TSE Notes

Transportation Systems Engineering
1. Fundamental Parameters of Trac Flow
Chapter 1
Fundamental Parameters of Trac
Flow
1.1
Overview
Trac engineering pertains to the analysis of the behavior of trac and to design the facilities
for a smooth, safe and economical operation of trac. Trac ow, like the ow of water,
has several parameters associated with it. The trac stream parameters provide information
regarding the nature of trac ow, which helps the analyst in detecting any variation in ow
characteristics. Understanding trac behavior requires a thorough knowledge of trac stream
parameters and their mutual relationships. In this chapter the basic concepts of trac ow is
presented.
1.2
Trac stream parameters
The trac stream includes a combination of driver and vehicle behavior. The driver or human
behavior being non-uniform, trac stream is also non-uniform in nature. It is inuenced not
only by the individual characteristics of both vehicle and human but also by the way a group
of such units interacts with each other. Thus a ow of trac through a street of dened
characteristics will vary both by location and time corresponding to the changes in the human
behavior.
The trac engineer, but for the purpose of planning and design, assumes that these changes
are within certain ranges which can be predicted. For example, if the maximum permissible
speed of a highway is 60 kmph, the whole trac stream can be assumed to move on an average
speed of 40 kmph rather than 100 or 20 kmph.
Thus the trac stream itself is having some parameters on which the characteristics can
be predicted. The parameters can be mainly classied as : measurements of quantity, which
Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay
1.1
January 31, 2014
includes density and ow of trac and measurements of quality which includes speed. The
trac stream parameters can be macroscopic which characterizes the trac as a whole or
microscopic which studies the behavior of individual vehicle in the stream with respect to each
other.
As far as the macroscopic characteristics are concerned, they can be grouped as measurement
of quantity or quality as described above, i.e. ow, density, and speed. While the microscopic
characteristics include the measures of separation, i.e. the headway or separation between
vehicles which can be either time or space headway. The fundamental stream characteristics
are speed, ow, and density and are discussed below.
1.3
Speed
Speed is considered as a quality measurement of travel as the drivers and passengers will be
concerned more about the speed of the journey than the design aspects of the trac. It is
dened as the rate of motion in distance per unit of time. Mathematically speed or velocity v
is given by,
d
(1.1)
v=
t
where, v is the speed of the vehicle in m/s, d is distance traveled in m in time t seconds. Speed
of dierent vehicles will vary with respect to time and space. To represent these variation,
several types of speed can be dened. Important among them are spot speed, running speed,
journey speed, time mean speed and space mean speed. These are discussed below.
1.3.1
Spot Speed
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specied location. Spot speed can be
used to design the geometry of road like horizontal and vertical curves, super elevation etc.
Location and size of signs, design of signals, safe speed, and speed zone determination, require
the spot speed data. Accident analysis, road maintenance, and congestion are the modern elds
of trac engineer, which uses spot speed data as the basic input. Spot speed can be measured
using an enoscope, pressure contact tubes or direct timing procedure or radar speedometer or
by time-lapse photographic methods. It can be determined by speeds extracted from video
images by recording the distance travelling by all vehicles between a particular pair of frames.
1.2
January 31, 2014
1.3.2
Running speed
Running speed is the average speed maintained over a particular course while the vehicle is
moving and is found by dividing the length of the course by the time duration the vehicle was
in motion. i.e. this speed doesnt consider the time during which the vehicle is brought to a
stop, or has to wait till it has a clear road ahead. The running speed will always be more than
or equal to the journey speed, as delays are not considered in calculating the running speed
1.3.3
Journey speed
Journey speed is the eective speed of the vehicle on a journey between two points and is the
distance between the two points divided by the total time taken for the vehicle to complete the
journey including any stopped time. If the journey speed is less than running speed, it indicates
that the journey follows a stop-go condition with enforced acceleration and deceleration. The
spot speed here may vary from zero to some maximum in excess of the running speed. A
uniformity between journey and running speeds denotes comfortable travel conditions.
1.3.4
Time mean speed and space mean speed
Time mean speed is dened as the average speed of all the vehicles passing a point on a highway
over some specied time period. Space mean speed is dened as the average speed of all the
vehicles occupying a given section of a highway over some specied time period. Both mean
speeds will always be dierent from each other except in the unlikely event that all vehicles
are traveling at the same speed. Time mean speed is a point measurement while space mean
speed is a measure relating to length of highway or lane, i.e. the mean speed of vehicles over
a period of time at a point in space is time mean speed and the mean speed over a space at a
given instant is the space mean speed.
1.4
Flow
There are practically two ways of counting the number of vehicles on a road. One is ow or
volume, which is dened as the number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway or a given
lane or direction of a highway during a specic time interval. The measurement is carried out
by counting the number of vehicles, nt , passing a particular point in one lane in a dened period
t. Then the ow q expressed in vehicles/hour is given by
q=
nt
t
1.3
(1.2)
January 31, 2014
Flow is expressed in planning and design eld taking a day as the measurement of time.
1.4.1
Variations of Volume
The variation of volume with time, i.e. month to month, day to day, hour to hour and within a
hour is also as important as volume calculation. Volume variations can also be observed from
season to season. Volume will be above average in a pleasant motoring month of summer, but
will be more pronounced in rural than in urban area. But this is the most consistent of all the
variations and aects the trac stream characteristics the least.
Weekdays, Saturdays and Sundays will also face dierence in pattern. But comparing day
with day, patterns for routes of a similar nature often show a marked similarity, which is useful
in enabling predictions to be made.
The most signicant variation is from hour to hour. The peak hour observed during mornings and evenings of weekdays, which is usually 8 to 10 per cent of total daily ow or 2 to 3
times the average hourly volume. These trips are mainly the work trips, which are relatively
stable with time and more or less constant from day to day.
1.4.2
Types of volume measurements
Since there is considerable variation in the volume of trac, several types of measurements of
volume are commonly adopted which will average these variations into a single volume count
to be used in many design purposes.
1. Average Annual Daily Trac(AADT) : The average 24-hour trac volume at a
given location over a full 365-day year, i.e. the total number of vehicles passing the site
in a year divided by 365.
2. Average Annual Weekday Trac(AAWT) : The average 24-hour trac volume
occurring on weekdays over a full year. It is computed by dividing the total weekday
trac volume for the year by 260.
3. Average Daily Trac(ADT) : An average 24-hour trac volume at a given location
for some period of time less than a year. It may be measured for six months, a season, a
month, a week, or as little as two days. An ADT is a valid number only for the period
over which it was measured.
4. Average Weekday Trac(AWT) : An average 24-hour trac volume occurring on
weekdays for some period of time less than one year, such as for a month or a season.
1.4
January 31, 2014
Figure 1:1: Illustration of density

The relationship between AAWT and AWT is analogous to that between AADT and ADT.
Volume in general is measured using dierent ways like manual counting, detector/sensor counting, moving-car observer method, etc. Mainly the volume study establishes the importance of
a particular route with respect to the other routes, the distribution of trac on road, and the
uctuations in ow. All which eventually determines the design of a highway and the related
facilities. Thus, volume is treated as the most important of all the parameters of trac stream.
1.5
Density
Density is dened as the number of vehicles occupying a given length of highway or lane and
is generally expressed as vehicles per km. One can photograph a length of road x, count the
number of vehicles, nx , in one lane of the road at that point of time and derive the density k
as,
nx
(1.3)
k=
x
This is illustrated in gure 1:1. From the gure, the density is the number of vehicles between
the point A and B divided by the distance between A and B. Density is also equally important
as ow but from a dierent angle as it is the measure most directly related to trac demand.
Again it measures the proximity of vehicles in the stream which in turn aects the freedom to
maneuver and comfortable driving.
1.6
Derived characteristics
From the fundamental trac ow characteristics like ow, density, and speed, a few other
parameters of trac ow can be derived. Signicant among them are the time headway,
1.5
January 31, 2014
distance headway and travel time. They are discussed one by one below.
1.6.1
Time headway
The microscopic character related to volume is the time headway or simply headway. Time
headway is dened as the time dierence between any two successive vehicles when they cross
a given point. Practically, it involves the measurement of time between the passage of one rear
bumper and the next past a given point. If all headways h in time period, t, over which ow
has been measured are added then,
nt
hi = t
(1.4)
But the ow is dened as the number of vehicles nt measured in time interval t, that is,
q=
nt
=
t
nt
nt
1
hi
1
hav
(1.5)
where, hav is the average headway. Thus average headway is the inverse of ow. Time headway
is often referred to as simply the headway.
1.6.2
Distance headway
Another related parameter is the distance headway. It is dened as the distance between
corresponding points of two successive vehicles at any given time. It involves the measurement
from a photograph, the distance from rear bumper of lead vehicle to rear bumper of following
vehicle at a point of time. If all the space headways in distance x over which the density has
been measured are added,
nx
si = x
(1.6)
But the density (k) is the number of vehicles nx at a distance of x, that is

k=
nx
=
x
nx
nx
1
si
1
sav
(1.7)
Where, sav is average distance headway. The average distance headway is the inverse of density
and is sometimes called as spacing.
1.6.3
Travel time
Travel time is dened as the time taken to complete a journey. As the speed increases, travel
time required to reach the destination also decreases and vice-versa. Thus travel time is inversely
1.6
January 31, 2014
distance
distance
time
(a)
(b)
distance
time
time
(c)
Figure 1:2: Time space diagram for a single vehicle

