FUNCTIONALLY GRADED

MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
A new class of composite materials known as functionally
graded materials (FGMs) has drawn considerable attention of
the scientific community.

FGMs exist in nature like wood, bamboo, etc. Even human
bones are also FGM.

The aircraft and aerospace industry and the computer circuit
industry make wide use of FGM that can withstand very high
thermal gradients. This is normally achieved by using a
ceramic layer connected with a metallic layer.
FUNCTIONALLY GRADED MATERIALS: AN
OVERVIEW
FGMs are composite materials in which the composition or
microstructure or both are locally varied so that a certain
variation of the local material properties is achieved.

In FGMs, the different micro-structural phases have different
functions. The overall FGMs attain the multi-structural status
from their property gradation.

A typical FGM, with a high bending/stretching coupling effect
is an inhomogeneous composite made from different phases of
material constituents (usually ceramic and metal).




FUNCTIONALLY GRADED MATERIALS
Functionally Graded Materials can be defined as multi phase
composites (generally two-phase particulate composites such
as ceramic and metal alloy phases), synthesized such that they
possess continuous spatial variations in volume fractions of
their constituents to yield a predetermined composition profile.

These variations lead to the formation of a non-homogeneous
macrostructure with continuously varying mechanical and/or
thermal properties in one or more than one directions.

The microstructure of FGM is generally heterogeneous and the
dominant type of failure in FGM occurs from crack initiation
and growth from inclusions.
FGM STRUCTURE
The composition and microstructure of FGM vary in
space following a predetermined law. The gradual change
in composition and microstructure gives place to a
gradient of properties and performances.
COMPARISON TO TRADITIONAL
COMPOSITE
1984-Sendai Group proposed a concept of FGM (Nino,
Koizumi and Hirai).
1985-Establishing the concept of FGM.
1986-Investigation and Research conducted for FGM (with
Special Coordination Funds for Promoting science and
Technology).
1987-Launching a National Project called FGM Part I (with
Special Coordination Funds for Promoting science and
Technology) (to be ended in March 1991); Title of Research
was Research on Generic Technology of FGM
Development for Thermal Stress Relaxation; The 1
st
FGM
Symposium was held.
1990-The First International Symposium on Functionally
Graded Materials was held in Sendai, Japan.


BRIEF HISTORY OF FGM
BRIEF HISTORY OF FGM
A combination of materials used would serve the
purpose of a thermal barrier capable of withstanding a
surface temperature of 2000 K and a temperature
gradient of 1000 k across a 10 mm section.
In recent years this concept has become more popular
in Europe, particularly in Germany.
A transregional collaborative research center (SFB
Transregio) is funded since 2006 in order to exploit the
potential of grading monomaterials, such as steel,
aluminium and polypropylen, by using
thermomechanically coupled manufacturing processes.
CLASSIFICATION OF FGMs
FGMs may be compositionally or micro-
structurally graded.
The gradient is established through a transition
function (usually volume fraction as a function of
one or more spatial coordinates).
FGMs come in several types, depending on their
constituents (e.g. ceramic-metal, metal-metal)
TYPES OF GRADATION
Continuous Gradation
TYPES OF GRADATION
Stepped Gradation
VARIOUS TYPES OF FGMs
Ceramic-Metal
Metal-Metal/Intermetallic
Metal-Polymer
Single material (variation in porosity)
W-Cu, W-Mo, Al-Al
3
Fe

TiC-Ni, Mullite-Mo, Al-AlB
2
Al-Polycarbonate

Others:
Glass - Ceramic

Ceramic - Ceramic

ADVANTAGES OF FGM OVER CONVENTIONAL
MATERIALS

o FGM satisfies the working conditions for which it is
specifically built.

o FGM is economical as it reduces material costs for particular
engineering applications.

o FGM can reduce the magnitude of residual and thermal
stresses generated under working conditions.

o FGM exhibits enhanced fracture toughness and bonding
strength as compared to a bi-material solution. This is
normally achieved by using a ceramic layer connected with a
metallic layer.

Metal- Ceramic FGMs
Ceramic has high hardness, high resistance at
high temperatures and good corrosion
resistance.
Metallic phase has good toughness, good
weldability.
With the gradual variation of the composition,
no debonding phenomena happen between
metallic and ceramic phases.

A TYPICAL METAL-CERAMIC FGM
SOME MORE ATTRIBUTES OF FGM
High thermal resistance.
High abrasion resistance (ceramic face).
High corrosion resistance.
High impact resistance.
Weldable/boltable to metal supports.
Biological compatibility.

POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF FGM
Aerospace and aeronautics
Advanced aircraft and aerospace engines.
Rocket heat shields.
TBC.
Power plant
TBC.
Heat Exchanger tubes.
Manufacturing
Machine tools.
Forming and cutting tools.
Metal casting and forging processes.

Smart structures
Functionally graded piezoelectric materials.
Shape memory alloys.
MEMS and sensors.
Electronics and optoelectronics
Optical fibers for wave high speed transmission.
Computer circuit boards (PCB)
Cellular phone.

POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF FGM
Biomaterials
Artificial bones, joints.
Teeth.
Cancer prevention.
Others
Baseball cleats.
Razor blades.
Titanium watches.
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF FGM
Medicine
Living tissues like bones and teeth are
characterized as functionally graded material from
nature, to replace these tissues, a compatible
material is needed that will serve the purpose of
the original bio-tissue. The ideal candidate for this
application is functionally graded material. FGM
has found wide range of application in dental and
orthopedic applications for teeth and bone
replacement
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF FGM
Defense
One of the most important characteristics of
functionally graded material is the ability to inhibit
crack propagation. This property makes it useful in
defense application, as a penetration resistant materials
used for armor plates and bullet-proof vests
Energy
FGM are used in energy conversion devices. They also
provide thermal barrier and are used as protective
coating on turbine blades in gas turbine engine
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF FGM
APPLICATIONS IN AIRCRAFT INDUSTRY
Exhaust wash structure that separates exhaust gas
from aircraft structure for vehicles which have
internally exhausted engines, i.e., stealth aircraft and
UAVs with engines that dont exhaust directly to the
atmosphere.
Hot, high speed engine exhaust flows over the top
surface of exhaust wash structures which, in turn,
causes large deflections.
An FGM patch applied to the underside of the exhaust
wash structure can be designed such that thermally
induced deflection of the FGM patch is in a direction
opposite to the exhaust wash structure deflection.
FGMs have the added advantage that the metal side
can be bolted onto the airframe rather than bonded
as are the ceramic tiles used in the Orbiter.
Ceramic-metal FGMs are particularly suited for
thermal barriers in space vehicles.
Other possible uses include combustion chamber
insulation in ramjet or scramjet engines
APPLICATIONS IN AIRCRAFT INDUSTRY
APPLICATIONS OF FGM AS TBC
One of the salient applications of FGM is in Thermal Barrier
Coatings (TBC).

TBCs find their widespread applications in automotive and
aircraft industries. They are specifically designed to reduce
heat loss from engine exhaust system components
including exhaust manifolds, turbocharger casings, exhaust
headers, downpipes and tailpipes.
TBC STRUCTURE
SUITABILITY OF FGMs AS TBC
An FGM composed of ceramic on the outside
surface and metal on the inside surface
eliminates the abrupt transition between
coefficients of thermal expansion, offers
thermal/corrosion protection, and provides load
carrying capability. This is possible because the
material composition of an FGM changes
gradually through-the-thickness; therefore, stress
concentrations from abrupt changes in material
properties (i.e., coefficients of thermal
expansion) are eliminated.

OTHER APPLICATIONS
FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY
By creating a porosity gradient in the electrodes of a fuel
cell, the efficiency of the reaction can be maximized .
OTHER APPLICATIONS
NUCLEAR FUSION REACTORS
Modification to heat exchangers in Tokamak fusion reactors
Reduction of interfacial stresses
prevention of delamination
effects increase in lifetime
PROCESSING METHODS FOR FGM
Constructive processes
Powder densification processes (powder
consolidation, infiltration, liquid phase sintering,
etc.).
Coating processes (plasma spray forming, thermal
spray deposition, vapor deposition processes,
etc.).
Transport based processes
Mass transport processes (Diffusion from surface,
interdiffusion).
Settling and centrifugal separation.

MODELING OF FGM
Assuming a preset variation
The properties in FGM may be imparted any gradation like linear,
exponential, hyperbolic or reciprocal as per the requisition.
FGMs lend themselves well to being optimized for various
performance measures.
Generally rule of mixtures is employed to predict the properties of a
typical FGM.
In complex cases Halpin-Tsai equations are used to model the
properties. These take into account the volume fraction of the
inclusion phase in the matrix phase.
Other properties such as the Poisson ratio, fracture toughness and
thermal expansion coefficient follow similar trends.
Hardness of the resulting material is rather difficult to predict in
some cases.


MODELING OF FGM
MODELING OF FGM
Some researchers decided upon a basic unit to describe FGMs.
The maxel represents the smallest entity in which the composition of a
continuously graded FGM can be defined.
Pure Component B
Pure Component A
% Component A
% Component B
It is the equivalent of the build resolution in rapid prototyping processes
(quantized by voxels hence maxel is material voxel)
MULTISCALE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
There are several homogenization methods that are
commonly used to estimate the effective properties of
two-phase functionally graded materials including the
Mori-Tanaka and self-consistent schemes. These
homogenization schemes, while simple to use, are
based solely on the volume fractions of the constituent
materials. In comparison, multiscale homogenization
methods are more accurate since they take the
microstructure of the composite material into account.
Furthermore, the failure of the material can be
investigated at the microscale. The multiscale method
enables the accurate prediction of both the overall and
local material properties and stresses in FGMs.
FATIGUE/ FRACTURE OF FGM
The main applications of FGM as TBC are high temperature
applications. Thus TBCs have a high tendency to thermal
fatigue.

Design of FGM does not necessarily stem from the point of
view of strength. Hence, thermal fatigue/fracture should also
be the implied criterion so that it is structurally safe.

Thus to increase the spectrum of applications of TBC in
thermal and mechanical fields the fatigue/fracture behavior of
FGMs should be investigated.

RECENT RESEARCH TRENDS IN FGM
Lots of studies have been conducted on behavior of
functionally graded materials and the literature is very
rich on this because of the wide areas of application of
this noble material. Some of the current research traits
are:
Performance of FGM under localized transverse loading.
Fracture and fatigue behavior of FGM under different
types of cyclic loadings.
Thermoelastic behavior of FGM.
Investigation of geometric non linearity of structures
made of FGM.
There are still more to be done in terms of research to
improve the performance of manufacturing processes of
FGM.

CONCLUSIONS
Functionally graded materials are still a very recent area of
research (and thus very active). More developments in this
field are in progress and many avenues are still left to be
explored.
Recent trends in research in the area of FGM is mainly
directed towards uncovering the complex nature of fracture
mechanics due to material inhomogeneity as well as in
developing/improving forming processes so that the target
gradient is achieved with precision.
Functionally graded materials are very
important in engineering and other
applications but the cost of producing these
materials makes it prohibitive in some
applications.
Research is still on the run to bring down the
fabrication cost of these materials to broaden
the spectrum of their applications.
CONCLUSIONS