choice of rgam or rgamlika usually before a song. The rgam (or
last rgam in case of rgamlika) is usually the same as that of the
song that follows.
Viruttams do not have talas and are mainly improvised using one or
more ragams. It is one of the different forms of manodharma
(spontaneous improvisations) in Carnatic music.
A viruttam usually precedes rendition of a song. In most cases, it is
sung in the same ragam as the song that follows it. Occasionally,
viruttam of multiple verses are sung in different ragams, followed by
a song in the same ragam as the last sung ragam of the viruttam.
The artist may also sing the same verse in different ragams in
different concerts.
Mandharma
Manodharma is a form of improvised music and is created on spot
during the performance, but within the confines of strict grammar of
music. It can be likened to speakers resorting to impromptu speech
while reading from their prepared texts. It serves as an important
aspect of Carnatic music. There are many types of improvisations,
like Rgam lpana, Thnam, Niraval, Viruttam and Kalpanaswaram.
Arising out of Manodharma, Individual styles are developed. There is
ample scope for manodharma while rendering raga alapana, tanam,
neraval, pallavi, swaram and also kritis. The manodharma is
cultivated after several years of constant learning and experience in
rendering various set compositions like varnams, kritis, javalis, etc
and also by listening to consummate artistes. Manodharma plays
such a significant role that a capable artiste may never render a raga
the same way twice. To bring out the quintessence of a raga, one
has to resort to the exclusive and distinct raga prayogas of the raga
which are mostly taken from the 'set compositions' like varnams,
kritis etc. Unless, these prayogas are brought out in the raga
alapana, the bhava (identity) of the ragam can seldom be
established. For a beginner to identify a raga, these "exclusive"
prayogas are of immense assistance. Keeping in mind, the
"lakshana" (swarupa) of the raga, its jeeva swaras and also the
special prayogas, the artistes develop the raga, weaving patterns
after patterns, using various combinations of swaras.
The caliber and finesse of a musician is often judged by his/her
ability to bring out the excellence of a raga. Many musicians of the
recent past, such as G. N. Balasubramaniam, Madurai Mani Iyer,
Rajarathnam Pillai, Karaikkurichi Arunachalam, excelled in their
application of manodharma bringing in many a sweet combination of
notes of melodies, while limiting themselves to the confines of the
raga concerned, embellishing the raga with their ability to produce
melodic prayogas.
Kalpita sangeetam
Kalpita sangeetam is music that is already composed, learnt and
practiced. It is opposite of Manodharma sangeetam, which
complements Kalpita sangeetam.
Swarams
The seven swarams in Carnatic music, then followed by other terms
related to swaram.
Shadjam
The first swaram in the scale is Shadj am (Sa). It is invariant and is
always included in all ragams.
Rishabham
The second swaram in the scale is Rishabham (Ri). It has three pitch
possibilities, namely Suddha, Chathusruti and Shatsruti.
Gndhram
The third swaram in the scale is Gndhram (Ga). It has three pitch
possibilities, namely Suddha, Sdhrana and Antara.
Madhyamam
The fourth swaram in the scale is Madhyamam (Ma). It has two pitch
possibilities, namely Suddha and Prati.
Panchamam
The fifth swaram in the scale is Panchamam (Pa). It is invariant.
Dhaivatam
The sixth swaram in the scale is Dhaivatam (Dha). It has three pitch
possibilities, namely Suddha, Chathusruti and Shatsruti.
Nishdham
The third swaram in the scale is Nishdham (Ni). It has three pitch
possibilities, namely Suddha, Kaisiki and Kkali.
Anya swaram
Anya swaram in a j anya rgam is a swaram that is not found in its
parent rgam (melakart rgam). Anya means outside the set/
group.
Sthi
Sthi refers to an octave of music. There are 5 sthis in Carnatic
music, namely, Anumandra (lowest), Mandra (literally means chant,
which means lower), Madhya (literally means middle), Tara (means
higher) and Athitara (meaning very high). Most artists sing over two
octaves or two and a half octaves range (within Mandra, Madhya and
Tara sthais). Very few can sing well in bigger range of 3 or more
octaves.
