Rs. 295.

00
ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
S.N. Singh
2003 by Prentice-Hall of India Private limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book
may be reproduced in any fonn, by mimeograph or any other means, without pennissioR in writing
from the publisher.
ISBN-812032192-8
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Sixth Printing
... ...
July, 2006
Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, Prentice-Hall of India Private limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Jay Print Pack Private Limited, New Delhi-110015.
Centen s
istorical Develo ments of Electric Pow r S s ms 1
Basic Structur of th Power Syst m 3
2. Sources of Electric E
2J
22
23
2.5
2.13
Geothermal Power

u

viii Contents
2. 14 Other Energy Sources 20
2. 14. 1 Cogeneration 20
2.14.2 Combined Heat and Power (CHP) 21
2.14.3 Distributed Generation 21
3. Basic Principles
3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Electrical Power 25
3 3 Phasor Notation 27
3.4 Real and Reactive Power 27
3.5 Apparent Power 28
3.6 Complex Power 29
3. 7 Three-phase Systems 32
3.8 Per-unit Representation 33
3.8. 1 Per-unit Representation of Transformers 34
3.8.2 Advantages of Per-unit System 36
3.8.3 Per-unit Impedance Diagram 36
Prohlems 39
4. Load Characteristics and Economic Aspects
4.1 Introduction 42
4.2 Commonly Used Terms 43
4.3 Curve Useful in System Operation and Planning 50
4.3.1 Load Curve 50
4.3.2 Load Duration Curve 51
4.3.3 Energy Load Curve 51
4.4 Power Factor 52
.
4.5 Economics of Power Eactor Correction 52
4.6 Interconnection of Power Stations 56
4.7 Tariffs 57
Prablems 6Q
S. Steam Power Plants
5. 1 Introduction 62
5.2 Selection of Site for Steam Power Plants 62
5. 3 Thermodynamic Cycle of Steam Flow 63
5.3.1 Rankine Cycle 64
5.3.2 Actual Rankine Cycle 65
5.3.3 Reheat Cycle 66
5.3.4 Regenerative Cycle 67
5.3.5 Heat Rate 67
5.4 General Layout of Steam Power Station 67
5.5 Main Flow Circuits 68
5.5.1 Fuel and Ash Circuit 68
5.5.2 Air and Gas Circuit 68
5.5.3 Eeed Water and Steam Circuit 62
5.5.4 Cooling Water Circuit 69
25-41
42-61
62-82
71
72
5.6.9 Condenser 73
5.6.1 0 Coolin Tower 74
5.9 Excitation S stem 76
5.10 Govemin S stem 78
5.13 Efficiency of Thermal Power Plant 8
5.14 Lubricatin S stems 81
5.15 Start-u Procedur of Thennal Units 81

6.2 Selection of Site for droelectric Power Plants 84
6.3 H drolo 85
6.3.2 Flow Dtuation Curve 86

6.3.3
6.3.4
6.4 Classification of H droelectric Plants 88
6.4.1 Classification Based on the Hydraulic Features 88
Cont nts

6.4.2 Classification on the Basis of Operation (Base or Peak) 89
6.4.3 las ification Based on Stora e and Ponda e 89
6.4.4 Classification Based on Location and h 89
6.4.5 lassification Based on Plant Ca aci
es 90
6.5
6.6 Classification of H dro Turbines
6. 7 H dro Generators 96
6. 8 Pum Stora e Plants 97
Contents
-------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Nuclear Power Plants
7.1 Introduction 101
7.2 Adverse Effects of Fossil Fuels 1 01
7.3 Pros and Cons of Nuclear Power Generation 102
7.4 Selection of Site for Nuclear P.ower Plants 103
7.5 Cost of Electricity 104
7.6 Components of Nuclear Power Plant 105
7. 7 Basic Review of Nuclear Physics 105
7.8 Main Components of Reactors 109
7.9 Description of Fuel Sources 110
7. 10 Types of Reactors 110
7. 10.1 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) Ill
7. 1 0.2 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) 113
7.10.3 Heavy Water Cooled and Moderated (CANDU Type)
Reactor 114
7.10.4 Gas Cooled Reactor 115
7.10.5 Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) 116
7.10.6 Eusion Reactor 117
7. 11 Nuclear Power Programme in India 117
7.12 Effect of Radiation on Human Being and the Biosphere 118
7.13 Uranium as a Source of Energy 119
7. 14 Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors 120
iA.-......JGu.. ......._..&..JlJ
8.1 Introduction 123
8.2 Simple Gas-turbine Plant 124
8.3 Advantages of Gas-turbine Plant Over Steam-power Plant 125
8.4 Sim le Gas-turbine cle 125
8.5 Open-cycle Gas-turbine Plant 128
8.6 Closed-cycle Gas-power Plant 128
8. 7 Gas-turbine for Power Generation 1 29
8.8 Combined-cycle Gas-power Plant 130
8.9 Features of Combined-cycle Gas-turbine 130
8.10 Microturbines 132
8. 11 Integrated Gasification Combined-cycle QGCC) Plants 132
9. Transmission Line Parameters (Constants) Calculations
9.1 Introduction 134
9.2 Types of Conductors 135
9.3 Representation of Line 136
9.4 Inductors and Inductance 137
9.5 Law 137
9.6 Inductance of a Conductor 139
101-122
I
134-178
I
.,
9.7 o-wrr
.8
.9
9.10
9.11 Inductanc
9.14 Effe t 156
9.15
9.20
9.21
9.22
9.23
9.24
Problems
10. Analysi of Transmi on Line
10.2
10.3
Gen ralized Circuit Constants 183
10.5 Medium Lines 188
10.5.1 aminal- R pres ntation 188
0.5.2 ominal-1t R resentation 90
10.6 n ransmission Lin s 195
1 Q. 7 , ump d-circuit Equivalent R pr senta ion 199
10.7 .1 uival nt-7t f s ntation 199
10.7.2 Equivalent-T Representation 200
10.8
10.9
10.12
10.13
10.14
Reactive Power Generation/ Abso tion of a Lin
omp nsation of Transmission ines 210
Po r low in a Lon , Trans ion Line 213


1
and Mutual 143
145
166
208
209
209
xii Contents
11. Insulators for Overhead Transmission I.ines
11.1 Introduction 217
11.2 Ratings 218
11.3 Types of Insulators 218

11.4 Voltage Distribution Across Suspension Insulators 220
11.5 String Efficiency 222
11.6 Methods to Improve String Efficiency 223
Problems 226
12. Design of Transmission Lines
12.1 Introduction 228
12.2 Calculation of Sag and Tension 229
12.3 Equivalent Span Length and Sag 235
12.4 Effect of Ice- and Wind-loading 235
12.5 Stringing Chart 238
12.6 Sag Template 240
12.7 Conductor Vibrations and Vibration Dampers 240
Problems 242
13. Corona and Radio Interference
13 .1 Introduction 243
13.2 Critical Voltages 244
13.3 Corona Loss 247

