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Uranium - 235 Joint Scientific Statement

Eric Setka, Tatum Duke, Avra Saslow, Conor Nelson, Natalie Youssef, Dakota Padilla, Tony Williams

Nuclear power is a clean source of electrical energy and the United States Government should
provide incentives for the construction of new nuclear power plants throughout the United States
including the Four Corners region.



__________________________Table of
Contents__________________________
Topic/Author Page
Title and Table of Contents
1

How Nuclear Fission works - Natalie Youssef
2

The Meaning of E=mc
2
- Natalie Youssef
3

How Radioactive Materials are Mined, Milled and Enriched - Tatum Duke
4

Designs of a Light Water Nuclear Power Plant - Dakota Padilla
6

The Operating Processes of a Light Water Nuclear Power Plant - Dakota Padilla
8

Safety Risks Accompanying the Use of Nuclear Power - Avra Saslow
9

Nuclear Waste - Eric Setka
11
`
Environmental Safety and the Storage of Nuclear Waste - Tony Williams
12

Emissions From Nuclear Power Plants - Avra Saslow
13

Nuclear Power and Global Climate Change - Tony Williams
14
2

Financial Cost of Nuclear Power Generated Electricity - Conor Nelson
15

Closed Waste Cycles, and Open Waste Cycles - Natalie Youssef
17

Nuclear Fusion - Conor Nelson
18




How does nuclear fission work?
Natalie Youssef

Nuclear fission is when a heavy nucleus of an atom splits. It is the most commonly used
nuclear reaction in power generation. When a nuclear fission reaction takes place heavy nuclei
split spontaneously or on impact with another particle and release large amounts of energy.
Nuclear fission was discovered by Otto Hahn and his assistant Fritz Strassmann and was
theoretically explained in January of 1939. The large amount of energy released from this
reaction was electromagnetic radiation and kinetic energy. In order for a fission reaction to occur
and produce energy, binding energy, the mechanical energy required to separate a nuclei, must
be greater than the starting element. The released neutrons in a nuclear fission reaction hit
more uranium nuclei and release more neutrons to produce a chain reaction.

Nuclear fission is a form of elemental transmutation, which is the conversion of one type
of chemical element, or isotope, into another. For example when the neutron collides with, and
is accepted by the nucleus of uranium-235. At this point, the atom breaks into two atoms that
are less dense. When this type of reaction takes place the less dense atoms in the reaction
decay. This means that the atom has decayed and it can no longer be used in this reaction. This
process continues and more neutrons go on to gain more uranium and collide to set off more
decay.

Figure 1 provides a visual of nuclear fission. It can be seen that once fission occurs, it
triggers a chain-like reaction. In this case the parent uranium-235 atom collides with a neutron
moving at high velocity. The neutron is then absorbed into the nucleus and unstable uranium-
236 is formed. This instable atom then splits into a variety of forms of other elements. Although
this reaction started with one neutron, two or three neutrons were created. These new neutrons
can then go on to interact with other uranium-235 atoms and trigger new fission reactions. It is
because additional neutrons are created that nuclear fission is like a chain-reaction.

Figure 1: Uranium-235 atom that underwent a nuclear fission reaction
3


Sources
"The Basics of Nuclear Energy An Overview." Nuclear Energy Basics. N.p., n.d. Web.
24 Apr. 2014.
"Massenergy Equivalence." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 21 Apr. 2014. Web. 24
Apr. 2014.
"Nuclear Fission." Nuclear Fission. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
"Nuclear Fission." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 24 Apr. 2014. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.

Explain the meaning of E=mc
2

Natalie Youssef

E=mc
2
is an equation that was created in the twentieth century by physicist Albert
Einstein. This equation was derived in order to show mass and energy equivalence. The
equation shows that mass can be converted into energy and can be used to convert units
between mass and energy. However, the Law of the Conservation of Mass and the Law of the
Conservation of Energy seem to contradict this statement. The Law of the Conservation of Mass
proves that mass is always conserved, meaning that mass cannot be created or destroyed. The
Law of the Conservation of Energy states that the energy in a closed system always remains
the same. Therefore, it is challenging to grasp how mass can be converted into energy. The E
in the equation represents energy in units, the m represents units of mass, and the c
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represents the speed of light multiplied by itself. The formula of kinetic energy is shockingly
similar to Einsteins equation:



This equation is used to calculate the energy of moving objects. E represents energy.
There are many different types of energy. For example some sources of energy are electrical,
gravitational, nuclear, and stain. Although these types of energy are all very different, they can
all be measured the same way and thought of similarly. The unit used to measure energy is the
joule (J). The (m) in the equation represents the mass used. Mass can be defined as a measure
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of a bodys inertia, also known as its resistance to acceleration and the total amount of matter in
an object. Although mass is thought of as weight, it is not the same as weight. Weight is actually
a measure of the gravitational force felt by a body. While weight is measured in newtons (N), the
mass is measured in kilograms (kg). Lastly, the (v) in the equation represents the velocity.
When using one of these equations with an identical amount of energy, the higher the mass the
lower the resulting velocity, and the lower the mass the higher the resulting velocity.

Both of these equations show the relationship between mass, energy and velocity. The
main difference between these two equations is that in E=mc
2
, the velocity (speed of light)
remains constant, it is acting on the matter, not resulting from the energy (force) put on the
mass. This equation is telling us how much energy will be produced when a particular mass
travels at the speed of light.

These two equations are manifested in everyday life because most of what we call
renewable energy is the kinetic flows of matter in nature. The kinetic energy equation can be
applied to determine how much energy can be harnessed from the movement of a mass, such
as a turbine being propelled by the wind, or a watermill moved by a falling waterfall. E=mc
2

would applied to nuclear power and can used to determine how much energy is released by
particular particles moving at the speed of light.

Sources
"Understanding E = Mc2 - Energy Tribune." Energy Tribune RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 24
Apr. 2014.

How are radioactive materials for nuclear power plants mined, milled and enriched?
Tatum Duke

What are environmental and safety issues associated with the mining and refining of
nuclear fuel?
Where is uranium mined and approximately how much is available in the US? In the
World?
How much of our energy needs can uranium provide?

Mining uranium began in 1789 when scientists realized the full potential of the mineral. Crude
oil, the most efficient energy source was only creating around 45 Mj/kg while Uranium could
produce around 500,000 MJ/kg.There are three different types of Uranium mining Open Pit, In
Situ Leach, and Heap Leaching. Open Pit mining; also known as strip mining, was the first
method used to mine uranium. It consisted of the removal of surface soils to make basically
what looks like a pit. The biggest mine in the world, Laguna Pueblo, is 7,686 acres in size. An
upside to using this method of mining is that the miners are out in the open air, which bettered
the air quality that the miners were working in. The biggest downside was the footprint and
environmental hazard it created. Situ Leach mining consists of dissolving, and pumping uranium
out of loose sediment like gravel and dirt. This approach at mining is more efficient than Open
Pit because it leaves almost no footprint. This is because the process doesnt cause any major
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ground disturbances. Two major downsides to Situ Leach mining are the possible contamination
of drinking water and the disposal of radioactive wastewater that it produces. (Although, drinking
water near Situ Leach mining locations in the United States is closely observed and usually
pretty close to neutral) The last method, Heap Leach mining only uses low-grade uranium. It is
almost the same process as Situ Leach, except for the mineral is soaked in acid (or alkaline)
over many weeks. This method is harmless as long as precautions are made to ensure that no
wastewater gets into the surface water.

The milling process turns the mined ore into highly concentrated (yellow cake) uranium. First,
the ore is crushed and crumpled into smaller grains. After that, sulfuric acid or another alkaline
substance is added to the finite ore. Sulfuric acid is typically used due to the solubility of uranyl
sulfate. This pulls the uranium off of the host rock. Then, the pulp is heated multiple times to
increase the speed of the chemical reaction. The pulp is then separated from solid and liquid,
and the solids are disposed of carefully because they are still radioactive. The addition of
ammonia precipitates the remaining liquid. After that, the liquid is dewatered to create a thick
paste. Finally, the paste is moved into a furnace where it is completely dehydrated. That final
product is packaged into steel drum barrels and shipped out as yellowcake uranium

Uranium enrichment happens after the ore gets milled. The resulting yellow cake uranium is
moved into centrifuges where it is spun extremely quickly. The U 238 isotope uranium moves
upward while the U 235 moves towards the center. Sometimes, heat is used to quicken the
enrichment process.
Both uranium 235 and uranium 238 are useful so both are harvested. Normally in rock ore, the
composition of Uranium 235 to 238 is 99.3:0.7. This means that the mined ore has to be milled
and enriched to concentrate the Uranium 235 (what we use in nuclear power plants). Figure 1
below depicts the different amounts of uranium production around the world in 2010.