Anga
Anga means part. In the context of a rgam's scale, the terms
poorvanga (meaning former part, in this case first-half) and
uttaranga (latter part, or second-half) are used. Sa, Ri, Ga and Ma
notes in a scale are referred are poorvanga, while Pa, Dha and Ni are
referred as uttaranga
Gamaka
Gamaka is the term used for variations of the swarams in a scale. It
can refer to the shake of the note, grace around the note, decoration
or embellishment of the swaram. It is an integral part of most
rgams, as it is not arbitrary but is essential part of the structure/
scale.
Vdi
Vdi swaram in a rgam is the main/ primary swaram of importance
in it. A vdi swaram is repeated quite often in a rendition.
Samvdi
Samvdi swaram in a rgam has a concordant effect with the vdi
swaram. It has a good effect to the ear (melody or pleasing) along
with the vdi. In western music it is equivalent of the consonant.

Vivdi
Vivdi swaram in a rgam has a discordant effect with the vdi
swaram in it. It may not have a pleasing effect when sounded
together, but composers use appropriate phrases so that such
discordant effect is skipped or avoided. In western music it is
equivalent of the dissonant.
Anuvdi
Anuvdi swaram in a rgam has neither concordant nor discordant
effect with the vdi swaram.
Janya rgams
Praygam
A musical notes phrase of a rgam (series of swarams sung in a
particular rgam) is known as Praygam.
Vishesha Praygam
Vishesha means special. Hence, important phrases of a rgam are
known as Vishesha Praygams.
Varjya
Missing swarams in a j anya rgam, when derived from a melakart
rgam are referred as varj ya. For example, Rishabham and
Panchamam are varj ya in Hindolam when derived from Natabhairavi.
Natabhairavi (sanskrit , tamil ) is a rgam in
Carnatic music (musical scale of South Indian classical music). It is
the 20
th
melakarta rgam in the 72 melakarta rgam system.
In the Muthuswami Dikshitar school this rgam is called
Nrirtigowla. Natabhairavi is known to be a rgam that incites
feelings of grandeur and devotion in the listeners.
Structure and Lakshana
It is the 2
nd
rgam in the 4
th
chakra Veda. The mnemonic name is
Veda- Sri. The mnemonic phrase is sa ri gi ma pa dha ni. Its rohaa-
avarohaa structure is as follows (see swaras in Carnatic music for
details on the notations used):
rohaa : S R2 G2 M1 P D1 N2 S
avarohaa : S N2 D1 P M1 G2 R2 S
(this scale uses the notes chathusruthi rishabham, sadharana
gandharam, shuddha madhyamam, shuddha dhaivatham, kaisiki
nishadham)
It is a sampoorna rgam - rgam having all 7 swarams. It is the
shuddha madhyamam equivalent of Shanmukhapriya, which is the
56
th
melakarta.
J anya rgams
Natabhairavi has a number of popular j anya rgams (derived scales)
such as Bhairavi, Anandabhairavi, Saramati, J onpuri, Hindolam
(sometimes Hindolam is also assosciated as a Janya of Hanumatodi)
and J ayanthasree. See List of j anya rgams for a full list of
Natabhairavi's janya rgams.
Popular compositions
Sri Valli Devasena pathe is a popular composition in Natabhairavi,
composed by Papanasam Sivan. Parulaseva by Poochi Srinivasa
Iyengar is another well known composition in this rgam.
Related rgams
The theoretical and scientific aspect of this rgam.
Natabhairavi's notes when shifted using Graha bedham, yields 5
other major melakarta rgams, namely, Kalyani, Sankarabharanam,
Hanumatodi, Kharaharapriya and Harikambhoj i. For further details
and an illustration of Graha bedham of this rgam refer Graha
bedham on Sankarabharanam.
Even though Natabhairavi has quite evenly spaced swara sthanas
(pitch positions, notes) like the other 5 in this group, it has not
found as much importance in concerts. One is likely to find Kalyani,
Todi, Sankarabharanam and Karaharapriya as the main ragam in
concerts, more often than Natabhairavi by a big count.
Vakram
Swarams are said to be vakram in a rgam, if either the rhanam,
Avarhanam or both, do not follow a strictly ascending or
descending order. They go up and down (example, 2 steps forward
one step back). In such a rgam, these swarams should always use
the same order in order to give the unique melody of the rgam.
