Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Dr P A Sleigh
P.A.Sleigh@leeds.ac.uk
Dr CJ Noakes
C.J.Noakes@leeds.ac.uk
January 2008
Objectives:
The course will introduce fluid mechanics and establish its relevance in civil engineering.
Develop the fundamental principles underlying the subject.
Demonstrate how these are used for the design of simple hydraulic components.
Books:
Any of the books listed below are more than adequate for this module. (You will probably not
need any more fluid mechanics books on the rest of the Civil Engineering course)
Mechanics of Fluids, Massey B S., Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Fluid Mechanics, Douglas J F, Gasiorek J M, and Swaffield J A, Longman.
Civil Engineering Hydraulics, Featherstone R E and Nalluri C, Blackwell Science.
Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental Engineering, Chadwick A, and Morfett J., E & FN Spon -
Chapman & Hall.
Primary Units
The six primary units of the SI system are shown in the table below:
In fluid mechanics we are generally only interested in the top four units from this table.
Notice how the term 'Dimension' of a unit has been introduced in this table. This is not a
property of the individual units, rather it tells what the unit represents. For example a metre is a
length which has a dimension L but also, an inch, a mile or a kilometre are all lengths so have
dimension of L.
(The above notation uses the MLT system of dimensions, there are other ways of writing
dimensions - we will see more about this in the section of the course on dimensional analysis.)
The above units should be used at all times. Values in other units should NOT be used without
first converting them into the appropriate SI unit. If you do not know what a particular unit means
- find out, else your guess will probably be wrong.
More on this subject will be seen later in the section on dimensional analysis and similarity.
1. Mass density:
ρ = mass per unit volume
mass of fluid
ρ=
volume of fluid
(units: kg/m3)
2. Specific Weight:
(also known as specific gravity)
ω = weight per unit volume
ω = ρg
(units: N/m3 or kg/m2/s2)
3. Relative Density:
σ = ratio of mass density to
a standard mass density
ρsubs tan ce
σ=
ρ o
H2 O( at 4 c)
For solids and liquids this standard mass density is
the maximum mass density for water (which occurs
o
at 4 c) at atmospheric pressure.
(units: none, as it is a ratio)
Force
pressure =
Area over which the force is applied
F
p=
A
Uniform Pressure:
If the pressure is the same at all points on a surface
uniform pressure
A δs
px
δy F C
θ
E D
δx
py
No shearing forces :
All forces at right angles to the surfaces
We showed above
px = ps
thus
p x = p y = ps
Fluid density ρ z2
p1, A z1
z h
giving p 2 − p1 = ρgh
Gauge pressure is
pgauge = ρ g h
Absolute pressure is
pabsolute = ρ g h + patmospheric
Boyle’s Law
pV = constant
where
p is the absolute pressure, N/m2, Pa
V is the volume of the vessel, m3
n is the amount of substance of gas, moles
R is the ideal gas constant,
T is the absolute temperature. K
A B A’ B’ F
F
C D C D
Fluids in motion
δx
a b
δz
F
A B
δy
F
C D
a a’ b b’
F
A’ B B’
A
F
C D
E x
φ E’
F
C D
The shearing force acts on the area
A = δz × δx
φ
τ∝
time
φ
τ = Constant ×
t
= =
=
x
(note that = u is the velocity of the particle at E)
t
So
u
τ = Constant ×
y
u/y is the rate of change of velocity with distance,
du
in differential form this is
= velocity gradient.
dy
The constant of proportionality is known as
the dynamic viscosity, μ.
giving
du
τ =μ
dy
which is know as Newton’s law of viscosity
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Dilatant
Ideal, (τ=0)
Kinematic Viscosity
Flow rate
dm mass
m& = =
dt time taken to accumulate this mass
A simple example:
An empty bucket weighs 2.0kg. After 7 seconds of
collecting water the bucket weighs 8.0kg, then:
volume of fluid
discharge, Q =
time
A simple example:
If the bucket above fills with 2.0 litres in 25 seconds,
what is the discharge?
2.0 × 10 − 3 m3
Q=
25 sec
= 0.0008 m3 / s
= 0.8 l / s
um t
x area A
Pipe Cylinder of fluid
volume A × um × t
Q= =
time t
Q = Aum
A simple example:
If A = 1.2×10-3m2
And discharge, Q is 24 l/s,
mean velocity is
Q
um =
A
2.4 × 10 − 3
=
. × 10 − 3
12
= 2.0 m / s
u
um umax
Continuity
This principle of conservation of mass says matter
cannot be created or destroyed
Mass flow in
Control
volume
A1u1 = A2 u2 = Q
Units
1.
A water company wants to check that it will have sufficient water if there is a prolonged drought
in the area. The region it covers is 500 square miles and various different offices have sent in
the following consumption figures. There is sufficient information to calculate the amount of
water available, but unfortunately it is in several different units.
Of the total area 100 000 acres are rural land and the rest urban. The density of the urban
population is 50 per square kilometre. The average toilet cistern is sized 200mm by 15in by
0.3m and on average each person uses this 3 time per day. The density of the rural population
is 5 per square mile. Baths are taken twice a week by each person with the average volume of
water in the bath being 6 gallons. Local industry uses 1000 m3 per week. Other uses are
estimated as 5 gallons per person per day. A US air base in the region has given water use
figures of 50 US gallons per person per day.