13.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona
13.5 Factors Affecting Corona Loss 248
13.6 Effect of Corona on Line Design 250
13.7 Radio Interference 251
Problems 254
14. Insulated Cables
14.1 Introduction 256
14.2 Cable Conductors 257
14.3 lnsulatin Materials 259
14.4 Insulation Resistance 261
247
14.5 Electrostatic Stress in a Single Core Cable 262
14.6 Gradin of Cables 265
14.6.1 Capacitance Grading 266
14.6.2 Intersheath Grading 268
14.7 Capacitance of a Single-core Cable 273
14.8 Capacitance of a Three-core Cable 273
14.9 Dielectric Loss and Dielectric Power Factor 277
1.4JO Location of Faults in Under ound Cables 278
14.10.1 Murray Loop Test 278
14.10.2 Varley Loop Test 279
14.11 Classification of Cables 280
Problems 281
217- 227
228-242
243-255
256- 281
15.2 Advanta es and D'sadvanta s of HVDC Transmission 283
15.3 T es of HVDC Lnks 285
15.4 Main Com onents of HVDC Transmission 285
15.5 lection for onfiguration for onverter 288
15.6 Analysis of Converters 291
15.6.1 Without Overlap 291
1 5.6.2 With Overlap 297
15.7 HVDC Control 302
15.7.1 Individua -phase Control 305
15.7.2 Equidistance Pulse Control (EP ) 306
15.8 Converter Faults 307
15.8.1 Arc Back 308
15.8.2 Arc Through 308
15.8.3 Misfue 309
15.8.4 Quenching 309
15.8.5 Commutation Failure 309
15.9 Interconnection of HVDC Transmission into AC Systems 311
15.10 Flexible AC Transmission Systems :ACTS) u chnology 311
15.11 Objectives of FACTS 313
15. 12 Basic T es of FACTS Controllers 314
15.13 FACTS Devices 316
15.13.1 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) 316
15.13.2 Static Synchronous Generator (SSG) 317
15.13.3 Static VAr Compensator (SVC) 318
15.13.4 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) 318
15.1 .5 Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR) 318
15.13.6 Thyristo Switched Capacitor (TSC) 318
15.13.7 Static VAr Generator or Absorber (SVG) 319
15.13.8 Static VAr System (SVS) 319
15.13.9 Thyristor-controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR) 319
15.13.10 Static Synchronous Ser es Compensator (SSSC) 3 20
15.13.11 Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) 320
15.13.12 Thyristor-controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) 321
15.13.13 Thyristor-switched Series Capacitor (TSSC) 321
15.13.14 Thyri tor-controlled Series Reactor (TCSR) 321
15.13.15 Thyristor-switched Series Reactor (TSSR 322
15.13.16 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) 322
Contents iii
282 325
15.13.17 Thyristor-controlled Phas Shifting Transformer (TCPST) 323
15.13.18 Interphase Power Controller (I PC) 3 23
15.13.19 Thyristor-controlled Voltage Limiter (TCVL) 323
15.13.20 Thyristor-controlled Voltage Regulator (TCVR) 323
Problems 325
xiv Contents
16. Distribution Systems 326-367
16. 1 Introduction 326
16.2 Effed of Voltage on Transmission Efficiency 326
16.3 Comparison of Various Transmission and Distribution Systems 328
16.3.1 Equal Maximum Potential Difference between any Conductor
and Earth 328
16.3.2 Equal Maximum Potential Difference between any
Two Conductors 334
16.4 Conductor Size 338
16.5 Kelvin's Law 339
16.6 Influence of Voltage on the Size of a Feeder and a Distributor 343
16.7 Radial and Ring-main Distributors 343
16.8 Interconnectors 344
16.9 Methods of Feeding Distributors 344
16.9.1 DC Distributors with Concentrated Loads Fed at One
End 345
16.9.2 DC Distributors with Concentrated Loads Fed from Both
the Ends 347
16.9.3 DC Distributed Load Fed at 0:1e End 348
16.9.4 DC Distributed I .oad Fed from Both the Ends 349
16.9.5 DC Ring Mains Distributor 350
16.9.6 DC Ring Main Distribution with Interconnector 351
16.10 DC Three-wire Distributors 351
16.11 AC Distribution 3 60
16.12 AC Distributor with Concentrated I .oads 360
16. 13 Three-phase, Four-wire Distribution System 363
16.14 Sub-mains 363
16.15 Stepped and Tapered Mains 363
Problems 365
17. Power Substations
17.1 Introduction 368
17.2 Types of Substations 368
17.3 Bus-bar Arrangements 369
17.4 Substation Bus Schemes 370
17.4. 1 Single Bus Scheme 371
17.4.2 Double Bus with Double Breaker 372
17.4.3 Double Bus with Single Breaker 373
17.4.4 Main and Transfer Bus 373
17.4.5 Ring Bus 374
17.4.6 Breaker-and-a-Half with Two Main Buses 375
17.4. 7 Double Bus-bar with Bypass Isolators 376
17.5 Substation Location 376
368-379
17.6
17.6.3 Li Arrester 3 78
17.6.4 Reactors and Ca acito 378
17.6.5 Curr nt and Pot ntial Transfonners 379
17.6.6 Grounding 379
18. Ground
18.1 Introduction 380
18.2 Resistance of Groundin
18.2.2 Resistance of Grounding Point Electrode
18.2.3 Groundin Grids 382
18.3 Desi Princi les of Substation Groundin S stem
18.4 Neutral Groundin 384
18.5 Un ounded S sten1 solated S stem 385
18.6 Resonant Groundin 386
18.7 Solid Grounding or Effective Grounding 387
18.8 Resistance G .oundin 389
18.9 Rea.ctance Groundin 389
18.10 Earthin Transformer 390
18. 1 eutral Groundin Practice 3 0
Problems 3 91
Answers to Problems

Contents xv
393-394
395-399
401-406

The development of electric power systems has contributed to the ph nomenal t chnological
advances of humankind o er the p t century. El ctric po er pro id s cl an and conv ni n
energy to modem society.
The main purpose of ths textbook is to provide single-source cov rag of he full-
spectrum of syst ms of electric po er generation, transmission_, and distribution. Th book i
an outcome of the author s e perience of t aching power sy t m cour es at th ndian
Institut of echnology Roor e, and at e Asian Institut of chnology, Thailand. It i
designed for und rgraduate tud nts of electrical engine ring in accordanc ith the yllabi of
Indian uni ersities/institution .
eginning with a historical overview Chapter 1 highlights e fe tur and structure of
modern power systems. Chapt r 2 provides a brief revie of various sourc of I tric
energy. The basic principl and load characteristics are e plained in hapt r and 4
resp cti ly. hapters 5 through 8 are de oted to detailed system de c ptions of g neration
of 1 ctric po r-steam hydro nucl ar and gas po r plants.
Chapt rs 9- 14 d al ith calculations of transmission line con tant perfonnanc of
tran mis ion lines in terms of efficiency and r gulation, corona and radio interfer nee with
communication lines, design of insulators for overhead transmission line mec anical d si .
of o erh ad lines and design of insulat d cable . In .hapt r 10 that d s rib the
p r rma c of rans i sion lin various technique of r a ti po er com n ation are
also di cussed. hapter 15 is a rigorous but clear treatment of converter-in rt r circuits
u

xvili Preface
used in HVDC transmission. A detailed discussion of the advantages of HVDC transmission

over HV AC transmission is also presented in this chapter.
Most of the undergraduate textbooks on power systems do not cover Flexible AC
Transmission Systems (FACTS). Power electronics based FACTS technology can increase
the power transfer capability of transmission systems and regulate power flow over
designated routes. Chapter 15 also explains how the benefits of FACTS technology can be
realized in practice.
The distribution systems are discussed in Chapter 16, whereas Chapter 17 is devoted to
substation configurations and their equipment. Neutral grounding is explained in the final
chapter.
Numerous solved examples are included within the text to illustrate the concepts
discussed. Problems given at the end of chapters are aimed at furthering the students'
understanding of the topics presented.
I gratefully acknowledge the support provided by several of my colleagues and
friends who have contributed to the development of the text. Special mention must be
made here of Prof. S.C. Srivastava, Head, Electrical Engineering Department, liT Kanpur;
Dr. K.N. Srivastava, ABB Sweden, Dr. G.K. Singh and Dr. Vinay Pant, liT Roorkee;
Mr. K.S. Verma, KNIT Sultanpur; Dr. K.G. Upadhayay, MMEC Gorakhpur; and Dr. Jovitha J.,
SliT, Thailand. I am indebted to my many students who helped me immensely in typing the
manuscript and making the diagrams. I also thank all my students whose enthusiastic
participation in classroom discussions helped me to present many ideas and concepts, with
greater clarity.
My thanks are also due to Prentice-Hall of India, especially its editorial and production
teams for their utmost cooperation in bringing out the book on time.
Finally, no words are adequate to express my gratitude to my wife Madhuri and sons
Prashant and Praveen for their loving support, patience, and understanding throughout the
period of writing this book.
S.N. SINGH
I

