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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
1.1 Importance of Water Man and animals not only consume water, but they also consume vegetation for their food. Vegetation, in turn, cannot grow without water. Growth of vegetation also depends upon bacterial action, while bacteria need water in order to thrive. Good sanitation cannot be maintained without adequate water supply system. Man needs water for drinking, cooking, cleaning and washing. Water maintains an ecological balance balance in the relationship between living things and environment in which they live. 1.2 Definition of Types of Water 1.2.1 Pure and Impure Water Pure water contains only 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen. It is not good for health as pure water does not contain essential minerals required for human health. Impure water, besides 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen, contains other elements.
1.2.2 Potable and Wholesome Water Potable water is water safe enough to be consumed by humans or used with low risk of immediate or long-term harm. Water that is not harmful for human beings is called wholesome water. It is neither chemically pure nor contains harmful matters to human health. Requirements of wholesome water: i. It should be free from radioactive substance, microorganism, disease causing bacteria, objectionable dissolved gases, harmful salts, objectionable minerals and other poisonous metals. It should be colourless, and sparkling which may be accepted by public. It should be tasty, odour-free, soft, cool and cheap in cost. It shouldnt corrode pipes. It should have dissolved oxygen and free from carbonic acid so that it remains fresh.
1.2.3 Polluted and Contaminated Water Contamination means containing harmful matter. It is always polluted and harmful for use. Water consisting of microorganisms, chemicals, industrial or other wastes, large numbers of pathogens that cause diseases is called contaminated water. Pollution is synonymous to contamination but is the result of contamination. Polluted water contains substances unfit or undesirable for public health or domestic purpose.
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Continuous - Water is available 24 hours a day and seven days a week. Historical Development
Intermittent - Water is supplied for few hours every day or alternate days.
Most of the historical community settlements throughout the world were made near springs, lakes and rivers from where water for drinking and irrigation purposes was obtained. In the ninth century, few important water supply structures were constructed by the Moors in Spain. In the 12th century, small aqueduct was constructed in Paris. In London, spring water was brought by means of lead pipes and masonry conduits in the thirteenth century. During the first phase of the Industrial Revolution, large impounding reservoirs were developed due to the necessity of feeding canals. The first water filter was constructed in 1804 by John Gibb at Paisley in Scotland. The first permanent use of chlorination originated under the direction of Sir Alexander Houston at Lincoln in 1905. 1.4 Objectives of Water Supply System The quintessential objective of water supply system is to supply water equitably to the consumers with sufficient pressure so as to discharge the water at the desired location within the premises. Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 2
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1.6 Components of Water Supply System and their Functions The components of a water supply system can be divided into two major parts: 1. Transmission Line or Transmission Main: Pipeline from intake to reservoir tank. 2. Distribution Line: Pipeline from reservoir tank to tap stand. There are three systems of supply as: i. ii. iii. Gravity Flow System Pumping System Dual System
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Sources of Water
Surface Source
River, Stream, Lake, Pond, Impounded Reservoir Main source of water is precipitation. 2.2 Surface Sources
Surface sources have water on the surface of the earth such as in stream, river, lake, wetland or ocean. 2.2.1 Rivers Natural channel Main source: either natural precipitation or snow-fed Perennial and non-perennial rivers Vast catchment area; hence, amount of water is large Contaminated source
2.2.2 Streams Natural drainage Less catchment area Source: Melting snow or precipitation Found in hilly, mountain areas Low quantity of water Potable water Page 5
2.2.4 Ponds Natural/Artificial depression found in plain areas Bad quality of water Not used as water supply source Less quantity of water Can be used for animal bathing and irrigation purposes.
2.2.5 Impounded Reservoirs An impounding reservoir is a basin constructed in the valley of a stream or river for the purpose of holding stream flow so that the stored water may be used when water supply is insufficient. E.g. Sundarijal Dam The dam is constructed across the river in such places where minimum area of land is submerged, where river width is less and the reservoir basin remains cup shaped having maximum possible depth of water. Hence, it is defined as an artificial lake created by the construction of a dam across the valley containing a watercourse. Two functions: i) To impound water for beneficial use ii) To retard flood The location of impounded reservoir depends upon the quality and quantity of water available, existence of suitable dam site, distance and elevation of reservoir, density and distribution of population, geological conditions, etc. The water quality is the same as in streams and rivers. 2.2.6 Numerical on Capacity Determination of Impounded Reservoirs The flow in the river during the various months of the year (in m3/s) is as follows: January 2.97 February 1.99 March 1 April 0 May 0.51 June 1 July 2 August 3 September 4 October 5 November 4 December 2.8
The river supplies water to a community having a constant demand of 6202 million litres/month. Determine the capacity of impounded reservoir.
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Where, n = number of days in the month Flow Inflow Months (in (ML) m3/s) January 2.97 7954.848 February 1.99 4814.208 March 1 2678.4 April 0 0 May 0.51 1365.984 June 1 2592 July 2 5356.8 August 3 8035.2 September 4 10368 October 5 13392 November 4 10368 December 2.8 7499.52 Total 74424.96 Demand (ML) 6202 6202 6202 6202 6202 6202 6202 6202 6202 6202 6202 6202 74424 Cumulative Cumulative Surplus Deficit Inflow Demand (ML) (ML) (ML) (ML) 7954.848 6202 1752.85 12769.056 12404 365.056 15447.456 18606 3158.54 15447.456 24808 9360.54 16813.44 31010 14196.6 19405.44 37212 17806.6 24762.24 43414 18651.8 32797.44 49616 16818.6 43165.44 55818 12652.6 56557.44 62020 5462.56 66925.44 68222 1296.56 74424.96 74424 0.96
II.
GRAPHICAL METHOD The largest possible positive difference (perpendicular distance between the two graphs) gives the value of maximum surplus. The largest possible negative difference (cumulative demand more) gives the value of maximum deficit. The difference between the ends of the curves gives the value of the required capacity of impounded reservoir.
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Months
2.3 Ground Sources When water seeps into the ground, it moves downward due to gravity through the pore spaces between soil particles and cracks in rocks. Eventually, the water reaches a depth where the soil and rock are saturated with water. Water which is found in the saturated part of the ground underneath the land surface is called ground water. 2.3.1 Confined and Unconfined Aquifers
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2.3.2 Springs A spring is the natural outflow of ground water appearing at the earths surface as a current of stream of flowing water under the suitable geological conditions. Most favourable conditions for spring formation occur in Nepal and may be suitable for water supply schemes in village areas in hilly region of Nepal. Springs are capable of supplying small quantity of water so it cant be used as a source of water to big towns but a well developed or combinations of the various springs can be used for water supply especially villages near hills or bases of hills. The quality of water in spring is generally good and may contain sulphur in certain springs which discharge hot water which can be used only for taking dips for the cure of certain skin diseases. It may be less costly because it may not need treatment plant. Springs may be classified into the following two types: a. Gravity Springs b. Non Gravity Springs
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These springs result from water flowing under hydrostatic pressure and they are of the following three types: i. Depression Spring
These springs are formed due to the overflowing of the water table, where the ground surface intersects the water table. The flow from such spring is variable with the rise or fall of water table and hence in order to meet with such fluctuations, a deep trench may be constructed near such spring. The deeper the trench, the greater is the certainty of continuous flow because the saturated ground above the elevation of the trench bottom will act as a storage reservoir to compensate for the fluctuations of the water table. ii. Surface Spring or Contact Spring
These are created by a permeable water bearing formation overlying a less permeable or impermeable formation that intersects the ground surface. However, in such springs, because of the relatively small amount of underground storage available above the elevation of the overflow crest, the flow from them is uncertain and likely to cease after a drought. Such springs can also be developed by the construction of a cutoff trench or a cutoff wall. iii. Artesian Spring
These springs result from release of water under pressure from confined aquifers either at an outcrop of the aquifer or through an opening in the confining bed. The amount of water available in an artesian spring may be large if the catchment area is large. The flow may be slightly increased by removal of obstructions from the mouth of the spring. 2. Non Gravity Springs Non gravity springs include volcanic spring (associated with volcanic rocks) and fissure spring (results from fractures extending to the great depths in the earths crust). These are also called hot springs and contain high minerals as well as sulphur also. 2.3.3 Wells A well is a hole or shaft, usually vertical and excavated in the ground for bringing groundwater to the surface. Wells are classified as follows: 1. Open or Dug or Draw or Percolation Well
They are of large diameters (1 to 10 m), low yields and not very deep (2 to 20 m). These are constructed by digging hence also called dug wells. The walls may be of brick, stone masonry or precast rings and thickness varies from 0.5 to 0.75 m depending upon the depth of the well. It is also further classified as following two types: i. ii. Shallow Open Well Deep Open Well Page 10
4. Artesian Well It is the well from where water flows automatically under pressure. Mostly they are found in the valley portion of the hills where aquifers on the both sides are inclined towards valley. The HGL (Hydraulic Gradient Line) passes much above the mouth of well, which causes flow under pressure. The water flows out in the form of fountain upto a height of 2.5 m depending upon hydrostatic pressure. Some wells, which flow continuously throughout the year and can be stored in reservoir and taken for water supply. The quality of water in artesian wells may be good but sometimes it contains minerals and can be used after certain treatment. 2.3.4 Infiltration Galleries and Wells Infiltration Gallery Infiltration Gallery is a horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel, usually rectangular (arched also) in cross section and having permeable boundaries so that ground water can infiltrate into it. Hence, it is also called horizontal well. It is generally located near a perennial recharge source such as the bank or under bed of a river and 3 to 10 meters below the ground. It is also used to collect ground water near marshy land or water bodies and stored in storage tank and then used for water supply. Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 11
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The unit of total water demand is litres/day. 3.2 Design and Base Periods i. ii. Survey Year: It is the year in which survey is carried out. Base Period: It is the period between survey year and base year during which the works of survey, design and construction are completed. Base Period is generally taken as 2 to 3 years. iii. Base Year: It is the year in which implementation is done. Base Year = Survey Year + Base Period iv. Design Period: Any water supply project is planned to meet the present requirements of community as well as the requirement for a reasonable future period (up to service year). This period between Base Year and Service or Design Year is taken as Design Period. It is generally 15 to 20 years. This period is taken 15 years in communities where the population growth rate is higher and 20 years in communities where population growth rate is comparatively lower. v. Design/Service Year: It is the year up to which water demand is to be fulfilled. Service Year = Survey Year + Base Period + Design Period = Base Year + Design Period
3.2.2 Selection Basis Design Period is selected based on the following: Useful lives of the component considering obsolescence, wear, tear, etc.