Upnga
A j anya rgam is Upnga if all the swarams in its scale are strictly
derived from its melakart rgam (parent). There are no anya
swarams (external swarams).
Bhshnga
A j anya rgam is Bhshnga if an anya swaram is introduced in its
scale, when derived from its melakart rgam (parent).
Nishdhntya
A j anya rgam is Nishdhntya if the highest note that can be played
is the Nishdham. The rules for such rgams are that they should be
played or sung within the single octave - Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha,
Ni. Examples are Nadanamakriya and Punngavarli rgams.
Dhaivatntya
A j anya rgam is Dhaivadhntya if the highest note that can be
played is the Dhaivatam. The rules for such rgams are that they
should be played or sung within the single octave - Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri,
Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha. Example Kurinj i rgam.
Panchamntya
A j anya rgam is Panchamntya if the highest note that can be
played is the Panchamam. The rules for such rgams are that they
should be played or sung within the single octave - Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa,
Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa. Example Navroj rgam.


Madhyama sruti
Tuning the sruti (tonic note) to Ma (and also changing Pa string of
Tambura to Ma) is called Madhyama sruti. It is usually set for
Panchamntya, Dhaivadhntya and Nishdhntya rgams.
Tambura
The tambura (Devanagari: +

) is a long necked plucked lute that

derives its name from the Persian Tanbur, a stringed instrument
found in different versions in different places. The tambura (South
India), tamburo (Gujarati), or tanpura (North India) in its bodily
shape somewhat resembles the sitar, but it has no frets, as only the
open strings are played as a harmonic accompaniment to the other
musicians. It has four or five (rarely, six) wire strings, which are
plucked one after another in a regular pattern to create a harmonic
resonance on the basic note (bourdon or drone function).
Tanpuras come in different sizes and pitches: bigger "males" and
smaller "females" for vocalists and yet a smaller version that is used
for accompanying sitar or sarod, called tamburi or tanpuri. Male
vocalists pitch their tonic note (Sa) to about C#, female singers
usually a fifth higher. The male instrument has an open string length
of approx. one metre, the female is sized down to 3/4. The standard
tuning is 5881, sol do' do' do, or in Indian sargam: PA sa sa SA. For
ragas that omit the fifth, the first string will be tuned down to the
natural fourth: 4881 or Ma sa sa Sa. Some ragas require a less
common tuning with shuddh NI (semitone below octave sa) : NI sa
sa SA. With a five-string instrument, the seventh or NI (natural
minor or major 7th) is added: PA NI sa sa SA (57881)or MA NI sa sa
SA (47881). The name 'tanpura' is probably derived from tana,
referring to a musical phrase, and pura which means "full" or
"complete". Both in its musical function and how it works, the
tanpura is a unique instrument in many ways. It does not partake in
the melodic part of the music but it supports and sustains the
melody by providing a very colourful and dynamic harmonic
resonance field based on one precise tone, the basic note or key-
note. The special overtone-rich sound is achieved by applying the
principle of jivari which creates a sustained, "buzzing" sound in
which particular harmonics will resonate with focused clarity. 'Jiva'
refers to 'soul', that which gives life. What is implied is that an
'animated' tone-quality is the idea which the tanpura embodies. The
principle of jivari can be likened to the prismatic refraction of white
light into the colours of the rainbow, as its acoustic twin-principle at
work.
To achieve this effect, the strings pass over a wide, arched bridge-
piece, the front of the bridge sloping gently away from under the
strings. When the string is plucked, it will have an intermittent
periodical contact with the bridge at a point close to the front edge.
This intermittent grazing of string and bridge is not a static process,
as the points of contact will gradually shift, being a compound
function of amplitude and the curvature of the bridge and string
tension. When the string is plucked it has a large amplitude, moving
up and down and contacting the bridge on the down-phase. As the
energy of the string's movement gradually diminishes, the contact
point of the string with the bridge slowly creeps up the slope to the
top of the bridge toward point zero when the string has finally come
to rest. (depending on scale and pitch, this can take between 3 and
10 seconds) This dynamic sonic process can be fine-tuned using a
cotton thread between string and bridge. By shifting the thread
minutely, the whole dynamic process of the grazing contact is also
shifted to a different position on the bridge, thus changing the
harmonic content. Every single string produces its own cascading
range of harmonics and at the same time builds up a particular
resonance. Evidently, this generates a diversity of harmonic
possibilities. According to this refined principle tanpuras are most
attentively tuned to achieve a particular tonal shade in function of
the intonation-related qualities of the raga.