ntro ction
This chapter provides a brief review of the development of electric power systems. B ginnin
with a historical sketch of their evolution, the basic structure of modem power sy terns is
elaborated. A chapter-wise outline of the text has also been presented.
1.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF EL CTRIC POWER SYS EMS
The electricity was invented in very early age but its commercial usage began in the late
1 870s when arc lamps were used for lighthouse illumination and street lighting. The credit
for inventing electric power system goes to Thomas Edison. Edison had establish d an
electric power station at the historic earl Station New or in 1881 which began operation
in September 1882. This had capacity of four 25-hp boil rs supplying steam to six
engine-dynamo sets c generators) and supplied power to 59 con umers within area of
roughly 1.5 km in radiu at 110 V through underground cable system. There wer imilar
developments in the other cities of the world within the next few years. D motors load
were added to such systems after its inv ntion by Frank Sprague, in 1884.
The invention of transfonners and ac system by L. Gaulard and J.D. ibbs of Paris
France made ac electric power system possible. The first practical ac distribution system
was installed for 150-lamps load in USA by William Stanley at Great
Massachusetts in 1886 for Westinghouse he also acquired t e American right to the
transformers. The development o poly-phase system (three-phas ) by N. Tesla increas d the
I
2 Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution
attraction of ac systems. By 1888, Tesia held several patents on ac motors, generators,
transformers and transmission systems. Westinghouse bought the patents of these early
inventions. In 1889, the first ac transmission line at 4000-V, single-phase, 21 km was put into
operation in Oregon, North America between Willamette Falls and Portland.
In the 1890s, there was great controversy over whether the power utilities should be
standardized on ac or de. Westinghouse advocated ac and Edison favoured de. Finally, ac
system won out over de system due to its various advantages such as voltage transforma-
tion, possibility of long-distance transmission with high voltage, and simpler and economical
utilization. In 1893, first three-phase line in southern California, North America came into
operation at 2.3 kV, which was 12-km long. There was phenomenal growth of electric
companies by 1895.
Operating voltages and frequencies were not same at the beginning. The used
frequencies were 25, 50, 60, 66, 125 and 133 Hz, which created the difficulties in the
interconnection, and therefore, the standardization of frequencies was felt necessary. North
America adopted 60 Hz, however, many other countries use 50 Hz.
Up to 1921, the ac system voltage used were 12 kV, 44 kV and 60 kV (rms line-line),
which rose to 165 kV in 1922, 220 kV in 1923, 287 kV in 1935, 330 kV in 1953, 500 kV
in 1965, 735 kV in 1966, 765 kV in 1969 and 1100 kV in 1990. It was also felt necessary
to standardize the voltage system. Every country has different standard ratings. In India,
it is 132 kV, 220 kV for high voltage (HV), and 400 kV and 765 kV for extra high voltage
(EHV). Although 765-kV lines has been constructed in India but it is presently operating at
400 kV.
Early developments witnessed the different generating voltages and unit sizes.
Generating unit sizes up to 1300 MW are in service, which was made operational in 1973 at
Cumberland station of the Tennessee Valley Authority. The maximum generating voltage in
advance countries are 33 kV. In India, it is 21 kV and the highest unit size is 500 MW. The
growth of unit sizes was possible only after the interconnection and better cooling systems of
generators.
The ac transmission systems was again challenged by high-voltage de (HVDC)
transmission system in 1954 when Swedish Power Board energized 60 mile, 1 00-kV de
submarine cable between Baltic island of Gotland and Swedish mainland. With the advent of
mercury valves in early 1950s, HVDC transmission system became economical for long-
distance transmission. The development of new solid-state technology, HVDC has become
even more attractive. Today, numerous installations with voltages up to 800-k V de have
become operational in the world. The de transmission may be advantageous to ac
transmission for more than 500 km for overhead line and 50 km for underground cables. In
India, 500-k V HVDC transmission from Riband to Dadri is operational.
In 1998, a high voltage synchronous machine, called powerfonner that is suitable for
direct connection to the high-voltage network without any step-up transformer, is launched.
The rating of first powerformer was 45 kV, 42 MVA. One turbo machine rated at 136 kV,
42 .MVA and one hydro machine rated at 155 kV, 75 MVA are installed in Sweden.
1.2 BASIC STRUCTURE QF THE POWER SYSTEM
ov ada p v r stem i c mpl int r nn ct d and ary in iz
large amount o el tri al n rgy i g n ra e in thermal hy r
po r tat1on al o call d onventi nal l tri en . m
ctri nucl ar
ount of 1
11 d g n r t d thr u h non-e e ti na1 ourc of n rgy. i p r i al
a it mit 1 pollution. G n 111t d 1 tri p r i transmitt d to h
po r supply n t rk con i ting of tran mi ion line- tr n form r
Tran mi ion n rks ar comm nly cla sift d int ~ ur pa : Iran mi ion
ubtran mi ion yst m prima di tri ution y t m and nda di tri uti n y t m.
3
r.
t m
a n purp e o tr mi i . y t i to co n ct or n -r tin t f n
and lo d ntr in th y t ithout upplyin ny c n urn r n rout . Th n r in
olta ar normally b h en 11 kV an du t hnical p bl m uch h atin
and in ul tion probl -m nd ar t pp d up ith h lp o n r tin tran form r . t th
c nn th g n rat r and tran mi ion lin . g n r ti tran mi ion y t m
ar n c 11 bulk uppl l m. e int r onn - t d tran mj ion t a t - r a
r gi n i ailed the grid t t or r ion. tat ids ar 1nt rc . nn t d ith h lp ti lin
and {! nn th r . ional d.
In India po r y tern in m t of th stat ar o ne and r t d y t t
1 tri ity B ards ( B ) h 'ch - n ra tran mit and di tri u p r ithin h t t
t rritory. addition to hi h ar c ntroll d by r p cf t t emm nt a
pri at sector utiliti o rat in th m tropolitan citi lik un1bai lkat . n1 da ad
tc. . i e R ional 1-ctri i oards B am 1 B outh m t ~
REB ast m REB and orth-Ea tern B in grat d operati n th
r gional po r y t m . h r p n ibili o ar to r i p
integr t d op ra ion am n th utiliti in the r io coordinat th maint nan
detennin th a ailability of p r o int r- tat u iliti n r p e {be the raf o
ch dul and d t rmin uit bl tari f; r th int r-utility h er. Th nam-
tate in ch B ar i n in bl 1.1 d bl 1. ho th in 11 d ap ity n
n rgy g n ration o B .
abl 1.1
h ndi arh
Delhi
Har an
Him h 1 Pr d h
Jammu hmir
Pun b
R j th n
tt r Pr c h
tt r n h .. I
hh ti h rh
Dad r agar
Ha lli
Damn
Go
ujar t
.
tU
adhya Pr d h
h r htr
B
ndhr
rna taka
K I
had -p
Pondi h rry
amj] adu
nmn