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Suppose, r = growth rate of population If r 2, design period is 15 years and if r < 2, design period is 20 years. 3.3 Types of Water Demand 3.3.1 Domestic Demand S.N. 1 2 3 Water demand required for domestic purposes. Required for both urban and rural areas. Depends upon the habit, social status, climatic conditions, living standard, etc. Types of Consumption Private Connection and Fully Plumbed System Private Connection and Partly Plumbed System Public Stand Post Water Demand (lpcd) 112 65 45 (can come down to 25)
3.3.2 Livestock Demand S.N. 1 2 3 Quantity of water required for domestic animals and livestock including birds. Generally considered in rural water supply. Livestock demand should not be greater than 20% of domestic demand. Types of Consumption Big animals >> cow, buffalo Medium animals >> goat, dog Small animals >> birds Water Demand (lpcd) 45 20 0.2
3.3.3 Commercial/Institutional Demand Quantity of water required for commercial institutions like schools, colleges, hospitals, offices, etc. For commercial and institutional purpose, 45 lpcd can be taken.
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Institutions a. Hospitals/Health Posts/Clinics i. With Bed ii. Without Bed b. Schools i. Boarders ii. Day Scholars c. Hotels i. With Bed ii. Without Bed d. Restaurants/Tea Stall e. Offices i. Unclassified ii. Resident iii. Non resident
Demand Urban Area 500 l/bed/day 2,500 l/day 65 lpcd 10 lpcd 200 l/bed/day 500-1000 l/day 500-1000 l/day 500-1000 l/day 65 lpcd 10 lpcd Rural Area 325-500 l/bed/day 1600-2500 l/hospital/day 42-60 lpcd 6.5-10 lpcd 200 l/bed/day 500-1000 l/day 200-500 l/day 325-1000 l/office/day 65 lpcd 10 lpcd
3.3.4 Public/Municipal Demand Considered only in urban areas for municipal purposes e.g. cleaning roads, for public parks. We adopt criteria by Indian Government. i. Street Washing = 1 to 1.5 l/m2 of surface area of road/day ii. Public Parks = 1.4 l/m2/day iii. Sewer Cleaning = 4.5 l/person/day 3.3.5 Industrial Demand Normally considered in urban areas. Quantity of Water required for various industries and factories. Generally taken as 20 to 25% of total demand.
3.3.6 Fire Fighting Demand Authority 1. National Board of Fire Underwriters Formula 2. Freeman's Formula 3. Kuichling's Formula 4. Buston's Formula 5. Indian Water Supply Manual Formula Formula (P in '000, Q in l/min) Q = 4637 P (1 - o.01 P) Q = 1136 (P/5 + 10) Q = 3182 P Q = 5663 P Q = 100 P, Q in cubic meter/day
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3.3.8 Total Demand Total Demand = Domestic Demand + Livestock Demand + Commercial Demand + Municipal Demand + Industrial Demand + Fire Fighting Demand + Loss and Wastage 3.4 Variation in Demand of Water
If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet all the fluctuations. There are three types of variations in demand of water. Seasonal Variation: The demand peaks during summer. Fire breaks out generally more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation. Maximum seasonal consumption is 140% and minimum seasonal consumption is 80% of average daily per capita demand. Daily Variation: Daily variation is due to the variation in activities. People draw out more water on holidays and festival days, thus increasing demand on these days. Daily variation may also occur due to climatic condition (rainy day or dry day) and the character of the city (industrial, commercial or residential). Maximum daily consumption is 180% of average daily per capita demand. Hourly Variation: Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours, the variation in requirement is negligible. The maximum hourly consumption is 150% of average daily per capita demand.
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3.5 Peak Factor Maximum demands at all these variations are expressed in terms of percentage of average annual daily consumption (AADC) or Qav. AADC or Qav = P x q, where P is the population and q is per capita demand. Peak Demand is the maximum hourly demand on the day of maximum demand of the season of maximum demand. Peak Demand = PFH x PFD x PFS of AADC Where, PFH = Peak Factor of Hourly Variation PFD = Peak Factor of Daily Variation PFS = Peak Factor of Seasonal Variation Hence, Peak Demand = 1.5 x 1.8 x 1.4 x AADC = 3.93 x AADC Generalizing, Peak Demand = Peak Factor x AADC Peak Factor is normally taken 3 in Nepal.
3.6 Factors affecting Demand of Water i. Size of the City: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that for smaller towns as big cities have mostly private connection in every house with fully plumbed system. ii. Presence of Industries iii. Climatic Conditions: If a community is located in hot climate, water use will be increased by bathing, lawn sprinkling and use in parks and recreation fields. In extreme cold climates, water may be wasted at the faucets to prevent freezing of pipes, resulting in increased consumption.
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3.7 Population Forecasting Necessity and Methods A particular method is to be adopted for a particular case or for a particular city. The selection is left to the discretion and intelligence of the designer. Sample Problem: Increase in Population 4000 5000 5500 14500 A = 4833 % increase in Population 50 41.67 32.35 124.02 G = 41.34 Incremental increase in Population 1000 500 1500 I = 750 Decrease in % increase of Population 8.33 9.32 17.65 D = 8.82
Present Population, P = 22500 A = average increase per decade = 4833 G = average % increase in population per decade = 41.34% I = average incremental increase per decade = 750 D = average decrease in % increase of population = 8.82 3.7.1 Arithmetical Increase Method Assumption: The increase in population from decade to decade is assumed constant. This method is suitable for larger and old cities which have practically reached their maximum development (i.e. cities which have reached their saturation population).
3.7.4 Decreased Rate of Growth Method Year 2011 2021 2021 2031 2031 2041 2041 2051 Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) % increase 32.35 8.82 = 23.53 23.53 8.82 = 14.71 14.71 8.82 = 5.89 -ve (so zero constant) Page 20
The survey data collected for a water supply scheme in a village of Nepal is given below: Survey Year 2013 Base Year 3 years Design Period 20 years Population 500 Number of cows 20 Number of goats 560 Number of chickens 2200 Annual population growth rate 1% Number of health posts 1 Number of day scholars in school 125 Number of school 20 boarders in
Calculate Design Year Total Water Demand. At 2036, ( ( ( 1. Domestic Demand = 45 x 629 = 28305 l/d 2. Livestock Demand i. Big animals = 45 x 20 = 900 ii. Medium animals = 20 x 560 = 11200 iii. Small animals = 0.2 x 2200 = 440 Total = 12540 l/d Check: Livestock Demand = 20% of Domestic Demand = 0.2 x 28305 = 5661 l/d Hence, actual livestock demand = 5661 l/d 3. Commercial Demand a. Day Scholars = 10 x 157 = 1570 b. Boarders = 65 x 25 = 1625 c. Health Post = 2500 Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 21 ) ) )
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Removed by: Sedimentation or Chemical Treatment 4.1.2 Colloidal Impurities Microscopic. Their size is between 10-3 mm to 10-6 mm. Not removed by sedimentation Develop charges (anions) Cause colour in water and these impurities cause epidemics. Have much less weight They come in motion due to repulsion.
