Press Freedom in the United States Benjamin Harris, one of the early figures who have influenced the

world of journalism, printed government information without a license. He believed that the public had the right to know what was going on but the Massachusetts government disagreed. They thought that Harriss work was dangerous, damaging, and criticized the government. They presented him with a restraining order. This was one of the earliest cases in a long chain of events that have impacted American journalism. John Peter Zenger published an article in the New York Weekly Journal that called William Crosby a tyrant and oppressor. In an effort to expose information to the citizens, Zenger was acquitted of seditious libel. Andrew Hamilton, Zengers lawyer, won the case. This demonstrated the idea that citizens have the right to know what the government and public officials are doing and also express their opinions on the matter. In 1798, the Sedition Act was introduced, which stated that it would fine and imprison anyone making false, scandalous, and malicious statements against the government, the president, or either house of Congress (Davidson and Winfield 22). This explored the rights that the public had to criticize officials. This helped shape the world of journalism because it gave journalists the right to report about controversial issues and people of importance. During the Civil War, people were punished for reporting or believing anything that threatened slavery. Elijah Lovejoy wrote editorials that included anti-Catholic ideas and opinions on local justices. St. Louis denied Lovejoy of free expression but he kept trying to print his views which happened to be unpopular at the time. Ida B. Wells continued to write about equal rights after the Civil War and founded an Anti-Lynching

Society. Both Lovejoys and Wellss journalism created change and showed people the importance of sharing valuable news. During the Industrial Revolution, investigative journalists began printing information on misconduct and corruption. Journalists exposed pressing issues such as the meat packing industry, child labor, abuse of workers, etc. The efforts of journalists helped establish the Pure Foods and Drug Act along with more productive child labor laws and increased antitrust legislation. Journalists exposed vital information that caused an impact in the well being of American citizens. Although freedoms of speech, press, and petition were implemented, journalists were restricted during World War I. Charles Schneck, the general secretary of the Socialist party, was convicted of conspiracy to obstruct military recruitment (Davidson and Winfield 25). This changed journalistic expression during wartime, allowing them to report unpopular expressions during wartime. During the Great Depression and Prohibition, Jay Near reported government officials affiliation with gangsters. Near also stated that the prosecuting attorney was not doing enough to help the situation. The Court ended up encouraging the press to be bold instead of apprehensive. This shaped American journalism because it dealt with the right to report serious issues and crimes regarding government officials. The civil rights movement in the 1960s caused the right of expression to be reevaluated. The New York Times printed a piece regarding the Montgomery, Alabama police treatment controversy, Dr. Martin Luther King, and college students. The article contained incorrect statements that the Montgomery police commissioner believed was personal criticism. The case was taken to the Supreme Court, which ruled that

emphasizing that the press could be wrong when criticizing public officials for official conduct and still receive First Amendment protection (Davidson and Winfield 28). This impacted journalism because it explained that reporters sometimes cant help publishing an error and cant be punished for printing a false statement if it was unintentional. The Pentagon Papers were a series of documents that displayed the history of the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. Daniel Ellsberg, a former Pentagon employee, had access to these papers and leaked them to the NYT. John Mitchell, U.S. attorney general, believed that the release of these papers would cause panic in the U.S. However, the governments argument was disregarded because they could not prove how the Pentagon Papers violated national security. This highlighted the importance that citizens need to know what is going on in their country. Edward R. Murrow, a pioneer broadcaster, took a huge risk during WWII and the Cold War by broadcasting programs that observed various war issues. He exposed Senator Joseph McCarthys accusations and tactics, using McCarthys own words. McCarthy lost credibility and the Senate later censored him (Davidson and Winfield 30). Murrows programs helped expose to the public McCarthys media manipulations and abusive power.