1 r
h r
Jh rkh nd
enl
run h I
r d h
am
.
an1pur
.
ghala
m
I nd
npur
4 Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution
Table 1.2 Region-wise Installed Capacity (in MW) as on 31-12-2000
Thennal
Region Hydro Steam Gas Diesel Nuclear Wind Grand total
NREB 8321.73 14774.50 2807.50 14.99 11 30.00 4.25 27052.97
WREB 4265.18 20526.50 4807.00 17.48 860.00 300.48 30776.64
SREB 9163. 19 11612.50 1578.90 581. I 2 910.00 913.90 24759.61
EREB 2297.72 13197.38 190.00 27.50 0.00 1.10 15713.70
NEREB 675.69 330.00 708.50 75.24 0.00 0.00 1789.43
All India 24723.51 60440.88 10091.90 760.35 2900.00 1219.73 100136.37
State sector 21 623.50 36092.00 2276.00 534.81 0.00 57.20 60583.51
Private sector 456.00 3871.00 3396.90 225.54 0.00 1162.53 9112.35
Central sector 2644.01 20477.50 4419.00 0.00 2900.00 0.00 30440.51
Source: Annual Report, Ministry of Power, 2000-01.
In addition to the electric organization described above, there are some Central
Government Organization such as National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), National
Hydro Power Corporation (NHPC), Nuclear Power Corporation (NPC), Damodar Valley
Corporation (DVC), Bhakhara Beas Management Board (BBMB), etc., which operate large
thermal, hydro and nuclear. power plants and supply bulk power to the other electric utilities
for transmission and distribution. Power Grid Corporation is responsible for bulk power
transmission through Extra High Voltage (EHV) transmission lines besides the SEBs. Northern
REB and Western REB have 60% share in the total installed capacity of India.
'Subtransmission' systems are used to transmit power to large consumers. It is very
difficult to distinguish subtransmission system from the main transmission system. In India,
we supply power to large consumers at 132 kV and 66 kV Moreover, 132-kV systems come
under transmission system. In early days when the transmission voltage was not high, lower
voltages were used for transmission. Due to system expansion and increase in voltage level
of transmission system, the lower voltage transmission systems are termed as
subtransmission systems.
Energy is often converted into electrical form which is used in the form of beat, light
and mechanical energy. Utilization of power is restricted to low voltage only. Before feeding
the powers to consumers, the transmission voltages are stepped down\ and is
transmitted over distribution lines. Distribution systems are further divided into 'two parts, viz.,
primary and secondary distribution systems. Subtransmission systems form the link between
the main receiving station and the secondary substation. At the secondary substations, the
voltage is stepped down and power is fed into the primary distribution system, which feeds
power to medium large consu_mers at distribution voltage higher than 400 V. It is normally
33 kV, 25 kV, 11 kV and 6.6 kV in India. The secondary distribution feeders supply
residential and commercial at 400 V. Distribution systems have the largest share in
power system network.
Figure 1.1 shows the basic elements of modern power system. Every power system
network need not necessarily have all the components. In some cases, there is only one level
of' transmission, where a secondary transmission does not exist.
(GS
Tie lin
Larg
customers
Medium large
custom rs
(GT)
G nerating syst m
(GS)
21 kV
Generating transformer GT)
Interconnect d transmission
and transform tion
400 kV
220 kV
132 kV
Subtransm_ission system
66kV
Primary distribution
33 V 25 kV, ll kV
Secondary distribution
400 v
Small customers 4 /230 V
igure 1. t Structure of power syst m.
1.3 OUTLINE OF THE irEXT
Introduction S
G
(GT II kV
ie rn
custom rs
Small eneratin
unit
edium large
custom rs
Chapter 1 starts with a brie hi tory of power systems' evolution and describes the tructur
of power system with emphasis on Indian po r systems that includ s th organizational
structur s oltage levels installed capacitie etc.
6 Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution
In Chapter 2, different electric energy sources, such as wind power, solar power, fuel
cells, tidal power, biogas power, etc., are explained. The conceptual working principles of
conventional sources of electric power generation are also discussed. The other sources of
electric power generation, such as cogeneration, combined heat and power have also been
introduced. Demand of di stributed generation is increasing nowadays and a concept of
distributed generation along with its advantages are explained in this chapter.
The fundamentals of electric power and phasor notation are described in Chapter 3,
which is useful to the students and also being used throughout book_. Most of the
analysis of power system is done on the per unit basis and a detail description along with
numerical examples and problems are presented in this chapter.
Chapter 4 elaborates the different factors, load curves those are normally used in power
system planning and operation. Power factor is one of the important issues in ac power
supply and hence concept of power factor along with the economics of power factor
correction has been explained. Importance of interconnection and tariff structure are also
described in this chapter.
Chapters 5- 8 are devoted to detail descriptions of steam power plants, hydroelectric
plants, nuclear power plants and gas power plants, respectively. Starting with the operating
cycle of steam power plant, main parts and their working functions are explained in
. .
Chapter 5. Chapter 6 discusses the site selection, hydrology, classification and components of
hydroelectric plants, classification of turbines, etc. Concept and description of pumped
storage plants are also given in this chapter. Nuclear power plant with pros and cons of
generation is described in Chapter 7. Effects of radiation and safety of nuclear reactor are also
explained in this chapter along with the nuclear power program in India. Description of open
cycle, closed cycle and combined cycle power plants are given in Chapter 8. Microturbines
along with integrated gasification combine cycle plants are explained in this chapter.
Chapter 9 describes the concepts and detail calculations of line parameters,
such as inductances and capacitances. Skin and proximity effects along with various
theorems those are useful in the calculation of inductances and capacitances are also
presented in this chapter. Chapter 1 0 is devoted to the performance analysi s of overhead
lines. Starting with the calculation of line constants, different equivalent models are used for
calculation of regulation and efficiency. Different compensation schemes of the line are also
explained, in this chapter, to improve the performance of the line. Chapter 11 discusses the
insulators for the overhead lines along with the string efficiency and methods to improve it.
Mechanical design of transmission lines including the sag and tension calculations, effect of
wind and ice loadings, stringing chart, sag template, and conductor vibrations and dampers
are explained in Chapter 12. In Chapter 13, corona and radio interference are discussed with
examples.
Chapter 14 describes the insulated cables including the grading and calculation
of capacitances. Dielectric loss and faults in cables are also discussed in this chapter. HVDC
transmission and flexible ac transmission systems (FACTS) have been explained, in detail,
in Chapter 15. Starting with the comparison of HVDC to HVAC, the different HVDC
links and analysis of converter/ inverter systems have been presented in this chapter.
Fundamental concepts of FACTS technology along with various devices are also explained in
Chapter 15.
lntrodu tion 7
ompari ons of variou transmi sion and di tribution ys ms ar done in hapt r 6 ~
alculation of suitabl conductor ize u ing the K I in la s di cussed ith it
shortcomings. Diffi rent typ of distributo and ubmain ar al o plain d in thi ch pter.
hapter 17 describ s th different type o subs tat on along ith their m ri and d m rit .
Different type of grounding systems ar describ d in apter 18.
Sources
En
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The consumption of electric energy in residential, commercial and industrial sector is
increased in many folds, all over the world, due to its several advantageous features. Limited
fossil fuels resources and their impact on environment, several countries have started to
explore the alternative types of energy sources. Sources of electric energy are generally
classified into two categories: conventional and non-conventional energy sources.
Conventional energy sources include coal, diesel, water, gas and nuclear. On the other hand,
non-conventional energy sources are wind, solar, fuel cells, tidal, biogas, etc., which are free
of operating cost, pollution free and inexhaustible. These are also called renewable energy
sources.
2.2 WIND POWER
Wind power is being used since very early days in different applications such as in ships, in
agriculture purpose, etc. The exploitation of wind power, at present, is increasing due to high
price of oil and fast depleting of oil, gas and coal deposits. The another concern is
environmental problem that arises with the conventional source of energy. Wind energy is
plentiful, inexhaustible and pollution free but great drawback on the utilization arises from
both the intermittence and unreliability. Denmark was the first country to use wind for the
generation of electricity.
8
choice of indmills site dep nds on s vera fa tors uch as indy area scatter d
population cheap r to grid lectricity cost du to transmis ion te. It is mor suitabl n ar
co tal and remote ar as. The great advantag of indmill i t at they may be in tal d in
any locality wher th topographical and m teorological conditions are suitable and r quire no
outsid . upplies for it operation e cept for a stand-by battery and lubricatin oiL
Th output po er of indmill can be gi en by
De lop d po er P = 2. 14 x 10-
3
dv
3
kW 2. 1)
h r A = e pt by th indmill, d = wind d nsity of air and = -ind v city in
mile/hour.
Windmills or ind energy convert r con rt ind pow r to lectrical po r. ypi I
sy t m rang from 30 kW for indi idual unit to 1.5 for wind farms o multipl unit .
ub h ight ar around 0 m tre and rotor diamet rs ar 65 m tr . Rotor con truction i
eith r ariable blad angl . or non-variable and conver ion from mechanical to 1 ctrical
energy is ia ither synchronous or induction generators. Synchronous gen rator are
equipp d with puis width modulated conve rs and control for thes conv rter are ti 1
for r ulating th b haviour of windmill on the lectric grid. Windmills ar oft n in tall d in
group or ind farms and are seldom used in isolation. disad antage o . ind p r i it
irr gularity thi further complicates the connection to pow r grids.
ost of ind turbines d signed for production of electricity ha e consi ted o a -
or thr -blad d prop 1 er rotating around a horizontal is. Figure 2.1 ho a typic 1 in
turbin . Efficiencies of different types of wind turbin are shown in igure 2.2.
+----- Wind direction
Figure 2.1 Wind turbine syst .m.
10 Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution
0.6 Ideal efficiency for propeller type
of
0.5
0.4
American multi-blade
0.3
type
Efficiency
Savonius rotor
Darrieus rotor
0.2
0.1
,.,._ Dutch four-arm
type
0
I 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ratio of blade tip speed to wind speed
Figure 2.2 Typical performances of wind machine.
The cost of a wind turbine is around 1000 $/kW and electrical efficiency is around
25%. Footprint size is in the order of 0.01 kW/m
2
and operating cost is between 4 to
12 cents/kWh.
Following are disadvantages of windmills:
1. Blow down of towers due to hurricane or typhoon
2. High acoustic noise level
3. Electromagnetic interference with metal blades
4. Requires energy storage batteries
5. Low-energy density.
India ranks fifth in the world with a total wind power capacity of 1080 MW out of which
1025 MW have been established in commercial projects.
2.3 SOLAR POWER
Conversion of solar power energy to electrical energy has been technically possible since the
late 1930s. The main problem in solar power energy is its availability. The solar power, which
falls upon the whole earth, is of the magnitude of 1. 77 x 10
14
kW. The rate at which solar
energy reaches the earth's atmosphere (approximated to be 15 km from the earth's surface at
sea level) is known as solar constant. Mathematically, solar constant is expressed as
Solar constant = 1200 kcall(m
2
-h) = 1.39 kWb/(m
2
-h)
11

