:

XuJ
uMH
WUIK
wMu
fK: UbB WdN WOUI V WKK

c
ba
ABCDEFG
9

ac
b

XuJ
uMH
WUIK
wMu
fK: UbB WdN WOUI V WKK

dL
1978

ABCDEFG

 

M
M
M
M

:


3

3
X
.
^
a

.
X 3 a 3
X -

-
a

.
3



.
3 ^ 3 3


5

. 3 {
3
0
.
3 3
X

3
{

.
^
3
3
X a
.

3
3 .X ^
3
3

.

{
.
{ .
3 ^ 3

6

3


3
^ 3
.

{

^ . 3
3
a^
.
3
3
3

^ .
3

.
3
3
^ 3

.{
:
: ^
X 3 3
7

. X 3
^ 3 .
: 3
3 3 3 3
^
.
.

.{

3
.
3
3 .

a

.
3

3 3 . 3

30

......

.
3
8

3 a .

3
30 3 { 0
30 3 .
3 a
0 X 0

3

)(
.
: 3
3 a .

.
X
{ ^
- - 3

{
3 ^ .

3 3 .
3
3 3 3
X a

(1) The Linguistic Reporter, vol. 19, No.6, March, 1977, p.4- 5. (Advance announcements).

3
^
3 .
.
3
3 3 3 3

3 3

X X
.
) (metalanguage
3
.

.


.



.
3
3 3

3
-a -
X
10

.
3 3
3
3
.
3
.



0
.
3


. 3

.




.

. 3


X

11

:

3 30 a
X .
a

?
^

3
.
3 3
3 a
3 3
.
3

-
-

-
.

12

1
-

3


3



X




.


X
- .

- 3

13

-

.

3
.
- -

.
.a


3 3
{ 3 3
.



.
.
3


a
.
? ? ? ?
? ?

14

? ?
?
? a
? a

?
? - {
? ? ?
? {
? a

?
{
3 ?
3 ?
{
?

.

.
X

{
a

.
a a

.
15

.

.
.


.

.

- :

{ .X

X
.a ^
.
3 3 3
3 3 .
.
^ .
.
3

3 a
X 3
3 3
3 {
3-X
16

3
.a
3 a )(Braille
3

.
3 3 ) (Morse Code
{

3 .

3 a 3
3 3
.
a 0


.
3 a
{ X-
-
3

.


3 3 {
.
.
17

.
3 .

X 3
3 .
-



.
3
.
3
3 a
a3 a {
.
3 { {
) (


) . 3
3 a
(.

. a
. 0
.
18

3 a-:
3 .
3 . 3
a 3
.
3
{ .
a 3
{ .
{
. ) (
) (mechanisms ) (
3 - -
a 3
. ) (Lenneberg
)(
3

:
.

3 3


.a



a X 3 3
19

.

a


. 3
3 .


3 {
- {
{ 3
.
3 {
3 3

3 3 3
.
3 a
3 a a:
- 3 3
) ()(Brocas Area 3


. 3 3 3
X
3 . 3
.
- 3 )Wernickes
20

()(Area .
3 3
3
.

3 ) (aphasia .
3 .
X a 3
3
. 3
.
a 3
) (corpus callosum) (
. a 3 a
3 .
a 3 3
3 -
- a {
.
3 3 .
a3 a
3 3
).(

a )(
)3 (.
0
^ { :
21

3 .
{ 3 .
{ ) (aphasia
.
3

).(
3 a

3 3
{
3 . a


.

. a
a
.
.
.
.
- -
.
3
.
22

.


.
3
.
) (Brendan Maher
) ( a a
a 3
3
3 0 .

3
)(.
a 3 a3
3 ) (Schizophrenia

3 ) (Information
. 3 ) (redundancy
.- 3
X 3
3
.
:
3
.
3 3
3 .
23

) (probability theory
.a
{
-
- .

3 . a

.
.
3X a
X X
.
X .X
3 .3
3


0 3 .
a
. a a
3 a.
3
3 3
. :


3
).(
24

3 a
3 3
3 . 3

.
{


.
3
3
3
.
3
{
.
3
:a

.

) (communications




.
3
.
25

- :

a
0 . { a
a
3
....
3 .

- -

a 3
a .


3 .


.
X

X .
3

.
a {
3
.
3
.
26

a .

a
.
a
.-

3 .
X 3 3
3 (Information theory) .
Language) (Functions .
-

.

) (

3 .

) (tele-printer
)(
a
.


.
)(
3 3
27

X .
{ 3 3
.
3 )Communication
(theory

^ 3
.
) (channels
) (capacity
3 ) .(code

.
) (code ) (channel
3
) (encoder
) .(decoder

3 a
3 .
3
) (signal .a 3
3
.
a :a .

. 3
{ . 3
.
28

3 ) (bit ){ (binit
3 aa
3 a
.
3 =
) ( = .
:
:
.

.
3
a :
. X
)
( . 3
3 .
3
{ - a
a 3 :
3 = 3 .
1
3 =
)(I = Log2 1/2

a a
3 a
.
/
/
3 . 3
29

. / = .
3
:
= (/) / .
3 :
= (/) .

/ 3 .
3

3 3
)( 3
3
3
3 .X

3 ) (contrasts

.

- ^
3.
3 3
.
) (redundancy
3

3 X

30

) .(q
) .(u
% 3
.
)(
3
3
. 3 :
.................

.... .
3 .
.

3 3
3
.
{
a :
) a(
3 3 .
3
. 3
)(
.


) .(functional load
.
a
31

) (p ) (b
pit/bit pack/back pad/bad :
3 ) (contrast
.
a )( )( 3

a
3 a) a( )(
3 a a
a 3.
.

3 a
3 .
. 3 3

3 .

3 3

) (persuasion
.
{
a

{ a3
.

) (mass media
32

.
3
a
3
3 .
X 3
3 3 3
X
. :a
.

{ .
3
a
.
3 ) (semantics
3
a {
{

.
a .


a 3 3
.


33

a
a .

.

. 3 3
a

3 3
3 3 3
{
X {
X .

3
{
.

3
3
3
3 3 .
a
{
.
. {



34

^ 3 a

. ^ 3 3
3 a 3

..

3
.

X.




.

.







.

X
35

.
- :

X
3 3


3 3
.

.
3 3 a a
?
X a3
3 3 .



3
.


. 3 a
.


/ 3
3
3 3 . a
36

{
{ .



.
3
a
3 0

. 0
X .
3
.

. 3


.


3 3
a
.
.

3
37

3
3
3
a

.
3 3 3
3 a
3 3 .

3
.X
3 3
. {
3 3
3 . a 3
a
3
.

3 .
3
. a

3
a 3
X
a

38

3:
He is older than I 3 :
He is older than me than a
He is older than I (am old). :
.
3



.

3

3 . 3
a 3
3
3
0
3 3
.

a3


3 ..
.
X

39

.


3
.
a a .

.


X .
a a
3 3 .
.

.
- :


3 3
.
3
3
3

3 .


)Grammar-
40

.(Translation Method :
3 )Direct
(Method

3
.




) (Michael West
) .(

.
3 3
.

3 3

3
:
3
.
3


a a3

3 3
41

.

3
a a a
a

a .




.
3
3 .
3 .

. :
: 3 3 3
.
: 3
) 3
(.
:
a
) 3 3 3
(.
:
.
:
42

.

:
3
.
3

3 a :a .
3 3
3
).(Audio-Lingual Approach
X 3
) (dialogue 3 3

a 3 .

{
3 ) (Stress and intonation
.