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Figure 1:
http://www.iaea.org/OurWork/ST/NE/NEFW/Technical_Areas/NFC/images/uranium_cycle/Topte
n_RBwp.jpg

Sources
"Conventional Uranium Mills." NRC:. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.nrc.gov/materials/uranium-recovery/extraction-methods/conventional-
mills.html>.
"NPL Site Narrative for Jackpile-Paguate Uranium Mine." EPA. Environmental Protection
Agency, n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2014. <http://www.epa.gov/superfund/sites/npl/nar1865.htm>.
"Uranium Enrichment." Uranium Enrichment. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
<http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/resources/uranium/enrichment.html>.
"Uranium Mining Overview." Uranium Mining Overview. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/uranium-mining-
overview/>.
"Uranium Producers of America." Uranium Producers of America. N.p., n.d. Web. 30
Apr. 2014. <http://www.uraniumproducersamerica.com/tech.html>.
"Uranium mining." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 30 Apr. 2014. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_mining>.
"Uranium mining in the United States." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 25 Apr. 2014.
Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_mining_in_the_United_States>.


Describe the design of a light water nuclear power plant.
Dakota Padilla

A light water reactor is most commonly either a pressurized water reactor or a boiling
water reactor both produce heat which is turned into electricity. On pressurized water reactor
the Nuclear core of the reactor is where the main reaction takes place. The reactor core is built
with a container of very thick cement to contain both radiation and the searing hot and irradiated
water in the reactor core. In the reactor core, the fuel rods go through nuclear fission, three
neutrons are shot off of one atom and they collide with other atoms forcing those atoms to go
through the same process and again and again sending the core of the reactor through a chain
reaction. The chain reaction causes heat to rise rapidly, the heat causes the primary coolant to
become hotter than steam but still remain in the form of water because the primary coolant is
pressurized at such high levels forcing the water to remain in a liquid state. The Primary coolant
and the Secondary coolant meet in the heat exchanger where the primary coolant will heat the
Secondary Coolant into steam. The secondary coolant then is forced further through tubing at
such rapid speeds and spins a turbine connected to a generator which is where the energy in a
Nuclear reactor comes from. One of two things will happen to the secondary coolant at this
point, one, the Steam will continue into a condenser and forces the secondary coolant to
become a liquid again and then the process is repeated. Water is pumped from a river, ocean,
or some other kind of natural fresh water and is used as a tertiary coolant to cool the condenser
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and is then pumped back into its source at high temperatures. Or second, the secondary
coolant or the tertiary coolant may also be sent to a cooling tower. The concave cylinder which
is usually what is imaged when someone thinks nuclear reactor. The cooling tower actually is
one of the least dangerous parts of a reactor, it is quite literally an oversized steam vent. The
tertiary coolants steam is sent up through the cooling tower released into the atmosphere while
recapturing small amounts of the water that lands on the interior walls of the cooling tower. In
some cases light water reactors cool the condenser using both methods.


A Boiling Water Reactor is a little different about its method of power. In a pressurized
water reactor it uses three different sources of water for the full process whereas a boiling water
reactor uses only two. Just like the pressurized water reactor the reactor heats the water into its
steam form though the boiling water reactor doesnt heat it to heats as extreme as a pressurized
water reactor. When the heated water turns into steam it is forced to the turbine just like the
pressurized water reactor does but it doesnt send the heat to a second source of water first.
After the steam spins the turbine, it is pushed to a condenser to be forced back into a liquid
form. The condenser is cooled with the same methods as a pressurized water reactor either an
outside source, the water used to cool the condenser is sent to a cooling tower and recycled, or
in some cases it would use both methods.