When the un pa thr ugh th atm sph r part of th sun r diation i r fl ct d
catt r d and ab orb d by h ating air ~ u t. and by aporatin v t r. h . 1 r p r
d n iti a the urfa of e rth d pend p n the un po ition and upon the larity and
humidi of the atmo ph . Jlo in are ral i tin t application o olar po

p c and
c ll tor a
at r ti g in d me ti and c m rcial buildings . . photo ol tai
ho n in i e 2.3
Large-seal h at c 11 ion r n ration of 1 ctricity
Th chemical and hi logical con r ion o

organtc
a us fu
Dom tic lightin
tJi t lightin
Vill 1 trifica on
Wat r pumping
D alination o alty t r
ow ring of r mot t 1 communicati n fi p at r t tion
Ra 1 ay i al .
Fl tin al e
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
t
I
I
I
I
f
Hot wat r outl t
'-. C J t r inl t
~ . - . .. ~ - -
t r
t n
1

I
I

I
I
ater irculatin

ptp
a rial to liquid
un -
Glas o r
Ia k pip n
bl c pi t .
Fi ure 2.3 ol r ter-h ting rr em nt.
lid an .
In i am untri ith lon da and pl nty of un hin p ially in th
Tbar D re ion. hi zon ha ing abundant olar n r a ail bl i uit bl r
h in n rgy or a umb r of applicati n . In th a with imilar int n ity f
olar radiati n lar n r y c uld b il ham . lar h rmal n r y i b in u d in
Indi for h ating ater for both indu trial and dom tic purp 14 - int t d I r
p r pl nt i lann d t t u in J dhpur but th initial p n in rr d i till ry hi h.
Fi ur 2.4 h .ch matic dia am fa lar . r pl t.
olar n r y an al o b u d t our I tricity r quir . nt . Tbr u h 1 r
ph t It ic 1l 1 radi ti n t n rt int l tri it i tly. hi
12 Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution
Solar pond Separator
Pump
t--+---1 Evaporator
Heat exchanger
Soft water
intake
Turbine
Generator
Condenser
Soft water
discharge
Figure 2.4 Schematic diagram of a solar power plant.
electricity can either be used as it is or can be stored in the batteries. This stored electrical
energy then can be used at night. SPV can be used for a number of applications. If the
means to make efficient use of solar energy could be found, it would reduce our dependence
on non-renewable sources of energy and make our environment cleaner.
2.4 FUEL CELLS
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel directly
and very efficiently into electricity de and heat, thus doing away with combustion. The
most suitable fuel for such cells is hydrogen or a mixture of compounds containing
hydrogen. A fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two electrodes. Oxygen
passes through one electrode and hydrogen through the other, and they electrochemically
react to generate electricity, water, and heat. Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run down
or require recharging. It produces energy in the form of electricity and heat as long as fuel is
supplied.
Hydrogen fuel is fed into the anode of the fuel cell. Oxygen (or air) enters the fuel cell
through the cathode. Encouraged by a catalyst, the hydrogen atom splits into a proton and an
electron, which take different path to cathode. Proton passes through the electrolyte. The
electron creates a separate current that can be utilized before they return to the cathode, to
be reunited with the hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule of water. A fuel cell system, which
includes a fuel reformer, can utilize the hydrogen from any hydrocarbon fuel from natural gas
to methanol, and even gasoline. Since the fuel cell relies on the chemistry and not on
combustion, the emissions from this type of a system would still be much smaller than the
emissions from the cleanest fuel combustion processes.
The type of electrolyte used characterizes fuel cells; examples include alkaline, proton
exchange membrane, phosphoric acid, molten carbonate and solid oxide. Produced heat fuel-
cell efficiency, when electrolytes are operated between 80 and 1 000C, can range between

Sources of Electric Energy 13
35-65%. The heat produced by an electrolyte can be utilized to raise the efficiency of fuel
cell to over 80%. Target capital cost (assuming large volume manufacturing) ranges from
800 to 1300 $/kW and footprint size ranges from 1 to 3 kW/m
2
. Operating cost is estimated
between 8 and 10 cents/kWh and emissions of NOx gases are extremely low at
0.003- 0.03 lb/BTU. Fuel cells are typicaJly aimed at single-instalJation site that require
between 50 and 1000 kW, e.g. high-rise office buildings, hospitals, schools, hotels, etc.
However, new small fuel cells are available for residential purposes at about 5- 10 kW.
Figure 2.5 shows the typical operation of fuel cells.

6) _
Fuel Anode
catalyst
e

Electric circuit

-
H H + :- .;:: +
...,., IQI l.- "'""""'
." .. . . -- :""1'\. , ; -
Polymer .,
electrolyte
0 - .-
membrane

0.,
:. >,f
_.