proportional to the speed. However, in practice, the speed of a vehicle uctuates over time and
the travel time represents an average measure.
1.7
Time-space diagram
Time space diagram is a convenient tool in understanding the movement of vehicles. It shows
the trajectory of vehicles in the form of a two dimensional plot. Time space diagram can be
plotted for a single vehicle as well as multiple vehicles. They are discussed below.
1.7.1
Single vehicle
Taking one vehicle at a time, analysis can be carried out on the position of the vehicle with
respect to time. This analysis will generate a graph which gives the relation of its position on
a road stretch relative to time. This plot thus will be between distance x and time t and x
will be a functions the position of the vehicle for every t along the road stretch. This graphical
representation of x(t) in a (t, x) plane is a curve which is called as a trajectory. The trajectory
provide an intuitive, clear, and complete summary of vehicular motion in one dimension.
In gure 1:2(a), the the distance x goes on increasing with respect to the origin as time
progresses. The vehicle is moving at a smooth condition along the road way. In gure 1:2(b),
the vehicle at rst moves with a smooth pace after reaching a position reverses its direction of
movement. In gure 1:2(c), the vehicle in between becomes stationary and maintains the same
position.
1.7
January 31, 2014
From the gure, steeply increasing section of x(t) denote a rapidly advancing vehicle and
horizontal portions of x(t) denote a stopped vehicle while shallow sections show a slow-moving
vehicle. A straight line denotes constant speed motion and curving sections denote accelerated
motion; and if the curve is concave downwards it denotes acceleration. But a curve which is
convex upwards denotes deceleration.
1.7.2
Multiple Vehicles
Time-space diagram can also be used to determine the fundamental parameters of trac ow
like speed, density and volume. It can also be used to nd the derived characteristics like space
headway and time headway. Figure 1:3 shows the time-space diagram for a set of vehicles
traveling at constant speed. Density, by denition is the number of vehicles per unit length.
From the gure, an observer looking into the stream can count 4 vehicles passing the stretch
of road between x1 and x2 at time t. Hence, the density is given as
k=
4 vehicles
x2 x1
(1.8)
We can also nd volume from this time-space diagram. As per the denition, volume is the
number of vehicles counted for a particular interval of time. From the gure 1:3 we can see
that 6 vehicles are present between the time t1 and t2 . Therefore, the volume q is given as
q=
3 vehicles
t2 t1
(1.9)
Again the averages taken at a specic location (i.e., time ranging over an interval) are called
time means and those taken at an instant over a space interval are termed as space means.
Another related denition which can be given based on the time-space diagram is the headway. Space headway is dened as the distance between corresponding points of two successive
vehicles at any given time. Thus, the vertical gap between any two consecutive lines represents
space headway. The reciprocal of density otherwise gives the space headway between vehicles
at that time.
Similarly, time headway is dened as the time dierence between any two successive vehicles
when they cross a given point. Thus, the horizontal gap between the vehicles represented by the
lines gives the time headway. The reciprocal of ow gives the average time headway between
vehicles at that point.
1.8
January 31, 2014
x2
distance
spacing (s)
headway(h)
x1
t1
t
Time
t2
Figure 1:3: Time space diagram for many vehicles
1.8
Summary
Speed, ow and density are the basic parameters of trac ow. Dierent measures of speed
are used in trac ow analysis like spot speed, time mean speed, space mean speed etc. Timespace diagram also can be used for determining these parameters. Speed and ow of the trac
stream can be computed using moving observer method.
1.9
References
1. Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board. National Research Council,

Washington, D.C., 2000.
2. L. R Kadiyali. Trac Engineering and Transportation Planning. Khanna Publishers,
New Delhi, 1987.
3. Adolf D. May. Fundamentals of Trac Flow. Prentice - Hall, Inc. Englewood Cli New
Jersey 07632, second edition, 1990.
4. William R McShane, Roger P Roesss, and Elena S Prassas. Trac Engineering. PrenticeHall, Inc, Upper Saddle River, New Jesery, 1998.
5. C. S Papacostas.
Delhi, 1987.
Fundamentals of Transportation Engineering.
1.9
Prentice-Hall, New
January 31, 2014
2. Fundamental Relations of Trac Flow
Chapter 2
Fundamental Relations of Trac Flow
2.1
Overview
Speed is one of the basic parameters of trac ow and time mean speed and space mean
speed are the two representations of speed. Time mean speed and space mean speed and the
relationship between them will be discussed in detail in this chapter. The relationship between
the fundamental parameters of trac ow will also be derived. In addition, this relationship
can be represented in graphical form resulting in the fundamental diagrams of trac ow.
2.2
Time mean speed (vt)
As noted earlier, time mean speed is the average of all vehicles passing a point over a duration
of time. It is the simple average of spot speed. Time mean speed vt is given by,
1
vt =
n
vi ,
(2.1)
i=1
where vi is the spot speed of ith vehicle, and n is the number of observations. In many speed
studies, speeds are represented in the form of frequency table. Then the time mean speed is
given by,
n
qi vi
vt = i=1
,
(2.2)
n
i=1 qi
where qi is the number of vehicles having speed vi , and n is the number of such speed categories.
2.3
Space mean speed (vs)
The space mean speed also averages the spot speed, but spatial weightage is given instead of
temporal. This is derived as below. Consider unit length of a road, and let vi is the spot speed
2.1
January 31, 2014
of ith vehicle. Let ti is the time the vehicle takes to complete unit distance and is given by
If there are n such vehicles, then the average travel time ts is given by,
ts =
ti
1 1
= .
n
n vi
If tav is the average travel time, then average speed vs =

vs =
n
n
1
i=1 vi
1
.
ts
1
.
vi
(2.3)
Therefore, from the above equation,
(2.4)
This is simply the harmonic mean of the spot speed. If the spot speeds are expressed as a
frequency table, then,
n
i=1 qi
vs = n qi
(2.5)
i=1 vi
where qi vehicle will have vi speed and ni is the number of such observations.
Numerical Example
If the spot speeds are 50, 40, 60, 54 and 45, then nd the time mean speed and space mean
speed.
Solution Time mean speed vt is the average of spot speed. Therefore, vt = vi = 50+40+60+54+45 =
n
5
249
= 49.8. Space mean speed is the harmonic mean of spot speed. Therefore, vs = n1 =
5
5
1
1
1
1
1
+ 40 + 60 + 54 + 45
50
5
0.12
vi
= 48.82.
Numerical Example
The results of a speed study is given in the form of a frequency distribution table. Find the
time mean speed and space mean speed.
speed range frequency
2-5
1
6-9
4
10-13
0
7
14-17
Solution The time mean speed and space mean speed can be found out from the frequency
table given below. First, the average speed is computed, which is the mean of the speed range.
For example, for the rst speed range, average speed, vi = 2+5 = 3.5 seconds. The volume of
2
qi
ow qi for that speed range is same as the frequency. The terms vi .qi and vi are also tabulated,
2.2
January 31, 2014
qi
No. speed range average speed (vi ) volume of ow (qi ) vi qi
vi
1
2-5
3.5
1
3.5 2.29
2
6-9
7.5
4
30.0 0.54
3
10-13
11.5
0
0
0
4
14-17
15.5
7
108.5 0.45
total
12
142 3.28
10 m/s
10 m/s
50
10 m/s
50
20 m/s
10 m/s
50
10 m/s
50
20 m/s
20 m/s
100
100
hs = 50/20 = 5sec
ns = 60/5 = 12
ks = 1000/50 = 20
hf = 100/20 = 5sec
nf = 60/5 = 12
kf = 1000/100 = 10
Figure 2:1: Illustration of relation between time mean speed and space mean speed
and their summations given in the last row. Time mean speed can be computed as, vt =
qi
142
12
= 11.83. Similarly, space mean speed can be computed as, vs = qi = 3.28 = 3.65.
12
qi vi
qi
vi
2.4
Illustration of mean speeds
In order to understand the concept of time mean speed and space mean speed, following illustration will help. Let there be a road stretch having two sets of vehicle as in gure 2:1.
The rst vehicle is traveling at 10m/s with 50 m spacing, and the second set at 20m/s with
100 m spacing. Therefore, the headway of the slow vehicle hs will be 50 m divided by 10 m/s
which is 5 sec. Therefore, the number of slow moving vehicles observed at A in one hour ns
will be 60/5 = 12 vehicles. The density K is the number of vehicles in 1 km, and is the inverse
of spacing. Therefore, Ks = 1000/50 = 20 vehicles/km. Therefore, by denition, time mean
speed vt is given by vt = 1210+1220 = 15 m/s. Similarly, by denition, space mean speed is
24
the mean of vehicle speeds over time. Therefore, vs = 2010+1020 = 13.3 m/s. This is same as
30
the harmonic mean of spot speeds obtained at location A; ie vs = 12 1 24 1 = 13.3 m/s. It
+12 20
10
may be noted that since harmonic mean is always lower than the arithmetic mean, and also as
observed, space mean speed is always lower than the time mean speed. In other words, space
mean speed weights slower vehicles more heavily as they occupy the road stretch for longer
2.3
January 31, 2014
duration of time. For this reason, in many fundamental trac equations, space mean speed is
preferred over time mean speed.
2.5
Relation between time mean speed and space mean

speed
The relation between time mean speed(vt ) and space mean speed(vs ) is given by the following
relation:
2
vs
vt = vs +
(2.6)
where, 2 is the standard deviation of the spot speed. The derivation of the formula is given in
the next subsection. The standard deviation( 2 ) can be computed in the following equation:
2 =
2
qi vi
(vt )2
qi
(2.7)
where,qi is the frequency of the vehicle having vi speed.
2.5.1
Derivation of the relation
The relation between time mean speed and space mean speed can be derived as below. Consider
a stream of vehicles with a set of sub-stream ow q1 , q2 , . . . qi , . . . qn having speed v1 ,v2 , . . . vi ,
. . . vn . The fundamental relation between ow(q), density(k) and mean speed vs is,
q = k vs
(2.8)
Therefore for any sub-stream qi , the following relationship will be valid.