The average rain fall in 1in per month (28 days). In the urban area all of this goes to the river
while in the rural area 10% goes to the river 85% is lost (to the aquifer) and the rest goes to the
one reservoir which supplies the region. This reservoir has an average surface area of 500
acres and is at a depth of 10 fathoms. 10% of this volume can be used in a month.
a) What is the total consumption of water per day?
b) If the reservoir was empty and no water could be taken from the river, would there be
enough water if available if rain fall was only 10% of average?
Fluid Properties
1. The following is a table of measurement for a fluid at constant temperature.
Determine the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
du/dy (s-1) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
τ (N m )
-2
0.0 1.0 1.9 3.1 4.0
2. The density of an oil is 850 kg/m3. Find its relative density and
Kinematic viscosity if the dynamic viscosity is 5 × 10-3 kg/ms.
4. 5.6m3 of oil weighs 46 800 N. Find its mass density, ρ and relative density, γ.
6. In a fluid the velocity measured at a distance of 75mm from the boundary is 1.125m/s.
The fluid has absolute viscosity 0.048 Pa s and relative density 0.913. What is the
velocity gradient and shear stress at the boundary assuming a linear velocity distribution.
Continuity
Section 1 Section 2
By continuity
A1u1ρ1 = A2 u2 ρ2
Section 1 Section 2
When incompressible
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
z h
The lower limit of any pressure is
y
the pressure in a perfect vacuum.
x
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An Example of a Piezometer.
Pressure at A = pressure due to column of liquid h1 What is the maximum gauge pressure of water that
can be measured by a Piezometer of height 1.5m?
And if the liquid had a relative density of 8.5 what
pA = U g h 1 would the maximum measurable gauge pressure?
pB = U g h 2
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Equality Of Pressure At
The Same Level In A Static Fluid
P Q
Fluid density ρ
Area A
z z
pl, A pr, A
Face L Face R L R
weight, mg
Pressure in the horizontal direction is constant. Pressure at the two equal levels are the same.
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“U”-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids Pressure in a continuous static fluid
and gases to be measured is the same at any horizontal level.
“U” is connected as shown and filled with
manometric fluid. pressure at B = pressure at C
pB = pC
Important points:
1. The manometric fluid density should be For the left hand arm
greater than of the fluid measured. pressure at B = pressure at A + pressure of height of
Uman > U liquid being measured
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BUT:
Uman >> U
pA = Uman gh2
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pD = pB + U g (hb + h) + Uman g h
B
pA + U g ha = pB + U g (hb + h) + Uman g h
Fluid density ρ
Giving the pressure difference
hb
E
pA - pB = Uman g h
Manometric fluid density ρman
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An example using the u-tube for pressure Advances to the “U” tube manometer
difference measuring
In the figure below two pipes containing the same
fluid of density U = 990 kg/m3 are connected using a Problem: Two reading are required.
u-tube manometer. Solution: Increase cross-sectional area
What is the pressure between the two pipes if the of one side.
manometer contains fluid of relative density 13.6?
Fluid density ρ Result: One level moves
much more than the other.
Fluid density ρ
A
p1 p2
B
ha = 1.5m
E
hb = 0.75m
diameter D
h = 0.5m
diameter d
z2
Datum line
C D z1
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Inclined manometer
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Example of an inclined manometer.
p1
p2 An inclined manometer is required to measure an air
diameter d
pressure of 3mm of water to an accuracy of +/- 3%.
The inclined arm is 8mm in diameter and the larger
diameter D
er
x arm has a diameter of 24mm. The manometric fluid
ad
eR
e
has density Uman = 740 kg/m3 and the scale may be
al z2
Sc read to +/- 0.5mm.
Datum line
z1 What is the angle required to ensure the desired
accuracy may be achieved?
θ
p1 p2 Ugz2
but,
z2 x sin T
p1 p2 Ugx sin T
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Take care when fixing the manometer to vessel We have seen these features of static fluids
Burrs cause local pressure variations.
x Hydrostatic vertical pressure distribution
Disadvantages: x Pressures at any equal depths in a continuous
x Slow response - only really useful for very slowly fluid are equal
varying pressures - no use at all for fluctuating
pressures; x Pressure at a point acts equally in all
directions (Pascal’s law).
x For the “U” tube manometer two measurements
must be taken simultaneously to get the h value. xForces from a fluid on a boundary acts at right
x It is often difficult to measure small variations in angles to that boundary.
pressure.
x It cannot be used for very large pressures unless
several manometers are connected in series;
Fluid pressure on a surface
x For very accurate work the temperature and
relationship between temperature and U must be Pressure is force per unit area.
known; Pressure p acting on a small area GA exerted
force will be
Advantages of manometers:
x They are very simple.
F = puGA
x No calibration is required - the pressure can be
calculated from first principles.
Since the fluid is at rest the force will act at
right-angles to the surface.
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C Sc area A d
And it is known that
P
x ¦ zGA Az
Take pressure as zero at the surface.
A is the area of the plane
Measuring down from the surface, the pressure on z is the distance to the centre of gravity
an element GA, depth z,
(centroid)
p = Ugz
In terms of distance from point O
R Ug ¦ zGA
The resultant force on a plane
(assuming U and g as constant). R UgAz
UgAx sin T
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and
Through O in the above examples.
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nd
The 2 moment of area about a line
The parallel axis theorem can be written through the centroid of some common
Io I GG Ax 2
shapes.
b
2 36
Circle
(In the examination the parallel axis theorem
G
R
G SR 2 SR 4
and the I GG will be given)
4
Semicircle 2
SR
R4
R
G
(4R)/(3π)
2 01102
.