-
' Cathode catalyst
Figure 2.5 Fuel cell.
Though fuel have been used in space flights, and combined supplies of heat and
power, electric vehicles are the best option available to dramatically reduce urban air pollution.
Compared to vehicles powered by the internal combustion engine, fuel cell powered vehicles
have very high-energy conversion efficiency, (almost double that of currently used engines)
and near-zero pollution, C0
2
and water vapour being the only emissions. Fuel-cell-powered
EVs (electric vehicles) score over battery operated EVs in terms of increased efficiency and
easier and faster refuelling.
Fuel-cell systems are excellent candidates for small-scale decentralized power
generation. Fuel cells can supply combined heat and power to commercial buildings,
hospitals, airports and military installations at remote locations. Fuel cells have efficiency
levels up to 55% as compared to 35% of conventional power plants. Fuel-cell systems are
modular (i.e. additional capacity can be added whenever required with relative ease) and can
be set up wherever power is required.
2.5 TIDAL POWER
The tides offer a source of energy because of the potential energy of raised tide water or the
kinetic energy of tidal stream. The originating source of tidal energy is in kinetic energy of
the orbiting and rotating earth, moon and 1 sun. The water on earth rises and falls due to
14 Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution
changing gravitation force. To date, there has been little development of tidal projects despite
the fact that these schemes are quite attractive. There are at least three ways in which tidal
energy might conceivably be harnessed (Figure 2.6).
Tidal
stream:..---
(a) (b)
R
_____ _i.
(c)
Figure 2.6 Tidal power.
The one way of harnessing the tidal energy is simply to place a water wheel in a tidal
stream as shown in Figure 2.6(a). It is analogous to using a water wheel in the river and is
not suitable for electric generation due to variability of the tidal stream flow. This scheme can
be used for pumping water or milling grain.
In the second scheme, as shown in Figure 2.6(b ), a large floating object such as a
barge is raised by an incoming tide; it is constrained by pilings. It can be then held and'\
dropped later or allowed to fall with the tide to-drive the electric generator.
Third choice, as shown in Figure 2.6(c), is to build a low dam across the mouth of a
bay or a tidal estuary. As the tide comes in, gates are opened and water flows into the bay or
estuary. After the high tide the gates are closed. During the off tide the stored water can be
used for electricity generation. The weight of water (W) stored behind the dam from high-
tide level to low-tide level is RSp, where R is the tidal range in metre, S is the average
surface area of storage reservoir and p is the density of water. As R changes with the
discharge of water, the annual energy can be obtained by taking the average value. The
available energy is
1 1
E = - RW = -R
2
Sp
2 2
(2.2)
The average power can be obtained by dividing E by time (1). The basic problem with the
development of tidal power projects is the requirement of huge capital cost. Following are
criterions for selecting the site for tidal power projects:
The tidal range R should be large.
The storage area should be large.
The site should allow the development of the necessary plant for reasonable cost.
It should be environmentally acceptable.
2.6 GEOTHERMAL POWER
The heat from the interior of the earth is a huge potential sourc of natural n rgy that can
b us d for the g neration of electricity. Th h at is tapped through w lis drill d much as
two miles into the earth. The bas c principle of geothennal generation is that steam i used to
driv th turbine as in th nnal plant fuelled by Uranium or by fo sil fuel. The ftrst important
generation of geothermal lectric power cam in Larderello, Italy in 1904 for lighting a w
bulbs. Italy and Geysers area of San Francisco, USA are the largest geothennal produci __
regions in the world. Figure 2. 7 shows the typical geothennal power plant at the Geysers.
Cooling water
out
Condenser
Boiler
feed pump
Main turbine
/
Turbin
/ for feedpump
drive
Generator
Liquid
heating
Well water
ll
water
Reinjection pump
einjection well
'
Boil rand
superheating
Superb ted
well water
Deep-wen
pump
igure 2. 7 Typical geothermal power plant.
rna n advantage of geothermal power are that it is nvironm ntally cl an and
requires I ss space compared to hydro and solar power. The major pot ntial probl ms ar th
possible destructi effi ct of contaminated wastewater and lad subsidence. It releases large
amount o waste heat to the environment.
2.7 BIOMASS POWER
Biomas , a form of chemical energy, is a renewable energy resource derived from the
carbonaceous waste of various human and natural acti itie . It is d ri d from num rous
sourc s including the by-products from the timber industry agricultural crops raw mat rial
from the forest major parts of household waste and wood. Biomass do s not add carbon
16 Electric Power Generation. Transmission and Distribution
dioxide to the atmosphere as it absorbs the same amount of carbon when consumed as a
fuel. Its advantage is that it can be used to generate electricity with the same equipment or
power plants that are now burning fossil fuels. Biomass is an important source of energy and
the most important fuel worldwide after coal, oil and natural gas. This energy is being used
for cooking, mechanical applications, pumping, power generation and transportation.
Traditional use of biomass is more than its use in modern application. In the developed
world, biomass is again becoming important for applications such as combined heat and
power generation. In addition, biomass energy is gaining significance as a source of clean
heat for domestic beating and community heating applications. In fact, in the countries like
Finland, USA and Sweden the per capita biomass energy used is higher than in India, China
or in Asia.
Biomass fuels used in India account for about one third of the total fuel used in the
country, being the most important fuel used in over 90% of the rural households and about
15% of the urban households. Instead of burning the loose biomass fuel directly, it is more
practical to compress it into briquettes
1
and thereby improve its utility and convenience of
use. Such bi omass in the dense briquetted form can either be used directly as fuel instead of
coal in the traditional chulhas and furnaces or in the gasifier. Gasifier converts solid fuel into
a more convenient gaseous form of fuel called producer gas.
Scientists are trying to explore the advantages of biomass energy as an alternative
energy source as it is renewable and free from net C0
2
(carbon dioxide) emissions and is
abundantly available on the earth in the form of agricultural residue, city garbage, cattle dung,
fi rewood, etc. Bio-energy, in the form of biogas, which is derived from biomass, is expected
to become one of the key energy resources for global sustainable development.
At present, biogas technology provides an alternative source of energy in rural India for
cooking. It is particularly useful for village households that have their own cattle. Through a
simple process, cattle dung is used to produce a gas, which serves as fuel for cooking. The
residual dung is used as manure. Biogas plants have been set up in many areas and are
becoming very popular. Using local resources, namely cattle waste and other organic wastes,
energy and manure are derived. A mini-biogas digester has recently been designed and
developed, and is being in-field tested for domestic lighting. Indian sugar mills are rapidly
turning bagasse, the leftover of the cane after it is crushed and its j uice extracted, into
generate electricity. This is mainly being done to clean up the environment, cut down power
costs and earn additional revenue. From current estimates, it can be seen that about
3500 MW of power can be generated from bagasse in the existing 430 sugar mills in the
country. Around 270 MW of power has already been commissioned and more is under
construction. It is a fact that half a kilo of dry plant tissue can produce as much as 1890
kcal of heat that is equivalent to the heat available from a quarter of kilogram of coal.
2.8 MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMIC (MHO) POWER
In magneto-hydrodynamic (MHO) generator, an ionized gas or plasma is passed through a
strong magnetic field to produce an electric potential. It is a form of heat energy to electric
I. A process of compressi ng somethi ng to form blocks of di ffer ent shapes.
t
7
o oniz gas (positi and a i i c 11 t d by m t 1
i pl t . here are number of pos ibl forms of or in r .
un t b d lop d alone or combined ith a turb n i n 1
t m r tor. igur 2. 8 sho s the bast p y ical a f on o th n rator.
egati ion
collectin pJate
Figur 2.8
orth
rna ctic
p le
South
.
rna et1c
pole
itiv

1 n
Jl tin
pi t
i r .9 ho . s the HD cycle ith st am cy I . u i . intr due o th bum r
ith th d mat rial such as potas ium hi h incr as h ondu ti ity th
th pr . tical op ration of th de i e. Th ma t defl t m 0 h . i n
Air
D olta
at d
d ir _ __._