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Describe operating processes of a light water nuclear power plant.
Dakota Padilla

What is the fuel for light water nuclear reactors and what form does this fuel take?
The Fuel is
How much energy does a typical power plant produce? How many homes can this
serve?
How often fuel rods and control rods need to be replaced and how this process is
conducted?
How do power plant operators control the rate of power generation and how easy is it to
change power supply to meet demand?
What do power plant designers and operators do to ensure safety?
What is the lifespan of a typical light water reactor nuclear power plant? What is the
current status (age & condition) of the US nuclear power plant fleet?
What is the typical efficiency of a light water nuclear reactor?

Light water reactors, both PWR and BWR, are run off of Uranium 235 enriched to
approximately 3%. Heat is created when the Uranium 235 goes through fission and this heat is
the heat that is used to heat the water into steam. The average energy production of all 104
reactors in the U.S. create 11.8 billion kilowatt-hours. The reactor core fuel rods are changed
every 1 to 3 year. As of 2010 there were 104 nuclear reactors in The United States of America.
0 of which are younger the 9 years old, 3 of which are between 10 and 19 years old, 48 of the
reactors are between 20 and 29 years, 46 of them are between 30 and 39 years old, and the
last 7 are older than 40 years and still run as if it hasnt hit its expiration date. The true life
expectancy of a reactor is 30 to 40 years.
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Sources:
"Nuclear Fuel Cycle." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 22 Apr. 2014. Web. 25 Apr.
2014.
"Map of Power Reactor Sites." NRC:. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2014.


What safety risks accompany the use of nuclear power?
Avra Saslow

How much radiation is the surrounding environment subjected to from a properly
function nuclear power plant?
What risk for nuclear meltdown exists in light water reactors in the United States?
What safety features are being built into future light water reactors?
What are potential risks to nuclear power plants from events like natural disasters and
terrorist attacks?
An average nuclear power plant generates 20 metric tons of nuclear fuel, classified as
high-level radioactive waste. With every single nuclear plant on Earth taken in account for, that
generates nearly 2,000 metric tons a year. This waste emits radiation and heat, which will
eventually corrode any container that holds it. It is also highly lethal to nearby life forms. Also,
nuclear power plants produce a certain amount of low-level radioactive waste from radiated
equipment and parts. Although over time nuclear fuel decays to safer radioactive levels, this
process takes tens of thousands of years. Even low-level radioactive waste requires centuries to
reach acceptable, safe levels. The nuclear industry currently lets waste cool for years before
mixing it with glass and string in massive, cooled, concrete structures. It is maintained,
monitored, and guarded to prevent the materials from falling into the wrong hands. One of the
more famously known nuclear waste containment systems is Yucca Mountain. 100 miles north
of Las Vegas, Yucca Mountain has almost 100 million U.S gallons of highly radioactive waste.
Finding proper nuclear waste disposal facilities, like Yucca Mountain, is a hot topic because of
the following reasons:
Extensive studies consistently show Yucca Mountain to be a sound site for nuclear
waste disposal
The cost of not moving forward is extremely high
Nuclear waste disposal capability is an environmental imperative
Nuclear waste disposal capability supports national security
Demand for new nuclear plants also demands disposal capability
One of the worst case scenarios that can happen with having nuclear plants is experiencing a
nuclear meltdown. A nuclear meltdown is a severe nuclear reactor accident that results in core
damage from overheating. Its a very serious safety hazard because of the potential risk of
radioactive materials breaching all containment and escaping into the environment and
poisoning all life nearby. The worst case would be a puddle of hot fuel melting through the steel
containment vessel and exposing massive quantities of radioactivity to the outside world.

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The main safety concern has always been the possibility of an uncontrolled release of
radioactive material, leading to contamination and consequent radiation exposure off-site. Most
assumptions were that this would be likely in the event of a major loss of cooling accident which
resulted in a core melt. It is evident that even a severe core melt coupled with breach of
containment would be unlikely to create a major radiological disaster from many Western
reactor designs, but the Fukushima accident showed that this did not apply to all. One critical
decision in the Fukushima accident was whether to pump seawater into the reactors. That
would certainly ruin them, but it could also keep them cool and prevent meltdowns. It appears
that the engineers on site hesitated for some hours before they went ahead and did that. Per
Peterson, chairman of nuclear engineering at University of California, Berkeley says that was a
questionable decision. "It's quite likely that if the injection of seawater had been initiated earlier,
the damage of fuel could have been limited greatly or even prevented. So I think there are
possible pathways by which the severity of the accident could have been substantially less,
said Peterson.