These more delicate aspects of tuning are directly related to what
Indian musicians call 'raga svaroop', which is about how very
characteristic intonations strengthen the tonal impression of a
particular raga. The particular set-up of the tanpura with the
adjustable sonic-prismatic function of curved bridge and thread
made it possible to explore a multitude of harmonic relations
produced by the subtle harmonic interplay of four strings.
Theoretically, at least, this is what the instrument was designed to
do. However, it seems that this degree of artistry is slowly being
eclipsed by the common use of the readily accessible electronic
tanpura, which is not capable of this natural diversity as it produces
one 'standard' sound per setting.
Tanpuras are designed in three different styles:
Miraj style: the favourite form of tanpura for Hindustani
performers. It is usually between three to five feet in length,
with a well-rounded resonator plate (tabli) and a long, hollow
straight neck. The round lower chamber to which the tabli, the
connecting heel-piece and the neck (dandh) are fixed is
actually a selected and dried gourd (tumba). Wood used is
either tun or teak, bridges are usually cut from one piece of
bone.
Tanj ore style: this is a south Indian style of tambura, used
widely by Carnatic music performers. It has a somewhat
different shape and style of decoration from that of the Miraj,
but is otherwise much the same size. Typically, no gourd is
used, but the spherical part is gouged out of a solid block of
wood. The neck is somewhat smaller in diameter. Jackwood is
used throughout, bridges are usually cut from one piece of
rosewood. Often two rosettes are drilled out and ornamented
with inlaywork.
Tamburi: small-scale instruments, used for accompanying
instrumental soloists. It is two to three feet long, with a flat
bed-pan type wooden body with a slightly curved tabli. It may
have from four to six strings. Tamburi are tuned to the higher
octave and are the preferred instruments for accompanying
solo-performances by string-playing artists, as the lighter,
more transparent sound does not drown out the lower register
of a sitar, sarod, or sarangi.
Swaram counts
The following terms are applicable to ascending scale (rhanam) of
a rgam, descending scale (avarhanam) of a rgam, or the rgam
as a whole.
Samprna rgam
Sampurna rgam is a rgam that has all seven swarams, namely, Sa,
Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni.
Shdava rgam
Shdava rgam is a rgam that has only six of the seven swarams in
its scale.
Owdava rgam
Owdava rgam is a rgam that has only five of the seven swarams in
its scale. It is a pentatonic scale.
Svarantara rgam
Svarantara rgam is a rgam that has only four of the seven
swarams in its scale.
Tlam components
Jathi
J athi of a tlam specifies beat count of the rhythm cycle. It
specifically applies to lagu component(s) of the tlam and not
necessarily to the entire tlam. The different jathis are tisra (three
beats in lagu), chathusra (four), khanda (five), misra (seven) and
sankeerna (nine).
Gati
Gati of a tlam specifies sub-divisions of a beat in a composition. It
is also referred as Nadai. Chathusra gati is the most common (four),
followed by Tisra (three). Others are Khanda, Misra and Sankeerna.
Lagu
Lagu is the component of a tlam which is the variant part. Its beat
count is dependent on the j athi of the tlam. The action for counting
includes a tap / clap, followed by a count of sub-beats of the full
rhythm cycle. Note that a tisra jathi lagu is actually 1 clap and 2
counts = 3 beats.
Dhrutham
Dhrutham is the component of a tlam which is invariant and
includes only two beats. Its action includes a tap / clap, followed by
a veechu (wave).
Anudhrutham
Anudhrutham is the component of a tlam which is invariant and
includes only one beat. Its action is a tap / clap.
vartanam
vartanam of a tlam refers to one cycle of the tlam. Most tlams
have at least 1 lagu, except for the rare tlams
Eduppu
Eduppu, from Tamil, means start. Eduppu denotes the point within
the vartanam of a tlam when a composition or stanza in a
composition begins. Onru (one beat later, meaning second beat),
Onrarai (one and half beat later, meaning between 2nd and 3rd
beat) are common, other than Samam (meaning equal) which starts
in synchronization with the beginning of a tlam.