qi = ki vi
(2.9)
The summation of all sub-stream ows will give the total ow q:

qi = q.
(2.10)
Similarly the summation of all sub-stream density will give the total density k.
ki = k.
(2.11)
Let fi denote the proportion of sub-stream density ki to the total density k,

fi =
ki
.
k
2.4
(2.12)
January 31, 2014
Space mean speed averages the speed over space. Therefore, if ki vehicles has vi speed, then
space mean speed is given by,
ki vi
vs =
.
(2.13)
k
Time mean speed averages the speed over time. Therefore,
vt =
qi vi
.
q
(2.14)
vt =
ki vi 2
q
(2.15)
Substituting 2.9, vt can be written as,
Rewriting the above equation and substituting 2.12, and then substituting 2.8, we get,
ki 2
vt = k vi
k
kfi vi 2
=
q
fi vi 2
=
vs
By adding and subtracting vs and doing algebraic manipulations, vt can be written as,
fi (vs + (vi vs ))2
vs
2
fi (vs ) + (vi vs )2 + 2.vs .(vi vs )
=
vs
fi vs 2 fi (vi vs )2 2.vs .fi (vi vs )
=
+
+
vs
vs
vs
vt =
(2.16)
(2.17)
(2.18)
The third term of the equation will be zero because fi (vi vs ) will be zero, since vs is the
mean speed of vi . The numerator of the second term gives the standard deviation of vi . fi
by denition is 1.Therefore,
vt = vs fi +
= vs +
2
vs
2
+0
vs
(2.19)
(2.20)
Hence, time mean speed is space mean speed plus standard deviation of the spot speed divided
by the space mean speed. Time mean speed will be always greater than space mean speed since
standard deviation cannot be negative. If all the speed of the vehicles are the same, then spot
speed, time mean speed and space mean speed will also be same.
2.5
January 31, 2014
No.
1
2
3
4
5
speed
range
vl < v < vu
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
total
mid interval
vi = vl +vu
2
ow
qi
5
15
20
25
30
6
16
24
25
17
88
qi vi
2
vi
2
qi vi
qi /vi
30
25
150
6/5
240 225 3600 16/15
600 625 15000 24/25
875 1225 30625 25/35
765 2025 34425 17/45
2510
83800 4.3187
Numerical Example
For the data given below,compute the time mean speed and space mean speed. Also verify the
relationship between them. Finally compute the density of the stream.
speed range frequency
0-10
5
10-20
15
20
20-30
25
30-40
40-50
30
Solution The solution of this problem consist of computing the time mean speed vt =
2
qi vi
,space mean speed vs = qii ,verifying their relation by the equation vt = vs + s ,and
q
qi
v
vi
using this to compute the density. To verify their relation, the standard deviation also need to
2
2
be computed 2 = qv vt . For convenience,the calculation can be done in a tabular form as
q
shown in table 2.5.1.
The time mean speed(vt ) is computed as:
qi vi
qi
2510
=
= 28.52
88
vt =
2.6
January 31, 2014
The space mean speed can be computed as:
vs =
=
qi
qi
vi
88
= 20.38
4.3187
The standard deviation can be computed as:

qv 2
2
vt
q
83800
28.522 = 138.727
=
88
2 =
The time mean speed can also vt can also be computed as:
vt = vs +
138.727
2
= 20.38 +
= 27.184
vs
20.38
The density can be found as:

k =
2.6
q
88
=
= 4.3 vehicle/km
v
20.38
Fundamental relations of trac ow
The relationship between the fundamental variables of trac ow, namely speed, volume, and
density is called the fundamental relations of trac ow. This can be derived by a simple
concept. Let there be a road with length v km, and assume all the vehicles are moving with v
km/hr.(Fig 2:2). Let the number of vehicles counted by an observer at A for one hour be n1 .
By denition, the number of vehicles counted in one hour is ow(q). Therefore,
n1 = q.
(2.21)
Similarly, by denition, density is the number of vehicles in unit distance. Therefore number
of vehicles n2 in a road stretch of distance v1 will be density distance.Therefore,
n2 = k v.
2.7
(2.22)
January 31, 2014

v km
A
B
8
Figure 2:2: Illustration of relation between fundamental parameters of trac ow

Since all the vehicles have speed v, the number of vehicles counted in 1 hour and the number
of vehicles in the stretch of distance v will also be same.(ie n1 = n2 ). Therefore,
q = k v.
(2.23)
This is the fundamental equation of trac ow. Please note that, v in the above equation refers
to the space mean speed will also be same.
2.7
Fundamental diagrams of trac ow
The relation between ow and density, density and speed, speed and ow, can be represented
with the help of some curves. They are referred to as the fundamental diagrams of trac ow.
They will be explained in detail one by one below.
2.7.1
Flow-density curve
The ow and density varies with time and location. The relation between the density and the
corresponding ow on a given stretch of road is referred to as one of the fundamental diagram
of trac ow. Some characteristics of an ideal ow-density relationship is listed below:
1. When the density is zero, ow will also be zero,since there is no vehicles on the road.
2. When the number of vehicles gradually increases the density as well as ow increases.
3. When more and more vehicles are added, it reaches a situation where vehicles cant move.
This is referred to as the jam density or the maximum density. At jam density, ow will
be zero because the vehicles are not moving.
4. There will be some density between zero density and jam density, when the ow is maximum. The relationship is normally represented by a parabolic curve as shown in gure 2:3
2.8
January 31, 2014
qmax
flow(q)
A
D
k0
k1
kmax
k2
kjam
density (k)
Figure 2:3: Flow density curve

The point O refers to the case with zero density and zero ow. The point B refers to the
maximum ow and the corresponding density is kmax . The point C refers to the maximum
density kjam and the corresponding ow is zero. OA is the tangent drawn to the parabola at O,
and the slope of the line OA gives the mean free ow speed, ie the speed with which a vehicle
can travel when there is no ow. It can also be noted that points D and E correspond to same
ow but has two dierent densities. Further, the slope of the line OD gives the mean speed at
density k1 and slope of the line OE will give mean speed at density k2 . Clearly the speed at
density k1 will be higher since there are less number of vehicles on the road.
2.7.2
Speed-density diagram
Similar to the ow-density relationship, speed will be maximum, referred to as the free ow
speed, and when the density is maximum, the speed will be zero. The most simple assumption
is that this variation of speed with density is linear as shown by the solid line in gure 2:4.
Corresponding to the zero density, vehicles will be owing with their desire speed, or free ow
speed. When the density is jam density, the speed of the vehicles becomes zero. It is also
possible to have non-linear relationships as shown by the dotted lines. These will be discussed
later.
2.7.3
Speed ow relation
The relationship between the speed and ow can be postulated as follows. The ow is zero
either because there is no vehicles or there are too many vehicles so that they cannot move.
At maximum ow, the speed will be in between zero and free ow speed. This relationship is
shown in gure 2:5. The maximum ow qmax occurs at speed u. It is possible to have two
2.9
January 31, 2014
speed u
uf
density (k)
k0
kjam
Figure 2:4: Speed-density diagram
uf
speed u
u2
u1
u0
Qmax
flow q
Figure 2:5: Speed-ow diagram
2.10
January 31, 2014
speed u
speed u
density k
qmax
flow q
flow q
density k
Figure 2:6: Fundamental diagram of trac ow

dierent speeds for a given ow.
2.7.4
Combined diagrams
The diagrams shown in the relationship between speed-ow, speed-density, and ow-density
are called the fundamental diagrams of trac ow. These are as shown in gure 2:6. One
could observe the inter-relationship of these diagrams.
2.8
Summary
Time mean speed and space mean speed are two important measures of speed. It is possible to
have a relation between them and was derived in this chapter. Also, time mean speed will be
always greater than or equal to space mean speed. The fundamental diagrams of trac ow
are vital tools which enables analysis of fundamental relationships. There are three diagrams speed-density, speed-ow and ow-density. They can be together combined in a single diagram
as discussed in the last section of the chapter.
2.9
References