Removed by: +ve charge for neutralization and settlement 4.1.3 Dissolved Impurities Dissolved impurities make bad taste, hardness and alkalinity. The concentration is measured in PPM (parts per million) or mg/l and obtained by weighing the residue after evaporation of the water sample from a filtered sample. a. Salts of Ca and Mg b. Minerals c. Gases Constituents a. Calcium and Magnesium i. Bicarbonate ii. Carbonate iii. Sulphate iv. Chloride b. Metals and Compounds i. Lead Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Effects Alkalinity Alkalinity and hardness Hardness Hardness, corrosion Cumulative poisoning Page 23
4.2 Hardness and Alkalinity Water is said to be hard when it contains relatively large amounts of bicarbonates, carbonates, sulphates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium dissolved in it. It is the property that prevents lathering of soap. 4.2.1 Types of Hardness
Types of Hardness
Permanent Hardness
Temporary Hardness
Permanent hardness is due to the presence of sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium and is also known as non-carbonate hardness (NCH). Permanent hardness cant be removed by simple boiling but requires special treatment of softening. Temporary hardness is known as carbonate hardness (CH) and due to the presence of carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. It can be removed by boiling or by adding lime. On boiling, CO2 escapes and insoluble CaCO3 gets precipitated. So, temporary hardness causes deposition of Ca scales in boilers. Total Hardness (TH) = CH + NCH
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Where, ion = Mg, Ca, Sr (Strontium) Eq. wt. of Mg = 12.2, Eq. wt. of Ca = 20, Eq. wt. of Sr = 43.8, Eq. wt. of CaCO 3 = 50 Effects of Hardness: 1. Wasteful consumption of soap while washing and bathing. 2. Modifies colour if used in dyeing work and washing clothes. 3. Produces scale in steam boiler and its pipe which reduces heat transfer and finally causes leak. 4. Causes corrosion and incrustation of pipelines and fittings. 5. Scale formation further causes corrosion, caustic brittleness, decreases efficiency and danger of burst of pipe line and boiler. 6. Makes food tasteless, more fuel consumption and causes bad effects to our digestive system. Measurement of Hardness in Water: Hardness of water is measured in ppm or mg/l of calcium carbonate present in water. Range (mg/l) Hardness Level 50 100 100 150 150 250 > 250 Moderately Slightly Hard Moderately Hard Soft Hard The hardness of water is also expressed as the degree of hardness. It may be Clark Scale, French Scale or American Scale. Clarks Scale: 1 Cl = Power of soap destroying is equivalent to the effect of 14.254 mg of calcium carbonate present in one litre of water which causes wastage of about 0.6 gm of soap in 1 litre of water (i.e. 14.254 ppm). French Scale: 1 Fr = Power of soap destroying is equivalent to the effect of 10 mg of calcium carbonate present in one litre of water. American Scale: 1 Am = Power of soap destroying is equivalent to the effect of 17.15 mg of calcium carbonate present in one litre of water. 4.2.2 Types of Alkalinity Alkalinity is a measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water. It is an aggregate of the sum of all titratable bases in the sample. When pH of water is > 7, it is said to be alkaline. Alkalinity in most natural waters is due to the presence of carbonate (CO3 ), bicarbonate (HCO3 ), and hydroxyl (OH ) anions.
--
0 50 Soft
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Alkalinity
Alkalinity caused by hydroxides is called hydroxide alkalinity or caustic alkalinity, caused by carbonate is carbonate alkalinity and caused by bicarbonate is called bicarbonate alkalinity. 4.2.3 Relation between Hardness and Alkalinity 1. When Total Hardness > Total Alkalinity CH = Total Alkalinity NCH = TH CH 2. When Total Hardness Total Alkalinity CH = TH NCH = 0 Problem: The analysis of water from a well shows the following results in mg/l.
++ ++ + + --Ca = 65, Mg = 51, Na = 100, K = 25, HCO3 = 248, SO4 = 220, Cl = 18, CO3 = 240
Find Total Hardness (TH), Carbonate Hardness (CH) and Non-Carbonate Hardness (NCH). Solution:
Here, TA > TH Hence, Carbonate Hardness (CH) = Total Hardness (TH) = 371.52 mg/l Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 26
to hardness of 2.52 mg/l and the carbonate alkalinity in water is zero. Calculate TH, CH and NCH. 2. Total hardness obtained from the analysis of water is found to be 117 mg/l. The analysis further showed that the concentrations of all the three principle cations causing hardness are numerically same. If the value of CH = 57 mg/l, calculate: i. NCH. ii. The concentration of principle cation (Ca, Mg, Sr) iii. Total Alkalinity (TA) 4.3 Living Organisms in Water a. b. c. d. Algae Bacteria Virus Helminthes or Worms
(Refer descriptions in any book.) 4.4 Water Related Diseases 4.4.1 Water borne Diseases Water borne diseases are caused due to drinking water contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms. Some of the most common water borne diseases are typhoid fever, dysentery (amoebic and bacillary), gastro-enteritis, infectious hepatitis, schistosomiasis, etc.
Bacterial diseases
Protozoal diseases
Virus diseases
a. BACTERIAL DISEASES: Botulism, Cholera, E. coli infection, Dysentery, Typhoid fever b. PROTOZOAL DISEASES: Amoebiasis, Giardiasis c. VIRUS DISEASES: SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), Hepatitis A, Poliomyelitis d. HELMINTHIC DISEASES: Schistosomiasis, Swimmers itch Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 27
E.g. malaria (mosquito injects protozoa), filariasis (elephantiasis) mosquito carrier, no circulation of blood in joints, swelling of body parts 4.4.5 Transmission Routes Transmission routes refer to the ways in which a healthy person gets attacked by diseases. a. Faecal-oral route b. Penetration of skin c. Due to vector
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4.5 Examination of Water 4.5.1 Physical Examination of Water (tests for temperature, colour and turbidity) i. ii. Test for temperature The temperature of water to be supplied should be between 10C to 20C. Temperature higher than 25C is considered objectionable. Temperature of water can be measured with ordinary thermometers graduated in 0.1C, range from 0 to 50C. At depths greater than 15m, a thermocouple may be used. Test for colour Colour can be measured against various standards or scales such as Hazen or Platinic Chloride Scale, Burgess Scale or Cobalt Scale using a tintometer. In older days, test for colour of water was performed solely through visual inspection.
Test for Colour by Tintometer: 1. First, the apparent colour of water due to turbidity is removed by centrifuging. 2. A tintometer has an eye-piece with two holes. 3. A slide of the standard coloured water is seen through one hole, while the slide of the water to be tested is seen through the other hole. 4. A number of slides of standard colour in water are kept ready for comparison. 5. The intensity of colour in water is measured in terms of arbitrary unit of colour on the cobalt scale. iii. Test for Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of resistance of passing of light through water. It is imparted by the colloidal matter present in water. Units of turbidity in older days: Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 29
Equipment: Turbidity Meter 4.5.2 Chemical Examination of Water (tests for pH, suspended, dissolved and total solids) 1. Test for pH
The hydrogen-ion concentration or pH value of water is a measure of degree of acidity or alkalinity of water. For water at 21C, (H ) x (OH ) = 10
+ -14
Water becomes acidic when concentration of H ions is increased and alkaline when concentration of H ions is decreased. ( ) For pure water, pH = 7. For water with maximum acidity, pH value is zero, while for water with maximum alkalinity, pH value is 14. For potable waters, the pH value should between 6 and 9, and preferable between 7 and 8.5. 2. Tests for Solids in Water Total Solids - all solids in water. Total solids are measured by evaporating all of the water out of a sample and weighing the solids which remain. Dissolved Solids - solids which are dissolved in the water and would pass through a filter. Dissolved solids are measured by passing the sample though a filter, they drying the water which passes through. The solids remaining after the filtered water is dried are the dissolved solids. Suspended Solids - solids which are suspended in the water and would be caught by a filter. Suspended solids are measured by passing sample water through a filter. The solids caught by the filter, once dried, are the suspended solids. Settleable solids - suspended solids which would settle out of the water if given enough time. Settleable solids are measured by allowing the sample water to settle for fifteen minutes, then by recording the volume of solids which have settled to the bottom of the sample. Nonsettleable solids - suspended solids which are too small and light to settle out of the water, also known as colloidal solids. Nonsettleable solids are measured by subtracting the amount of settleable solids from the amount of suspended solids. Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 30 ( )
This test is based on the ability of coliform group (E-coli) to ferment the lactose broth and producing gas. Procedure: i. Definite amount of diluted samples of water are taken in multiples of ten, such as 0.1 ml, 1.0 ml, 10 ml etc. Then, the samples are placed in standard fermentation tubes containing lactose broth and then kept in the incubator at a temperature of 37C for a period of 48 hours. If gas formed is seen in the tubes, it is the indication of presence of E. coli group and result is +ve. If no gas is formed, the result is _ve. ve result in presumptive test indicates the water is fit for drinking.
ii. iii.
2. Confirmed Phase The other bacteria than E. coli present also may ferment in presumptive test so the confirmed test to indicate E. coli is necessary. This test consists of growing cultures of coliforms on media which suppress the growth of other organisms. Procedure: i. Small amount of incubated sample showing gas in presumptive test is carefully transferred to another fermentation medium containing brilliant green lactose bile broth and placed in the incubator at 37C for a period of 48 hours. If the gas is formed, there is presence of E. coli and then step 2 is followed. Again the small portion of incubated material showing gas in presumptive test is marked as streaks on the plates containing Endo or Eosin-methylene blue agar and the plates are kept in the incubator at 37C for a period of 24 hours. If colonies of bacteria are seen after this period, it indicates the presence of E. coli and completed test is necessary.
ii.
3. Completed Phase This test is based on the ability of the culture grown in the confirmed test to again ferment the lactose broth. Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 31
iii.