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An example:
Find the moment required to keep this triangular Submerged vertical surface -
gate closed on a tank which holds water. Pressure diagrams
1.2m
For vertical walls of constant width
D
2.0m
it is possible to find the resultant force and
centre of pressure graphically using a
G 1.5m pressure diagram.
C
z ρgz
H 2H
3
R
p
ρgH
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Check this against The same technique can be used with combinations
the moment method: of liquids are held in tanks (e.g. oil floating on water).
For example:
§ H 3 / 3· 2
D ¨ 2 ¸ H
© H / 2¹ 3
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Calculate the C
B
FAC O RH
components.
A
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Resultant force
2
A
R RH RV2
Rv
There are no shear force on the vertical edges, And acts through O at an angle of T.
so the vertical component can only be due to
the weight of the fluid. The angle the resultant force makes to the
horizontal is
So we can say §R ·
The resultant vertical force of a fluid above a T tan 1 ¨ V ¸
© RH ¹
curved surface is:
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A typical example application of this is the
determination of the forces on dam walls or curved
What are the forces if the fluid is below the
sluice gates.
curved surface?
Find the magnitude and direction of the This situation may occur or a curved sluice gate.
resultant force of water on a quadrant gate as
shown below. C
Gate width 3.0m B
G
1.0m
FAC O RH
Rv R
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FAC O RH
A A’ Rv
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The resultant force and direction of application An example of a curved sluice gate which
are calculated in the same way as for fluids experiences force from fluid below.
above the surface: A 1.5m long cylinder lies as shown in the figure,
holding back oil of relative density 0.8. If the cylinder
has a mass of 2250 kg find
a) the reaction at A b) the reaction at B
Resultant force E
C
2
R RH RV2
A
D
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Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
Dr P A Sleigh: P.A.Sleigh@leeds.ac.uk
Dr CJ Noakes: C.J.Noakes@leeds.ac.uk
1.Identify differences between:
x steady/unsteady
January 2008
x uniform/non-uniform
Module web site: www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 x compressible/incompressible flow
Unit 1: Fluid Mechanics Basics 3 lectures
Flow 2.Demonstrate streamlines and stream tubes
Pressure
Properties of Fluids
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity 3.Introduce the Continuity principle
Unit 2: Statics 3 lectures
Hydrostatic pressure 4.Derive the Bernoulli (energy) equation
Manometry / Pressure measurement
Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 98 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 99
There are many common situations If the conditions at one point vary as time passes
which analysis gives very accurate predictions then we have unsteady flow.
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 100 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 101
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 102 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 103
Conditions vary only in the direction of flow Conditions vary in the direction of flow and in
not across the cross-section. one direction at right angles to this.
The flow may be unsteady with the parameters Flow patterns in two-dimensional flow can be shown
varying in time but not across the cross-section. by curved lines on a plane.
E.g. Flow in a pipe.
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 104 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 105
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
It is useful to visualise the flow pattern. x Close to a solid boundary, streamlines are parallel
Lines joining points of equal velocity - velocity to that boundary
contours - can be drawn.
x The direction of the streamline is the direction of
the fluid velocity
These lines are know as streamlines
x Fluid can not cross a streamline
Here are 2-D streamlines around a cross-section of
an aircraft wing shaped body:
x Streamlines can not cross each other
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 106 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 107
A circle of points in a flowing fluid each x The “walls” of a streamtube are streamlines.
has a streamline passing through it.
x Fluid cannot flow across a streamline, so fluid
These streamlines make a tube-like shape known cannot cross a streamtube “wall”.
as a streamtube
x A streamtube is not like a pipe.
Its “walls” move with the fluid.
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 108 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 109
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
dm mass Q = Au m
m
dt time taken to accumulate this mass
Q1 = Q2 = A1u1 = A2u2
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Applying to a streamtube: In a real pipe (or any other vessel) we use the mean
velocity and write
Mass enters and leaves only through the two ends
(it cannot cross the streamtube wall). U1 A1um1 U2 A2 um2 Constant m
ρ2
u2
A2
u1
A1
A1u1 A2 u2 Q
Mass entering = Mass leaving
per unit time per unit time
This is the continuity equation most often used.
U1GA1u1 U2GA2u2
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Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
Solution:
Draw diagram:
Qin = Qout C
A dB=0.5m dC=0.3m
1.5 + 1.5 = 3 B
Qout = 3.0 m3/s
dA=0.4m
2. What is the inflow?
vA=1.0m/s
D
u = 1.5 m/s dD=0.2m
A = 0.5 m2 vD=0.8m/s
u 3.
= 0.2 m/s Make a table and fill in the missing values
u = 1.0 m/s = 1.3 m2
A 4.
A = 0.7 m2 5.
Point Velocity m/s Diameter m Area m² Q m³/s
u2
kinetic energy per unit weight = or
2g
At any cross-section the pressure generates a force, the fluid
p u2
z H
will flow, moving the cross-section, so work will be done. If the Ug 2 g
pressure at cross section AB is p and the area of the cross-
section is a then
force on AB = pa By the principle of conservation of energy, the total energy in
the system does not change, thus the total head does not
when the mass mg of fluid has passed AB, cross-section AB change. So the Bernoulli equation can be written
will have moved to A’B’
mg m p u2
volume passing AB =
z H Constant
Ug U Ug 2 g
therefore
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 118 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 119
The Bernoulli equation is applied along Practical use of the Bernoulli Equation
_______________
like that joining points 1 and 2 below. The Bernoulli equation is often combined with the
2
continuity equation to find velocities and pressures
at points in the flow connected by a streamline.