New Delhi, 1987.
2.11
January 31, 2014
3. Trac Stream Models
Chapter 3
Trac Stream Models
3.1
Overview
To gure out the exact relationship between the trac parameters, a great deal of research
has been done over the past several decades. The results of these researches yielded many
mathematical models. Some important models among them will be discussed in this chapter.
3.2
Greenshields macroscopic stream model
Macroscopic stream models represent how the behaviour of one parameter of trac ow changes
with respect to another. Most important among them is the relation between speed and density.
The rst and most simple relation between them is proposed by Greenshield. Greenshield
assumed a linear speed-density relationship as illustrated in gure 3:1 to derive the model. The
equation for this relationship is shown below.
v = vf
vf
.k
kj
(3.1)
where v is the mean speed at density k, vf is the free speed and kj is the jam density. This
equation ( 3.1) is often referred to as the Greenshields model. It indicates that when density
becomes zero, speed approaches free ow speed (ie. v vf when k 0). Once the relation
between speed and ow is established, the relation with ow can be derived. This relation
between ow and density is parabolic in shape and is shown in gure 3:3. Also, we know that
q = k.v
(3.2)
Now substituting equation 3.1 in equation 3.2, we get

q = vf .k
3.1
vf 2
k
kj
(3.3)
January 31, 2014
speed u
uf
k0
kjam
density (k)
Figure 3:1: Relation between speed and density
speed, u
uf
u0
q
flow, q
qmax
Figure 3:2: Relation between speed and ow
3.2
January 31, 2014
qmax
flow(q)
A
D
k1
k0
kmax
kjam
k2
density (k)
Figure 3:3: Relation between ow and density 1

q
Similarly we can nd the relation between speed and ow. For this, put k = v in equation 3.1
and solving, we get
kj 2
v
(3.4)
q = kj .v
vf
This relationship is again parabolic and is shown in gure 3:2. Once the relationship between
the fundamental variables of trac ow is established, the boundary conditions can be derived.
The boundary conditions that are of interest are jam density, free-ow speed, and maximum
ow. To nd density at maximum ow, dierentiate equation 3.3 with respect to k and equate
it to zero. ie.,
dq
= 0
dk
vf
vf .2k = 0
kj
kj
k =
2
Denoting the density corresponding to maximum ow as k0 ,
kj
(3.5)
2
Therefore, density corresponding to maximum ow is half the jam density. Once we get k0 , we
can derive for maximum ow, qmax . Substituting equation 3.5 in equation 3.3
k0 =
kj vf kj
.
2
kj 2
kj
kj
= vf . vf .
2
4
vf .kj
=
4
qmax = vf .
3.3
January 31, 2014
Thus the maximum ow is one fourth the product of free ow and jam density. Finally to get
the speed at maximum ow, v0 , substitute equation 3.5 in equation 3.1 and solving we get,
v0 = vf
vf kj
.
kj 2
vf
2
Therefore, speed at maximum ow is half of the free speed.
v0 =
3.3
(3.6)
Calibration of Greenshields model
In order to use this model for any trac stream, one should get the boundary values, especially
free ow speed (vf ) and jam density (kj ). This has to be obtained by eld survey and this is
called calibration process. Although it is dicult to determine exact free ow speed and jam
density directly from the eld, approximate values can be obtained from a number of speed and
density observations and then tting a linear equation between them. Let the linear equation
be y = a + bx such that y is density k and x denotes the speed v. Using linear regression
method, coecients a and b can be solved as,
b =
n
i=1
n.
a = y b
xi yi n xi . n yi
i=1
i=1
n
xi 2 ( n xi )2
i=1
i=1
(3.7)
(3.8)
Alternate method of solving for b is,

b =
i=1 (xi x)(yi

n
2
i=1 (xi x)
y)
(3.9)
where xi and yi are the samples, n is the number of samples, and x and y are the mean of xi
and yi respectively.
Numerical example
For the following data on speed and density, determine the parameters of the Greenshields
model. Also nd the maximum ow and density corresponding to a speed of 30 km/hr.
v
k
171 5
129 15
20 40
70 25
3.4
January 31, 2014

x(k)
171
129
20
70
390
y(v)
5
15
40
25
85
(xi x)
73.5
31.5
-77.5
-27.5

(yi y )
-16.3
-6.3
18.7
3.7
(xi x)(yi y )
-1198.1
-198.5
-1449.3
-101.8
-2947.7
(xi x2 )
5402.3
992.3
6006.3
756.3
13157.2
Solution Denoting y = v and x = k, solve for a and b using equation 3.8 and equation 3.9.
The solution is tabulated as shown below. x = x = 390 = 97.5, y = y = 85 = 21.3. From
n
4
n
4
2947.7
x
equation 3.9, b = 13157.2 = -0.2 a = y b = 21.3 + 0.297.5 = 40.8 So the linear regression
equation will be,
v = 40.8 0.2k
(3.10)
v
Here vf = 40.8 and kf = 0.2. This implies, kj = 40.8 = 204 veh/km. The basic parameters of
0.2
j
Greenshields model are free ow speed and jam density and they are obtained as 40.8 kmph
and 204 veh/km respectively. To nd maximum ow, use equation 3.6, i.e., qmax = 40.8204 =
4
2080.8 veh/hr Density corresponding to the speed 30 km/hr can be found out by substituting
v = 30 in equation 3.10. i.e, 30 = 40.8 - 0.2 k Therefore, k = 40.830 = 54 veh/km.
0.2
3.4
Other macroscopic stream models
In Greenshields model, linear relationship between speed and density was assumed. But in
eld we can hardly nd such a relationship between speed and density. Therefore, the validity
of Greenshields model was questioned and many other models came up. Prominent among
them are Greenbergs logarithmic model, Underwoods exponential model, Pipes generalized
model, and multi-regime models. These are briey discussed below.
3.4.1
Greenbergs logarithmic model
Greenberg assumed a logarithmic relation between speed and density. He proposed,

v = v0 ln
kj
k
(3.11)
This model has gained very good popularity because this model can be derived analytically.
(This derivation is beyond the scope of this notes). However, main drawbacks of this model is
that as density tends to zero, speed tends to innity. This shows the inability of the model to
predict the speeds at lower densities.
3.5
January 31, 2014
speed, v
density, k
speed, v
Figure 3:4: Greenbergs logarithmic model
density, k
Figure 3:5: Underwoods exponential model
3.4.2
Underwoods exponential model
Trying to overcome the limitation of Greenbergs model, Underwood put forward an exponential
model as shown below.
k
v = vf .e k0
(3.12)
where vf The model can be graphically expressed as in gure 3:5. is the free ow speed and ko
is the optimum density, i.e. the density corresponding to the maximum ow. In this model,
speed becomes zero only when density reaches innity which is the drawback of this model.
Hence this cannot be used for predicting speeds at high densities.
3.6
January 31, 2014
qA, vA, kA
qB , vB , kB
Figure 3:6: Shock wave: Stream characteristics
3.4.3
Pipes generalized model
Further developments were made with the introduction of a new parameter (n) to provide for a
more generalized modeling approach. Pipes proposed a model shown by the following equation.
v = vf 1
k
kj
(3.13)
When n is set to one, Pipes model resembles Greenshields model. Thus by varying the values
of n, a family of models can be developed.
3.4.4
Multi-regime models
All the above models are based on the assumption that the same speed-density relation is
valid for the entire range of densities seen in trac streams. Therefore, these models are
called single-regime models. However, human behaviour will be dierent at dierent densities.
This is corroborated with eld observations which shows dierent relations at dierent range
of densities. Therefore, the speed-density relation will also be dierent in dierent zones of
densities. Based on this concept, many models were proposed generally called multi-regime
models. The most simple one is called a two-regime model, where separate equations are used
to represent the speed-density relation at congested and uncongested trac.
3.5
Shock waves
The ow of trac along a stream can be considered similar to a uid ow. Consider a stream of
trac owing with steady state conditions, i.e., all the vehicles in the stream are moving with
a constant speed, density and ow. Let this be denoted as state A (refer gure 3:6. Suddenly
due to some obstructions in the stream (like an accident or trac block) the steady state
characteristics changes and they acquire another state of ow, say state B. The speed, density
and ow of state A is denoted as vA , kA , and qA , and state B as vB , kB , and qB respectively.
The ow-density curve is shown in gure 3:7. The speed of the vehicles at state A is given
by the line joining the origin and point A in the graph. The time-space diagram of the trac
3.7
January 31, 2014
vA
flow
qA
A
B
qB
kA
density
kB
vB
kj
distance
Figure 3:7: Shock wave: Flow-density curve
time
Figure 3:8: Shock wave : time-distance diagram
3.8
January 31, 2014
stream is also plotted in gure 3:8. All the lines are having the same slope which implies that
they are moving with constant speed. The sudden change in the characteristics of the stream
leads to the formation of a shock wave. There will be a cascading eect of the vehicles in the
upstream direction. Thus shock wave is basically the movement of the point that demarcates
the two stream conditions. This is clearly marked in the gure 3:7. Thus the shock waves
produced at state B are propagated in the backward direction. The speed of the vehicles at
state B is the line joining the origin and point B of the ow-density curve. Slope of the line AB
gives the speed of the shock wave (refer gure 3:7). If speed of the shock-wave is represented
as AB , then
qA qB
AB =
(3.14)
kA kB
The above result can be analytically solved by equating the expressions for the number vehicles
leaving the upstream and joining the downstream of the shock wave boundary (this assumption
is true since the vehicles cannot be created or destroyed. Let NA be the number of vehicles
leaving the section A. Then, NA = qB t. The relative speed of these vehicles with respect to
the shock wave will be vA AB . Hence,
NA = kA (vA AB ) t
(3.15)
Similarly, the vehicles entering the state B is given as