3 3
.
3
3 3

3 a3
43

. 3 X
.
3 3
3
{ 3

3

a

.

.

3 . .


3 3 ) (contrast
.
X
.X

3
3 .
3
3
. 3 a
44

-
3 .

X -

3
.

) (Language Laboratories


. 3
) (Teaching Machines 3

3 .
3

.
a 3
^

.
3


a

.
45

3
.
3




.
.



.
- -
) (accuracy

. 0
0 3

3:
3 .


3 . 3
.


) (communicative competence
) (linguistic competence
.
46

.
3 .3 3
3 3
3 a a .
3

3
3 X
.

3 .

.

- :

a 3
.
- :


3
3
3 3
3
^ 3 .

a
3 .

47

30 3 .




.

.
a
.
3 3

.
3 3

3

3 .
3
3 .
3 3
Esperanto
) (Dr. Lazarus Zamenhof 3
3


3 . 30
.

48

3 .
X

.

.
) (prefixes & suffixes
:

helps
helpas
Helpis
helped
Helpos
will help
Helpus
would help
X

.
3

3
3
3.
3



3
X
3 3 a .

49

.

3
3 30 33
3
.
3
3
3
3
.
3
3

3
.
- :

a 3
3
)machine
(translation .
3
3

a 3 3
50

.
3

a
3 .
3
3 3
.

3 a .
3
)(

a -
-
3
.
3
3 .


3 X

.
. 3 3
The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak 3
:


51

:
The vodka is good but the meat is poor
3 .a
?
^
.


3
3 ) ( .

. a
.
3

.
3 3 .
3 a a


.
3 3 3
a 3
3 3 3 .

3 a a a a X a a
a
{
.
52

3 3
3
( 3 .
:
3
:
=

) (


:
- .
-a : .
- : .

.
3 3 3

.

3 .
X a
. a
. a
3 a
3
53

a :
3
a 3) (
3 3
?

3


.
3 X a 3


.


. )
( 0 .

X
3

3 3

.
X
3
3 3 {
.. .
54

.

3
3 3
.
3
X

3 aa
.
3

3 X ()a
a3 {
.


.


3 X
X { X

a

.


55

3
3
3 .
3

.

3 .



. 3 a

3 {
. a
a ) (Eugene Nida
3 a
3
. a

3
3 a
3
3
().
.
3
.
3 a
56

3 ) (artificial speech a a
a 3 .

0
3 .
: ?

57

(1) Eric Lenneberg: Biological Aspects of Language, in, G. Miller (ed.): Psychology and
Communication . Voice of America (, 1974, pp66-55.
. ( )
. ( )
(4) Norman Geschwind, The Brain and Language, in G. Miller Op. cit. pp. 69 ff
(5) .63- 62. Lenneberg: op. cit. pp62-63.
(6) Brendan Maher: Language and Psychopathology, in G. Miller, op. cit. pp289-300.
B.Maher: Principles of Psychopathology,) McGraw-) ,:
Hill
.
. 3( )
:a a3( )
1- H.A.Gleason: An Introductionto descriptive Linguistics. Holt, Rinehart & Winson (1966, pp, 373390.
(2) J. Lyons: Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics)(C.U.P) 1968, pp84-98
(9) M.West: General Service List (Longmans, several Impressions)
. ( 3 ) :( )
.( )
(12) See: Eugene Nida: The Theory and Practic of Translation?.1974, (Leiden: Brill

58

2
- :

.

3
. 0
3



3 .

{ a
a a
a

.



59

) X ?(
3 X
.
a
X . .

.

. {



.

3

3


.
a


.



3

60

.


. 3

a 3
3
3.


3 .

.
.

3-
3 .
.
.

3 3
3
3



. a a
: .
61

3 3


3 3 .


.
.
3
3
3.

X .3

X
X 3 aX
0 3
3

.
3
3
3
.


X a

)( . 3
62

3
- 3 3 - a .
.
3
3 .

- :

3
)
(


3 .
{
a
3
.

.

3 .

.

a
3 .
3
63

a

.



3
.







.
X
0 .

. .
.

a
.



.
3 X
64

. 3 {




.X
3 - - { 3
3

.


. 3

.
3
3 .3
3 .
3 3
3 .
{

.
3 3 -
3
3 .
{

X
65

.
3 3
3 .
3 . 3 3


a a
3 .
3
{
3
. .
{ A house is on fire
3 X
- 0-
fire
. 3
3
3 .
3 3 3 a
) ( 3
3 .
3 3 a X
3 . { aa
3 a :

) (


66

. 0
3 3 3
- - .
3 3
3 .
3
:
.
3 .
3 .
a3 .
.
.
3
: 3 3

.
3
3 3
.
.
3 a 3
67

)
.(a
3 3
.
3
) 3) (
( .3 3
3 )
( 3
3 .
. )
3 3() (
a 3
3 3

.

) ( 3 3

X .

.
3
3 .
a3 :

3

) ( X
68

3 .
3 .

3 .
3
3 3 .

3.
0
X
3
.
3
.
3

. 3
{
.
3

3 3 3 3
.
3
)
( .
a 3
69

3

.
3
-.

.
X X
.
3 .
.
: ? ?
?
a .

. 3
0 X
3 . 3
: ?
3
? 3 X
? 3
a?a
3
)(
.
.


70

3 ?

? a

:

?


3 .
3 a 0

X .
3 .

3 3
.
? : .
3
3 .
X a
a
.

X
3 .

?
.X 3
71

3
X 3
. X
a


.



X
.
.


?
3
. X

.
. a
a .
0
?
3
3 ?

X
72

? 3
3
3
.
{ 3

3 3

X .
3 3 X 3
X .
.

a
.
3

X .


.
.

.

.
a
.
.
73

- :

{


3 .

3 .
X

.
{ .
a
.
3 .
.
3

3.

.



.

-
.


74

.. )
(:
:

.
: a
.
:
-
.



3
3 .
3
.




{ 3
3 .

.

3 a
3
3 )( .
75

.
3a
. 3 -
.


.
{



.
3 3
.

3
X .
3
.
3 3 3
a


3

X 3
3 3 3 a
0
76

...
3

.

3 . 3
3
3 3
3 3
a .
3 a
3 3
a
a
.
3 3 . 3
3 3 3
3 . 3
a a .a
3
3 {

.
-
-
{

3
.
77

3


{ .

- .

3


{ ?.



. a {
3 . .
{ {
.

.
3
3 a
.
3
)(Panini



3
78

3
.






.
3

.
3

3 :
3 3 3
) (
.

:

.
{

3
a a
.
a 3 {
3
79

.
3
3

.


{
{

a
a a.a



.
X 3

. ) (
3 {
3 3

{ 3

) (
a )Sound
(Symbolism

80

3 ).(

) 3(
3 3 3 .a
3
X 3

.
3


).(

a 3


.

3

X
.




.
3 .
81

3
. 3

.
{
a
.

) (Ferdinand de Saussure
.

3
a 3 .
3 3 3
.
{
3 ).(

- :

-
0 3
a
X


.
3

.
82

.
3 3
3

0
.

3 3
.

.

) Cours de
()(Linguistique Generale
.
.
a
.

?




. ?


. X
83

. 3^

.

a 3
a


.
3 ).(

.
{ ?
{ : X
).(
0 :
3 .
3

3 .

.


.
.


84

3 .
:
3
3 a

{
.X

:
.3
3 3 .

.
.
3 0.

.
.3

.
a a a
.
The boys hat
.

.
85

a

.

a
X.
3 3 3
3
. 3
.


3

.
a


.