Example:
1 Finding pressures and velocities within a
total head at 1 = total head at 2 contracting and expanding pipe.
or
p1 u12 p2 u22 u1 u2
z z
Ug 2 g 1 Ug 2 g 2
p1 p2
section 1
This equation assumes no energy losses (e.g. from friction) or section 2
3
energy gains (e.g. from a pump) along the streamline. It can be A fluid, density U = 960 kg/m is flowing steadily through
expanded to include these simply, by adding the appropriate the above tube.
energy terms:
The section diameters are d1=100mm and d2=80mm.
Total Total Loss Work done Energy
The gauge pressure at 1 is p1=200kN/m2
energy per energy per unit per unit per unit supplied
unit weight at 1 weight at 2 weight weight per unit weight The velocity at 1 is u1=5m/s.
The tube is horizontal (z1=z2)
p1 u12 p2 u22
z z h wq
Ug 2 g 1 Ug 2 g 2 What is the gauge pressure at section 2?
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 120 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 121
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
Apply the Bernoulli equation along a streamline joining We have used both the Bernoulli equation and the
section 1 with section 2. Continuity principle together to solve the problem.
p1 u12 p2 u22
z1 z2
Ug 2 g Ug 2 g Use of this combination is very common. We will be
seeing this again frequently throughout the rest of
U
p2 p1 (u12 u22 ) the course.
2
182703 N / m2
182.7 kN / m2
Note how
the velocity has increased
the pressure has decreased
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 122 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 123
Applications of Bernoulli: Flow from Tanks Apply Bernoulli along the streamline joining point 1 on the
Flow Through A Small Orifice surface to point 2 at the centre of the orifice.
h
If we take the datum line through the orifice
then z1 = h and z2 =0, leaving
2
u22
Vena contractor
h
2g
The edges of the hole are sharp to minimise frictional losses by u2 2 gh
minimising the contact between the hole and the liquid.
This contraction is called the vena contracta A coefficient of velocity is used to correct the theoretical
velocity,
The amount of contraction must uactual Cv utheoretical
be known to calculate the flow
Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity, they
usually lie in the range( 0.97 - 0.99)
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Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
The discharge through the orifice Time for the tank to empty
is We have an expression for the discharge from the tank
jet area u jet velocity Q Cd Ao 2 gh
The area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta not
We can use this to calculate how long
the area of the orifice. it will take for level in the to fall
We use a coefficient of contraction As the tank empties the level of water falls.
to get the area of the jet The discharge will also drop.
Aactual Cc Aorifice
h1
Giving discharge through the orifice: h2
Q Au
Qactual Aactual uactual
Cc Cv Aorifice utheoretical The tank has a cross sectional area of A.
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This Q is the same as the flow out of the orifice so Submerged Orifice
What if the tank is feeding into another?
Gh
Cd Ao 2 gh A Area A1
Gt Area A2
h1
A Gh h2
Gt
Cd Ao 2 g h
Orifice area Ao
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 128 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 129
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 130 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 131
1
We have the equation for p2 , 2
1
p2 p1 Uu12 1
X
2 h
1
Ugh1 Uu12
A B
Ugh2
2
u 2 g (h2 h1 ) [Note: the diagram of the Pitot tube is not to scale. In reality its diameter
is very small and can be ignored i.e. points 1 and 2 are considered to
be at the same level]
We now have an expression for velocity from two
pressure measurements and the application of the
Bernoulli equation.
The holes on the side connect to one side of a
manometer, while the central hole connects to the other
side of the manometer
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 132 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 133
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 134 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 135
Venturi Meter Apply Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2
p1 u12 p2 u22
z z
The Venturi meter is a device for measuring Ug 2 g 1 Ug 2 g 2
discharge in a pipe.
By continuity
Q u1 A1 u2 A2
It is a rapidly converging section which increases the
velocity of flow and hence reduces the pressure. u1 A1
u2
A2
It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a
gently diverging ‘diffuser’ section. Substituting and rearranging gives
about 6°
2 º
p1 p2 u12 ª§ A1 ·
z1 z2 «¨ ¸ 1»
about 20° Ug 2 g «© A2 ¹ »¼
¬
u12 ª A12 A22 º
2 « »
2 g ¬ A22 ¼
1
ª p p2 º
2g« 1 z1 z2 »
z2
u1 A2 ¬ Ug ¼
2 2
z1
h A1 A2
datum
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 136 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 137
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
Actual discharge takes into account the losses due to friction, x The diffuser assures a gradual and steady deceleration after
we include a coefficient of discharge (Cd |0.9) the throat. So that pressure rises to something near that
Qideal u1 A1 before the meter.
Qactual Cd Qideal Cd u1 A1
x The angle of the diffuser is usually between 6 and 8 degrees.
ª p p2 º
2g« 1 z1 z2 » x Wider and the flow might separate from the walls increasing
Qactual Cd A1 A2 ¬ Ug ¼ energy loss.
2 2
A1 A2
x If the angle is less the meter becomes very long and pressure
losses again become significant.