ucJ
.
tr
h at r
um.er
igure 2.9
oolin ater
ond n r

team
g n r tor ....--t reco ery...,_-t sulphur
HD c I ith
ulphuri
jd
0

1 nc
id
th
,
.
18 Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution

plate, which get charged and produce a de electric potential. The exhaust gas passes first
through an air heater that beats out side air that has been compressed by the compressor
attached to the steam turbine. The heated air is then used in the burner. The hot exhaust gas
from MHD generator is then passed into the steam generator to drive the turbine. The steam
turbine drives both the compressor and an electric generator. The exhaust gases continue on
through a seed recovery stage where the seed is captured and fed back to burner. Since
recovery is not perfect, some make-up seeds must be added. Next, the exhaus! gas passes
through a Nitrogen and Sulphur removal stage before being released by the stack.
2.9 THERMAL POWER
Coal is the main fuel used in thermal power plants. Coal is fired to generate heat that is used
to produce steam. Steam is passed through a turbine that rotates the rotor of electric
generator to produce electricity. It is used in many countries where high-head water is not
available for power generation in hydroelectric plants. The thermal efficiency of a steam
power plant mainly depends on the choice of steam cycle. The principal equjpment of steam
power plants are the boiler, superheating, feed water heating, steam reheating, turbine and
generator. The major components of steam generating plants are shown in Figure 2.1 0.
Steam
Generator
Superheater
Turbine
Fuel Boiler
Reservoir
Condenser
Pump Pump
Figure 2.10 Major components of steam power plant.
2.10 DIESEL ENGINES
Diesel engines are used to drive the prime mover of electric generators for producing the
electricity. Diesel engines are used for two purposes: first, as a stand-by set for start up of
auxiliaries in steam and gas turbine power plants and also for emergency supply to hospitals,
hotels, factories and in other commercial units; second, as continuous power generation.
Diesel engines have several advantages such as:
high operating efficiency
no stand-by loss
-
need very little water for cooling
quick start and stop is possible
easier handling of fuel.
However it has disadvantage of high noise, air pollution.
2.11 HYDROPOWER
Hydrop r i on of th b t ch ap t and 1 an urc n r y lth u h ith bi
dam th re ar many n ir nm ntal and o i 1 pro b) m . h t rm h dr po r r e ~ r o
h p r g n rat d by con rting p t ntial nd in ti n rgy f mall
hydr 1 tric plan ar fairly common and ar u d in many untri . . ydro l ctric plant
ar - at riz d into mi ro by ro SlO k ) mini hydro from 101 k t 1 m 11
hy r fr m 1 t a ~ w ~ i. . n rmally and ydro l ctri plan
6 . Pl nt lar r than 100 k can u . ith r nducti n g n r t r or yn hron u
t r d p ndin upon th d si and t an ly i . any o th m Her plant d n t
am bu they run by flo in at r f ri r . Th y ar aJ o c 11 d run-ofri r pl nt .
: oll in are ad anta f mall- . a1 y rop r ar i ul rl in d 1 ping
c untri :
h infra tructur r manufacture of th ompon nt a hy r r y t m .g.
1 n rators tc. ists in mo t d lopin untri .
mall- . cale hydrop r i regarded a mor nvir nm ntally fa ourabl than 1 r
plant both hydro and fo ... il-p er d.
o lectricity n r tion in r mot or rural r a small- cal h dro i comp titi
ith lt rnati e mall- cal plant b d n r n . abJ n rgy or fo il fuel ..
It i pr n te bnology and th plant ar Ion 1 tin .
n ir nm ntal la affi cted by th danger of global annin h mad n r y
fron1 mall hydropower plant more relevant. These small hydropower plants can erve th
ner y n ds of r mot rural area independ ntly. Th real chall ng in a r mot ar li in
succ ful mark ting of th energy and r co rin th dues. ocal indu tr hould b
encoura d t u thi 1 ctricity or u tainable d lopm nt. It i a technolog ith
n m1 u potential bich could e ploit the wat r re ource to upply nergy to r mot rural
.
ar a ith littl ac ss to on enti na n rg ourc . It al o eliminate mo t o the n ati
n ironm ntaJ ffi ct a ciat d ith lar hydro proj t .
ar hydro plant ar d cu Jd in h pt r 6.
2.12 GAS POWER
Wh n tural a i u ed 1 for runnin po r plant it i all -d
h . om ad antag o r team plan :
It i ry . impl . It d not c n ain th boil r r t am u pl y t c . n n r
and wa te heat di po al y tern.
It ha ability t tart and take 1 ad quickly. I tart up time i only 2- minut .
typ o g turbin ar a ilabl : op n cycl and ombin d ycl . Fig r 2.11
ho th typic p n- y 1 gas pow r plant. Th d tail d ription i . i n in hapt r . A
ompari on o team and ga p r pl nt tci nci i ho n in i ur 2.12.
20 Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution
Combustion
chamber
Gas turbine
Generator
Compressor
Shaft
Air
- - - - ~ Exhaust
Figure 2.11 Steam power plant.
70
v
v
Gas plan/
>.
0
c
Q}
-
0
IE
~
-
co
E
Q}
.s::
f-
50
30
Steam plant
20
10
200
v
/
600
v
~
V'""'
v
r1
1000 1400 1800 2000
Temperature, F
Figure 2.12 Thermal efficiencies of steam and gas plant.
2.13 NUCLEAR POWER
In nuclear power plants, the heat is generated with the help of nuclear fission when a free
neutron strikes the nucleus of a fi ssile material such as uranium, thorium, etc. The plant
containing the radioactive material is called reactor or a pile. Reactor produces heat that is
used for production of electric energy via heat exchanger, turbine and generator. There are
different types of reactor with different coolants and moderators. A moderator is a substance
that causes neutrons to slow down, hence increasing their probability of interacting with
fissile nuclei. Detail description is given in Chapter 1
2.14 OTHER ENERGY SOURCES
2.14.1 Cogeneration
Cogeneration is a p1;ocess of capturing waste heat from manufacturing, industrial process or
heating or cooling systems and using it to generate electric power that can be used to run
.
Sources of Electric Energy 21
one's own equipment and can be sold to the utility company. Cogeneration is the concept of
produci'lg two forms of energy I from one fuel. One of the forms of energy must always be
heat and the other may be electncity or mechanical energy. In a conventional power plant,
fuel is burnt in a boi ler to gererate high-pressure steam. This steam is used to drive a
turbine, which in tum drives an alternator to produce electric power. The exhaust steam is
generally condensed to water, J,hich goes back to the boiler. Since the low-pressure steam
has a large quantum of heat, "'fhich is lost in the process of condensing, the efficiency of
conventional power plants is only around 35%. In a cogeneration plant, very high efficiency
leve)s, in the range of 75- 90%, can be reached. This is because of the low-pressure exhaust
steam coming out of the is not condensed but used for heating purposes in factories
or houses.
There are two types of cogeneration system arrangements discussed as follows.
Topping cycle. The input is first used to produce power and the exhaust heat from the
power producing prime mover is used to generate steam or used directly in heating process.
Bottoming cycle. It is reverse of the topping cycle, uti lizing waste heat from a heating
process such as an industrial fu ace, to produce electricity. Commonly waste heat is used to
produce steam in heat recovery boiler and used in turbine to produce electricity.
As cogeneration can meet oth power and heat needs, it has other advantages as well in
the form of significant cost savings for the plant and reduction in emissions of poJlutants due
to reduced fuel consumption. Even at conservative estimates, the potential of power
generation from cogeneration in India is more than 20,000 MW. Since India is the largest
producer of sugar in the world, bagasse-based cogeneration is being promoted. The potential
for cogeneration thus lies in faci lities with joint requirement of heat and electricity, primarily
sugar and rice mills, distilleries, petro-chemical sector and industries such as fertilizers, steel,
chemical, cement, pulp and paper, and aluminium.
2.14.2 Combined Heat a11d Power (CHP)

How we produce energy and them, nowadays, are concern of everybody. The concepts
of liberalization, globalization and climate change are causing people to think differently.
Internationally, the challenge is to cut greenhouse gas emissions; locally, the challenge is to
meet customers' needs flexibly and effectively. Thinking differently is not j ust about policy
but also about technology.
CHP is normally more common in cold countries where heat is more prominent in
buildings. They produce power
1
and waste heat is used for heating of the building by air or
by
1
2.14.3 Distributed Generation

Distributed, or small generation units, typically less than 30 MW, strategically located near
consumers and load centres, supports for the economic operation of the existing power
distribution grid.
22 Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution
When Thomas Edison brought the Pearl Street Power Station online to service New
York City in 1882, he was essentially following a strategy that today we would call
distributed generation. But as technology advanced it led to larger, more efficiently generating
facilities built farther and farther from the end user. Larger regional power transmission
networks delivering power to local distribution systems and finally the end users were put
into play. Over time the industry became regulated so that these changes could occur
e.fficiently without wasteful duplication of facilities and slowly, the economic role of
distributed generation became much more limited. Over the last thirty years, the cost of
building and maintaining large centralized nuclear and coal fired generating facilities has
become increasingly expensive and technology has improved their efficiency and cost of
smaller modular power generating options. Restructuring of the industry paves the way for
customers to select the optimum combinations of energy resources to fit their individual
needs.
Lately, on-site distributed power generation is being pract.ised that is reversing an almost
50-year trend towards centralized generation. As deregulation and restructuring sweeps
through the world's energy corridors, utilities and other energy service providers will see
distributed power generation as a threat or an opportunity, and will use a range of strategies
and technologies to keep old customers find new ones and boost revenues. If wisely used,
distributed power generation technologies can improve power quality, boost system reliability,
reduce energy costs, and help delay or defray utility capital investments.
Proponents of distributed generation are quick to point out the untapped market that
exists in the world with two billion people that currently have no access to electricity and
several hundred million more that have to rely on a limited, unreliable, or impossibly
expensive supply of electricity. Despite the tremendous social, economic, health and
environmental benefits of widespread access to environmentally clean electricity, many
nations are unable to maintain their current limited electrical grids and therefore afford the
cost of extending electrical capacity to service the majority of their citizens. The combined
influence of growing environmental concerns and the arrival of new distributed generation
technologies are changing both the scale of power projects and the way utilities think
about electricity. These trends give rise to important questions regarding the future providers
of electricity and the form of service will they provide. It is qecoming clear that any future
electricity generating systems, on any scale, will include distributed generation services,
concepts and technologies.
Distributed power generation in the form of turbine generators, internal combustion
engine generators, microturbines, photovoltaic solar panels, wind turbines and fuel cells,
provides electric power at a site closer to customers than the central station and can be
connected either directly to the consumer or to a utility's transmission or distribution system.
Systems in use today provide a multitude of services to utilities and consumers, including
generation, peak shaving capability, base load generation or cogeneration. As
technology advances, distributed power will provide economic and environmental benefits
well into the 21st century.
New opportunities exist for electric utilities and their customers. The future of electric
power lies in distributed generation- thousands of small power systems in industrial and
commercial facilities, working together as 'virtual power plants, . In such applications, diesel
2
and ga ngin n r tor set of r th b n fi f lo in t 11 d co t hi h ffi i ncy at full
or partial load r liability fuel fl ibility and h at r co . ery pot ntial.
Applications
olio in are th chief ar a or distribut d n ration:
Standby power. or custom rs that cannot t I rat interruption of rvic , r ith r
public h alth or safi ty reasons or h re ut e cost ar un cc ptably hi h t ndb
generator in taU d at ho . pitals at r pumping tation and lectronic dep ndent facilitie
uch as s rv r fanns fill the bilL
Combined heat and power.
amount of h at locating a po
combin d heat and pow r ( HP
sy t m ffici ncy.
inc all po r g neration t chnologi s produce a great
r g nerator n ar a cu tom r s site ill a1lo th u o
or cog n ration applications. Thi i ignificantly incr asin
Peak shaving. Typica ly pow r co. ts fluctuate hour-by-hour depending upon demand and
n ration availability. H re, hourly variation ar convert d into s a onal and daily time-of-