3
a

. 3 X a
a
. {
3
.
86

)( ) (Boas )(Sapir
) (Bloomfield 3
. 3
3
3
. 3
.
3
0 .
a :
) (
X
. 3
3 3
3
3
.
3
)
(
.

.
) - ( a
3
. a
3 a
a . X
87

.

a
) (Benjamin Lee Whorf
3 ) (The Whorfian Hypothesis

.


0 a a ) (Langue
{ )(Parole
{ .
.


.
3 a {

3 a
3 . 3 3

a .

3 a
.

) (Universal Grammar
3
3
88

a .
3 0
X 3
) (Descriptive Structural Approach ) (
.
3
{ :
: .

.
) (
) (
3 . {

.
{
3
3
3 .


3 .
a
.

a ) .
(.
: 3

89

3
3
.

.
3

3
.
) (Skinner
) .(
X :
:
.
: 3
{ 3 3 3 .

.
: 3
3 .
3
.
:
3 0
3 . a a
.

a

90

3
.
X
.
:


3 3 3
- -
3
.

:

. X
3

3 { -X

3
.-
a .

.
a33
.
.
- :

3 3
91

. ) .( .

) (Noam Chomsky a
.


.
3
.
0
0 3

.
3
3
) .( .



:
: a
a


)

(.
:
.
92

3
a
3

) .(




3
.

3?

93

0
0
3 :
.
a 3
a 3 . 3 .

3
.

-a a { :



.

) (surface structure
) (Deep structure 3 0.
a a 3
{ 3 aa
:a

3 { :

3 a
.
95

a3 3
.
) (Transformational Rules
3
) .()(Transformational Grammar
a a 3
3 0 3
3 3
.

3


3 .
3
3 3

3a


.



a

.


96

.
3 3


0 .

.

3
a -
- .
.
- :
3 3
3


.

3

3
.

.
a
3

.
97

3 { 3
)
3 () (
3

a3a
a
{
.
X 3 3
3 3
3
.

{
3 3 . 3
{


X a .
3
.

3 X . :
....

3 3
0 3 0
:
98

3
)( -
-
:





a


) (


) ^ (.
) (Verbal Context 3
. 3
3
3
.
3 3 : ?
? ?

0 . 3
3 3
3 3 3
. 3
99

?

.


? 3
.X
.


3
.



3
3
3 ?
.

- :

3 X 0

3

3 {

.

100

3 3
a 0

) (intuition
{ .
3
3
3 { a
. 3 ?

3 ) (explicitness
) (systematicness3 ) ()(objectivity
?


3
3 X
.

.
.
3

{
a - .-
3

3
. 3
101

?
3
. a
3 a3
a
3
.
3 :
3 3 a 3
3 3 X.


.
-3-
-3 3
.
a 3:
3
3 3
. 3 3
3 3 a
.
:
3 ? :3
3 . .
3 3
.
: . 3

102

. {
3 3
:
) .( 3
{

{ .
. 3
3
. a
3
.
3 a a 3
3
{ . a a
a

3).(

X .
3 X 3
.
: 3

{ 3 a
.
3
-
.

103

.

3^ -X
- 0
3
. 3^
3

3
a
..

^ .

a

a a
0 { .

.
3
.
3
3 .
- -
a 3 .
3
.
3 a
104

3

.

. 3

) ( .
3
3
3 .a
3
a
3 .
3 {
X
3 . 3
a a 3
3 a a a
. 3
3
. :
a .
a -- .
.
{ 3
.

3 { .
3 : a
105

3 3 3
) 3(?
?
?
a
{ .

a
3 3
3
3 .

3
3 .

.

) X (

3
. :
3
3 3.
3
3 3
106

:
3 )(
a
:
3
3
)(
3 .
.
3
{ .
3

3
.

X
. 3.

3
3 3
3 X
X 3
3 3
X

3 .
107

3 .. 3
.

3
3 .
.
a
a a -
-

{
.
3
.
3 3 .
) (intuition 3 ) (data
.
a a
3

.
a3 a
3

3

3
a3 .
108

a 3 3 a
3
.

3
.

109

){ ( 3 3 3
3.
) (
.
) ( : ) :
( .
) ( 3 . : : .
)0 ( : a3 ) 3(
. -
) ( 3 ^
3 3 : - : :a
. ) ( .
- . ) (
. R.H.Robins: A Short History of Linguistics) Longman1967. ) , :
) ( Saussure: Course in General Linguistics (N.Y. :
Philosophical Library),1959.
(8)See: D. Crystal: Linguistics, (Penguin), 1971, p40.
(9) See: Eddy Roulet: Linguistic Theory, Linguistic Description And Language Teaching (Longman),
1973, pp5-17.
(10) L. Bloomfield: Language (Allen & Unwin), several Impressions.
(11)B.F. Skinner: Verbal Behavior (N.Y. Appleton . 1957, (Century Crofts
(12) Noam Chomsky: Syntactic Structures (The Hague Mouton),1957.
) ( .
)3 ( 3 A.Revision of B.F. Skinners Verbal Behavior3
Language .-
3 Fodor and Katz)eds(: The Structure of (Language Prentice-Hall), :
1964, pp.547-578.
) ( .
) (0 : : ) : 3 (
.
) ( grammar
.

110


) ( 3 Firth : C.Candlin, Wilkins
Hymes .
(19) D.Crystal: op. Cit. pp. 78. ff
) ( :
0
) ( 0 : ... -
) ( :^ ) 3 ( -
.
)0 ( :3 .

111

112

3
-
:

.


.

. ?
3
?
?
{
3 ?

?

?
{
113

? {

?
3
.a

{ .


.
3
3
^ 3 .
3
)(Skinner


0.
3 3
3
.
3
3 ) (Vygotsky )(Luria

3 .{ 3
3 3

^
.
114

{

. X
.

a
3
3
.
3
0 ^
{
.
.
.
3
3
.
3 .
a .
:
/ /{ /
./ :
// .
3 . :
//
//
0

115

3.
.
:
3//3 .

:
//
/ /
/3/
3 . :
. 3 .
3 .

a .
3


3 .

.
3

.
3
0 .
:
- 0 ?
- a ?
- ?
116

- { ?


.


a .

- :

3 X a

3 3

.

.

) (Charles Hocket .

0 )(
.
.
3 3
.


3

).(
117

. .

? . :

?

) (gestures
a
.a

3
3 a X
)(
a3.


a
.



.
: a
a ?
a a a
. 3

118

.
a
.

.
3
0
.


. 3
3
a .
:
? 3
3?

3 .
) (

a a .


.
a
a a a a
. 3 a

3
119

3 ).(
.
3
3 ? {
3 3?
a
3
-
- 3
. a

3
{
3 .
) (Peter Marler3
- a
3 a 3 3 ) .(
a
a a
.X

.

3
3
a

a..

120

X
3
3 a a
3 .
3 a
.

3 . 3

3

X 3 . 3 X
0
.

.
0

.

{

.
3 -

3
. ?
3
3 a
121

?a
{ a
.
.
3 a


.
.


.
0 a
3
.
{
.

3

a
3 . ?



.

3 .
122

{ a
3 . { 3
3 3 . ?
.

3
3 { 0
3
.

{ .
.
X
.3
X
3 3

3 .
.
)
3( 3
a
X
.
a

: .
.
123

. .
3

0
. a

3


3 . { a3
.
a
{
3
.

3
3 .

.

.
.
.
.
a
X
124

.
3


.

3
() {
{ a
.


a .
3

3
3
)(
X .

3
. 3

3
3 .
.





125

3
.
{
0 a 0

3
3 - {


?


) (innate competence
.
.
.

. 3
X
.