In terms of the manometer readings
p1 Ugz1 p2 Uman gh Ug ( z2 h) x The efficiency of the diffuser of increasing pressure back to
the original is rarely greater than 80%.
p1 p2 §U ·
z1 z2 h¨ man 1¸ x Care must be taken when connecting the manometer so that
Ug © U ¹
no burrs are present.
Giving
§U ·
2 gh¨ man 1¸
© U ¹
Qactual Cd A1 A2
A12 A22
This expression does not include any
elevation terms. (z1 or z2)
Venturimeter Example
Lecture 11: Notches and Weirs
A venturimeter is used to measure the flow of water Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
in a 150 mm diameter pipe. The throat diameter of the
venturimeter is 60 mm and the discharge coefficient
is 0.9. If the pressure difference measured by a
x A notch is an opening in the side of a tank or reservoir.
manometer is 10 cm mercury, what is the average
velocity in the pipe?
Assume water has a density of 1000 kg/m3 and x It is a device for measuring discharge
mercury has a relative density of 13.6.
x A weir is a notch on a larger scale - usually found in rivers.
Weir Assumptions
x velocity of the fluid approaching the weir is small so we
can ignore kinetic energy.
x The velocity in the flow depends only on the depth below the
free surface. u 2 gh
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Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
Consider a horizontal strip of The width does not change with depth so
width b, depth h below the free surface
b constant B
b h
H
δh B
H
θ
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 146 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 147
From solid mechanics you will recognise In time Gt a volume of the fluid moves
F = ma from the inlet a distance u1Gt, so
What mass of moving fluid we should use? volume entering the stream tube = area u distance
= A 1u1 Gt
We use a different form of the equation.
The mass entering,
Consider a streamtube: mass entering stream tube = volume u density
= U1 A1 u1 Gt
And assume steady non-uniform flow
A2
And momentum
u2 momentum entering stream tube = mass u velocity
A1
u1 ρ2 = U1 A1 u1 Gt u1
ρ1
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 148 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 149
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
nd
By Newton’s 2 Law. An alternative derivation
From conservation of mass
Force = rate of change of momentum mass into face 1 = mass out of face 2
And if we have a fluid of constant density, The rate at which momentum leaves face 2 is
i.e. U1 U2 U , then U2 A2 u2 u2 mu
2
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 150 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 151
F QU ( u2 u1)
θ1
The Momentum equation.
u1
§ Fy ·
I tan 1 ¨ ¸
© Fx ¹
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 154 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 155
1m
The force exerted p1
u1 45°
A1
by the fluid
on the solid body
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 156 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 157
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
The outlet pipe from a pump is a bend of 45q rising in the vertical plane (i.e. and
As the fluid changes direction internal angle of 135q). The bend is 150mm diameter at its inlet and 300mm diameter
a force will act on the bend. at its outlet. The pipe axis at the inlet is horizontal and at the outlet it is 1m higher. By
neglecting friction, calculate the force and its direction if the inlet pressure is 100kN/m2
and the flow of water through the pipe is 0.3m3/s. The volume of the pipe is 0.075m3.
[13.95kN at 67q 39’ to the horizontal]
This force can be very large in the case of water
supply pipes. The bend must be held in place
to prevent breakage at the joints. 1&2 Draw the control volume and the axis
system
y p2 u
We need to know how much force a support 2 A2
p1 1m
Step in Analysis:
u1 45°
A1
1.Draw a control volume
2.Decide on co-ordinate axis system
3.Calculate the total force
4.Calculate the pressure force p1 = 100 kN/m2,
5.Calculate the body force Q = 0.3 m3/s
6.Calculate the resultant force T = 45q
d1 = 0.15 m d2 = 0.3 m
A1 = 0.177 m2 A2 = 0.0707 m2
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 158 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 159
FP y 2253614
. sin 45 u 0.0707 FR y FT y FP y FB y
11266.37 899.44 11266.37 735.75
. N
1290156
5 Calculate the body force
And the resultant force on the fluid is given by
The only body force is the force due to gravity. That FRy
FResultant
is the weight acting in the -ve y direction.
FB y Ug u volume
φ
1000 u 9.81 u 0.075
FRx
1290156
. N 2 2
FR F Rx F Ry
There are no body forces in the x direction,
FB x 0 5302.7 2 1290156
. 2
13.95 kN
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 162 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 163
The force on the bend is the same magnitude but in We want to find the reaction force of the plate.
the opposite direction i.e. the force the plate will have to apply to stay in
the same position.
R FR 13.95 kN
1 & 2 Control volume and Co-ordinate axis are
shown in the figure below.
y u2
u2
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 164 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 165
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
FP x FP y 0
u1
5 Calculate the body force
θ
As the control volume is small
we can ignore the body force due to gravity.
u3
FB x FB y 0
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 166 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 167
FT y UQu2 sin T 0
u1
Q2
θ U
A
4 Calculate the pressure force.
The pressure at both the inlet and the outlets to the
control volume is atmospheric.
1 & 2 Control volume and Co-ordinate axis are
shown in the figure above. FP x FP y 0
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 168 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 169
Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics Unit 3: Fluid Dynamics
FT y FR y FP y FB y
Q2
FR y FT y U
A
And the resultant force on the fluid is given by
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 170 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 171
θ2
The Momentum equation
is a statement of Newton’s Second Law
This force acts on the fluid The resultant force can be found by combining
in the direction of the velocity of fluid. these components
Fy
FResultant
45q
25q
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 174 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 175
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 176 CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidLevel1 Lecture 8 177
Unit 4 Unit 4
CIVE1400: An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Real fluids
January 2008
From earlier we saw this relationship between
Module web site: shear stress and velocity gradient:
www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1
du
W v
Unit 1: Fluid Mechanics Basics
Flow
3 lectures dy
Pressure
Properties of Fluids The shear stress, W, in a fluid
Fluids vs. Solids is proportional to the velocity gradient
Viscosity
- the rate of change of velocity across the flow.