Nuclear reactor accidents are the epitome of low-probability but high-consequence risks. An
OECD/NEA report in 2010 pointed out that the frequency for a large release of radioactivity from
a severe nuclear power plant accident has reduced by a factor of 1600 between the early
Generation I reactors as originally built and the Generation III/III+ plants being built today.
Earlier designs however have been progressively upgraded through their operating lives.
Control rods are big safety features in nuclear power plants. Operational safety is a primary
concern for those working in nuclear plants. Radiation doses are controlled by the use of remote
handling equipment for many operations in the core of the reactor. Other controls include
physical shielding and limiting the time workers spend in areas with significant radiation levels.
These are supported by continuous monitoring of individual doses and of the work environment
to ensure very low radiation exposure compared with other industries.
Even though there are lots of safety concerns relating to nuclear power plants and terrorist
attacks, there is a low likelihood of a breach of national security. A thorough study was
undertaken by the US Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) using specialist consultants and
paid for by the US Dept. of Energy. Its results concluded, The analyses used a fully-fuelled
Boeing 767- 400 of over 200 tonnes as the basis, at 560 km/h the maximum speed for
precision flying near the ground. The wingspan is greater than the diameter of reactor
containment buildings and the 4.3 tonne engines are 15 metres apart. Hence analyses focused
on single engine direct impact on the centreline since this would be the most penetrating
missile and on the impact of the entire aircraft if the fuselage hit the centreline (in which case
the engines would ricochet off the sides). In each case no part of the aircraft or its fuel would
penetrate the containment. Other studies have confirmed these findings. It concludes that US
reactor structures are robust and (would) protect the fuel from impacts of large commercial
aircraft. Also, because it takes such a little amount of uranium to produce a lot of energy via
nuclear power plants, terrorist attacks being successful are less likely.

Sources:
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Blandford, Edward. "Deconstructing the Nuclear Accident at the Fukushima-Daiichi
Plant: What Went Wrong and What Are the Prospects of Recovery?" Stanford
University. Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies Stanford University, 16
Aug. 2011. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
<http://fsi.stanford.edu/events/nuclearaccident_fukushima_blandford/
"C&EN: COVER STORY - NUCLEAR POWER FOR THE FUTURE." C&EN: COVER
STORY - NUCLEAR POWER FOR THE FUTURE. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
"Disposal." Nuclear Energy Institute. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
"US Environmental Protection Agency." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.
Web. 27 Apr. 2014.
"WNA in Japanese:." World Nuclear Association. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014.

What is nuclear waste?
Eric Setka

What radionuclides are typically in radioactive waste and in what concentrations?
What are the half-lives of the radionuclides found in radioactive waste?
What are the types of decay the radionuclides in radioactive waste undergo? What are
their decay energies? You may describe the entire decay chain or only the most
relevant decay processes.
How much radioactive waste is produced by a typical light water reactor?

We classify nuclear waste in three different levels. Low level waste, Intermediate level
waste, and High level waste. Every year, nuclear power generation facilities create 200,000m
3

of low and intermediate level wastes. and 10,000m
3
of high level waste.
Low level waste is considered to be lightly contaminated items such as tools and work
clothing of the workers of the power plant. This makes up 90% of radioactive waste, but makes
up 1% of the total radioactive content of all waste. Intermediate level waste is classified as steel
components from the reactor, used filters, and effluents from reprocessing. Intermediate level
waste makes up only 7% volume of all nuclear waste, but makes only 4% of total radioactive
content. High level waste is made up of all of the used nuclear fuel from the reactor. By volume,
thigh level waste makes up only 3% of all nuclear waste, but makes up 95% of all radioactive
content.