Example: If we take 10 test tubes out of which 3 test tubes are positive after third test and in each test tube, 1 ml of sample is kept, No. of positive tubes = 3 ml of sample in negative tubes = 7 ml of sample in all tubes = 10
where, x = sample
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4.6 Water Quality Standard for Drinking Purpose (refer from any book)
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CHAPTER - V INTAKES
5.1 Definition Intakes are the structures used for safely withdrawing water from the source over predetermined pool levels and then to discharge this water into the withdrawal conduit, through which it flows up to water treatment plant. 5.2 Site selection of an intake Factors governing location of intake: 1. As far as possible, the site should be near the treatment plant so that the cost of conveying water to the city is less. 2. The intake must be located in the purer zone of the source to draw best quality water from the source, thereby reducing load on the treatment plant. 3. The intake must never be located at the downstream or in the vicinity of the point of disposal of wastewater. 4. The site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if required at a future date. 5. The intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water even during the driest period of the year. 6. The intake site should remain easily accessible during floods and should not get flooded. Moreover, the flood water should not be concentrated in the vicinity of the intake. 5.3 Classification of Intake 1. According to source types 2. According to its position 3. According to water available in the chamber 1. a. River Intake An intake tower constructed at the bank or inside of the river to withdraw water is called river intake. These intakes consist of circular or rectangular, masonry or RCC intake tower from where water can be withdrawn even in the dry period. Several inlets called penstocks for drawing water are provided at the different levels to permit the withdrawal of water when the water level drops. All inlet ends are provided with a screen (to prevent the entry of floating matters) with valves to control the flow of water operation from the control room. The penstock discharges the water into the intake tower (intake well) from where it is pumped or flow under gravity. In dry river intake, there will be no water inside if the tower inlet valves are closed. Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 35
In wet river intake, there is water inside the tower even if the inlet valves of the tower are closed. Since, these types of intakes remain wet, inspection cannot be done easily.
b. Reservoir Intake There is a large variation in the discharge of river during monsoon and summer. When there is no sufficient water in the dry period, the water in monsoon is collected in impounded reservoir by constructing weirs or dams across the river. The intake tower used in such cases is called reservoir intakes. Two types of reservoir intakes are commonly used to suit the type of
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In case of RCC masonry dams, dry intake is constructed inside the dam itself and only porters or intake pipes are provided at various levels with control valves. c. Lake Intake
It is a submersible intake normally constructed at the central portion of the bed of lake for withdrawal of water because maximum depth of water is available at the central portion of natural lake. It consists of an intake conduit laid on the bed of lake with its inlet end placed in the middle of the lake projecting above the bed. The inlet end is then covered by protective Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 37
When intake is constructed on canal for water supply purpose, the intake is called canal intake. It consists of simple structure constructed on the bank and not necessary to provide porters at various levels because water level in the canal remains more or less constant. It consists of a pipe placed in a brick masonry or RCC chamber constructed partly in the canal bank. On one side of the chamber, an opening is provided with coarse screen to enter water. A bell-mouth with hemispherical fine screen in the inlet end of the inlet pipe inside is provided and the outlet pipe is brought through the canal bank and taken to the treatment plant. One sluice valve operated by a wheel from the top of masonry chamber is provided to control flow in the inlet pipe. e. Spring Intake An intake constructed at the spring source to withdraw water is called spring intake. It is generally constructed in small rural water supply scheme in Nepal. Spring intake should be impervious and provided around the source to prevent the source contamination and physical damage by runoff water. Simply one or more springs can be joined for greater discharge and all sources should be protected from animals, exposure, runoff and bathing etc. Protection work is done by fencing, digging catch drain, bioengineering works, etc.
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6.1 Objectives of Water Treatment a. b. c. d. e. f. To remove the colour, odour (taste causing substances) To remove the turbidity present in water To remove pathogenic organisms To remove hardness To make water potable To prevent the spread of diseases
6.2 Treatment Processes and Impurity Removal 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. SCREENING: Bulky and floating suspended matters are removed by the process of screening. PLAIN SEDIMENTATION: Heavy and coarse suspended matters are removed by the process of plain sedimentation. SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION: This process helps to remove fine suspended and colloidal matters. FILTRATION: It is the most important stage in the purification process of water. It removes very fine suspended impurities and micro-organisms. DISINFECTION: It is carried out to eliminate or reduce pathogenic micro-organisms that have remained after the process of filtration. SOFTENING: Removes hardness of water. AERATION: Aeration removes odour and tastes due to volatile gases like hydrogen sulphide and due to algae and related organisms. Aeration also oxidize iron and manganese, increases dissolved oxygen content in water, removes CO2 and reduces corrosion and removes methane and other flammable gases. Removal of Fe and Mn. Removal of other harmful constituents.
8. 9.
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COARSE SCREENS:
Coarse screens are called racks, are usually bar screens, composed of vertical or inclined bars spaced at equal intervals across a channel through which water flows. Bar screens with relatively large openings of 75 to 150 mm are provided ahead of pumps, while those ahead of sedimentation tanks have smaller opening of 50 mm. Bar screens are usually hand cleaned and sometimes provided with mechanical devices. These cleaning devices are rakes which periodically sweep the entire screen removing the solids for further processing or disposal. Hand cleaned racks are set usually at an angle of 45 to the horizontal to increase the effective cleaning surface and also facilitate the raking operations. Mechanically cleaned racks are generally erected almost vertically.
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FINE SCREENS:
Fine screens are mechanically cleaned devices using perforated plates, woven wire cloth or very closely spaced bars with clear openings of less than 20 mm. They are used to remove smaller suspended impurities at the surface or ground water intakes, sometimes alone or sometimes following a bar screen. In case of surface intakes, fine screens are usually arranged with rotary drum perforated with holes and are called rotary drum strainer. Micro strainer also can be used for this purpose where some device is set up to clean continuously so that fine screens do not get clogged up. Fine screens normally get clogged and are to be cleaned frequently. So they are avoided nowadays for surface intakes and fine particles are separated in sedimentation.
HEAD LOSS:
The head loss created by a clean screen may be calculated by considering the flow and the effective areas of screen openings, the latter being the sum of the vertical projections of the openings. The head loss through clean flat bar screens is calculated from the following formula:
h = 0.0729 (V2 - v2) where, h = head loss in m V = velocity through the screen in m/s v = velocity before the screen in m/s
Another formula often used to determine the head loss through a bar rack is Kirschmer's equation:
Types of Settling Type I: Discrete Particle Settling: Particles settle individually without interaction with neighbouring particles. Type II: Flocculent Particles: Flocculation causes the particles to increase in mass and settle at a faster rate. Type III: Hindered or Zone Settling: The mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with individual particles remaining in fixed positions with respect to each other. Type IV: Compression: The concentration of particles is so high that sedimentation can only occur through compaction of the structure. 6.4.2.1 Derivation of Stokes Law In Discrete Particle Settling, particles settle individually without interaction with neighbouring particles. Size, shape and specific gravity of the particles do not change with time. Settling velocity remains constant. If a particle is suspended in water, it initially has two forces acting upon it.