Unit 2: Statics 3 lectures
Hydrostatic pressure
Manometry/Pressure measurement
Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces For a “Newtonian” fluid we can write:
Unit 3: Dynamics 7 lectures du
The continuity equation. W P
The Bernoulli Equation. dy
Application of Bernoulli equation.
The momentum equation. where P is coefficient of viscosity
Application of momentum equation.
(or simply viscosity).
Unit 4: Effect of the boundary on flow 4 lectures
Laminar and turbulent flow
Here we look at the influence of forces due to
Boundary layer theory momentum changes and viscosity
An Intro to Dimensional analysis
Similarity in a moving fluid.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 178 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 179
Unit 4 Unit 4
Injecting a dye into the middle of flow in a pipe, Top: Slow flow
what would we expect to happen? Middle: Medium flow
This Bottom: Fast flow
Laminar flow:
this Motion of the fluid particles is very orderly
all particles moving in straight lines
parallel to the pipe walls.
Turbulent flow:
Motion is, locally, completely random but the
or this overall direction of flow is one way.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 180 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 181
Unit 4 Unit 4
The was first investigated in the 1880s After many experiments he found this
by Osbourne Reynolds expression
in a classic experiment in fluid mechanics.
Uud
A tank arranged as below: P
Uud
Re
P
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 182 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 183
Unit 4 Unit 4
What are the units of Reynolds number? At what speed does the flow pattern change?
We can fill in the equation with SI units: We use the Reynolds number in an example:
A quantity with no units is known as a What is the MAXIMUM velocity when flow is
non-dimensional (or dimensionless) quantity. laminar i.e. Re = 2000
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 184 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 185
Unit 4 Unit 4
What is the MINIMUM velocity when flow is What does this abstract number mean?
turbulent i.e. Re = 4000
We can give the Re number a physical meaning.
Uud
Re 4000
P This may help to understand some of the
u 0.0044 m / s reasons for the changes from laminar to
turbulent flow.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 186 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 187
Unit 4 Unit 4
Laminar flow Pressure loss due to friction in a pipeline
x Re < 2000
x ‘low’ velocity Up to now we have considered ideal fluids:
x Dye does not mix with water no energy losses due to friction
x Fluid particles move in straight lines
x Simple mathematical analysis possible Because fluids are viscous,
x Rare in practice in water systems. energy is lost by flowing fluids due to friction.
Turbulent flow
x Re > 4000 In a real flowing fluid shear stress
x ‘high’ velocity slows the flow.
x Dye mixes rapidly and completely
x Particle paths completely irregular To give a velocity profile:
x Average motion is in flow direction
x Cannot be seen by the naked eye
x Changes/fluctuations are very difficult to
detect. Must use laser.
x Mathematical analysis very difficult - so
experimental measures are used
x Most common type of flow.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 188 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 189
Unit 4 Unit 4
Attaching a manometer gives Consider a cylindrical element of
pressure (head) loss due to the energy lost by incompressible fluid flowing in the pipe,
the fluid overcoming the shear stress. τw
L
το
το
τw area A
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 190 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 191
Unit 4 Unit 4
As the flow is in equilibrium, What is the variation of shear stress in the flow?
2 r
Sd
'p W wSdL
4
Ww 4 L τw
'p
d At the wall
R 'p
Giving pressure loss in a pipe in terms of: Ww
2 L
x pipe diameter
At a radius r
x shear stress at the wall r 'p
W
2 L
r
W Ww
R
A linear variation in shear stress.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 192 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 193
Unit 4 Unit 4
Shear stress and hence pressure loss varies Pressure loss during laminar flow in a pipe
with velocity of flow and hence with Re.
In general the shear stress Ww. is almost
Many experiments have been done impossible to measure.
with various fluids measuring
the pressure loss at various Reynolds numbers. For laminar flow we can calculate
a theoretical value for
A graph of pressure loss and Re look like: a given velocity, fluid and pipe dimension.
laminar 'p v u
turbulent 'p v u1.7 ( or 2 .0 )
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 194 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 195
Unit 4 Unit 4
du 'p R 2
Newtons law of viscosity saysW P , C
dy L 4P
At a point r from the pipe centre when the flow is
laminar:
We are measuring from the pipe centre, so
'p 1
W P
du ur
L 4P
R2 r 2
dr
This is a parabolic profile
Giving:
(of the form y = ax2 + b )
'p r du so the velocity profile in the pipe looks similar to
P
L 2 dr
du 'p r
dr L 2P
v
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 196 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 197
Unit 4 Unit 4
To get pressure loss (head loss)
What is the discharge in the pipe? in terms of the velocity of the flow, write
pressure in terms of head loss hf, i.e. p = Ughf
The flow in an annulus of thickness Gr
GQ ur Aannulus Mean velocity:
u Q/ A
Aannulus S (r Gr )2 Sr 2 | 2SrGr
'p 1 Ugh f d 2
GQ
L 4P
R 2 r 2 2SrGr u
32 PL
'p S R 2
Q ³ R r r 3 dr
L 2P 0
Head loss in a pipe with laminar flow by the
Hagen-Poiseuille equation:
'p SR 4 'p Sd 4
L 8P L128P 32 PLu
hf
Ugd 2
So the discharge can be written
Pressure loss is directly proportional to the
4 velocity when flow is laminar.