By Volume By Radioactive Content
High Level Waste 3% 95%
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Intermediate Level
Waste
7% 4%
Low Level Waste 90% 1%

After a fuel rod has been spent, the used fuel, which started as a mixture of Uranium-
238 and Uranium-235, results in approximately 95.6% uranium (less than 1% of which is U-
235), 0.9% plutonium, and 3.5% other products, which include: caesium, strontium, iodine,
americium, curium, neptunium, technetium, and other long-lived fission products. A lot of the
uranium left over is uranium 238, which has an alpha decay half life of over 4 billion years. The
plutonium is mostly comprised of plutonium-239, which has an alpha decay half life of 24,000
years. Uranium-238 has a decay energy of 4.267 MeV, and Plutonium-239 has a decay energy
of 5.245 MeV. Both plutonium-239, and uranium-238 emit ionizing radiation, which can be
harmful to humans and the natural environment. Scientists have estimated that a pound of
plutonium inhaled as plutonium oxide dust could give cancer to two million people.

Sources:
Cohen, Bernard L. "PLUTONIUM AND BOMBS." PLUTONIUM AND BOMBS. Plenum
Press, n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2014.
"What Are Nuclear Wastes and How Are They Managed?" What Are Nuclear Wastes?
World Nuclear Association, n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014.
"DoE Concludes WIPP Release Was Preventable." Radioactive Waste Management.
World Nuclear Association, n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014.

What are environmental and safety considerations for the storage of nuclear waste?
Tony Williams

Environmental and safety considerations of nuclear energy are primarily concerned with
the safe storage of nuclear waste. Currently, the United States has reactors that are of the same
type as the ones subject to a meltdown in Japan. In the U.S., there are 23 nuclear reactors that
have the same system for nuclear containment, meaning that, if power is lost in the plant, there
is nothing to prevent the nuclear fuel from melting out the bottom. Electricity is needed to move
the coolant through the power plant and keep it below melting levels, so when electricity is lost,
proper failsafes must be in place to prevent a meltdown.
There are many safety concerns associated with nuclear power, but modernizations in
the way that nuclear power plants are built can reduce the probability of similar disasters. The
primary safety concerns are due to nuclear waste, which can be defined in three categories:
high-level, intermediate-level, and low-level waste.
According to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), high-level radioactive wastes
can be harmful to humans. These high-level wastes are the end products of nuclear reactions,
when the uranium or other radioactive element is spent and cannot be harnessed for fuel.
Because these rods are radioactive and extremely hot, they must be cooled and shielded for
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storage. Though there is currently no permanent storage for the high-level waste, the United
States government has promised to create permanent storage for it (Backgrounder) This
repository will be put in Yucca Mountain in Nevada.
According to World-Nuclear, there are storage techniques currently that render nuclear
waste harmless to humans aboveground. These are shallow storage facilities that are
completely safe, according to the website. Countries are developing long-term, deep geological
disposal for nuclear waste as well, which is considered to be a more viable solution for the
future. However, nuclear waste remains active for such long periods of time that storage needs
to be carefully designed to avoid nuclear emissions.

Sources
"ANS / Public Information." ANS / Public Information. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
"Agreements Abound at France-China Summit." Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
"Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste." NRC:. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
"How Safe Are U.S. Nuclear Reactors? Lessons from Fukushima." Scientific American
Global RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
"Nuclear Power Plant." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2014.


What are emissions from nuclear power plants?
Avra Saslow

How have the emissions from nuclear power plants affected local air quality as
compared to other forms of energy production?

Nuclear power plants do not emit pollutants or greenhouse gases when they generate
electricity, but certain processes used to build and fuel the plants do. However, this is true for all
energy facilities. Studies show that nuclear energys life-cycle emissions are comparable to
renewable forms of energy, like wind and hydropower. Worldwide emissions of CO2 (which is a
main component of greenhouse gases) total about 28 billion metric tons per year. 38% of this
comes from coal, and 43% from oil. Nuclear fission does not produce any CO2, but like stated
above it accounts for 2% emission because of the uranium mining and enrichment.

Sources:
"Life-Cycle Emissions Analyses." Nuclear Energy Institute. NEI, n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.nei.org/Issues-Policy/Protecting-the-Environment/Life-Cycle-Emissions-
Analyses


Describe the science involved in global climate change and how it relates to emissions
from nuclear power plants and fossil fuel power plants.
Tony Williams

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What is the greenhouse effect and how is it related to global climate change?
What are greenhouse gases and what about their structure makes them greenhouse
gases?
How has the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere changed over time?
What are some predictions of global climate change?
How do the emissions from energy production by nuclear power plants compare to that
of coal and of natural gas?
How is the combustion of fossil fuels related to global climate change?