If the density of the particle differs from that of the water, a net force is exerted and the particles are accelerated in the direction of the force: ( This net force becomes the driving force. Once the motion has been initiated, a third force is created due to viscous friction. This force, called the drag force, is quantified by: )
Because the drag force acts in the opposite direction to the driving force and increases as the square of the velocity, acceleration occurs at a decreasing rate until a steady state velocity is reached at a point where the drag force equals the driving force:
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Thus, ( )
( Also, we have,
( ) Hence, ( )
The above equation is called Hazens Equation and applicable for particles having diameter greater than 0.1 and less than 1 mm and Reynolds Number Re greater than 1 and less than 1000. The nature of settling is neither laminar nor turbulent and so the settling is called transition settling. Expressions for CD change with characteristics of different flow regimes. ( )
( )
( Temperature T (C) -kinematic viscosity (mm2/s or centistokes) 0 1.792 5 1.519 10 1.308 15 1.141 20 25 1.007 0.897
) 30 0.804
Hazen further indicated that for particles having diameter d 0.1 mm and Reynolds number Re 1, Stokes Law is applicable. Mathematically, Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 45
Now,
Putting Thus,
, we get,
Since kinematic viscosity of water depends on temperature; the settlement process also depends on temperature. Alternatively, if temperature T is introduced in place of in above formula, it can be expressed as: ( )
These equations are valid for d 0.1 mm and Re 1. In this range, settling of particles is laminar and so it is termed as laminar settling of particles. If the nature of settling of particles is turbulent (i.e. 1000 < Re 10000) and d > 1 mm, the value of CD = 0.4. Then, Hazens equation becomes: ( ) ( )
Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously. The intermittent tanks also called quiescent type tanks are those which store water for a certain period and keep it in complete rest. In a continuous flow type tank, the flow velocity is only reduced and the water is not brought to complete rest as is done in an intermittent type. Page 46
In practice, settling occurs in flowing water. An ideal horizontal flow settling tank has the following characteristics: At the inlet, the suspension has a uniform composition over the cross-section of the tank. The horizontal velocity vo is the same in all parts of the tank. A particle that reaches the bottom is definitively removed from the process. 6.4.4 Types of Sedimentation Tank Sedimentation tanks are generally made of RCC and may be rectangular or circular in shape. According to the method of function or operation, they are classified into: i. ii. Quiescent or fill and draw type Continuous flow type
Quiescent or Fill and Draw Type This tank is normally rectangular in plan. The water is first filled and then allowed for some retention period of 30 to 60 hours (normally 24 hours) for sedimentation of particles. The clear water is drawn from outlet and the tank is then emptied and cleaning of sediments is done. After cleaning, again the filling and emptying process is similarly repeated. These tanks need more detention period, more labour and supervision. More than one tank is required and head loss is high; hence, these tanks are not used nowadays. Continuous Flow Type Raw water is admitted continuously through inlet and allowed to flow slowly in the tank for continuous settlement, cleaning and clear water continuously flows out through outlet. These tanks work under the principle that by reducing the velocity of flow of water, large amounts of particles present in water can be made to settle down. The velocity of flow of water in these tanks is reduced by providing sufficient length of travel for water in the tank. Further, the velocity of flow of water in these tanks is so adjusted that the time taken by particles of water to move from inlet to outlet is slightly more than that required for settling of suspended particles in water. Continuous flow type sedimentation tanks may be rectangular, circular or square in shape. a. Horizontal Flow Type b. Vertical Flow Type
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A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into four different functional zones: Inlet Zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly distributed over the cross section such that the flow through settling zone follows horizontal path. Settling Zone: Settling occurs under quiescent conditions. Outlet Zone: Clarified effluent is collected and discharged through outlet weir. Sludge Zone: For collection of sludge below settling zone. Inlet and Outlet Arrangements Inlet Devices: Inlets shall be designed to distribute the water equally and at uniform velocities. A baffle should be constructed across the basin close to the inlet and should project several feet below the water surface to dissipate inlet velocities and provide uniform flow. Outlet Devices: Outlet weirs or submerged orifices shall be designed to maintain velocities suitable for settling in the basin and to minimize short-circuiting. Weirs shall be adjustable, and at least equivalent in length to the perimeter of the tank. However, peripheral weirs are not acceptable as they tend to cause excessive short-circuiting.
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Circular Basins Circular settling basins have the same functional zones as the long rectangular basin, but the flow regime is different. When the flow enters at the centre and is baffled to flow radially towards the perimeter, the horizontal velocity of the water is continuously decreasing as the distance from the centre increases. Thus, the particle path in a circular basin is a parabola as opposed to the straight line path in the long rectangular tank. Sludge removal mechanisms in circular tanks are simpler and require less maintenance.
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These tanks may be square or circular in shape at the top and have hopper bottom. So it is also called hopper bottom tank. The flow of water in this tank is vertical. Water enters into the tank through centrally placed pipe and by the action of deflector box, it travels vertically downwards. The sludge is collected at the bottom and removed from the sludge pipe with pump. The clear water flows out through a circumferential weir discharging into the draw off channel. 6.4.5 Design of Sedimentation Tank Design of sedimentation tank needs the following: a. Inlet Zone with appropriate Inlet Structure: Suitable inlet structure should be designed. It is kept at the halfway between the surface and the floor of the tank and
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b. c.
d. e.
f.
Settling Operations Particles falling through the settling basin have two components of velocity: 1. 2.
( )
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Thus, the depth of the basin is not a factor in determining the size of particles that can be removed completely in the settling zone. The determining factor is the quantity Q/As, which has the units of velocity and is referred to as the overflow rate (SOR Surface Overflow Rate or Surface Loading Rate) qo. This overflow rate is the design factor for settling basins and corresponds to the terminal settling velocity of the particle that is 100% removed. As = effective surface area of tank Removal Efficiency of Sedimentation Tank Let, is the settling velocity of smaller particles less than SOR (i.e. ( )) and if out of xo particles, x particles settle down and are removed, the ratio of removal of these particles (x/xo) is called removal efficiency of sedimentation tank for discrete particles of same size and is given by,
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4. 5. 6.
6.5 Sedimentation with Coagulation/Clarification General Properties of Colloids 1. Colloidal particles are so small that their surface area in relation to mass is very large. 2. Electrical Properties: All colloidal particles are electrically charged. If electrodes from a D.C. source are placed in a colloidal dispersion, the particles migrate towards the pole of opposite charge. 3. Colloidal particles are in constant motion because of bombardment by molecules of dispersion medium. This motion is called Brownian motion (named after Robert Brown who first noticed it). 4. Tyndall Effect: The Tyndall effect, also known as Tyndall scattering, is light scattering by particles in a colloid or particles in a fine suspension. 5. Adsorption: Colloids have high surface area and hence have a lot of active surface for adsorption to occur. The stability of colloids is mainly due to preferential adsorption of ions. There are two types of colloids: i. ii. 6.5.1 Purpose Colloidal particles are difficult to separate from water because they do not settle by gravity and are so small that they pass through the pores of filtration media. To be removed, the individual colloids must aggregate and grow in size. Lyophobic Colloids: that is solvent hating. Lyophilic Colloids: that is solvent loving.
The settling down and removal of such fine suspended particles and colloidal matters can be achieved by chemically assisted sedimentation called sedimentation with coagulation or clarification. The chemicals added are called coagulants; the formed insoluble gelatinous precipitate is called floc; the process of adding coagulants to raw water and mixing it thoroughly is known as coagulation and the process of formation of floc is called flocculation. If the content of suspended solids in raw water is greater than 50 mg/l, the sedimentation with coagulation is used to effect more complete removal of the suspended matters. Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 54
The dose of coagulants depends upon turbidity, colour, pH, temperature and the time of the settlement. 1. Aluminium Sulphates or Alum [Al2(SO4)3.18H2O] It is the commonly used coagulant for coagulation in water in which alum is added and for alum water shall contain some alkalinity. If bicarbonate alkalinity is present in water, the floc formed is given by: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
If raw water contains little or no alkalinity, then either lime (hydrated lime) or soda ash is added for alkalinity. Then, ( ( ) ) ( ) ( ( ) ( ) )
) (
Amount of alum required depends upon turbidity and colour of raw water. Usual dose is 5 mg/l for relatively clear water to 30 mg/l for highly turbid water. Average dose for normal water is 14 mg/l but amount to be added is determined by jar test. Advantages: i. ii. iii. iv. It forms excellent floc which is better than that formed by any other coagulant. The floc formed is stable and not broken easily. It is relatively cheap and removes colour, odour and taste. It doesnt require skilled supervision and produces clear and crystal free water.
Disadvantages: i. ii. iii. It requires alkalinity ranging pH from 6.5 to 8.5 in water for effective use. The product calcium sulphate may cause permanent hardness and carbon dioxide may cause corrosion. Difficult to dewater the heavy sludge formed because it is not suitable for filling in the low levels.
2. Iron Salts The various iron salts used as coagulants are ferrous sulphates, ferric sulphates and ferric chloride. Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 55
It is also known as copperas and used as coagulant in conjunction with lime. When ferrous sulphates is added first (with bicarbonate alkalinity) ( ( When lime is added first ( ) ( ) ) ( ) ) ( ( ) )
In above equation, Fe(OH)2 is unstable and absorbs dissolved oxygen and forms the stable floc. ( ) ( ) ( )
The effective range of pH value for coagulation with ferrous sulphates and lime is 8.5 and above. 2. Ferric Sulphates [Fe2(SO4)3] It is also used as a coagulant in conjunction with lime and the reaction is: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
The effective range of pH for coagulation with ferric sulphates is 4 to 7. 3. Ferric Chloride [FeCl3] It is used as a coagulant in conjunction with lime or without lime. Reactions: When used without lime: ( When used with lime: ( ) ( ) )
The effective range of pH for coagulation with ferric chloride is 3.5 to 6.5. Advantages of Iron Salts: 1. Produces fast forming, denser, quick settling and less breakable floc than alum at low temperature. 2. Can be used in the wider range of pH and ferric chlorides and/or ferric sulphates may remove manganese at > 9 pH. 3. Ferric chloride is effective in removing H2S, taste and colour. Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 56
3. Chlorinated copperas [FeCl3.Fe2(SO4)3] The mixture of ferric chloride and ferric sulphate is called chlorinated copperas and prepared by adding 1 part chlorine to 7.8 part ferrous sulphate. [ ] [ ( ) ]
This chlorinated copperas when added to water forms a tough floc which is removed in sedimentation. The effective range of chlorinated copperas is from pH of 6 to 8. It is effective to remove colour but very corrosive and common in sewage treatment. 4. Sodium Aluminate [Na2Al2O4] It is sometimes used as coagulant. This chemical when dissolved and mixed with water reacts with salts of calcium and magnesium and forms the precipitate of calcium and magnesium aluminate. ( )
Similar chemical reactions take place in case of Mg salts. The effective range of pH for coagulation with sodium aluminate is 6 to 8.5. This removes temporary and permanent hardness but very costly and not used in public water supplies and used to treat boiler water. 6.5.3 Mixing Devices (Purpose and Types) Following operations are involved in sedimentation with coagulation: 1. 2. 3. 4. Feeding the coagulant Mixing of coagulant Flocculation Sedimentation
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4. Sedimentation (6.5.5 Clarifier) The water from the flocculator is taken to the sedimentation tank also called the sedimentation tank or clarifier. It consists of floc chamber and sedimentation tank. The detention period for floc chamber is about 15 to 40 minutes and that for sedimentation tank is about 3 to 4 hours. The surface overflow rate is from 20 to 40 meter cube/meter square/day. The depth of floc chamber is usually kept about half of the depth of the sedimentation tank. The cleaning of this tank is usually carried out at an interval of 3 to 6 months. 6.5.6 Jar Test The jar test is a common laboratory procedure used to determine the optimum operating conditions for water or wastewater treatment. This method allows adjustments in pH, variations in coagulant or polymer dose, alternating mixing speeds, or testing of different coagulant or polymer types, on a small scale in order to predict the functioning of a large scale treatment operation. Jar Testing Apparatus The jar testing apparatus consists of six paddles which stir the contents of six 1 litre containers. One container acts as a control while the operating conditions can be varied among the
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The jar test procedures involve the following steps: Fill the jar testing apparatus containers with sample water. One container will be used as a control while the other 5 containers can be adjusted depending on what conditions are being tested. For example, the pH of the jars can be adjusted or variations of coagulant dosages can be added to determine optimum operating conditions. Add the coagulant to each container and stir at approximately 100 rpm for 1 minute. The rapid mix stage helps to disperse the coagulant throughout each container. Turn off the mixers and allow the containers to settle for 30 to 45 minutes. Then measure the final turbidity in each container. Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 35 rpm and continue mixing for 15 to 20 minutes. This slower mixing speed helps promote floc formation by enhancing particle collisions which lead to larger flocs. Residual turbidity vs. coagulant dose is then plotted and optimal conditions are determined. The values that are obtained through the experiment are correlated and adjusted in order to account for the actual treatment system.