.
0 X
X
a3
126

. )
.(
3 X
.
a

X a .
) ( .

{
.
{

.
3
a 3


a

. 3
) (


.

: 3

. 3
127

.
a a
X
a
3 .
3
3

3 .
3



)( .


3 . 0
3 . 3
a:a
: a
.
:

.


.
128

a.
3
a .
.
?
?

.
.

.
.


3
.
3 3
3 3
3 .
a ) (
3 .


3 a .

3 .
?).(
3
129

{ :
:
-
- 3

3
{
.
.
: :a

3
3
3 3 .
-
X
.
) :
( .
:a
. 3

3 .


.

.
130

:
:
?
:
3 a X
?
:

{ . ?
3 a
3
a
.
3

. 3
) ( ) (
3 ) .(
3

3 .
a a {
.
3 a
3
a 3
.a
3 a
3 .
131

) (
X 3
a
3 3 3
3
.

.
3 ) a (

. :
X ?

3
3 3
: 3 3 .


X 3
.
) a
a

3 a () (

a


.
132

{ X
{ {
.

a



.
)
3(
a

:
/
:
/
:/
:/ .
0
.
3
. a a

3

3 X a .

133

:
?
3

?


:
.
3

. a
X

. 3
3
3 a .
3 3
.

. :
: 3 {
a
- -
.
:
.
: a .

134

a

X
X {
3 )
( 3
.
3 .

.

a
a
.
?.
3 .

)(

X
)(
.
a ) (Eric Lenneberg
a
.
)(


:
- a
135

.
3 ) (
a
a
a a

.
- : 0
X
.
3^
3 3 .

.
3 3 .
X {
.
3^ 3
a

.
- :
0
. 3
3 .


3 .

136

.
- { :

.
{ )

(.
- : a
) a () (
a
a .
3 .

3 a
3
.
3
a
.

3 .
?
)(Darwin
a


3
3 {
.
137

) (

.



.

3
.
3
{ .
{

. ?

. .

3
{
.

.
. .
3
.

a X a
. .
138

.
.

.
)
3( a

?
3

.
3
.

.
.
. a

a
().


.
a

: 3 .
. 3
.
139

{ :a .
3 a
a
3 {
3 .
3 3 a .
a


3 .
3 3
.
a
. a

.
a 0
. 3
)(
3 3 3 .
a
3 3
.

3 3

a
3.
140

0
0

3 .

a a .
3
3
{
.

3 3
{ 3 .{
:
: 3
) (Brocas Area
a .
3
Wernickes) (Area .
: 0 3

.
: a

.
: X
.
3 3
3 3 a .
141

a )
() (
{ 0 .
3
:a
: X .
: X
.


. X
3 .
X

.
0
3 a
X .

.X a
.
3

.
a
a

.a
a
142

X .
a

{ .

. a
.

)
( . X {

.

3 .



().
:
a
.
.

. 0

.

143

.
.
.

a a
3 .
{ 3

.

.
. a


.
a
a

. .
3

. :
:

().
: 3 3


().
144

3 : 3 3 a
.
a 3
.

)(
.
3a

{ X
.
3 ()a



a
.



().
3
) (
3
a .


)(
.

3 .
145

:

?

3 3 3.

3




.
.
.
.
3
. a
.
a 3
.


.


a 3 .
.
146

() Gua

. 3

.
3 a
.
.
(

)

.Viki a

X . 3
3 .



.
a 3

)

( . 3
3
.


.
a
147

3 .

. ?
.
a
3.
) (
3 .
) (Washoe
.



.
X
. 3
a
3 .
3 3
3 .
3 3
. 3
.a
:
:
.
0 .

148

)
(
.
?
. ?
.
a 3
.
: 3
)
3 ( . :a

.
a
3
3 3 3
.

) (
^ 3 .
.

a
3 X 3 .
X
.a
a
3
149

3.

.
3 )( .
a :

.
X
) (Word order

a a.

)
(.


. 3


.
.

.

.

.
{ ().
{ ) (Sarah
150

X
.
{
. 3
3

.
:
: .
: 3 3 :
.
:
3 :
.
:
.
: .
a
.
:
a
.
. .
:X

) () (

151

a {
a:a
/
/

a
3 3
3

:

:

:

) ( 3 )
(.
a

X .
{
.

:
- .

:
3
?
152

X 3
3 3

.
3 {
X
{ {

X
3
X


.
a :a
)
( .
3
.

a
.
a a
.

?
a X
.
153

).(



3
3
.

.
{

. { :a
: 3
{ .
:

3 a .

a
{ 3
:

.
a
.
a
3.


154

a .
3 .

3
a )) (
3
: 3 /

. 3



{
?


a ).()(aphasia
3 a 3


.X

.
.
3

3 .X
a
3 .
155

{
:a
:
:

:


:
{
:

.

3.
:

:
a
:
a

3 .
:

:

:
.......
156

X .
a

- -
. X :
- )(Unit of Speech
.
-
.
- 3
.


) (Tone group

3:

:
?
a
) (One intonation contour


3 X

3
.

. a 3 a
157

.

.
3 3
3
.

3

. 3
:
a
:
.
.
{
.
:
3 a
{ :
3 a
.

.

.
3
3 .
.X
158

3 .
: 3
{
3 :
:
:
3 3
3 :
a
:
a

3 .

) ( a
3 . 3
3 X
3
..

.


.

3 3

159

3
a
.

3 ).(
3
3

3 3.
X 3
. 3
a 3
3
0
.

.
.
.
3


) (

.
) ( . a

.
160

{ {
.

3 a
3 3
)
3 ( .
3
3
. 3

{ .X 3

.


3
3.
3
.3
3 3 .
3 3 :a 3

3 .

3 .
{ 3
3
161

.
.
a :
..................
?
. a a

3 . 3
3
{ :

:

)( :

3 :
..........

X 3
3
: 3

.
3 3
{ :
3
162

3 )
(
X :
3 X
.
^ 3
.
3
) ( 3
3
X 3
.3
3
X
3 .
3
3


. aa
3
. 3 )X
(
) 3 (.
:

:
) (.
163

3 3 a
:

:

.

.
.
3 3
{
. a


.

:a

. 3
.

.

164

(1) Charles Hocket: The Problem of Universals in Language, In J. H.Greenberg (ed.): Universals of
(Cambridge: Mass: MIT Press), 1968, pp1-29.
(2) : a- Jean Aitchison: The Articulate Mammal(London Hutchinson)1976,p.36-50.
b) Russell & Russell: Language and Animal Signals in N.Minnis (ed.); Linguistics at Large(U.K.
Paladin) 1973 pp.161-185.
( )
.

Russell and Russell, op-cit., p . .:( )
Peter Marler. Speech Development and Bird Song in :( )
G. Miller(ed). (: Psychology and Communication (Voice of
.93- 83. America), 1974, pp
:( )
Karl von Frisch: The Dancing Bees, (Methuen), 1954. p.139.
:( )
Evans & Bastian: Marine Mammal Communication, in H.T. Andersen: The Biology of Marine
Mammals, (N.Y. Academic Press), 1969, pp. 432 ff
(8) See: N. Chomsky: Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Cambridge: Mass., M.I.T. Press)1965.
(9) Vygotsky, L.S.: Thought and Language, (Cambridge: Mass., M.I.T. Press)1962.
(10) D.NcNeill: The Aquisition of Language, (N.Y.: Harper and Row)1970.
(11) L.Bloom: One Word at a Time, (The Hague: Mouton),1973
(12) LBloom: Language Development, (Cambridge: Mass. M.I.T. Press),1970.
(13) See, for example: Brown, R.: A First Language, (London Allen and Unwin),1973.
:( )
Eric Lenneberg: Biological Foundations of Language (N.Y Wiley),1967.
: 3( )
Eric Lenneberg: A Biological Perspective of Language, In Lenneberg (ed.) New Directions in the
Study of Language (Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T. Press), 1968,pp.65-85.
(16) a- N. Chomsky: Syntactic Structures (The Hague: Mouton),1957.
b- J. H. Greenberg (ed.): Universals of Language Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press),1968.
c- L. Hjelmsleve: Prolegomena to a Theory of Language; Indiana Univ. Publications in Authropology
and Linguistic Memoir 7(Baltimore: Waverly Press), 1953.
(17) H. Seckel: Birdheaded Dwarfs, (Springfield, III.: Thomas), 1960.