'p Sd
Q
L 128P
It has been validated many time by experiment.
It justifies two assumptions:
This is the Hagen-Poiseuille Equation
1.fluid does not slip past a solid boundary
for laminar flow in a pipe
2.Newtons hypothesis.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 198 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 199
Unit 4 Unit 4
Boundary Layers Considering a flat plate in a fluid.
umax
Free stream flow
zero velocity τo
Fully developed flow
Wall
G = distance from wall to where u = 0.99 umainstream
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 202 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 203
Unit 4 Unit 4
First: viscous forces Second: momentum transfer
(the forces which hold the fluid together)
If the viscous forces were the only action
When the boundary layer is thin: the fluid would come to a rest.
velocity gradient du/dy, is large
Viscous shear stresses have held the fluid
by Newton’s law of viscosity particles in a constant motion within layers.
shear stress, W = P (du/dy), is large. Eventually they become too small to
hold the flow in layers;
The force may be large enough to
drag the fluid close to the surface. the fluid starts to rotate.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 204 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 205
Unit 4 Unit 4
Close to boundary velocity gradients are very large. Use Reynolds number to determine which state.
Viscous shear forces are large. Uud
Possibly large enough to cause laminar flow. Re
P
This region is known as the laminar sub-layer. Laminar flow: Re < 2000
Transitional flow: 2000 < Re < 4000
This layer occurs within the turbulent zone Turbulent flow: Re > 4000
it is next to the wall.
It is very thin – a few hundredths of a mm.
In turbulent flow:
Roughness higher than laminar sub-layer:
increases turbulence and energy losses.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 206 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 207
Unit 4 Unit 4
Boundary layer separation Boundary layer separation:
* increases the turbulence
Divergent flows:
* increases the energy losses in the flow.
Positive pressure gradients.
Pressure increases in the direction of flow.
Separating / divergent flows are inherently
unstable
The fluid in the boundary layer has so little
momentum that it is brought to rest,
Convergent flows:
and possibly reversed in direction.
Reversal lifts the boundary layer. x Negative pressure gradients
p1 < p2 u1 > u2 u1
u2
p2
p1
p1 > p2 u1 < u2
x Turbulence reduces.
This phenomenon is known as
boundary layer separation. x Boundary layer separation does not occur.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 208 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 209
Unit 4 Unit 4
Examples of boundary layer separation Tee-Junctions
Y-Junctions
Tee junctions are special cases of the Y-junction.
Increasing the angle increases the probability of
boundary layer separation.
Venturi meter
Diffuser angle of about 6q
A balance between:
* length of meter
* danger of boundary layer separation.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 210 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 211
Unit 4 Unit 4
Bends Flow past a cylinder
Slow flow, Re < 0.5 no separation:
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 214 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 215
Unit 4 Unit 4
At too great an angle Examples:
boundary layer separation occurs on the top Exam questions involving boundary layer theory are
Pressure changes dramatically. typically descriptive. They ask you to explain the
This phenomenon is known as stalling. mechanisms of growth of the boundary layers including
how, why and where separation occurs. You should also be
able to suggest what might be done to prevent separation.
Solution:
Prevent separation.
1 Engine intakes draws slow air from the boundary
layer at the rear of the wing though small holes
2 Move fast air from below to top via a slot.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 216 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 217
Unit 4 Unit 4
Uses principle of dimensional homogeneity
Lectures 18 & 19: Dimensional Analysis It gives qualitative results which only become quantitative
Unit 4: The Effect of the Boundary on Flow from experimental analysis.
It depends on the correct identification of variables In dimensional analysis we are concerned with the nature
of the dimension
Relates these variables together
i.e. its quality not its quantity.
Doesn’t give the complete answer
Experiments necessary to complete solution
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 218 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 219
Unit 4 Unit 4
The following common abbreviations are used: This table lists dimensions of some common physical
quantities:
We can represent all the physical properties we are pressure ( or stress) Pascal P,
interested in with three: N/m2, Nm-2
kg/m/s2 kg m-1s-2 ML-1T-2
3 -3
density kg/m kg m ML-3
L, T specific weight N/m 3
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 220 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 221
Unit 4 Unit 4
Dimensional Homogeneity What exactly do we get
from Dimensional Analysis?
Any equation is only true if both sides
have the same dimensions.
A single equation,
It must be dimensionally homogenous.
Which relates all the physical factors
of a problem to each other.
What are the dimensions of X?
2 An example:
B 2 gH 3/ 2 X
3 Problem: What is the force, F, on a propeller?
L (LT-2)1/2 L3/2 = X What might influence the force?
L (L1/2T-1) L3/2 = X
L3 T-1 = X It would be reasonable to assume that the force, F,
depends on the following physical properties?
The powers of the individual dimensions must be equal
on both sides. diameter, d
(for L they are both 3, for T both -1). forward velocity of the propeller
(velocity of the plane), u
Dimensional homogeneity can be useful for: fluid density, U
1. Checking units of equations; revolutions per second, N
2. Converting between two sets of units; fluid viscosity, P
3. Defining dimensionless relationships
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 222 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 223
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How do we get the dimensionless groups?
