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Sakifi
31 December 695 - 18 July 715
Muhammad bin Qasim Al-Thaqafi (Arabic: ( )محمد بن قاسمc. 31 December 695–18 July
715), born Muhammad bin Qasim bin Ukail Sakifi, was a Syrian general who
conquered the Sindh and Punjab regions along the Indus river (now a part of Pakistan).
The conquest of Sindh and Punjab began the Islamic era in South Asia.
Contents
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• 13 References
According to Berzin, Umayyad interest in the region stemmed from their desire to control
the trade route down the Indus River valley to the seaports of Sindh.[1] They had earlier
unsuccessfully sought to gain control of the route, via the Khyber pass, from the Turki-
Shahis of Gandhara.[1] By way of skirting Gandhara and taking Sindh to its south, they
thus sought to open a second front against Gandhara and had on occasion attempted the
conquest prior to this campaign.[1]
According to Wink, Umayyad interest in the region was galvanized by the operation of
the Mids and others.[2] They had operated preying upon Sassanid shipping in the past,
from the mouth of the Tigris to the Sri Lankan coast, in their bawarij and now did so to
Arab shipping from their bases at Kutch, Debal and Kathiawar.[2] At the time, Sindh was
the wild frontier region of al-Hind inhabited largely by semi-nomadic tribes whose
activities disturbed much of the Western Indian Ocean.[2] Muslim sources insist that it was
these persistent activities along increasingly important Indian trade routes by Debal
pirates and others which forced the Arabs to subjugate the area, in order to control the
seaports and maritime routes of which Sindh was the hinge as well the overland
passage.[3] During Hajjaj's governorship, the Mids of Debal in one of their raids had
kidnapped Muslim women travelling from Sri Lanka to Arabia, thus providing a casus
belli to the rising power of the Umayyad Caliphate that enabled them to gain a foothold
in the Makran, Balochistan and Sindh regions.[2][4]
The campaign for the conquest of Sindh under Qasim was launched during the same
period as the Umayyad conquest of Hispania and the launch of an offensive against the
king of Kabul.[5] It was a period of great expansion of the Umayyads under the
governorship of Hajjaj, the first governor of both the Arabi and Ajami halves of the ex-
Sassanid domains.[5] Conflict was endemic among the frontier Muslims, with a
considerable number seeking refuge with the king of Sindh.[5] The period also
experienced an intensification of the rivalry between Arab conquerors and the mawali;
new non-Arab converts; who were usually allied with Hajjaj's political opponents and
thus frequently forced to participate in the Jihads on the frontier - such as Kabul, Sind
and Transoxania.[5] Through conquest, the caliphate intended to protect its maritime
interest, while also cutting off refuge for fleeing rebel chieftains as well as Sindhi military
support to the Sassanid rump state; akin to those received at several prior major battles
during the their conquest of Persia - such as those at Salasal and Qādisiyyah.
Extent and expansion of Umayyad rule under Muhammad bin Qasim (modern state
boundaries shown in red).
Qasim's expedition was actually the second attempt, the first having failed due to stiffer-
than-expected opposition as well as heat, exhaustion and scurvy.[citation needed]
Hajjaj had put more care and planning into this campaign than the first campaign [5] under
Badil bin Tuhfa.[citation needed] Hajjaj superintended this campaign from Kufa by maintaining
close contact with Qasim in the form of regular reports and then regularly issuing
orders.[5] The army which departed from Shiraz in 710 CE under Qasim was 6,000 Syrian
cavalry and detachments of mawali from Iraq.[5] At the borders of Sindh he was joined by
an advance guard and six thousand camel riders and later reinforcements from the
governor of Makran transferred directly to Debal by sea along with five catapults.[5] The
army that eventually captured Sindh would later be swelled by the Jats and Mids as well
as other irregulars that heard of successes in Sindh.[5] When Qasim passed through
Makran while raising forces, he had to re-subdue the restive Umayyad towns of
Fannazbur and Arman Belah (Lasbela)[6] The first town assaulted was Debal and upon the
orders of Al-Hajjaj, he exacted a bloody retribution on Debal by giving no quarter to it's
residents or priests and destroying its great temple in the process of freeing the kidnapped
women.[5] He then settled a garrison of four thousand colonists in one quarter Debal and
built a mosque over the remains of the original temple.[5][7]
From Debal the Arab army then marched north taking towns such as Nerun and Sadusan
(Sehwan) peacefully.[5] A mosque was built to replace the main temples, and one-fifth of
the booty and slaves were dispatched to Hajjaj and the Caliph.[5] The conquest of these
towns was accomplished easily; however, Dahir's armies being prepared on the other side