165

 
(18) D. Kimura: Functional Asymmetry of the Brain in Dichotic Listening, in Cortex 3, 163- 168,
referred to in Aitchison, op. cit57-58.
(19) Penfield and Roberts: Speech and Brain Mechanism (Princeton University Press)1959.
(20) Biological Foundations of Language Lenneberg:
(21) a- R. Brown: Words and Things (N.Y. The Free Press). 1958, pp.186-192.
b- Curtiss et al: The Linguistic Development of Genie in Language vol. 50(1974), pp528-554.
(22) Lenneberg: Biological Foundations of Language
. 3( )
:( )
a- M.D.Braine: The Acquisition of Language in Infant And Child, in: Reed (ed.) The Learning of
Language (Appleton-Century-Crofts)1971.
b- C. Cazden: Child Language and Education (Holt Rinehart & Winston),1972.
c- R. Brown: Psycholinguistics (N.Y. The Free Press), 1970.
:( )
S.M.Ervin: Imitation and Structural Change in Childrens Language in: Lenneberg: New Directions...
op. cit pp163-189.
:( )
A- Bar-Adon and W. F. Leopold: Child Language (Prentice-Hall)1971.
B- Roger Brown: A First Language, op. cit
C- Ferguson and Slobin: Studies of Child Language (Development,) Holt, Rinehart & Winston,1973.
. 3 J.Aitchison ( )
(28) Kellog and Kellog: The Ape and the Child) N.Y. McGraw
. Hill (, 1933; also in Brwon: Words and Things, op. cit
(29) Hayes: The Ape in Our House) N.Y. Harper (, 1951; also
. In Brown: Words and Things, op. cit
(30) A- Gardner and Gardner: Teaching Sign Language to a Chimpanzee, in Science, (1965)pp666672.
B- Gardner and R. Allen: Two-way Communication with and Infant Chimpanzee, in: Shrier & Stollnitz
(Eds): Behavior of Nonhuman Primates, vol. IV (N.Y The Academic Press)1971.
(31) A- D.Premack: The Education of Saras, in Psychology Today (1970), 4, pp55-58.
B-_______: Language in Chimpanzee? in Science
.822- 808. 1972(, 172, pp)
C-_______: Teaching Language to an Ape, in Scientific American (1972), pp92-99.
. ( )
(33) Aitchison, op. cit., pp206-229.
:( )
A- D.S.Boomer, Hesitation and Grammatical Encoding In Language and Speech No. 8(1965), pp.

166


148-158, reprinted in Oldfield and Marshall (Eds.) Language (Penguin (, 1968, pp159-169).
B- F. Goldman-Eisler, Hesitation, information and levels Of Speech production in De Reuk and
Oconnor: Disb.1964, orders of Language (London: Churchill),1964.
3( )
A- V.A. Fromkin: Speech Errors and Linguistic Evidence (The Hague: Mouton),1973.
B- Goodglass and Blumstein: Psycolinguistics and Aphasia (Baltimore: John Hopkins Univ. Press)1973.
(36) Brown & Mcneill, The Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon in Journal of Verbal Learning and
Verbal Behavior,5,1966,pp. 325-337 reprinted in R. Brown: Psycholinguistics. (N.Y The Free Pree),1970
(37) Aitcison, op. cit., pp177-205.
(38) Lieberman et al: Perception of the Speech Code in Psy Chological Review, 74 (1967), pp431461.
(39) T.G. Bever The Congnitive basis for Linguistic Structures In Hayes: Congnition and the
Development of Language (N.Y. Wiley)1970.

167

168

4
- :

{







0
.
{
:a
:


3 3 .
a
3
.
:
169

:

. 3

. 3
3
a
a .
a .
.



.

- :

{

.
a
0
.

) (Communication

. {


.
170

X {

3

.

3
. 3 ).(
-

: 3

. 3
3 :
.{
. ?
?
.
?
X :
. 3 :
.

3 .

171

-
0 a.
3
.

.


.
.
a 0
.
3 3
.
3 3

.
-

.
0 a
a .a
3
a .


172

3
3
3 .

{
3 .
a
3 a .
3

3 -
3 3 -a
3
a .
a
.




3 .
-
.
3
3 .
..
: ..
X .
173

3 3 :
... .
:
.....
-

.

.
-
-
3
.
- 3
3
3 :
? : .
.

) (communication . 3

a
3

3 .a
0 3
: 3.

{ X
174

.. ..
3 .
- 3 3
a


.


.
.
3 3

3
3 a
a .
- 3


.

.

X
: 3 .
-
: .
X
.
175

a a
) (Taboo

a

. .

0
3
.
.

.


a

.
.

3
3
. {
?
?
?
.

176

3 . 3 )John
(Watson { a
)3 ( 3
) (Skinner3

0
.
.
a

. .


X
.
3 ) (Herder
) (Humboldt ) (Sapir


.
a .
a ) (Benjamin Lee Whorf

3 ) (Whorf Hypothesis


.

a a .
177

3 ) (Hopi
a
.
a
.
a 3 .
3

.

.

.
3
.
.
3
.

.

X
.

3 .


X .
178


- ():

a
0
. 3 a
a
a a
.
3 3
3
) (deductive
3
((inductive
{ a



3 .


3 3
3.


a .

.
) (
a 3

179

0
) (
. {

3

. a

a {
3
)(A.Korzybsky) (-
0
0 .



X

3:

3
3 .

a
0

).(
a
{
180

:

. ) ( X
).(



.


3 .

0
.

.

X

.
3 {

. {
.

. 3
3 a 3 3 .X
3

181

3 3

. 3 3 3
3 a
. .


a

3 .


a .

- :

0 3
.
.
0
3
. {



. a

.
.

182

0
.

X
3

: ? .
? ?
.

a
a


3 .
3
.
0
0


3 a .

.



3
.
183

- :

.


. X

.

.. {

.


.



3 a .
a
0

.

3
.
0

.

184

a3
3 .
.


{
. {
.


3
.
a



.
3
3

a 3
3
{


().

185

0 .
a a {
? .
3 a ?
.
a .3
3 a


3
a.

. {
3 3 .

3 3 .
3 3
3 3 .
.
0 a a

.

:
3
.

.
3
186

0 .
3 3 a .


X
3 .
a3



.
3
.
3
.
.
3 3

.


a .


.
3
a .

3 3
187

.

3
{ .

- :

0

3
3 3 3
. a
3

) (
. X
a .a {
a
.

{
{
) ( 3
3 3 3.

. 3 0
a 3 a a
3 a
a 3
. 0 a
188

a 3 a
3 a 0
.
aa
.a
3 3 .
.
a 3

3

3
-
.
3
3 a 3 a .