6.6 Filtration 6.6.1 Purpose The resultant water after sedimentation will not be pure and may contain some very fine suspended particles and bacteria in it. To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities still further, the water is filtered through the beds of fine granular materials such as sand, etc. The process of passing the water through the beds of such granular materials is known as filtration. The main purpose of filtration is to remove colour, odour, taste, bacteria and colloidal impurities.
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SSF consists of following: I. Enclosure Tank: It is open and water tight rectangular tank made of masonry or concrete. The depth is 2.5 to 3.5 m, surface area is 10 to 20 m2 or more (depends upon filtration rate), filtration rate is 100 to 200 lph/m2. The floor is provided at cross slope of 1 in 100 to 1 in 200 towards central drain. Filter Media: Consists of 90 to 110 cm thick sand layer with effective size (D10) of sand 0.25 to 0.35 mm (0.3 mm is common) and coefficient of uniformity (C u) of 3-5. Finer the sand better will be the removal of turbidity and bacterial removal efficiency but lowers the filtration rate. The sand should not contain >2% of Ca and Mg. Base Material: The sand layer is supported on base material of 30 to 75 cm thick gravel bed. The gravel beds are provided four layers of each about 15 cm thicknesses with size 3 to 6 mm, 6 to 20 mm, 20 to 40 mm and 40 to 65 mm from the top. Mid layers between top layer and bottom layer are called intermediate layers. Under Drainage System: It consists of central main drain and lateral drains 2 to 3 m apart and starts from 50 to 80 cm distance of walls of tank. Lateral drain consists of earthenware or perforated pipes laid with open joint or patented drain in slope. Appurtenances: For efficient working, vertical air pipes, depth controlling device, head loss measuring device, rate maintaining devices etc. are installed.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
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RSFs are the most commonly used gravity filters in large water supply system. They consist of larger sand grains supported by gravel and capture particles throughout the bed. They are cleaned by backwashing water through the bed to lift out the particles. RSF consists of following: I. Enclosure Tank: It is open and water tight rectangular tank made of masonry or concrete. The depth is 2.5 to 3.5 m, surface area is 10 to 50 m2, and filtration rate is 3000 to 6000 lph/m2. Various number of filter units in series may be provided. Minimum
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II.
III.
IV.
V.
For a filter to operate efficiently, it must be cleaned before the next filter run. If the water applied to a filter is of very good quality, the filter runs can be very long. Some filters can operate longer than one week before needing to be backwashed. However, this is not recommended as long filter runs can cause the filter media to pack down so that it is difficult to expand the bed during the backwash. Treated water from storage is used for the backwash cycle. This treated water is generally taken from elevated storage tanks or pumped in from the clear well. The filter backwash rate has to be great enough to expand and agitate the filter media and suspend the floc in the water for removal. However, if the filter backwash rate is too high, media will be washed from the filter into the troughs and out of the filter.
The head loss is so high that the filter no longer produces water at the desired rate; and/or Floc starts to break through the filter and the turbidity in the filter effluent increases; and/or A filter run reaches a given hour of operation.
When the filter is newly commissioned, the loss of head of water percolating through the filter is generally very small. However, the loss of head goes on increasing as more and more impurities get trapped into it. A stage is finally reached when the frictional resistance offered by the filter media exceeds the static head of water above the bed. Most of this resistance is offered by the
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The mud from the atmosphere usually accumulates on the sand surface to form a dense mat. During inadequate washing this mud may sink down into the sand bed and stick to the sand grains and other arrested impurities, thereby forming mud balls.
Cracking of Filters:
The fine sand contained in the top layers of the filter bed shrinks and causes the development of shrinkage cracks in the sand bed. With the use of filter, the loss of head and, therefore, pressure on the sand bed goes on increasing, which further goes on widening these cracks.
Breaking the top fine mud layer with rakes and washing off the particles. Washing the filter with a solution of caustic soda. Removing, cleaning and replacing the damaged filter sand.
Base material: In SSF it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and 30 to 75 cm in depth while in RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm in size and its depth is slightly more, i.e. about 60 to 90 cm. Filter sand: In SSF the effective size ranges between 0.2 to 0.4 mm and uniformity coefficient between 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0. In RSF the effective size ranges between 0.35 to 0.55 and uniformity coefficient between 1.2 to 1.8. Rate of filtration: In SSF it is small, such as 100 to 200 L/h/sq.m. of filter area while in RSF it is large, such as 3000 to 6000 L/h/sq.m. of filter area. Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in demand whereas RSF are quite flexible for meeting reasonable variations in demand. Post treatment required: Almost pure water is obtained from SSF. However, water may be disinfected slightly to make it completely safe. Disinfection is a must after RSF. Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing of the top 1.5 to 3 cm thick layer is done to clean SSF. To clean RSF, sand is agitated and backwashed with or without compressed air. Loss of head: In case of SSF approx. 10 cm is the initial loss, and 0.8 to 1.2 m is the final limit when cleaning is required. For RSF 0.3 m is the initial loss, and 2.5 to 3.5 m is the final limit when cleaning is required.
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(Consult any standard textbook for details.) 6.7 Disinfection 6.7.1 Purpose The filtered water may normally contain some harmful disease producing bacteria in it. These bacteria must be killed in order to make the water safe for drinking. The process of killing the pathogenic bacteria using chemicals called disinfectants is known as disinfection. Disinfection Kinetics: When a single unit of microorganisms is exposed to a single unit of disinfectant, the reduction in microorganisms follows a first order reaction.
This equation is known as Chicks Law. N = number of microorganisms (No is initial number) K = disinfection constant T = contact time
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2.
3.
4.
5. 6. 7.
8. 9.
6.7.3 Chlorination Chlorine is added to the water supply in two ways. It is most often added as a gas, Cl 2 (g). However, it also can be added as a salt, such as sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) or bleach. Chlorine gas dissolves in water following Henrys Law.
( ) ( )
Once dissolved, the following reaction occurs forming hypochlorous acid (HOCl):
( )
Hypochlorous acid is a weak acid that dissociates to form hypochlorite ion (OCl-).
All forms of chlorine are measured as mg/L of Cl2 (MW = 2 x 35.45 = 70.9 g/mol).
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Breakpoint Reaction: When excess free chlorine is added beyond the 1:1 initial molar ratio, monochloramine is removed as follows:
( )
The formation of chloramines and the breakpoint reaction create a unique relationship between chlorine dose and the amount and form of chlorine as illustrated below:
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OCl-:
NH2Cl:
The amount of free chlorine consumed in such oxidation is called chlorine demand of water. Chlorine Demand = Total amount of chlorine added Amount of residual chlorine required after a specified contact period
Chlorine Dose
The quantity of chlorine required to be added to water to leave 0.2 mg/l or ppm of freely available residual chlorine after 10 minutes of contact period is called optimum dose of chlorine. This is generally of about 1 ppm. 6.7.4 Types of Chlorine a. Bleaching Powder Bleaching powder of calcium hypochlorite Ca (OCl2) is a chlorinated lime and when mixed with water it dissociates and reacts with hydrogen ions in water.