of the Indus[8] had not yet been fought.[5] In preparation to meet them, Qasim moved back
to Nerun to resupply and receive reinforcements sent by Hajjaj.[5] Camped on the east
bank of the Indus, Qasim sent emissaries and bargained with the river Jats and boatmen.[5]
Upon securing the aid of Mokah Basayah, "the King of the island of Bet", Qasim crossed
over the river where he was joined by the forces of the Thakore of Bhatta and the western
Jats.[5]
At Ar-rur (Nawabshah) he was met by Dahir's forces and the eastern Jats in battle.[5]
Qasim was triumphant in this battle and Dahir died in the battle leaving Qasim in control
of Sind.[5] In the wake of the battle enemy soldiers were put to death - but not artisans,
merchants or farmers - and Dahir and his chiefs, the "daughters of princes" and the usual
fifth of the booty and slaves was sent on to Hajjaj.[5] Soon the capitals of the other
provinces, Brahmanabad, Alor (Aror) and Multan, were captured alongside other in-
between towns with only light Muslim casualties.[5] Usually after a siege of a few weeks
or months the Arabs gained a city through the intervention of heads of mercantile houses
with whom subsequent treaties and agreements would be settled.[5] After battles all
fighting men were executed and their wives and children enslaved in considerable
numbers and the usual fifth of the booty and slaves were sent to Hajjaj.[5] The general
populace was encouraged to carry on with their trades and taxes and tributes settled.[5]
With Sindh secured Qasim sent expeditions to Surashtra, where his generals made
peaceful treaty settlements with the Rashtrakuta.[1] Sea trade from Central India passed to
Byzantium via the ports here, and the Arabs wished to tax these as well, especially if
commerce might be diverted here from the Sindhi ports.[1] Qasim wrote out letters to
"kings of Hind" to surrender and accept Islam, and subsequently 10,000 cavalry were sent
to Kannauj asking them to submit and pay tribute before his recall ended the campaign.[5]
Where resistance was strong, prolonged and intensive, often resulting in considerable
Arab casualties, Qasim's response was dramatic, inflicting 6,000 deaths at Rawar,
between 6,000 and 26,000 at Brahmanabad, 4,000 at Iskalandah and 6,000 at Multan.[11]
Conversely, in areas taken by sulh, such as Armabil, Nirun, and Aror, resistance was light
and few casualties occurred.[11] Sulh appeared to be Qasim's preferred mode of conquest,
the method used for more than 60% of the towns and tribes recorded by Baladhuri or the
Chachnama.[11] At one point, he was actually berated by Hajjaj for being too lenient.[11]
Meanwhile, the common folk were often pardoned and encouraged to coutinue
working;[10] Hajajj ordered that this option not be granted to any inhabitant of Daybul, yet
Qasim still bestowed it upon certain groups and individuals.[11]
After each major phase of his conquest, Qasim attempted to establish law and order in the
newly-conquered territory by showing religious tolerance and incorporating the ruling
class – the Brahmins and Shramanas – into his administration.[10]
Qasim success has been partly ascribed to Dahir being an unpopular Hindu king ruling
over a Buddhist majority who saw Chach of Alor and his kin as usurpers of the Rai
Dynasty.[4] This is attributed to having resulted in support being provided by Buddhists
and inclusion of rebel soldiers serving as valuable infantry in his cavalry-heavy force
from the Jat, Meds and Bhutto tribes.[12] Brahman, Buddhist, Greek, and Arab testimony
however can be found that attests towards amicable relations between the adherents of
the two religions up to the 7th century.[13]
Everywhere taxes (mal) and tribute (kharaj) were settled and hostages taken -
occasionally this also meant the custodians of temples.[10] Natives were excused from
military service and payment of the tax paid by Muslim subjects - Zakat.[14] The tax
enforced on the natives was the jizya - it was a progressive tax, being heavier on the
upper classes and light for the poor.[14] In addition, three percent of government revenue
was allocated to the Brahmins.[4]
During his administration, Hindus and Buddhists were inducted into the administration as
trusted advisors and governors.[4] A Hindu, Kaksa, was at one point the second most
important member of his administration.[15] Dahir's prime minister and various chieftains
were also incorporated into the administration.[16]
[edit] Religion
No mass conversions were attempted and the destruction of temples such as the Sun
Temple at Multan was forbidden.[18] However, Qasim was not entirely deferential to the
native religions. Many town temples containing idols were converted into mosques. At
Multan, 6000 custodians of the Sun-temple were made captive and their wealth
confiscated. The temple housing the great idol (sanam) was a source of great wealth for
the town, receiving pilgrims from across the region. Qasim left the idol where it was, but
he hung a piece of cow flesh on its neck by way of mockery; he then built a mosque in