Tlams
Rpaka tlam
Rpaka tlam refers to the group of tlams that consist of 1
dhrutam, followed by 1 lagu. Rpaka tlam also refers to chathusra-
j athi rpaka tlam as a default (2 + 4 = 6 beats in an vartanam).
This is considered equivalent of 3/4 of western music or the Waltz
rhythm.
Triputa tlam
Triputa tlam refers to the group of tlams that consist of 1 lagu,
followed by 2 dhrutams. Triputa tlam also refers to tisra- j athi
triputa tlam as a default (3 + 2 + 2 = 7 beats in an vartanam).
Dhruva tlam
Dhruva tlam refers to the group of tlams that consist of 1 lagu,
followed by 1 dhrutam, followed by two lagus. Dhruva tlam also
refers to chathusra- j athi dhruva tlam as a default (4 + 2 + 4 + 4 =
14 beats in an vartanam), unless a different jathi is specified.
Matya tlam
Matya tlam refers to the group of tlams that consist of 1 lagu,
followed by 1 dhrutam, followed by 1 lagu. Matya tlam also refers
to chathusra- j athi matya tlam as a default (4 + 2 + 4 = 10 beats in
an vartanam).
Jhampa tlam
J hampa tlam refers to the group of tlams that consist of 1 lagu,
followed by 1 anudhrutam, followed by 1 dhrutam. J hampa tlam
also refers to misra- j athi j hampa tlam as a default (7 + 1 + 2 = 10
beats in an vartanam).
Ata tlam
Ata tlam refers to the group of tlams that consist of 2 lagus,
followed by 2 dhrutams. Ata tlam also refers to khanda- j athi ata
tlam as a default (5 + 5 + 2 + 2 = 14 beats in an vartanam).
Eka tlam
Eka tlam refers to the group of tlams that consist of 1 lagu only.
Eka tlam also refers to chathusra- j athi eka tlam as a default (4
beats in an vartanam).
dhi tlam
dhi tlam refers to chathusra- j athi triputa tlam (4 + 2 + 2 = 8
beats in an vartanam), which is very common in Carnatic music.
This is the equivalent of 8 beat / 16 beat of Western music.
Khanda chpu tlam
Khanda chpu refers to a tlam with 10 beat vartanam (Khanda
literally means 5) which does not fit into above classification of
tlams.
Misra chpu tlam
Misra chpu refers to a tlam with 14 beat vartanam (Misra literally
means 7) which does not fit into above classification of tlams.
Desdhi tlam
Desdhi refers to dhi tlam with (8 beat vartanam), where the
eduppu is one and a half beats from beginning of varatanam
(onrarai).
Kalai
Kalai refers to the speed of the tlam during a rendition of song.


Learning exercises
Learning Carnatic music involves learning most of the following
exercises, mostly in the order listed below.
Sarali varisai
Sarali varisai is used to learn the swarams in the octave, usually in
Mymlavagowla ragam. It is learnt in simple straight ascending
and descending fashion and a few variations. It is also learnt in
multiple speeds (kalams).
Swarvali
Avali means row or arrangement. Swarvali are exercises with
different arrangements of swarams. It is shortened and referred as
Sarali, as in Sarali varisai described above.
Jhanta varisai
J hanta varisai are exercises used to learn the swarams in the octave
in twin fashion (sa sa ri ri ga ga and so on) and a few other
combinations. It is also usually learnt in Mymlavagowla rgam.
Dhttu varisai
Dhttu literally means jump. Dhttu varisai are exercises used to
learn the swarams in zig-zag fashion, so that more control of the
notes and different combinations are achieved. Example, sa ma ri ga,
sa ri ga ma, and so on. Each of these exercises are set to different
tlams, so that different rhythm aspects are learnt.
Alankra
Alankra means decoration. These exercises are groups or patterns
of swarams, each of which are set to seven main tlams, so that
rhythm aspect is also learnt together with different rgams.
Types of composition
Geetham
Geetham, the simplest music form in Carnatic music, was created by
Purandara Dasa in order to introduce talas with sahithya (lyrics).