.
)(
Martin Joos {
:
- :
3

3 0 3
. 3
3.
- : 3


189

- -
a 3 a3 3
3

.
- :
3 3
3

.
.
a . 3

.
.
- :
.
3 3 3 a3a
3 3a
X
3 .
3 3 3
.

{ .
:
{

.
190

3
3 . 3 a
-
-
-a3 3 a3 a .
.
.

3 .

.
3
3 a
:

3 .


3
{ 3 .

3
3 .
-
-
3 3
.
3
0 .
191

3 a
X .
3 3
3 a
3 a 3 .
3

3 3 a .
) ()(Labov a

.

.
3 3 a.

3
3 a3 a
a .

a .
.
a 3 a
.
3 a 3
.
.
:
:

192

:a

a
. .

.

3
3 a3 a .
a
).(

a

X
3 3
3 .
3
3
3
3 a a
.
:
3 /
3 3 3 .

. 3
3
a3 3
193

:

/ /
.....
X
.

.

3

.

- :

.
3 .
3 3
a .
) (baby talk
3
3
bow wow (bye, tummy, doggy, wabbit)= rabbit ,
.

.
0
3 3 .
3
194

3 a
a
X .
3 ) (slang 0
) (gangs
3 3 .

3 .
X
0 {
.



a

.

3 .
3
a
.

- :

.
a .a 3
3

.
195

0
.
?
.
3
3
.
:3
.

.
3

3
3 .

3
3
3 3 .
3.

3
3 3 3 .

.
He is a professional :
3 She
is a professional 3
master mistress
196

.
3 - 3
- 3
.a

3
3.

3 .
:

3 .
- :
3 a

.

3
3
3 .


X 3


3.
3 a
3 0
197

. 3
3 .
3
a
. 0
?a

.
a
a
0

3 .


a
.a
3

.
a

X a
3 3
) (Black English 3

3

.a
198

- :

a .
) (taboo
3

3 a a

. 3

3 - :-
.

:

3


.
3



. 3

. :
3 .


199

3.


3 . 3
.

a
.

3




.
3
.
3

3

- .
X

a a
.
3
3
200

3

.
3

: :
: : .
3
3
a
.




.


. 3

.

3
) (Nupe
3 3
) (ass, cock a
donkey) (Rooster , a a
a

201

.



.



.
a
a .
3?
.

a 3
. 3
3

. 3
3 3

3
. 3
3 {
3 a a .
.


a .3
202

3.
3


{ .


.

203

(1) Edward Hall: The Silent Language,(N.Y. Doubleday) Several impressions

) ( ) (culture 3

.
) ( .
) ( 3 Sapir: The Status of Linguistics as a Science, LANGUAGE,
vol.5(1929), pp. 207-214.
) ( a B.Lee Whorf: Language, Thought and Reality:
(M.I.T. Press),1956.
) ( : : ) 3 (
.
: ) :
( .
) ( :
Martin Joos: The Five Clocks (Bloomington: Publication Of the Research Center in Anthropology,
Folklore and Linguistics), No22,1962.
) ( :
William Labov: Sociolinguistic Patterns, (University of Philadelphia Press),1972.
) (
33 : :a
1- Joshua Fishman: The Sociology of Language, (Rowley: Newsbury House),1971.
2- (Ed.) Advances in the Sociology of Language,(The Hague: Mouton)1971.

204

3
3 {
)
( 3 - -







3 .


{
3 .
205

3
aa

3 3.

3
.X

.
.
. .
3 3?

3

3
3 . {
.
3
) ( .

.
a a 3
3
3 3
.
.
206

.
X
) 0 (
. a 3
3
.
3
3 X
X a ?a
?



.

3 .
.
3 3 a .
{




.

..
:a

207

?) ( .
3 a3

.
?

a .


?


.
. )
(

3.
3 .
a
.
3 .
3 { {
3
. 3
3
3 3.
3 ?
3?
3
208

a 3
.

3
3 . ? a
? a ? a
.
a ) (
a 3 .
.
.

- :

.
3
.
:
:

0

.
:
3
.
: 3 {
209

. :a
.


.


.
3
a a
a .


.

a 3
3

3
.
) ( a
.
a




210

3 .

:
: ) (Phonetics
.
: ) (Phonology
3
X
.
.
a
3 .
:

.
:
{
.
X X 3 {
^ 3
X
3 3 ().
a ) (a

a )X
(a .

.
1- Lips
-
211

2- Teeth
-
3- Alveolar Ridge
- ) (
4- Palate
-
)5- Uvula(Velum
-
6- Tongue
-
7- Pharynx
-
8- Epiglottis
- 3
- Larynx .
- Windpipe .
- Nasal Cavity .
3 :
: 3
3

.
:
.
:
a.
3
a:a
:
{
a a

.
. 3
.a
) (vowels
212

213

3 a
:
:
:
:
:
:
:


.
X :
a
) (consonants )) (voiced
( 3 )) (voiceless (



.
X
a a .X

3 .


.
. :
)) (plosive3 3 (
) (alveolar )X (alveo-dental
214

)
(
. X
.
.
0

) (fricative

.


.


{

.
) (
.
^
3 ^ .
3
a {
.

.
3 3
.
215

. ) ( )(



{
.{
{
.

3
.
3 3



) (c ) (g ) (f ) (a )(e
) (I . a
.

3 .
3 3 3
) (stress ) (intonation
. a
X 3.

a X

.
a .
216

a a 3
.
3

. :

a 3
a 3
3 a 3
3 .

a .
3
3 3 .




X
.

3
.



.

X :
217

.


.
a
.
3
3
.
3 0
3
. { ).(idiolect


. 0

.


. a
.
.


:

.
:

218

:


.
.

X 3
.
)tone
(languages
0 .

a
{
.

.
3 3
3.
3
:
3
3
a a . :

. :
) 3( ) 3(
0 . .
219

:
/a/a///
3 ) (contrast

) .

(.

. {

.
0
. a
. ) (p ) (b

0
3
.

) . a
a

).(dialectology
- -

.
3

220

.
.
3


a a a
:


) (
:
+ ) (
+ ) (
X
{
{ . { { .
3
) (
) (
:
/
)consonant
(cluster a ){
( :
spring
strengths
next spring
.

221

.

: ) (h

) (hurrah {
3 (n + g) a ) (n + k
- - ) (Nkrumah
. ) (p + s ) (g + n
3
:
psalms psychology gnat gnaw
{

.

3
3

.

- :
- )(

a a
. a .
{
3
222

a

.
3
3 X 3 .
.

)( 3

) ( .
3

X
:

a 3 0 3
a a a : .
0
.
a

.

a .
3
.
3
3
3
223

.
{
. 3
3 .
3
3 .


3 .
:
:

a


a
.
.
: 3 3

3 .
a
3
.a

3
.
: 3

224

.
3
.

.
)
( .
3 .
a
a 3 .a

.
3 .
:
:
: :
: :
: : : ?
3?


. a
) ( :

.
.
3
.
3 .
225

{
3
:a 3
) (free morpheme {
: :3
3 ) (bound morpheme {
X :
: 3 .
: .
3 : .
: .
0 .
3 3 a :a
) (derivational morphemes
)
3 :

( ) ( ) ( .
3 3
3 3
^ .
. 3

) (infleeting morphemes
.
3
{
3
.
226

3

3
{ .
3

.
3
.
3
{

)() (): 3(
.
3 3
:
) :(




. 3
. 3
3 3
3
a .
(). 3
3 . 3

227

a .
3
> s > es
)( )( )( 3 .
{ ox oxen child
children sheep sheep
3
= .
tooth teeth foot
feet
3 3 a
)( )( )( )( -
)( )(
.
3.
{ 3

:
?