This process of chlorination is called hypochloration. Bleaching powder contains 30 35 % of available chlorine and it is unstable and goes on losing when exposed to atmosphere. So it requires careful storing. Dose: For normal water, 0.5 to 2.5 kg/million litres of water. It is not adopted for large public water supply but can be used in small colonies and swimming pools. Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 71
( ( ( ) )
The compounds are quite stable in water and remains in water as residual for a sufficient time so are more effective than chlorine alone. The reaction is slow hence water treated can only be supplied to consumer after 20 minutes to 1 hour of application. It does not cause bad taste and odour when left at residual but is weaker disinfectant than free chlorine disinfectant. c. Chlorine Gas or Liquid Gas or Free Chlorine Chlorine gas is fed directly to the point of application to the water supply in a pressure of 7 kg/cm2 or first dissolved in small flow of water than free chlorine disinfectant. Application of gas chlorine is less expensive but less satisfactory because of poor diffusion of chlorine and at lower temperature crystalline hydrates of Cl are formed and possibility of choking of pipes. Undissolved Cl may corrode pipes and valves. Hence it is not generally used. Chlorine gas or liquid chlorine dissolved in small quantities of water is normally used. d. Chlorine-dioxide In this method, chlorine dioxide gas if produced by passing chlorine gas through sodium chloride solution. The Cl is unstable and reacts as follows:
ClO2 has oxidizing capacity of 2.5 times than that of chlorine and most effective for removal of taste and odour. 6.7.5 Forms of Chlorination A. Plain Chlorination: Application of chlorine to plain or raw water is called plain chlorination. Dose of plain chlorination is 0.5 to 1 ppm. B. Pre Chlorination: Application of chlorine to water before the treatment is called prechlorination. Especially, we use before filtration. Dose adjusted for residual chlorine is 0.1 to 0.5 ppm. Advantages of pre-chlorination are as follows: i. ii. iii. iv. Reduces the quantity of coagulants required. Reduces the bacterial load in the filters. Helps in maintaining and running filters longer. Controls the algae and planktons in the filter. Page 72
F. Super Chlorination: Application of chlorine beyond the breakpoint chlorination is called super chlorination. Generally 2 to 3 ppm beyond the breakpoint is applied for super chlorination. Super chlorination is done during epidemics in a certain locality due to water borne diseases. G. De-chlorination: The process of removing excessive chlorine from water before distribution to the consumers to avoid chlorine taste is known as de-chlorination. It is done either by aeration or adding sodium thiosulphate, sodium metabisulphate, sodium sulphite, sodium bisulphate, ammonia and sulphur dioxide. 6.7.6 Factors affecting efficiency of Chlorination The killing efficiency of bacteria due to chlorination is called bacterial efficiency of chlorine, which depends upon the following factors: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Turbidity: If turbidity is present in water, bacterial efficiency is decreased. Hence, for effective chlorination, water should be turbidity free. Presence of metallic compound: More chlorine is utilized to oxidize metallic ions; therefore, bacterial efficiency is decreased. Ammonia compound: Efficiency is decreased due to formation of combined available chlorine but it lasts for longer time. pH value of water: If pH is high in water, efficiency is low because HOCl is formed at pH of 5 to 7. Temperature: If temperature decreases, amount of free available chlorine is decreased so the efficiency of chlorine is decreased. Time of contact: For effective chlorination, time of contact should be at least 30 minutes. Type, condition and concentration of micro-organism: For bacteria, efficiency is high for viruses, more concentration is required and efficiency is low. Efficiency becomes low if the favourable condition for bacteria is available and concentration of bacteria is high.
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6.8.3 Removal of Permanent Hardness 6.8.3.1 Lime Soda Method In this process, lime and sodium carbonate is added to water either separately or together and allow them for 30 60 minutes for reaction. It removes permanent as well as temporary hardness. ( ( ( ) ) ( ( ( ( ) ) ) ( ( ) ) ) )
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( ) are insoluble and removed by sedimentation. Other products are soluble and and do not impart hardness. This process is economical but a large quantity of sludge is formed and requires skilled supervisor. 6.8.3.2 Zeolite Method It is also called Base Exchange or Ion Exchange process. It also removes temporary hardness and is a commonly used process. Zeolite is a natural or artificial granular substance. Natural zeolite is green in colour and artificial is white and commonly used is also called Permutit. The commonly used Permutit is sodium aluminium silicate ( ) and Permutit is manufactured from feldspar, kaolin and soda.
If we denote Permutit as
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It can be written as: ( Advantages: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. No sludge is formed. Compact and small space is required. Because of simplicity in operation, no skilled persons are required. Hardness may reduce to zero. No other chemicals are required. ) ( )
Disadvantages: 1. Not suitable for turbid water and water containing Fe and Mn. 2. Growth of bacteria occurs in zeolite if water contains organic matter. 6.8.3.3 Ionization Process/Demineralization Process It is a costlier process and used in industries. It is very similar to zeolite process but metallic ions are exchanged for hydrogen ions and substances like zeolite is used. The substances may be: 1. Acidic Resin (removes alkali substances) e.g. zero karb, organolite, catex etc. 2. Base Resin (removes acidic substances) If we denote these resins as H2R (H means hydrogen and R means organic part of the substance), then, ( )
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6.9.1.2 Types of Aeration I. II. III. IV. Free Fall or Gravity Aerators Spray Aerators Diffused Aerators Mechanical Aerators
Gravity Aerators
In gravity aerators, water is allowed to fall by gravity such that a large area of water is exposed to atmosphere, sometimes aided by turbulence.
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Mechanical Aerators
Mixing paddles as in flocculation are used. Paddles may be either submerged or at the surface. 6.9.2 Removal of Iron and Manganese Iron and manganese mix into water through soils either in suspension, hydrated oxides, soluble or insoluble form. Ferric hydroxide is insoluble and ferrous bicarbonate is soluble in water. When iron and manganese > 0.3 ppm, they become objectionable. Insoluble ferric hydroxide is removed in sedimentation. Effects: i. ii. Produces taste, odour and brown red colour. Stains on clothes, corrosion and clogging of pipes by accumulation of precipitates. Page 78
Methods: (a) By aeration: In this case, aeration is done before sedimentation. Fe: ( Fe (HCO3)2: ( ) )
( Mn:
(b) By adding lime (c) Passing over manganese zeolite 6.9.3 Removal of Colour, Odour and Taste Colour, odour and taste are due to organic and vegetable matters, industrial waste, domestic sewage, dissolved gases and minerals, microorganisms, etc. Methods: The colour, odour and taste are removed to some extent in sedimentation with coagulation followed by filtration, pre chlorination, etc. For effective removal of these, following methods are used: a. Aeration b. Activated carbon treatment: It is the commonly used process for removal of colour, odour and taste. Activated carbon is manufactured by heating saw dust, paper mill waste etc. at 500C in a closed vessel in controlled condition of burning at 800C. It is readily available in market in powder or granular form. The powder is mixed with water before filtration and granular is used as filter materials. It absorbs organic matters and removes colour, odour and taste. c. Using Copper Sulphate: It is available in powder or crystal form and easily soluble in water. It is applied in the distribution system or reservoirs to 0.3 to 0.65 ppm. Is application is common in swimming pools.
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7.1.1 Continuous System If water is supplied to the consumers for all 24 hours a day from a system of supply, it is called the continuous system. It is the best system and has following advantages and disadvantages: Advantages: 1. Water is available whenever needed; hence, there is no need of private storage tank. 2. No stagnant in the pipe at any instant; hence, fresh water is always available. 3. Adequate quantity of water is available at any time for fire fighting. Disadvantages: 1. More wastage of water if the people do not possess any civic sense and do not understand the importance of water. 2. If there is leakage in the system, large volume of water is wasted because of long duration of flow. 3. On repairing, supply may be interrupted during supply hours. 7.1.2 Intermittent System If water is supplied to the consumers only during fixed hours of a day from a system of supply, it is called the intermittent system. It is the most common system adopted in Nepal. The timings are fixed normally in the morning or evening. Timing may be changed to suit climatic and seasonal conditions. Advantages: 1. Useful when either sufficient pressure or quantity of water is not available at the source to meet the demand. 2. At various distribution zones of the city, water can be supplied by turn. 3. Repairing works can be done in non-supply hours. 4. Leakage in the system causes less wastage of water because of small durations of flow. Disadvantages: 1. Inconvenience to customers because they have to remain alert to collect the water during supply periods. Page 80
Location and Height of Distribution Reservoirs: Should be located as close as possible to the centre of demand. Water level in the reservoir must be at a sufficient elevation to permit gravity flow at an adequate pressure.
Types of Reservoirs: i. ii. iii. iv. Underground reservoirs Small ground level reservoirs Large ground level reservoirs Overhead tanks Page 81
Mass Curve Method: A mass diagram is the plot of accumulated inflow (i.e. supply) or outflow (i.e. demand) versus time. The mass curve of supply (i.e. supply line) is, therefore, first drawn and is superimposed by the demand curve. The procedure to construct such diagram is as follows: From the past records, determine the hourly demand for all 24 hours for typical days (maximum, average and minimum). Calculate and plot the cumulative demand against time, and thus plot the mass curve of demand. Read the storage required as the sum of the two maximum ordinates between demand and supply line as shown in fig. Repeat the procedure for all the typical days (maximum, average and minimum), and determine the maximum storage required for the worst day.