u rat cat gories u h a n-p a o -peak or hould r rat s. u om r u o
distributed n ration during r lati ely hi h-cost on-peak i refl rr d to as peak ha ing. ak
. ha ing ben fits energy pro ider h n nergy costs approach high pri .
Grid support. Th po er grid is a ompl . , int rat d network of n ration of high-
vol ag tran mi ion. It function a sub tation and lo al distr bution networks. trat gic
plac -m nt of di tributed g-n rat on can pro id ys m b n fits and ne ates the n d for
p n i up dation to th grid.
Stand-alone.. tand- /on di tributed en ration i olat
from th rid ith r b c oic or by ir um tanc .
r quirin ti h c ntrol n the qualit of th I tri po
man f: turin .
Technologies
the u r
u h ppli
r deli re
in r mote lo ati n .
ti n includ u r
in comput r- hip
Reciprocating engines. Tb mo t comm n form of dt tribut d g n ra ion t chnoJo y
avalabl today i r iprocating nt mal c mbu tion I engin s fuel d by natural a . Th y
ffi r 1 co t a y tart-up pro n reliability hi 1 ad foil in haract ri tic and h at
r co ry potential. mi i n from n ine ha b n i nific ntly r du in th 1 t fe
ar .
Combustion turbines. ombu tion turbin ) ar an tabli b d te hnolo a ailabl
in iz ron1 e ral hundr d kilo att to hundr d o m ga atts. h y an b et to
bum natur 1 a r dual-fu I. . h mbination f Io maint nan e co t an hi h- u lit
a t -h at m k th m an c II nt choi or in u rial nd o er ial p lie ti n lar. r
th n 5
24 Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution
.
Microturbines. Microturbines with outputs of 30-200 k W are nowadays catching the
eyes of technology-driven marketers. Recent developments of microturbines have focussed
on the hybrid electric vehicle market, but is quickly becoming a technology of interest as a
stationary power source for commercial buildings or light industrial markets for cogeneration
or power-only markets.
Fuel cells. Fuel cells producing electrochemical power similar to a battery are also be-
coming popular in the distributed-generation (DG) market. Several different liquid and solid
media can be used to create the fuel cell's electrochemical reaction. Fuel cells are inherently
quiet and extremely clean source of energy. At the moment the high costs of fuel cells make
them best suited to environmentally sensitive areas with power quality concerns. They are
being aimed at small corrunercial and residential markets as well as in industrial cogeneration
applications.
Photovoltaics. Photovoltaic power cells use solar energy to produce power and can be-
sited anywhere the sunshines, making them suitable in sensitive environment areas and for
remote applications. High costs make them a niche technology, but a lot of development
work is being done in this area, so costs are expected to decrease in the future.
Opportunities
With the worldwide electricity consumption expected to reach 22 trillion kilowatt hours, by
2020, largely due to growth in developing countries without nationwide power grids, there is
no doubt about the importance of the distributed generation market. The projected distribution
generation capacity associated with the global market is conservatively estimated at
20 gigawatts per year over the next decade. As utility restructuring sets in, the financial
burden of new capital .investments will shift from consumers to energy suppliers along with
capacity additions.
This favours less capital-intensive and shorter construction schedules. The
opening up of new energy marketplaces has increased pressure on energy suppliers to
multiply the capacity to meet growing demand of consumers during outages. Customer
concerns over reliability have escalated, particularly in the manufacturing sector. With the
increased use of sensitive electronic components, the need for high-quality power supplies is
of paramount importance.


iples

GSIC
3.1 INTRODUCTION
onnally during steady state po r sy t rn olta es and curr nts are balanced thre -phas
sinusoidal in natur . f the supply i balanced single-pha e analysis i uitable. In de upply
power the calculation of power is sirnpl it has only real-pow r compon nt how ver in
ac supply it has both r a1 and reactive po ers.
3.2 EL C RICAL POWER
onsider a single-pha circuit as shown in igure 3 .1. The in tantaneous voltage and curr nt
can b written as
= V. sin {i)/
rna
3.1)
and
i = lm in (JJ/ - t/J 3.2)
wh r ro - 2rcf i in radian/ nd 1/J is th - pha an le or po r a t r an 1 ith r p ct
to olta r ~ r nc hich i p itj h n olta 1 ad urr nt and rna . and lma . are th
r al numb r call d th amplitud r p ak alue o ol ag and curr nt r pecti ly
2

26 Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution
+
v
.
I ""
...
Network
Figure 3.1 Power into one-port network.
The transmitted instanteneous power (p), to one-port network, which is defined as the rate
change of energy, can be written as
p =vi = Vmax/max sin(cot)sin(mt-tf>) = Vmax/max [cos-cos(2cot - tf>)) (3.3)
2
From Equation (3.3), it is seen that p has two parts: a component and a
sinusoidal component of frequency 2m. Figure 3.2 shows the relationship among p, ' and i.
From this figure it is observed that the average power is positive; but it can be posaive,
negative or zero. The power consumed in resistive element is positive, however, it is zero in
1---current i - - - voltage v ---power pI










,

,
. ,






. '





timet
Figure 3.2 Instantaneous power.
pure inductance or pure capacitance. In active network, power may be negative. The average
power P over one period, T = 2n/ co, can be defined as
1 T v I
p = - f pdt = max max COSt/>
T
0
2
(3.4)
In all applications, generally, P is used rather than p. Cosine of phase angle is known as
power factor. In ac power, leading and lagging power factors terminology are used. In a

d cription 1 a dr 1 att po'li'Qr fa or of 0. 7 7 1 g ing ', m ans curr nt la s
It by n 1 tan-
1
0.707 . h an I qu 1 t
0

.
I
3.3 PHASOR OTATION
sing 11
.
10 ul r numb r
= o ((J)t ) j in (J)t +
3.5
th urr nt-time un ion i an ritt n in 11 in nn
i = Im [1
m
{J)I jml
3.6)
The curr nt ph r I an b d fin th ompl numb -r
In abbr i t d form th pha r i
[ = .7)
.
. h ro t m an quar or
I
... 1
lu ha or I ill b qual t I m I . an
ph ill b . Ph o ar d not db capi I I t r nd dul u i I y
nn a)u h r in .. lu th e lu u d. 1 pha lu i
n nnally r . r nt d in degr llo'-411o .... d.
3.4 REAL AN
From qua i n .4 the a
u ful p r and gr atl
rag po r hjcb i al o kno n as a ti or real p er is th
p nd n th po er a or. It n b ri tt n in term of rm
alu o urr nt . nd lta
(3.
p = vJJ II[ o OJI - lP )
=I
I
II -I
III [ c
2wt

rot inl/>] n
=l
I
II 0
t/>[1- c 2rot
- f II I 1 sin q,
in 2wt
(3.9
v
,
a b
h in t n
1po- . int o compon -nt . Fir t compon nt,
-
l
(ll
l l I
- ll.ll l (Qll G.ll Q
l ' l f l
) UtiUl0ll
S.N. SINGH, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of
Electrical Engineering at the Indian Institute of
Technology Kanpur. Earlier, he taught at
University of Roorkee lnow liT Roorkee), Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, and
was associated with Energy Program at the
Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok. His
research interests include power system
restructuring, FACTS, power system
optimization and control, security analysis,
power system planning, ANN and GA
applications to power system problems and
transient stability.
ISBN 81- 203-2192- 8
9 788120 321922
arrn
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