NB = kA (vB AB ) t
(3.16)
Equating equations 3.15 and 3.16, and solving for AB as follows will yield to:
NA = NB
kA (vA AB ) t = kB (vB AB ) t
kA vA t kA AB t = kB vB t kB AB t
kA AB t kB AB t = kA vA kB vB
AB (kA kB ) = qA qB
This will yield the following expression for the shock-wave speed.
AB =
qA qB
kA kB
(3.17)
In this case, the shock wave move against the direction of trac and is therefore called a
backward moving shock wave. There are other possibilities of shock waves such as forward
moving shock waves and stationary shock waves. The forward moving shock waves are formed
when a stream with higher density and higher ow meets a stream with relatively lesser density
3.9
January 31, 2014
and ow. For example, when the width of the road increases suddenly, there are chances for a
forward moving shock wave. Stationary shock waves will occur when two streams having the
same ow value but dierent densities meet.
3.6
Macroscopic ow models
If one looks into trac ow from a very long distance, the ow of fairly heavy trac appears
like a stream of a uid. Therefore, a macroscopic theory of trac can be developed with the
help of hydrodynamic theory of uids by considering trac as an eectively one-dimensional
compressible uid. The behaviour of individual vehicle is ignored and one is concerned only
with the behaviour of sizable aggregate of vehicles. The earliest trac ow models began by
writing the balance equation to address vehicle number conservation on a road. In fact, all
trac ow models and theories must satisfy the law of conservation of the number of vehicles
on the road. Assuming that the vehicles are owing from left to right, the continuity equation
can be written as
k(x, t) q(x, t)
+
=0
(3.18)
t
x
where x denotes the spatial coordinate in the direction of trac ow, t is the time, k is the
density and q denotes the ow. However, one cannot get two unknowns, namely k(x, t) by
and q(x, t) by solving one equation. One possible solution is to write two equations from two
regimes of the ow, say before and after a bottleneck. In this system the ow rate before and
after will be same, or
k1 v1 = k2 v2
(3.19)
From this the shock wave velocity can be derived as
v(to )p =
q2 q1
k2 k1
(3.20)
This is normally referred to as Stocks shock wave formula. An alternate possibility which
Lighthill and Whitham adopted in their landmark study is to assume that the ow rate q is
determined primarily by the local density k, so that ow q can be treated as a function of only
density k. Therefore the number of unknown variables will be reduced to one. Essentially this
assumption states that k(x,t) and q (x,t) are not independent of each other. Therefore the
continuity equation takes the form
k(x, t) q(k(x, t))
+
=0
t
x
(3.21)
However, the functional relationship between ow q and density k cannot be calculated from
uid-dynamical theory. This has to be either taken as a phenomenological relation derived from
3.10
January 31, 2014
the empirical observation or from microscopic theories. Therefore, the ow rate q is a function
of the vehicular density k; q = q(k). Thus, the balance equation takes the form
k(x, t) q(k(x, t))
+
=0
t
x
(3.22)
Now there is only one independent variable in the balance equation, the vehicle density k. If
initial and boundary conditions are known, this can be solved. Solution to LWR models are
kinematic waves moving with velocity
dq(k)
(3.23)
dk
This velocity vk is positive when the ow rate increases with density, and it is negative when
the ow rate decreases with density. In some cases, this function may shift from one regime to
the other, and then a shock is said to be formed. This shock wave propagate at the velocity
vs =
q(k2 ) q(k1 )
k2 k1
(3.24)
where q(k2 ) and q(k1 ) are the ow rates corresponding to the upstream density k2 and downstream density k1 of the shock wave. Unlike Stocks shock wave formula there is only one
variable here.
3.7
Summary
Trac stream models attempt to establish a better relationship between the trac parameters.
These models were based on many assumptions, for instance, Greenshields model assumed a
linear speed-density relationship. Other models were also discussed in this chapter. The models
are used for explaining several phenomena in connection with trac ow like shock wave. The
topics of further interest are multi-regime model (formulation of both two and three regime
models) and three dimensional representation of these models.
3.8
References
3.11
January 31, 2014
4. Moving Observer Method
Chapter 4
Moving Observer Method
4.1
Overview
For a complete description of trac stream modeling, one would require ow, speed, and density.
Obtaining these parameters simultaneously is a dicult task if we use separate techniques.
Since we have a fundamental equation of trac ow, which gives the ow as the product of
density and space mean speed, if we knew any two parameters, the third can be computed.
Moving car or moving observer method of trac stream measurement has been developed to
provide simultaneous measurement of trac stream variables. It has the advantage of obtaining
the complete state with just three observers, and a vehicle. Determination of any of the two
parameters of the trac ow will provide the third one by the equation q = u.k. Thus,
moving observer method is the most commonly used method to get the relationship between
the fundamental stream characteristics. In this method, the observer moves in the trac stream
unlike all other previous methods.
4.2
Theory
Consider a stream of vehicles moving in the north bound direction. Two dierent cases of
motion can be considered. The rst case considers the trac stream to be moving and the
observer to be stationary. If no is the number of vehicles overtaking the observer during a
period, t, then ow q is nt0 , or
n0 = q t
(4.1)
The second case assumes that the stream is stationary and the observer moves with speed vo .
If np is the number of vehicles overtaken by observer over a length l, then by denition, density
k is nlp , or
np = k l
(4.2)
4.1
January 31, 2014
Figure 4:1: Illustration of moving observer method

or
np = k.vo .t
(4.3)
where v0 is the speed of the observer and t is the time taken for the observer to cover the road
stretch. Now consider the case when the observer is moving within the stream. In that case
mo vehicles will overtake the observer and mp vehicles will be overtaken by the observer in the
test vehicle. Let the dierence m is given by m0 - mp , then from equation 4.1 and equation
4.3,
m = m0 mp = q t k vo t
(4.4)
This equation is the basic equation of moving observer method, which relates q, k to the counts
m, t and vo that can be obtained from the test. However, we have two unknowns, q and k, but
only one equation. For generating another equation, the test vehicle is run twice once with the
trac stream and another one against trac stream, i.e.
mw = q tw k vw tw
(4.5)
= q tw k l
ma = q ta + k va ta
(4.6)
= q ta + k l
where, a, w denotes against and with trac ow. It may be noted that the sign of equation 4.6
is negative, because test vehicle moving in the opposite direction can be considered as a case
when the test vehicle is moving in the stream with negative velocity. Further, in this case, all
the vehicles will be overtaking, since it is moving with negative speed. In other words, when the
test vehicle moves in the opposite direction, the observer simply counts the number of vehicles
in the opposite direction. Adding equation 4.5 and 4.6, we will get the rst parameter of the
4.2
January 31, 2014
stream, namely the ow(q) as:
mw + ma
tw + ta
Now calculating space mean speed from equation 4.5,
q=
(4.7)
mw
= q kvw
tw
q
= q vw
v
q l
= q
v tw
1
l
= q 1
v tw
tavg
= q 1
tw
If vs is the mean stream speed, then average travel time is given by tavg =
l
.
vs
Therefore,
tavg
mw
= tw (1
) = tw tavg
q
tw
mw
l
tavg = tw
= ,
q
v
Rewriting the above equation, we get the second parameter of the trac ow, namely the mean
speed vs and can be written as,
l
(4.8)
vs =
tw mw
q
Thus two parameters of the stream can be determined. Knowing the two parameters the third
parameter of trac ow density (k) can be found out as
k=
q
vs
(4.9)
For increase accuracy and reliability, the test is performed a number of times and the average
results are to be taken.
4.3
January 31, 2014
4.3
Proof
4.4
Assumptions
Numerical Example
The length of a road stretch used for conducting the moving observer test is 0.5 km and the speed
with which the test vehicle moved is 20 km/hr. Given that the number of vehicles encountered
in the stream while the test vehicle was moving against the trac stream is 107, number of
vehicles that had overtaken the test vehicle is 10, and the number of vehicles overtaken by the
test vehicle is 74, nd the ow, density and average speed of the stream.
Solution Time taken by the test vehicle to reach the other end of the stream while it is
moving along with the trac is tw = 0.5 = 0.025 hr
20
Time taken by the observer to reach the other end of the stream while it is moving against the
trac is ta = tw = 0.025 hr
Flow is given by equation, q = 107+(1074) = 860 veh/hr
0.025+0.025
0.5
Stream speed vs can be found out from equationvs = 0.025 10.74 = 5 km/hr
860
Density can be found out from equation as k =
860
5
= 172veh/km
Numerical Example
The data from four moving observer test methods are shown in the table. Column 1 gives
the sample number, column 2 gives the number of vehicles moving against the stream, column
3 gives the number of vehicles that had overtaken the test vehicle, and last column gives the
number of vehicles overtaken by the test vehicle. Find the three fundamental stream parameters
for each set of data. Also plot the fundamental diagrams of trac ow.
Sample no.
1
2
3
4
1
107
113
30
79
2 3
10 74
25 41
15 5
18 9
Solution From the calculated values of ow, density and speed, the three fundamental diagrams can be plotted as shown in gure 4:2.
4.4
January 31, 2014
ma
mo
mp
mw = (mo mp )
ta
tw
1
2
3
4
107
113
30
79
10
25
15
18
74
41
5
9
-64
-16
10
9
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.025
q=
ma +mw
ta +tw
860
1940
800
1760
u=
l
tw mw
q
5.03
15.04
40
25.14
k=
171
129
20
70
800
40
speed u
speed u
Sample no.
25.14
15.04
5.03
1940
860
flow q
flow q
density k
1760
20 70 129171
density k
Figure 4:2: Fundamental diagrams of trac ow
4.5
January 31, 2014
q
v
4.5
Summary
Trac engineering studies dier from other studies in the fact that they require extensive data
from the eld which cannot be exactly created in any laboratory. Speed data are collected
from measurements at a point or over a short section or over an area. Trac ow data are
collected at a point. Moving observer method is one in which both speed and trac ow data
are obtained by a single experiment.
4.6
References