Structure
Though Geethams have no absolutely defined divisions of pallavi,
anupallavi or charanas, they may be observed in some cases. Some
Geethams contain sections rather than the defined divisions (pallavi
etc). They often have no sangathis or variations, with each swara
taking one syllable of the sahithya. The Geetham is sung without
repetition from beginning to end. However most Geethams are
concluded by repeating a portion of the opening part. Geethams are
set in medium tempo and contain no Sangathis or variations and the
flow of the music is natural. The theme of the Sahithyam (lyrics) is
to praise God. Students learn these Geethams after a course in the
preliminary Sarali exercises and Alankaras.
Types
There are three types of Geetams: Sanchari or Samanya Geethams,
Lakshana Geethams, and Suladi Geethams. Samanya Geethams are
the simple ordinary Geethams and are called by other names such as
Sadharana Geetham or Sanchari Geetham. In Lakshana Geethams,
the sahithyam (lyrics), instead of praising God, enumerates in so
many words, the Lakshana of the Raga, in which it is composed-
giving amongst other details, its Vakra Swaras, Graha, Nysa, Amsa
Swarams and lastly its parent Raga (Melakarta raga). Most Lakshana
Geethams have been composed by Purandara Dasa.
[1]

Common Geethams
Some of the most common Geethams have been composed by
Muthuswami Dikshitar.
1. Vara Veena in Mohanam Raga (Janya of 28th Mela
Harikambhoji) - Chatusruthi Jathi Rupaka Tala
2. Sree Gananatha ( Lambodara) in Malahari Raga (Janya of 15th
Mela Mayamalavagowla) - Chathusruthi Jathi Rupaka Tala
3. Analekara in Shuddha Saveri Raga (Janya of 29th Mela
Sankarabharanam) - Tisra Jathi Triputa Tala
4. Kamala J adala in Kalyani Raga (65th Melakarta Raga)- Tisra
Jathi Triputa Tala


Swarajati
Swarajati is a form in Carnatic music, which is helpful before
learning a varnam. It has pallavi, sometimes an anupallavi, and at
least one charana. The themes of swaraj athis are usually either
bhakthi, love or courage. It is a composition which usually has a
pleasing melody and are suitable for singing in early lessons,
musical concerts and dance concerts
Varnam
Varnam is a form of song in the Carnatic music repertoire. A varnam
is a relatively long piece and can range from 30 minutes to up to an
hour. It is usually set to Aadi or Ata tala. It is the center piece in a
recital of music or dance. The lyrics are simple and consist mostly of
long syllables and swara phrases of various lengths which bring out
the essential features of the raga. It has two types: Taana varnam
and Pada varnam.
Varnams are considered vocal exercises in a particular raga. The
patterns in a varnam are considered to be characteristic patterns of
a particular raga or scale. Varnams are considered the most complex
of the vocal exercises in Carnatic Music. They are designed to help
develop voice culture and proper control of rhythm. Indeed, varnams
are often practiced in double and triple speeds and proper rhythmic
control (tala) must be kept.
Type of varnams
Named for it's thanam-like rhythmic qualities, tana varnams only
have lyrics for the pallavi, anupallavi and charanam.
[1]

With rhythmic elements like a padam, pada varnams are generally
sung to accompany South Indian classical dance, including
bharatanatyam. Unlike the tana varnam which only has lyrics for the
pallavi, anupallavi and charanam and swarams for the rest of the
sections a pada varnam also have lyrics that correspond to the
muktayi and chitta swaras of the varnam, so generally, pada
varnams contain more lyrical content than a tana varnam. The
swaras in this type of varnam are suitable for intricate footwork.
Padaj athi varnams are simply pada varnams that also contain jatis in
it, making it again more suitable for South Indian classical dance.
Contents of a Varnam
The varnam is subdivided into several sections:
Pallavi: The first section of the Varnam, sung with lyrics or
sahithyam.
Anupallavi: A sort of recapitulation, sung with lyrics or
sahithyam also.
Mukthaayi Swaram: Sung completely with syllables -- or
swaras -- (like sa ri ga ma pa da ni sa). In Pada Varnas it is
known as Mukthaayi Swaram-Sahithyam.
Charanam: Sung with lyrics
Chittai Swarams: Sung completely with syllables. In a Pada
varnam, there are lyrics which correspond to the Charanam
swaras. The swaras occur in several groups or stanzas.