{ 3 :
:
:
: )3 3 (
)(
: 3
: ) (
: 3 3
: 3 3
:

228

3
3
3 .
a
3
3
.

).(parts of speech

X
. .

.
:

.


:

- 3 .

3///
- .- a
.a
:

3 .a
229

a
3 :
3 : 3
.
3 : 3
.
a a .
3 :
.
a a a
3 3
.
3 )
( 3
3
3 . - -

) ( ) ( .
.


X 3 3.()a
3
-:
:
.



230

. a

) : (
a 3 X

3 3 .
0/
-
:
.
.
) : (

. /
.


.
3 .X
3 3 a
a
{ .
: 3 //
- a

) adverb, adjective, verb, noun(
)
3 : 0
( .
231

.
3

.
: a
.

3
3
3 -
-
.

.
-


a 3 . a
3 3 3
3 .
X 3 0
3 .
3 ) (discourse )-(utterance {
-
a
3
3 .
.

232

- -
.
3
3
.

. :
? ? ? { ? :
? 3
?

3 3.
:
a : . :

?.
: :? . : { 233

:{ ) (.
: 3 .
a
3
.
.
{ ?a

.


.

X

) (

a().
3
3
3
3
.
.
3 -

.
3
234

.
3 3
.

a 3.():
:
3.
: 3
.
.
3 .a
3 3?
0 3 :
: :
X
.
: 3
. { 3 3
{ {
- .
:
3
. 3
3 3
) (Immediate Constituent Analysis { X

235

) (

3
) (

)(

3
)(

)(

3
)(

)(

:
///


3 :
3
X
.

3 ) ( ) (
236

{ :
.
{ 3
3
{
{
{
{ 3.
{ )
(
X
3
. a a
-
3 .
3
3
:
3 3
:
: +

: +

: + ) X (

237

: +

: ) X( +

: + 3

: + 3a

3 {
:
: + ) (
)(


.3
.
: 3
:
3 :

.
:
3 .a.
X

.
English English

.
3
238

a .
3 ) (

a
3 { {
) :
( : ) (clause : a
. .
3
3
3 { :
: 3
. 3
3 : .....
a
?
3 3

.
3
? 3 3
: a.
a
:

:
:

: ?
239

3 a
a a
.a
a
a 3 3 3 .

X 3
.
3
3
.
3
a
3 .
3 3
3 3
().
3
.
3
- a
3 .()- 3
) (
a 3
:3 3
. 3
:
3 .

240

3
. .
:
{
{
a a . :
.

.

. 3
.




.

3 .
3 ) (Chomsky

.
) (Harris
3 3
3 ().
3 0
.
3 ) Syntactic
(Structures
241

a 3
) (Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
a

0 3
3 .
3


3
3 . -
- 3 .
{ {
a
3

.

3
3 a
3 3
3
{


0
)
(.

242

) (innate competence

.


a 3
X .
) (Syntax X
) (grammar
3 .

.
X
3
a
.
X )
Generative Transformational) .
(Grammar .

-
3 ) ( :
:

) (Phrases and clauses .
:
. a
a a
.
243

X
3
3

.
3
) (Generate ) (generative
3 3
.
a a
.
3 .
3 :
+- = ?

. =
= = = . + = =
= = + = =
= = - . { + +
- { 3
{ 0 .

).(competence
3 3
{
()(Performance).
:
.
3 .X 3
244

{

3 ) (Recursive Rules {
{ {
{
. 3
{ .
0
. :
3 3 -
{ 3 ().
:
3
3 :


3
3 -.
3
3
3 .
3
3

3
().
3

) (Phrase Structure Rules
245

3
.
:

:
: +
:3 : +
: +
:
3:







a a:
-
-
246

. a
a {
.
.

:
+ + + +

)(
3 (-
) 3
a3 ( . ) (deep structure
0
.

.
3
?
3
? ?
3
3
a 3
3 .
3 Transformational) .
(Rules
.

247

. :


:
) + + + ) + (+ + + + +
( + + +(.

3
:
+ + +
+ + + + + +
) (
.
a3
.





3
. a
248

) (

3
3
) (

)(

a 3

3

:
3
3
3
3 .
: a 3 .
3 3
.
3 3 3


3
. )Katz
249

 
)(

(andFodor

a .
) (McCawley) ( 3

a 3
3 3 3 ) 3 a
- (
3
.
)
(
.
3 .
a a a 3


.
)(Charles Fillmore
3
)(
3.
)( )(Case Grammar
)( 3

3 0

.
3
:
250

- .
- 3 .
- .
- 3.
- 3 .
3


3

. :
3 a
a 3 ?
3
3
.


.
a a
.
3

X .
3 ) 3 3


. {

251

0 3
3
0 3
.
3 3 3

{
{ 3
)(
3 3 .
3 :
- 3
.
- :
.
-3 : 3 .
- 3 : 3 3
3 .
- 3 : 3
3 .
3 3 :
- :
.
- : 3
3 .
:
- :

3 3 .
- :
252

.
- :
3 .
- :
3 .
3
3 .
3

3
.
{
3
:
) {
^ (.
? ? ? ) ( ? ? ? 0 ? ? . . 0 253

X ) (
.

.
3
3 3?
X

) (Council of Europe

.

) (Linguistic Universals
.

3 .



3 3

.
3
a 3
3
254

- :

3
{
a 3
{
3 ) (etymology 3
a a
-
3

3
3
.
.
3


3
.
3 .
3
3

.
a 3
3 a3
255

) (reference
:
3



.
) (true )(inappropriate
)? (false

a .
.
a



.
) (Subjective ^
- X
3.-

3 )(Perception
.

3 3 .
3 ) (Semantic Features
- 3
3
256

3 . 3
a
().
3
3 . X 3
. 3 ?
?
? 3 ?
3 ? 3
? 3 ? 3
3 .
3
3 3 .

3
.
3
.

3
0 a 3
- -
a -
-
.

3
3 3 .
257

a a3
3
3.
a 3 ) (Semantics

. :a
:
a
a 3
.
:

3 ) (Structural


3 . 3

)(
{ :
3 .
3 3 .
.
) (Stylistics 3 3 .
3 a a
.
258

3 3 )
( 3
3 3
. 3
3 )()(Symbolic Logic

X 3
a a) .(
3 ) (
3 .
3

a 3

3
3 .
3 3
3 .
3 3
3 a 3
.
3
3 3
3 a 3
) ( 3
3
3 .
3 3 3 3
3 ) (response
259

3) ( 3


- 3 3 .-
3
3 . : 3

3
3 . 3
.
3
3
3 3

X
).(
3 3
3.
3
3

3
3
.
3
3 3 3
3 3
3
3 3
260

.

3
3
) (Deep Structure :
3
3 :
) + + +( ) + + ( ) + +
( ) + + + + ( +
)) + + +().(

:
: a a
.
: .
:
3 ) (.
:
.
3

{ 3
3
.
3 . 3 . 3 .261

3 ... { :
3 ? : 3 ? : ? : 3 ? { :
3 : 3 3 3.


3
3 .
3 3
3 {
3 .

:
{


3a
. 3
:
{
. :
.
:
262

a

3 a a
{
.
:
{
. a
3 3 . ?

a
{ ?

? 3

a

{ 3
.-
3
.
) (Fodor & Katz X


.
.
:
////// X
3
)(

263

:
//////

.
:
// / / / /
/
/
.
:
/// / /
) (+ ) (- 3
a :

a 3
3 :
{

3 3 3
. 3
) +( )-(
a
. :
/ /

)( ) +(
.

3
264

.

.



.
.
.