New Delhi, 1987.
4.6
January 31, 2014
5. Measurement at a Point
Chapter 5
Measurement at a Point
5.1
Introduction
The data required by a trac engineer can mainly be observed on eld rather than at laboratory.
Now the eld studies can be classied into three types depending upon the length of observation:
1. Measurement at a point
2. Measurement over a short section
3. Measurement over a long section
Out of these we will be discussing the rst type here. Flow is the main trac parameter
measured at a point. Flow can be dened as the no of vehicles passing a section per unit time.
Trac volume studies are mainly carried out to obtain factual data concerning the movement
of vehicles at selected point on the street or highway system.
5.2
5.2.1
Basic concepts
Types of Volume Measurement
Volume count varies considerably with time. Hence, several types of measurement of volume
are commonly adopted to average these variations. These measurements are described below:
Average Annual Daily Trac (AADT)
This is given by the total no. of vehicles passing through a section in a year divided by 365.
This can be used for following purposes:
1. Measuring the present demand for service by the street or highway
5.1
January 31, 2014
2. Developing the major or arterial street

3. Evaluating the present trac ow with respect to the street system
4. Locating areas where new facilities or improvements to existing facilities are needed.
Average Annual Weekday Trac (AAWT)
This is dened as the average 24-hour trac volume occurring on weekdays over a full year.
Average Daily Trac (ADT)
An average 24-hour trac volume at a given location for some period of time less than a year.
It may be measured for six months, a season, a month, a week, or as little as two days. An
ADT is a valid number only for the period over which it was measured.
Average Weekday Trac (AWT)
An average 24-hour trac volume occurring on weekdays for some period of time less than one
year, such as for a month or a season.
5.2.2
Type of Counts
Various types of trac counts are carried out, depending on the anticipated use of the data to
be collected. They include:
Cordon Count
These are made at the perimeter of an enclosed area (CBD, shopping centre etc.). Vehicles or
persons entering and leaving the area during a specied time period are counted.
Screen Line Count
These are classied counts taken at all streets intersecting an imaginary line (screen line)
bisecting the area. These counts are used to determine trends, expand urban travel data,
trac assignment etc.
Pedestrian Count
These are used in evaluating sidewalk and crosswalk needs, justifying pedestrian signals, trac
signal timings etc.
5.2
January 31, 2014
Intersection Count
These are measured at the intersections and are used in planning turn prohibitions, designing
channelization, computing capacity, analysing high accident intersections etc.
5.2.3
Counting Techniques
Number of vehicles can be counted either manually or by machine depending upon the duration
of study, accuracy required, location of study area etc.
Manual counting
In its simplest form an observer counts the numbers of vehicles along with its type, passing
through the section for a denite time interval. For light volumes, tally marks on a form are
adequate. Mechanical or electrical counters are used for heavy trac. Although it is good to
take some manual observations for every counting for checking the instruments, some other
specic uses of manual counts are following:
1. Turning and through movement studies
2. Classication and occupancy studies
3. For analysis of crosswalks, sidewalks, street corner space and other pedestrian facilities
Automatic counting
These can be used to obtain vehicular counts at non-intersection points. Total volume, directional volume or lane volumes can be obtained depending upon the equipment available.
Permanent Counters
These are installed to obtain control counts on a continuous basis. A detector (sensor) which
responds on the passage of vehicle past a selected point is an essential part of this type of
counters. These can be mainly grouped into contact types, pulsed types, radar types. Among
the contact type counters, pneumatic tubes are mostly used. Air pulse actuated by vehicle
wheels, pass along the tube thereby increasing the count. Pulsed types mainly depend upon
the interruption of a beam generated from a station located near the site, which is detected
by the receiver. In radar types, a continuous beam of energy is directed towards the vehicle.
The frequency shift of energy reected from approaching vehicle is conceived by sensors. Due
to tedious reduction of the voluminous amount of data obtained, use of such counters was
decreasing. But the use of computers and data readable counters has reversed the trend.
5.3
January 31, 2014
Portable Counters
These are used to obtain temporary or short term counts. Generally these make use of a
transducer unit actuated by energy pulses. Each axle or vehicle passage operates a switch
attached to a counter which is usually set to register one unit for every two axles. If signicant
number of multi-axle vehicles is present, an error is introduced. A correction factor, obtained
from a sample classication count, is introduced to reduce this error. This can further be
sub-divided into two types:
1. Recording counters provides a permanent record of volumes by printing the total
volume. These may be set for various counting intervals.
2. Non-Recording Counters must be read by an observer at desired intervals.
5.2.4
Counting Periods
The time and length that a specic location should be counted depends upon the data desired
and the application in which the data are used. Counting periods vary from short counts at spot
points to continuous counts at permanent stations. Hourly counts are generally signicant in all
engineering design, while daily and annual trac is important in economic calculations, road
system classication and investment programmes. Continuous counts are made to establish
national and local highway use, trends of use and behaviour and for estimating purposes. Some
of the more commonly used intervals are:
1. 24-hour counts normally covering any 24-hour period between noon Monday and noon
Friday. If a specic day count is desired, the count should be from midnight to midnight.
2. 16 hour counts usually 5:30 am to 9:30 pm or 6 am to 9 pm.
3. 12 hour counts usually from 7 am to 7 pm
4. Peak Period counting times vary depending upon size of metropolitan area, proximity to
major generators and the type of facility. Commonly used periods are 7 to 9 am and 4
to 6 pm.
5.3
Variation of Volume Counts and Peak Hour Factors
Variation of volume counts can be further sub-divided into daily, weekly and seasonal variation.
For studying the daily variation, the ow in each hour has been expressed as percentage of daily
5.4
January 31, 2014
ow. Weekdays, Saturdays and Sundays usually show dierent patterns. Thats why comparing
day with day is much more useful. Peak Hour Volume is very important factor in the design of
roads and control of trac, and is usually 2 - 2.5 times the average hourly volume. Apart from
this there is one additional feature of this variation: two dominant peaks (morning and evening
peak), especially in urban areas. These mainly include work trips and are not dependent on
weather and other travel conditions.
Similar to daily variation, weekly variation gives volumes expressed as a percentage of total
ow for the week. Weekdays ows are approximately constant but the weekend ows vary a
lot depending upon the season, weather and socio-economic factors. Seasonal variation is the
most consistent of all variation patterns and represents the economic and social condition of
the area served.
Peak hour factors should be applied in most capacity analyses in accordance with the
Highway Capacity Manual, which selected 15 minute ow rates as the basis for most of its
procedures. The peak-hour factor (PHF) is descriptive of trip generation patterns and may
apply to an area or portion of a street and highway system. The PHF is typically calculated
60
from trac counts. It is the average volume during the peak 60 minute period Vav divided by
15
four times the average volume during the peak 15 minutes period Vav .
P HF =
60
Vav
15
4 Vav
(5.1)
One can also use 5, 10, or 20 minutes instead of 15 minutes interval for the calculation of
PHF. But in that case we have to change the multiplying factor in the denominator from 4.
Generalizing,
V 60
P HF = 60 av n
(5.2)
Vav
n
n
where Vav is the peak n minute ow. The Highway Capacity Manual advises that in absence
of eld measurements reasonable approximations for peak hour factor can be made as follows:
0.95 for congested condition

0.92 for urban areas
0.88 for rural areas
General guidelines for nding future PHF can be found in the Development Review Guidelines,
which are as follows:
0.85 for minor street inows and outows
0.90 for minor arterials
5.5
January 31, 2014
Time interval
4:00 - 4:15
4:15 - 4:30
4:30 - 4:45
4:45 - 5:00
5:00 - 5:15
5:15 - 5:30
5:30 - 5:45
5:45 - 6:00
6:00 - 6:15
6:15 - 6:30
Cars
30
26
35
40
49
55
65
50
39
30
Table 5:1: Volumetric data