From this list we can write this equation:
There are several methods.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 224 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 225
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2nd S theorem
An example
Each S group is a function of n governing or repeating
variables plus one of the remaining variables.
Taking the example discussed above of force F induced
Choice of repeating variables on a propeller blade, we have the equation
x They should be of major interest to the designer. x contain all the dimensions M,L and T.
Unit 4 Unit 4
S1 U a1 u b1 d c1 F
The powers for each dimension (M, L or T), the powers
S2 U a2 u b2 d c2 N
must be equal on each side.
S3 U a3 u b3 d c3 P
for M: 0 = a1 + 1
The S groups are all dimensionless, a1 = -1
i.e. they have dimensions M0L0T0
for L: 0 = -3a1 + b1 + c1 + 1
We use the principle of dimensional homogeneity to 0 = 4 + b1 + c1
equate the dimensions for each S group.
for T: 0 = -b1 - 2
b1 = -2
c1 = -4 - b1 = -2
Giving S1 as
S1 U 1u 2 d 2 F
F
S1
Uu 2 d 2
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 228 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 229
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And a similar procedure is followed for the other S And for the third, S 3 U a3 ub3 d c3 P
groups. 3 a3 1 b3
a2 b2 c2
M 0 L0T 0 M L L T L c3
ML1T 1
Group S 2 U u d N
3 a1 1 b1
M 0 L0T 0 M L L T L c1
T 1
for M: 0 = a3 + 1
a3 = -1
for M: 0 = a2
for L: 0 = -3a3 + b3 + c3 -1
for L: 0 = -3a2 + b2 + c2 b3 + c3 = -2
0 = b2 + c2
for T: 0 = -b3 - 1
for T: 0 = -b2 - 1 b3 = -1
b2 = -1 c3 = -1
c2 = 1
Giving S3 as
Giving S2 as S3 U 1u 1d 1P
0 1 1
S2 Uu d N P
S3
Nd Uud
S2
u
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 230 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 231
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x Experimental analysis may miss significant v. Expressed as a function of the other groups
behavioural changes. S2 = I ( S1 , S3 ……… Sm-n )
Initial choice of variables In general the defining equation could look like
should be done with great care.
I ( S1 , 1/S2 ,( S3 )i……… 0.5Sm-n ) = 0
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 232 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 233
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CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 234 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 235
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CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 236 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 237
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Dynamic similarity Modelling and Scaling Laws
Measurements taken from a model needs a scaling law
If geometrically and kinematically similar and
applied to predict the values in the prototype.
the ratios of all forces are the same.
An example:
Force ratio
2
Fm M m am Um L3m O L 2 § OL ·
u O O
U L ¨ ¸ O U O2L O2u For resistance R, of a body
Fp M pa p U p L3p O2T © OT ¹
moving through a fluid.
R, is dependent on the following:
This occurs when
the controlling S group U ML-3 u: LT-1 l:(length) L P: ML-1T-1
is the same for model and prototype.
So
I (R, U, u, l, P ) = 0
The controlling S group is usually Re.
So Re is the same for
model and prototype: Taking U, u, l as repeating variables gives:
R § Uul ·
I¨ ¸
Um um dm U pupd p Uu 2 l 2 © P ¹
Pm Pp § Uul ·
R Uu 2 l 2I ¨ ¸
© P ¹
It is possible another group is dominant. This applies whatever the size of the body
In open channel i.e. river Froude number is i.e. it is applicable to prototype and
often taken as dominant. a geometrically similar model.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 238 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 239
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W can go no further without some assumptions. Both the model and prototype are in water then,
Assuming dynamic similarity, so Reynolds number are Pm = Pp and Um = Up so
the same for both the model and prototype:
Um um dm U pupd p dp 1
um up 10 200 m / s
Pm Pp dm 1 / 20
so
Rm Um um2 lm2 This is a very high velocity.
Rp U p u 2p l p2 This is one reason why model tests are not always done
i.e. a scaling law for resistance force: at exactly equal Reynolds numbers.
OR OU O2u O2L A wind tunnel could have been used so the values of the
U and P ratios would be used in the above.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 240 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 241
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Example 2 So the model velocity is found to be
A model aeroplane is built at 1/10 scale and is to be tested in a wind 1 1
tunnel operating at a pressure of 20 times atmospheric. The aeroplane um up 0.5u p
will fly at 500km/h. At what speed should the wind tunnel operate to give 20 1 / 10
dynamic similarity between the model and prototype? If the drag um 250 km / h
measure on the model is 337.5 N what will be the drag on the plane?
Earlier we derived an equation for resistance on a body
moving through air: And the ratio of forces is
§ Uul · Rm Uu l 2 2
Uu 2 l 2I Re
m
R Uu 2 l 2I ¨ ¸
© P ¹ Rp Uu l 2 2
p
2 2
Rm 20 0.5 01
.
0.05
For dynamic similarity Rem = Rep, so Rp 1 1 1
U p d p Pm So the drag force on the prototype will be
um up
Um d m P p 1
Rp Rm 20 u 337.5 6750 N
0.05
The value of P does not change much with pressure so
Pm = Pp
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 242 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 243
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Geometric distortion in river models
Resulting in:
x Good overall flow patterns and discharge
x local detail of flow is not well modelled.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 244 CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1 Lectures 16-19 245