.
a
. :

) +( :
:
3
:
3 :
: a
X.
3 .
. 3
265

-{ ^
a 0 a

.-

3 .

? 3 3 .X
{

{
.
3

3 .
a
a X
a
.


3
.
:
: 3
.
: a 3
.
: .
266

) : (
3 .

3
X a
3
3 { 3
3 .
3 3
0 3
a .
3
)X (Semantic Fields
a .X
.

a


3 .

-

.-



.

267

)(cousin


.
3
3
.
:
3 . 3 3 . .
X
3 () 3 3
3 :
-
-3
-3
-
-
-

3
X 3
{ -{ 3
3 3.
-
3 3 3 3

268

- X
) (
- - 3 .


.

.
a :
: X.
: 3 .


3 .
3
.
3
a ) (Opaque

.
) (transparent {
.
:
: Splutter,
Splash, bang, growl :
.
3

0 .
269

: 3
3 . 3

3 3 .
:
X

3
{ :
- .
3 3 3
3
.
.
3

- -

.
3 .

3 .

270

(1) R.H.Robins, The Structure of Language, in Minnis, op Cit. p180.

(3 ) : :( )
.
. 3( )
:
1- C.Dodge, Morphology and Syntax, in HillLinguistics (V.O.A.), 1968, pp. 33 ff
2- J.Falk, Linguistics & Language (Xeros) 1973, pp.21-40.
3- P.H. Mathews, Recent Developments in Morphology In J. Lyons (ed.) New Horizons in Linguistics
(Penguin), 1970, pp96-114.
(4) haz-ak-ban
(5) g-naglan-sl-i-Zak-s
: ( )
Mario Pei: Invitation to Linguistics (Doubleday).1965.
( )
.
:( )
Charles Fries, The Structure of English (Longman), 1969.
: Zelling Harris X( )
Methods in Structural Linguistics, (Univ. Of Chicago Press)1951
. - ( )
(11) K.Pike, Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of Human Behavior(The Hague: Mouton), 2nd
rev. Ed,1967.
(12) See J. Lyons: Chomsky (Fontana / Collins), 1970, p31.
(13) Crystal: op. cit., p211.
. ( )
(15) Chomsky: Syntactic Structures, reproduced in Crystal op cit., p121
(16) Lyons: Chomsky, pp43-44.
. 3 a( )
.3( )
(19) Crystal: op. cit., p229
(20) Katz and Fodor (eds): The structure of Language (Prentice-Hall), 1964, pp479-518.
(21) J.D. McCawley: Concerning the Base Component of a Transformational Grammar, Foundations

271

 
of Language Vol. 4(1968), pp243-269.
The Role of Semantics in a Grammar: In Bach and Harms(Eds). Universals in Linguistic Theory (N.Y.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston), 1968 169.-124.pp
Bach and Harms : - - ( )
. 3
A- Leech and Svartvik: A Communicative grammar of?(English) :a a( )
Longman1975.
B- D.A. Wilkins, National Syllabuses,(O.U.P),1976.
: - ( )
Nilsen and Nilsen: Semantic Theory (Rowley, Mass . :
. 1975, (Newbury House
:3 - ( )
. 1970, (Stephen Ullmann: Semantics)Blackwell
:( )
a- R.Carnap: Introduction to Semantics (Cambridge Mass)1942.
b- C. Morris: Signs, language and Behavior (N.Y. Georged. Braziller), 1942.
:( )
S.I.Hayakawa: language in Thoughtd and Action (Allen and Unwin), 1968.
:( )
Ogden and Richards: The Meaning of Meaning (Routledge and Kegan Paul) 1946.
a a3( )
L.Bloomfield: Language, pp. ..( )
. 3( )
0 ( )
.
3 ) : : 0 ()
. (
Rogets Thesaurus(longman) ( )
.( )

272

.

3
.
a
3
.

3
3
-
3
.




{


273

3 a
0 3 3
.

274

3
:
1- 4 Allen & Corder (eds.): The Edinburgh Course in Applied Linguistics. 4 Vols. (O.U.P.), various
dates.
:
. ,(W.Rivers: Teaching Foreign Language Skills (Unive. Of Chicago Press . ()
G.Girard: Linguistics & Foreign Language Teaching. (Longman)1972 ()

: .
F.de Saussure: Cours de Linguistique Generale (Paris: Payot), 5th ed., 1955. (English Translation, ()
by Wade Basking: Course in General Linguistics. New York: 1959 Philosophical Library1959
(8) Edward Sapir: Language. (New York, Harcourt, Brace& World), 1921.
(9) Edward Sapir: Selected Writings.(ed. by D.G. Mandelbaum) Univ. of California Press1949.
(10) L. Bloomfield: Language. (N.Y.: Holt, Rinehart & Winston), 1933: and(London: Allen &
Unwin),1935.
{ 3
:
R.Wardaugh: Introduction to Linguistics McGraw Hill1972. ()
D.Crystal: Linguistics. (Penguin), 197l ()
J.Falk: Linguitics and Language.(Xerox) ()
N.Minnis(ed.):Linguistics at Large(Paladin1973.()
A.A.Hill (ed.): Linguistics.(Voice of America, ()
J.Lyons (ed.): New Horizons in Linguistics (Penguin)1970.()

275

 
J.Aitchison: The Articulate Mammal. (Hutchinson of London)1976 ()
N.Chomsky: Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Cambridge,Mass.:M.I.T.Press) 1965. ()
E.Lenneberg: Biological Foundations of Language. (N.Y., Wiley1967 ()
R.Brown: A First Language. (London: Allen & Unwin1973. ()
R.Brown: Psycholinguistics. (N.Y.The Free Press)1970 ()
J.Greenberg(ed.): Universals in Language. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. (Press)1963 ()

3 3 3
:
. ( ) a :( )
0 : . + ( )
. ( ) :( )
. (3 ) :( )
.( 3 ) :( )
.( ) :( )
.( X 3 ) 3 a :( )
(30) Martin Joos: The Five Clocks(Bloomington: Research Center), 1962.
(31) William Labov: Sociolinguistic Patterns(Univ. Of Philadelphia Press),1972.
(32) Joshua Fishman: The Sociology of Language (Newbury House),1971.
(33) Joshua
Fishman(ed.): Advances in the Sociology of Language (Mouton), 1971.

3 3
:a a {
R.H.Robins: General Linguistics. (Longman), latest edition ()
J.Lyons: Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. (Cambridge Univ. Press)1968()
:)(
.( 3 ) :( )
.( 3 ) :( )
A.C.Gimson: An Introduction to the Pronunciation of (English)Arnold.1970. ()
(39) D. Jones: An Outline of English Phonetics. (Cambridge Heffer) latest edition
3 :)(
C.C.Fries: The Structure Of English(longmn),()
A.H.Gleason: An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics.(N.Y. Holt, Rinehart and Winston)1966 ()

276


N.Stageberg: An Introductory English Grammar. (Holt, Rinehart and Winston),1965()
P.J.Broderick: Modern English Linguistics.(Thomas Crowell)1975. ()
(44) Jacobs & Rosenbaum: English Transformational Grammar.(Blaisdell)1968.
(45) B.L. Liles: An Introductory Transformational , 1971. (Prentice-Hall) Grammar.
: 3)(
.( 3( ) )
S.Ullman: Semantics. (Blackwell . ()
F.R.Palmer: Semantics.(Cambridge Univ. Press)1977.()
G.Dillon: Introduction to Contemporary Linguistic Semantics.(Prentice-Hall)1977. ()

277

278

 :

a
.
3

) (
.
30 3
.
3 .

3 .


.

:
.

279