The earths atmosphere naturally makes it warmer than it would be without an
atmosphere. The gases in the atmosphere help to trap radiation and heat coming from the sun,
as well as radiation emitted from the earth. Without the greenhouse effect, the planet would be
much colder and uninhabitable. These greenhouse gases absorb radiation being re-emitted
from the earth and make the planet warmer as they increase in quantity. Any gas with 3 or more
atoms per molecule functions as a greenhouse gas. The main gases in our atmosphere cannot
function in this way; for example, nitrogen and oxygen each have two atoms per molecule and
argon has one atom per molecule. One of these gases is carbon dioxide. Before the last two
hundred years, carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere never exceeded 280 parts per million
(ppm). Currently, we are at 390 ppm of carbon dioxide. This is a substantial increase of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and can be attributed to human activity in part.
In particular, the increase in carbon dioxide can be attributed to the emissions created by
the burning of fossil fuels such as petroleum and natural gas. The power plants run on fossil
fuels to create energy to power the United States. Since the fuels these plants run on are made
of carbon and hydrogen, they undergo a process called combustion, reacting with oxygen in the
air to produce carbon dioxide and water. This carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere and,
because of the large amount of energy required to keep the United States running, a lot of
carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), by 2100 we
could see global warming by an average of 6 degrees in a high-emissions scenario. According
to the EPA, this will cause water shortages in dry places, the destruction of ecosystems such as
reefs, and about 30% of the worlds wetlands lost.
In terms of environmental impacts, nuclear fuel does not directly produce carbon dioxide
emissions. Natural gas, coal, and petroleum power all emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
directly. The emissions that indirectly come from nuclear power come from on-site expenses.
For example, after mining and refinement, uranium must be shipped to a power plant to be
made into energy. However, these numbers are much lower than those from natural gas or coal
or petroleum.
The harmful emissions stemming from a nuclear power plant come in the form of
radioactive waste. Radioactive waste is a harmful byproduct of the creation of nuclear energy. It
is classified into three categories: high-level, intermediate-level and low-level waste. Low-level
waste is not as dangerous and is stored in above-ground containment. This waste is left until it
can be disposed of as normal waste. Currently, there are 7 facilities licensed to dispose of low-
level radioactive waste in the United States.
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High-level radioactive waste is currently stored in temporary places, but there are
attempts being made to move waste permanently underground in a designated repository by the
United States government. This high-level waste includes the fuel rods from the nuclear reactor.
It must be stored permanently underground because the radioactive elements can take
hundreds of thousands of years to decay fully and become safe for disposal.

Sources

"Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste." NRC:. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
"Curriculum Resources." Curriculum Resources. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
"Greenhouse Gas." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Apr. 2014. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
"U.S. Energy Information Administration - EIA - Independent Statistics and Analysis."
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.


What are the best estimates for the purely financial cost of nuclear power generated
electricity?
Conor Nelson

What are the levelized costs per kWh?
What are fuel costs annually or per kWh? Construction costs for a new plant? Operating
and maintenance costs?

If you look purely at the financial aspects of creating and operating a nuclear power
plant, it makes an extreme amount of sense. Besides the start up costs of building, licensing,
and setting up the plant itself, it is significantly less than that of a coal or natural gas plant.
However, coal is, and probably will, remain a large portion of how electricity is generated in
countries such as the US where domestic supplies are abundant and carbon emissions arent
taxed or given fees. Nuclear power plants have a much higher initial cost yet are much cheaper
to run. This even includes the price or waste disposal and the decommissioning costs which fall
under operating costs, and if you include the health and environmental cost the economics are
outstanding.
16

Above is a chart from the World Nuclear Association showing the price per kilowatt (in
cents) for oil, gas, coal, and nuclear power for 17 years. Keep in mind this only shows the
operating costs and doesnt include start up. In 1995 to the year 2000 coal plants cost less to
run than nuclear plants. This may be due to coal being more abundant in those years compared
to now where our supplies of coal are becoming less and less and will continue to do so.
Nuclear power, however, produces mass amounts of power for the least amount of money to
operate; at around 3 cents per kilowatt.
Capital costs are the initial set up costs and include site preparation, construction,
manufacture, commissioning, and financing a nuclear power plant. Building the cooling towers
alone takes thousands of workers and many tons of concrete and steel as well as dozens of
different intricate monitoring and control systems.
The Operating costs include the purchases of fuel, operation and upkeep, disposing of
the fuel and waste, as well as the cost of decommissioning the plant when it is on its last leg.
This cost to production ratio is usually shown through cents per kilowatt produced and the
detailed chart above shows the production costs of nuclear power compared to other forms of
electrical generation.