Analytical Method: Calculate the cumulative hourly demand and cumulative hourly supply for 24 hours in tabular form. Find the hourly excess of demand (deficit), excess of supply (surplus), total demand (TD) and total supply (TS). Then note the maximum cumulative surplus (MCS) and maximum cumulative deficit (MCD). Then the capacity of balancing reservoir (CBR) is given by: If TS > TD, CBR = MCS + MCD TS + TD and If TS TD, CBR = MCS + MCD ii. Breakdown Storage: The breakdown storage or often called emergency storage is the storage preserved in order to tide over the emergencies posed by the failure of pumps, electricity, or any other mechanism driving the pumps. A value of about 25% of the total storage capacity of reservoirs, or 1.5 to 2 times of the average hourly supply, may be considered as enough provision for accounting this storage. Fire Storage: The third component of the total reservoir storage is the fire storage. This provision takes care of the requirements of water for extinguishing fires. A provision of 1 to 4 per person per day is sufficient to meet the requirement.
iii.
The total reservoir storage can finally be worked out by adding all the three storages.
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Surface reservoirs are made mostly of masonry or concrete. Common practice is to line surface reservoirs with concrete, gunite, asphalt or asphaltic membrane to check leakage of water. Sometimes, these reservoirs may be built underground, especially when they are of large size, and a park may be constructed on its top. Surface reservoirs should be located at high points in the distribution system, so that gravity supply can be done directly. In some cases however, pumps are used to pump water, from the clear water storage surface reservoir to the elevated distribution reservoir. Elevated reservoirs are constructed at an elevation from the ground level and made of RCC or steel. These are also called overhead tanks and the shapes may be circular, rectangular, egg shaped, spherical, elliptical, etc. Any elevated reservoir consists of inlet, outlet, overflow for water; ladder for accessibility, manhole for inspection, ventilator for air circulation, a water level indicator and a lightening rod. Standpipe is also an elevated reservoir usually constructed of steel (sometimes RCC), circular in plan and up to 15 to 30 metres high. The main function of standpipe is to increase pressure in the distribution system by creating extra storage in the tank above the elevation required to give the necessary pressure for distribution. The diameter of these tanks varies from 10 to 15 m. The volume of water stored in the tank above the entrance of the outlet pipe can be used and hence it is the useful storage of standpipe. 7.5 Layout of Distribution System The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to consumer with appropriate quality, quantity and pressure. Distribution system is used to describe collectively the facilities used to supply water from its source to the point of usage. Requirements of Good Distribution System 1. Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes. 2. It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient pressure head. 3. It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during fire fighting. 4. The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during the repair of any section of the system. 5. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one metre away or above the sewer lines. 6. It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the minimum. Layouts of Distribution Network The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such their layouts generally follow the layouts of roads. There are, in general, four different types of pipe networks; any one of which either singly or in combinations, can be used for a particular place. Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 83
In this system, one main pipeline through the centre of the area to be served and from both sides of the main, the sub-mains takes off. The sub-mains are further divided into several branches from which service connections are given to the consumers. It is suitable for old towns and cities having no definite pattern of roads. Advantages: a. b. c. d. Relatively cheap. Determination of discharges and pressure easier due to less number of valves. Pipe lying is very simple. Pipes are designed only for population likely to be served by them.
Disadvantages: a. Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes. b. The water available for fire fighting is low because supply can neither be increased not be diverted. c. Many scour valves are required and less successful in maintaining satisfactory pressure in the far areas. 7.5.2 Grid Iron System One main pipeline through the centre of the are to be served and from both sides of the main, the sub-mains are take off in perpendicular direction; then, branch lines inter connect all submains so that water can be circulated through the entire distribution system. It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the water mains and branches are laid in rectangles.
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Advantages: a. Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of dead ends. b. In the cases of a breakdown in some section, water is available from some other direction. c. Fire fighting water can be made easily available by diverting water from the other sections to the affected area using valves. Disadvantages: a. Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to provision of valves on all branches. b. More number of cutoff valves and longer length of pipers are required. c. Overall cost is high. 7.5.3 Ring System
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Other advantages and disadvantages are as same as in grid iron system. 7.5.4 Radial System
In this system, the area is divided into different zones. The water is pumped into the distribution reservoir kept in the middle of each zone and the supply pipes are laid radially ending towards the periphery. Advantages: 1. It gives quick service. 2. Calculation of pipe sizes is easy. 3. High pressure of distribution. Disadvantage: The major disadvantage of this system is that it requires more reservoirs. All other advantages and disadvantages are same as in grid iron system.
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7.6.1 Pipe Hydraulics Hydraulic design of pipes is required to determine the size of the pipes between inlet and exit just to carry sufficient amount of water. For design of pipes, the following two basic equations of hydraulics are used: a. Continuity Equation b. Bernoullis Equation (Read descriptions on your own) HEAD LOSS IN PIPES: a. Major Loss Darcy Weisbach Formula, Mannings Formula, Hazen William Formula b. Minor Losses due to sudden enlargement, sudden contraction, at the entrance, at the exit, due to gradual enlargement or gradual contraction, at the bend, due to various pipe fittings (Read descriptions on your own) 7.6.2 Design Criteria 1. Discharge: Discharge should be sufficient to meet the future demand. Pipelines are designed for 2.5 to 3 times the average demand. Generally peak factor is taken as 3 to 4 in Nepal. 2. Pressure: Pipelines are designed for sufficient residual pressure so that it reaches to the desired height. The residual head for single storey is taken as 7 m, two storeys is 12 m and three storeys is 17 m and it shouldnt be greater than 22 m above the ground level. In rural areas of Nepal, the minimum available head should be 5 m above the public tap level. 3. Minimum size of pipes: The lower the diameter the head loss is greater. For population less than 20,000, minimum diameter of distribution pipe is 10 cm and for greater than 20,000, it is 15 cm. For dead end pipes, it is 10 cm, for distribution and service pipe 10 cm and 20 cm for house connections but for grid pipes and dead end pipes less than 10 cm may be used. 4. Velocity: If velocity is low, larger diameter pipes are required and problem of silting may occur. If velocity is high, cost becomes high in pumping and cost of pipes and fittings will increase to bear extra pressure. On the other hand, higher the velocity, smaller the diameter which leads to loss of energy. Hence, it shouldnt be too low and
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Or, d=-SK.Qax/ Sx.KQax-1 Since d is given the same sign (direction) in all pipes of the loop, the denominator of the above equation is taken as the absolute sum of the individual items in the summation. Hence, Or, d=-SK.Qax/ S l x.KQax-1 l Or, d=-SHL / x.S lHL/Qal Where HL is the head loss for assumed flow Qa. The numerator in the above equation is the algebraic sum of the head losses in the various pipes of the closed loop computed with assumed flow. Since the direction and magnitude of flow in these pipes is already assumed, their respective head losses with due regard to sign can be easily calculated after assuming their diameters. The absolute sum of respective KQax-1 or HL/Qa is then calculated. Finally the value of d is found out for each loop, and the assumed flows are corrected. Repeated adjustments are made until the desired accuracy is obtained. The value of x in Hardy- Cross method is assumed to be constant (i.e. 1.85 for Hazen-William's formula, and 2 for Darcy-Weisbach formula).
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1. CAST IRON PIPES These pipes were earlier cast vertically but this type has been largely superseded by spun iron pipes which are manufactured by spinning or centrifugal action and are now universally used. The spun iron C.I. pipes are comparatively lighter in weight, longer in length and have improved metal qualities. These pipes are generally upto 1000 mm diameter and 6 m long and are classified on the basis of thickness of the pipe barrel as class A and B, each differing from the other by 10 percent increase in thickness. These pipes can withstand hydraulic test Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 91
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This joint is commonly used in case of cast iron pipes. The spigot of one pipe is centred into the socket of the preceding pipe; tarred gasket or hemp yarn is then wrapped around the spigot, leaving unfilled the required depth of socket for lead. The gasket or hemp yarn is caulked tightly home with a yarning tool. A jointing ring or a kneaded-clay ring is then placed around the barrel and against the face of the socket. Molten pig lead is poured into the remainder of the socket. Lead is now solidly caulked with suitable caulking tools or hammers of 2 kg weight around the joint, to make up for the shrinkage of molten metal on cooling. B. FLANGED JOINT
A gasket of rubber, canvas or lead is introduced between the two flanges of Cast Iron (C.I.) pipes, which are then tightened with bolts and nuts. Flanged joints are strong and rigid and are easy to disjoint; as such used where the pipe joints have to be occasionally opened out for carrying out repair work, as in pumping chambers.
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Expansion joints allow the pipes to expand or contract freely under the changing temperature conditions. The space between the socket and spigot is filled with an elastic gasket. D. COLLAR JOINT
This is a simple type of joint used for jointing screwed wrought iron or galvanized iron pipes. The two ends of the pipes are threaded on the outside and on them a suitable jointing compound with a grummet of few strands of fine yarn are used before screwing a socket having corresponding threads from inside. 8.3 Laying of Pipes Shuvanjan Dahal (o68/BCE/147) Page 94
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