Generally, a varnam is sung as follows:
Pallavi
Anupallavi
Muktayi Swaram
Pallavi (in double speed)
Repeat, then Pallavi sung in triple speed, or in original speed.
Charanam
Charanam Swara Group 1
Charanam
Charanam Swara Group 2
Charanam
Charanam Swara Group 3
Charanam
Charanam Swara Group 4
Charanam
There are generally 3-5 swara groups in every varnam. In a concert,
the entire charanam section is sung at approximately 1.5 speed.
Sometimes when repeating the Pallavi the Annupallavi and Muktayi
Swarams are repeated in double or triple speed.
Varnams are generally sung in 2 varieties of talas, or metric
systems, Adi Tala (8 beat cycle) and Ata Tala (14 beat cycle), where
Ata Tala varnams are generally more complicated and advanced. In
most of the Adi Tala Varnams the tala is placed in the 2 kalai
version. So therefore each beat and finger count is placed twice.
Famous Varnams
Famous Adi Tala Varnams include:
"Sami Ninne" in Sree Ragam composed by Karur Devudu I yer
"Ninnukori" in Mohanam ragam by Poochi Srinivasa Iyengar
"Evvari Bodhana" in Abhogi ragam by Patnam Subramania Iyer
"Valachi Vacchi" in Navaragamalika (9 ragas, similar to
Ragamalika which literally translates to a garland of ragams.
Famouns Ata Tala Varnams include:
"Viriboni" in Bhairavi ragam by Pacchimiriam Adiyappa
"Nera Nammithi" in Kaanada ragam by Poochi Srinivasa
Iyengar
"Chalamela" in Sankarabharanam by Swati Tirunal
The Arabhi ragam varnam is supposed to be the only longest piece
with jantai and tattu prayogas.
Keerthanam/ Kriti
Keerthanam or Kriti is the category of most compositions in Carnatic
music. A concert consists mainly of Keerthanams with zero or one of
Varnam, Rgam Thnam Pallavi and Thilln included in appropriate
order.
Thillana
Thillana (also called tillana) is a rhythmic piece, generally performed
at the end of a concert and widely used in dance performances. A
thillana uses taal phrases in the pallavi and anupallavi, and lyrics in
the charanam.
Parts of a composition
Pallavi
Pallavi is the thematic line of a song. It is usually one cycle long and
repeated twice or thrice in order to give the percussionist the idea of
the chosen taalam. Sometimes it is repeated a few more times using
different phrases of the Rgam to which the song is set.
The life of the song, the word pallavi consists of a wide range of
items that are considered as a single item:
pa is derived from padam which means word or phrase;
lla comes from layam which means poetry or rhythm;
vi is from vinyasam which means imagination
In Carnatic music, pallavi also forms a part of a special type of
rendition called Rgam Thnam Pallavi. Rgam in this context is the
initial lpana of chosen rgam (elaboration and exploration of its
scale). Thnam is elaboration of the rgam using percussion
syllables. Pallavi, a single line of one tlam cycle duration, is chosen
for further elaboration of the rgam in different speeds, octaves,
rgam phrases, etc.
Anupallavi
In Carnatic music, the anupallavi comes after the pallavi and is
usually the second section of any composition. It is then followed by
one or more charanams. The anupallavi is optional. In such
compositions pallavi is followed by one or more charanams.
Charanam
Charanam (meaning foot) in Carnatic music (South Indian classical
music) is usually the end section of a composition which is sung
after the anupallavi. There may be multiple charanams in a
composition which make up different stanzas, but in compositions
that do not have an anupallavi, there often exists a samraashti
charanam that combines both the anupallavi and charanam of the
composition which directly follows the pallavi.
The charana swaras are grouped in four different ways:
1st - one tala cycle.
2nd - one tala cycle.
3rd - two long tala cycles
4th - four long tala cycles

Chittaswaram
In Indian classical music, chitta swaras are a set of solfa passages
(phrases of swaras). These are sung after the anupallavi and
charanam, in the krithis which enriches the beauty of the
composition. This is usually done by the performers and not by the
composers and in Carnatic music is an important improvisation
aspect (manodharma music).
Muktyi swaram
Muktyi swarams are the swaram phrases sung as swaram syllables
as part of a rendition, which does not have a corresponding lyrical
verse. This is more related to the songs for dance performances, like
Bharatanatyam.