In June 2013, the approx. US $ cost to get 1 kg of uranium as UO2 reactor fuel (at
current spot uranium price):
17
Uranium: 8.9 kg U
3
O
8
x $130 US$ 1160
Conversion: 7.5 kg U x $11 US$ 83
Enrichment: 7.3 SWU x $120 US$ 880
Fuel fabrication: per kg US$ 240
Total, approx: US$ 2360

The above was acquired from the website of the World Nuclear Association showing the
approximate price in US dollars for the Fuel (Uranium 235) used in nuclear reactors. It lists that
1kg of nuclear reactor fuel can be produced and purchased for a total of $2,360. According to
Einsteins equation of E=Mc
2
or Energy= matter times the speed of light squared, A small
amount of matter being destroyed will produce an absurdly tremendous amount of energy. This
means that the 1 kilogram of fuel that costs $2,360 will create (if completely destroyed)
8.98755179 10
16
joules of energy. Much more than is pulled from the average Hydroelectric
plant in 1,000 days. However all Nuclear reactors use up only approximately 5% of the fuel, not
nearly close to 100%.
Sources
"WNA." World Nuclear Association. World Nuclear Association, 2014. Web. 27 Apr.
2014.
How do the closed waste cycle and open waste cycle fuel option compare?
Natalie Youssef
There are two different types of waste cycle fuel options used in nuclear energy
production. In an open waste cycle the spent fuel is discharged from the reactor and is treated
as waste. In a closed waste cycle the spent fuel discharged from the reactor is re-processed
and the products are divided into uranium and plutonium, which are suitable for being mixed into
oxide fuel and recycled back into a reactor. The remaining is treated as high-level waste.

As with anything, there are pros and cons of these two options in nuclear production. A
closed waste cycle is much more sustainable because a closed waste cycle transforms waste
into chemicals that can be re-used in energy production. Closed fuel cycles are more
sustainable because they convert used uranium and plutonium into reusable chemicals that can
be used again for energy production. However, they are costly. It is expected that Uranium
supplies will be in higher demand 50-100 years from now. This prediction supports the use of
closed fuel systems, because the high costs would be outweighed by the long-term benefit of
more uranium. The main thing that makes closed fuel cycles expensive is the cost of the
reactor. Light water reactors are used in open-cell systems and are significantly cheaper than
the fast reactors used in closed fuel cycles. There are options among fast reactors. Lead-cooled
reactors are a more economical option than sodium-cooled fast reactors. Lead-cooled reactors
have been found to be at least 20% more efficient than sodium-cooled, which would lower the
cost of operation.

Sources
18
"Operations & Maintenance." Nuclear Fuel Cycles: To Close or Not to Close? N.p., n.d.
Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
What is nuclear fusion? How do answers to the above questions change if you are
considering a nuclear fusion reactor instead of a light water reactor?
Conor Nelson
Currently our nuclear reactors use fission, where a large unstable atom breaks apart and
destroys mass, to create and harness power. However, if we could master fusion, where two
small unstable atoms come together and destroy mass, mankind could use hydrogen isotopes
to create more power than is put into the process. Fusion is the reaction that stars use to burn
so hot for so long. If we could use fusion in nuclear reactors then it would essentially cost
nothing to create power for the globe while we use a fuel source that will never run out. Fusion
doesnt produce runaway chain reactions like fission does and as a result no risk of a meltdown
is present. Fusion reactions also only produce a fraction of what fission reactions create, in
terms of nuclear waste. The only drawback is that to start the reaction we need a temperature of
one-hundred-million degrees celsius to start the reaction, six times hotter than the surface of the
sun. Due to that lone limitant it seems like fusion is to be put on the back burner for energy
production.

Sources
"Why Don't We Have Fusion Power?" Popular Mechanics. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.