the same bazaar at the center of the town.[19] A small minority who converted to Islam
were granted exemption from slavery and taxes.[14]
Hindus and Buddhists were included in the Ahl al Kitab and the status of Dhimmi
(protected people) was conferred upon them.[4]
1. The account from the Chachnama narrates a tale according to which the during
Qasim s governorship, the daughters of Dahir were taken captive and were sent on
as presents to the Khalifa for his harem. The account relates that they then tricked
the Khalifa into believing that Qasim had violated them before sending them on
and as a result of this subterfuge, Qasim was wrapped in oxen hides and returned
to Syria, resulting in his death en route from suffocation. This narrative attributes
the motive for this subterfuge to securing vengeance for their father's death. Upon
discovering this subterfuge, the Khalifa is recorded to have been filled with
remorse and ordered the sisters buried alive in a wall.[21][22]
2. The Persian historian Baladhuri's account states that the Khalifa was a political
enemy of Hajjaj and recalled Qasim after Hajjaj's death and imprisoned him;
Qasim is reported to have died under torture.[4][22]
[edit] Controversy
There is controversy regarding the conquest and subsequent conversion of Sindh. This is
usually voiced in two antagonistic perspectives viewing Qasim's actions:[11]
Various polemical perceptions of Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism are also reflected in this
debate.[23] Elliot perceived Islam as a religion of "terror, devastation, murder and rapine"
where the conquering Arabs were characterized as "ruthless bigots" and "furious zealots"
motivated by "plunder and proselytism".[11] The period of Qasim's rule has been called by
U.T. Thakkur "the darkest period in Sind history", with the records speaking of massive
forced conversions, temple destruction, slaughters and genocides; the people of Sindh,
described as inherently pacifist due to their Hindu/Buddhist religious inclinations, had to
adjust to the conditions of "barbarian inroad".[24] On one extreme, the Arab Muslims are
seen as being compelled by religious stricture to conquer and forcibly convert Sindh, but
on the other hand, they can be seen as being respectful and tolerant of non-Muslims as
part of their religious duty, with conversion being facilitated by the vitality, equality and
morals of the Islamic religion.[23] Citations of towns taken either violently or bloodlessly,
reading back into Arab Sindh information belonging to a later date and dubious accounts
such as those of the forcible circumcision of Brahmins at Deybul or Qasims consideration
of Hindu sentiment in forbidding the slaughter of cows are used as examples for one
particular view or the other.[23]
Some historians strike a middle ground, saying that Qasim was torn between the political
expediency of making peace with the Hindus and Buddhists; having to call upon non-
Muslims to serve under him as part of his mandate to administer newly conquered land;
and orthodoxy by refraining from seeking the co-operation of "infidels". It is contended
that Qasim may have struck a middle ground, conferring the status of Dhimmi upon the
native Sindhis and permitting them to participate in his administration, but treating them
as "noncitizens" (i.e. in the Khilafat, but not of it).[14].
[edit] Legacy
• Qasim's presence and rule was very brief. His conquest for the Umayyads brought
Sindh into the gambit of the Muslim world [25]
• The next Arab governor died on arrival. Dahir’s son Jaisimha recaptured
Brahmanabad and c. 720, he was granted pardon and included in the
administration in return for converting to Islam. Soon, however, he recanted and
split off when the Umayyads were embroiled in a succession crisis. Later, Junaid
Ibn Abdur Rahman al-Marri killed Jaisimha and recaptured the territory before his
successors once again struggled to hold and keep it. During the Abassid period, c.
870, the local emirs shook off all allegiance to the caliphs and by the 10th century
the region was split into two weak states, Mansurah on the lower Indus and
Multan on the upper Indus, which were soon captured by Ismailis who set up an
independent Fatimid state.[4][26] These successor states did not achieve much and
shrank in size. The Arab conquest remained checked in what is now the south of
Pakistan for three centuries by powerful Hindu monarchs to the north and east
until the arrival of Mahmud of Ghazni.[27]
• Coastal trade and a Muslim colony in Sindh allowed for cultural exchanges and
the arrival of Sufi missionaries to expand Muslim influence.[28] From Debal,
which remained an important port until the 12th century, commercial links with
the Persian Gulf and the Middle East intensified as Sindh became the "hinge of
the Indian Ocean Trade and overland passway."[25]
• Port Qasim, Pakistan's second major port is named in honor of Muhammad bin
Qasim.[29]
• Muhammad bin Qasim is sometimes called the "the first Pakistani citizen".[30]