0.95 for major streets
Numerical Example
The table below shows the volumetric data observed at an intersection. Calculate the peak
hour volume, peak hour factor (PHF), and the actual (design) ow rate for this approach.
Solution We can locate the hour with the highest volume and the 15 minute interval with
the highest volume. The peak hour is shown in blue below with the peak 15 minute period
shown in bold font. The peak hour volume is just the sum of the volumes of the four 15 minute
intervals within the peak hour (219). The peak 15 minute volume is 65 in this case. The peak
hour factor (PHF) is found by dividing the peak hour volume by four times the peak 15 minute
219
volume. P HF = 465 = 0.84 The actual (design) ow rate can be calculated by dividing the
peak hour volume by the PHF, 219/0.84 = 260 vehicles/hr, or by multiplying the peak 15
minute volume by four, 4 65 = 260 vehicles per hour.
5.4
Passenger Car Unit (PCU)
Passenger Car Unit (PCU) is a metric used in Transportation Engineering, to assess trac-ow
rate on a highway. A Passenger Car Unit is a measure of the impact that a mode of transport has
on trac variables (such as headway, speed, density) compared to a single standard passenger
5.6
January 31, 2014
Time interval
4:00 - 4:15
4:15 - 4:30
4:30 - 4:45
4:45 - 5:00
5:00 - 5:15
5:15 - 5:30
5:30 - 5:45
5:45 - 6:00
6:00 - 6:15
6:15 - 6:30
Cars
30
26
35
40
49
55
65
50
39
30
Table 5:2: Solution of the problem

Car
Motorcycle
Bicycle
LCV
Bus, Truck
3-wheeler
1.0
0.5
0.2
2.2
3.5
0.8
Table 5:3: Values of PCU
car. This is also known as passenger car equivalent. For example, typical values of PCU (or
PCE) are: Highway capacity is measured in PCU/hour daily.
Numerical Example
The table below shows the volumetric data collected at an intersection: Calculate the peak
hour volume, peak hour factor (PHF), and the actual (design) ow rate for this approach.
Solution The rst step in this solution is to nd the total trac volume for each 15 minute
period in terms of passenger car units. For this purpose the PCU values given in the table are
used. Once we have this, we can locate the hour with the highest volume and the 15 minute
interval with the highest volume. The peak hour is shown in blue below with the peak 15
minute period shown in a darker shade of blue. The peak hour volume is just the sum of the
5.7
January 31, 2014
From
2.30
2.40
2.50
3.00
3.10
3.20
3.30
3.40
3.50
4.00
4.10
4.20
To HCV
2.40
4
2.50
8
3.00
7
3.10
6
3.20
7
3.30
6
3.40
8
3.50
10
4.00
9
4.10
10
4.20
12
4.30
8
LCV
10
12
13
13
14
10
11
6
7
9
11
8
CAR
6
9
8
15
10
9
8
15
9
11
12
10
3W 2W
38
24
63
33
42
27
37
32
51
28
63
41
48
38
47
21
54
26
62
35
61
39
54
42
Table 5:4: Volumetric data collected
From
2.30
2.40
2.50
3.00
3.10
3.20
3.30
3.40
3.50
4.00
4.10
4.20
To Flow in PCU
2.40
84.4
2.50
130.3
3.00
108.2
3.10
110.2
3.20
120.1
3.30
122.9
3.40
117.6
3.50
111.3
4.00
112.1
4.10
132.9
4.20
146.5
4.30
119.8
Table 5:5: Solution of the problem
5.8
January 31, 2014
volumes of the six 10 minute intervals within the peak hour (743.6 PCU). The peak 10 minute
volume is 146.5 PCU in this case. The peak hour factor (PHF) is found by dividing the peak
hour volume by four times the peak 10 minute volume.
P HF =
743.6
= 0.85
6 146.5
The actual (design) ow rate can be calculated by dividing the peak hour volume by the PHF,
743.6/0.85 = 879 P CU/hr, or by multiplying the peak 10 minute volume by six, 6 146.5 =
879 P CU/hr.
5.5
Determination of PCU
Trac in many parts of the world is heterogeneous, where road space is shared among many
trac modes with dierent physical dimensions. Loose lane discipline prevails; car following
is not the norm. This complicates computing of PCU. Some of the methods for determining
passenger car units (PCU) are following:
Modied Density Method
Chandras method
Method Based on Relative Delay
Headway method
Multiple linear regression method
Simulation method
It may be appropriate to use dierent values for the same vehicle type according to circumstances like volume of trac, speed of vehicle, lane width and several external factors.
5.5.1
Method based on relative delay
The 1965 HCM used relative speed reduction to dene PCUs for two lane highways and quantied this by the relative number of passing known as the Walker method. For multilane
highways, PCUs were based on the relative delay due to trucks. PCUs for multilane highways
based on relative delay may be found as
Et =
Dij Db
Db
5.9
(5.3)
January 31, 2014
where Dij is the delay to passenger cars due to vehicle type i under condition j and Db is the
base delay to standard passenger cars due to slower passenger cars.
PCUs in the 1965 HCM were reported for grades of specic length and percent, proportion
of trucks, and LOS grouped as A through C or D and E. As expected, the highest PCU was
reported for the longest and steepest grade with the highest proportion of trucks and the lowest
LOS. However, in many cases the PCU for a given grade and LOS decreased with increasing
proportion of trucks. PCUs in the 1965 HCM were reported for grades of specic length and
percent, proportion of trucks, and LOS grouped as A through C or D and E. As expected,
the highest PCU was reported for the longest and steepest grade with the highest proportion
of trucks and the lowest LOS. However, in many cases the PCU for a given grade and LOS
decreased with increasing proportion of trucks.
5.5.2
Multiple linear regression model
Multiple linear regression method try to represen the speed of a trac stream as function of
number of variables. For example, the percentile speed vp can represented as:
vp = vf + c1 Vc + c2 Vt + c3 Vr + c4 Vo + c5 Va
(5.4)
where vf is the free speed, Vc is the number of passenger cars, Vc is the number of trucks Vr
is the number of recreational vehicles, Vr is the number of other types of vehicles, Va is the
number of vehicles moving against the current stream, C1 to C5 are coecient representing the
relative sizes of speed reductions for each vehicle type. Although this model was formulated
for two lane highways with opposing trac ow, it could be applied to multilane highways by
setting the coecient C5 to zero. Using the speed reduction coecients, En , the PCU for a
vehicle type n is calculated as:
Cn
En =
C1
where Cn is the speed reduction coecient for vehicle type n and C1 is the speed reduction
coecient for passenger cars.
5.5.3
Method based on headway
Realizing one of the primary eects of heavy vehicles in the trac stream is that they take up
more space, headways have been used for some of the most popular methods to calculate PCUs.
In 1976, Werner and Morrall suggested that the headway method is best suited to determine
PCUs on level terrain at low levels of service. The PCU is calculated as
( Hm ) P c
Hb
Et =
(5.5)
Pt
5.10
January 31, 2014

hm
2.70
2.80
2.94
3.10
3.25
3.35
3.70
3.80
3.95
4.20
hc
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
pc
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.30
pt
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.70
Table 5:6: Headway data for a number of trac conditions
where HM is the average headway for a sample including all vehicle types, HB is the average
headway for a sample of passenger cars only, PC is the proportion of cars, and PT is the
proportion of trucks.
Numerical Example
The table given below show headway data for a number of trac conditions. It is assumed that
the trac contains only car and truck. Compute the PCU value for each trac condition Note
that hm , hc , pc , pt respectively denote the average headway for mixed trac, average headway
for trac consisting of cars only, the percentage of cars and percentage of trucks of the trac
stream.
Solution Use the formula given above to nd the value of PCU.
5.5.4
Chandras method
This method uses two factors: namely, velocity of vehicle type and its projected rectangular
area to calculate the PCU value.
(Vc /Vi )
(5.6)
(P CU)i =
(Ac /Ai )
where Vc and Vi are mean speeds of car and vehicle of type i respectively and Ac and Ai are
their respective projected rectangular area length * width on the road.
5.11
January 31, 2014
hm
2.70
2.80
2.94
3.10
3.25
3.35
3.70
3.80
3.95
4.20
hc
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
pc
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.30
pt
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.70
Et
1.80
1.80
1.88
1.96
2.00
1.97
1.96
1.95
1.97
1.97
Table 5:7: Table for the value of PCU
Category
Vehicle
Car
Car, Jeep, Van
Bus
Bus
Truck
Truck
LCV
Mini bus/trucks
M-Truck
Multi-axle truck
Bikes
Scooter, Motorbike
Cycle
Pedal Cycle
Autos
Auto, Tempo
Dimension Projected Area

3.72 x 1.44
5.39
10.10 x 2.43
24.74
7.50 x 2.35
17.62
6.10 x 2.10
12.81
2.35 x 12.0
28.60
1.87 x 0.64
1.20
1.90 x 0.45
0.85
3.20 x 1.40
4.48
Table 5:8: Table for calculation using Chandras method
5.12
January 31, 2014
2.05
2.00
PCU
1.95
1.90
1.85
1.80
1.75
0
0.2
0.4
Percentage of trucks
0.6
0.8
Figure 5:1: Graph showing the variation of PCU with percentage of truck using the data of the
problem given above
Numerical Example
The table given shows the data obtained in spot speed study for various vehicle types. Find
the PCU value for each vehicle type using the Chandras Method.
Solution Step 1 We have to nd the space mean speed for each vehicle type using the
formula:
n
Vs =
1
n
i=1 ( vi )
Where n is the no. of observations and vi is the spot speeds.
Step 2 Find the PCU values using Chandras Method. Use the table having the areas of
various vehicle types given above. Then we can use the table given above to nd the areas of
dierent vehicle types to nd corresponding PCU values.
5.5.5
Density method
In the density method, the PCU of truck (Et ) is computed as:

Et =
(kc /Wl )
(kt )/Wl )
(5.7)
where kc is the density of cars in pure homogenous conditions(car/km.), Wl is the width of the
lane in homogenous trac, kt is the density of the truck in pure homogenous conditions and Et
5.13
January 31, 2014
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Car 3 wheeler
11.32
8.67
6.74
7.25
11.11
9.68
6.67
6.98
8.11
8.77
7.41
8.77
8.11
9.52
9.93
9.40
2 wheeler
6.67
8.27
7.75
6.12
9.52
11.9
6.97
6.97
LCV
6.0
6.88
7.5
8.57
9.67
8.57
5.7
4.68
HCV
7.4
6.09
5.88
6.38
5.66
5.66
5.55
6.12
Table 5:9: Table of spot speed study for various vehicle types
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
vs
Car 3 wheeler
11.32
8.67
6.74
7.25
11.11
9.68
6.67
6.98
8.11
8.77
7.41
8.77
8.11
9.52
9.93
9.40
8.34
8.52
2 wheeler
6.67
8.27
7.75
6.12
9.52
11.9
6.97
6.97
7.70
LCV
6.0
6.88
7.5
8.57
9.67
8.57
5.7
4.68
6.83
HCV
7.4
6.09
5.88
6.38
5.66
5.66
5.55
6.12
6.05
Table 5:10: PCU values using Chandras Method
vs
PCU
8.34 8.52 7.70 6.83 6.05

1
0.81 0.24 2.90 6.33
Table 5:11: Table of PCU values
5.14
January 31, 2014

From
2.30
2.40
2.50
3.00
3.10
3.20
3.30
3.40
3.50
4.00
4.10
4.20
To HCV Flow HCV Mean Speed

2.40
4
10.4
2.50
6
9.09
3.00
5
8.88
3.10
6
9.38
3.20
6
10.66
3.30
6
9.66
3.40
5
9.55
3.50
8
10.12
4.00
7
9.2
4.10
6
9.54
4.20
10
10.67
4.30
8
9.61
CAR Flow CAR Mean Speed

16
14.32
19
12.74
18
13.11
20
10.67
17
12.11
21
13.41
18
13.11
17
10.93
22
13.33
19
13.58
25
12.34
20
10.58
Table 5:12: space mean speed of Car and HCV in a two lane road without shoulders
is the passenger car unit of the trucks given homogenous trac behaviour. In density method
where car following and lane discipline behaviour prevails, all trac entities use an equal Wl .
Numerical Example
The table given below shows the data of ow and space mean speed of Car and HCV in a two
lane road without shoulders. Assume the 85 percentile distribution width of HCV and Car to
be 9.50m. and 7.50m. Compute the PCU value of HCV for each time interval.
Solution We know that PCU value can be calculated using the formula:
(P CU)truck =
(Kcar /W l)
(Ktruck /W l)
(5.8)
Step 1 Find the density of car and truck using basic relationship between the trac ow
parameters
Q=KV
(5.9)
Step 2 The using the method stated above we can nd the PCU values. The table showing
the PCU values has been illustrated below.
5.15
January 31, 2014

From
2.30
2.40
2.50
3.00
3.10
3.20
3.30
3.40
3.50
4.00
4.10
4.20
To HCV Flow HCV Speed

2.40
4
10.4
2.50
6
9.09
3.00
5
8.88
3.10
6
9.38
3.20
6
10.66
3.30
6
9.66
3.40
5
9.55
3.50
8
10.12
4.00
7
9.2
4.10
6
9.54
4.20
10
10.67
4.30
8
9.61
Car Flow Car Speed
27
14.32
32
12.74
30
13.11
33
10.67
28
12.11
35
13.41
30
13.11
28
10.93
37
13.33
32
13.58
42
12.34
33
10.58
Car density
1.86
2.49
2.29
3.12
2.34
2.61
2.29
2.59
2.75
2.33
3.38
3.15
PCU
3.68
2.86
3.09
3.71
3.16
3.19
3.32
2.49
2.75
2.82
2.74
2.88
Table 5:13: PCU values for the above problem
5.6
Conclusion
Measurement over a section is probably one of the easiest eld parameter that can be measured. Various types of volume counts and counting techniques have been discussed in brief.
Along with this a brief insight into various methods of calculating Passenger Car unit has been
provided. Out of the various methods discussed, Chandras Method is only method that can
be applied to the Indian condition of heterogeneous trac that is characterized by loose lane
discipline. All the other methods are primarily based on homogeneous trac conditions mainly
prevailing in developed countries.
5.7
References
1. S Chandra and U Kumar. Eect of lane width on capacity under mixed trac conditions
in india. Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, 129:155160, 2003.
2. F D Hobbs. Trac Planning and Engineering. Pergamon Press, 1979. 2nd Edition.
3. W S Homburger. Fundamentals of trac engineering. 2019. 12th Edition, pp 5-1 to 5-5.
4. Anthony Ingle. Development of Passenger Car Equivalents for Basic Freeway Segments.
Blacksburg, Virginia, July 8, 2004.
5.16
January 31, 2014
5. Geetam Tiwari, Joseph Fazio, and Sri Pavitravas. Passenger Car Units for Heterogeneous
Trac Using a Modied Density Method. 2019.
5.17
January 31, 2014
6. Measurement over a Short Section
Chapter 6
Measurement over a Short Section
6.1
Overview
The main purpose of this chapter is to determine trac parameter, specially speed. Speed
measurements are most often taken at a point (or a short section) of road way under conditions
of free ow. The intent is to determine the speeds that drivers select, unaected by the existence
of congestion. This information is used to determine general speed trends, to help determine
reasonable speed limits, and to assess safety.
6.2
Speed Studies
As speed denes the distance travelled by user in a given time, and this is a vibrant in every
trac movement. In other words speed of movement is the ratio of distance travelled to time
of travel. The actual speed of trac ow over a given route may uctuated widely, as because
at each time the volume of trac varies. Accordingly, speeds are generally classied into three
main categories
1. Spot speed This is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at any specic location.
2. Running speed This is the average speed maintained over a particular course while the
vehicle is in the motion.
3. Journey speed This is the eective speed of the vehicle on a journey between two points
and the distance between two points and the distance between these points divided by
the total time taken for the vehicle to complete the journey, it includes all delay.
6.1
January 31, 2014
Stream Speed
below 15
15 -25
above 25
6.3
Length
30
60
90
Spot Speed Studies
When we measure the trac parameter over a short distance, we generally measure the spot
speed. A spot speed is made by measuring the individual speeds of a sample of the vehicle
passing a given spot on a street or highway. Spot speed studies are used to determine the speed
distribution of a trac stream at a specic location. The data gathered in spot speed studies
are used to determine vehicle speed percentiles, which are useful in making many speed-related
decisions. Spot speed data have a number of safety applications, including the following
1. Speed trends,
2. Trac control planning,
3. Accidental analysis,
4. Geometric design,
5. Research studies.
6.4
Methods of Measurement
Methods of conducting spot speed Studies are divided into two main categories: Manual and
Automatic. Spot speeds may be estimated by manually measuring the time it takes a vehicle
to travel between two dened points on the roadway a known distance apart (short distance),
usually less than 90m. Distance between two points is generally depending upon the average
speed of trac stream. Following tables gives recommended study length (in meters) for various
average stream speed renages (in kmph) Following are the some methods to measure spot speed
of vehicles in a trac stream, in which rst two are manual methods and other are automatic:
6.4.1
Pavement markings
In this method, markings of pavement are placed across the road at each end of trap. Observer
start and stops the watch as vehicle passes lines. In this method, minimum two observers
6.2
January 31, 2014
required to collect the data, of which one is stand at the starting point to start and stop the
stop watch and other one is stand at end point to give indication to stop the watch when vehicle
passes the end line. Advantages of this method are that after the initial installation no set-up
time is required, markings are easily renewed, and disadvantage of this is that substantial error
can be introduced, and magnitude of error may change for substitute studies and this method
is only applicable for low trac conditions.
Vertical Reference
point
End Timing
Vertical Reference
point
Study length
Approaching Vehicle
Start timing
Observer 2
X
Observer 1
Figure 6:1: Pavement Marking
6.4.2
Enoscope or Mirror box
Enoscope consists of a simple open housing containing a mirror mounted on a tripod at the
side of the road in such a way that an observers line of sight turned through 90o. The observer
stands at one end of section and on the other end enoscope is placed and measure the time
taken by the vehicle to cross the section (g 6.2). Advantages of this method are that it simple
and eliminate the errors due to parallax and considerable time is required to time each vehicle,
which lengthen the study period and under heavy trac condition it may be dicult to relate
ostentatious to proper vehicle are the disadvantages of enoscope method.
6.4.3
Road Detector (Pressure contact strips)
Pressure contact strips, either pneumatic or electric, can be used to avoid error due to parallax
and due to manually starting and stopping the chronometer or stopwatch. This is the best
method over short distance it gives quite relevant data and if it is connected through graphical
recorder then it gives continuous data automatically.
6.3
January 31, 2014
enoscope
observer
Base length
Figure 6:2: Enoscope Method
6.4.4
Doppler-Principle Meters (Radar)
This is recently developed method, it automatically records speed, employs a radar transmitterreceiver unit. The apparatus transmits high frequency electromagnetic waves in a narrow beam
towards the moving vehicle, and reected waves changed their length depending up on the
vehicles speed and returned to the receiving unit, through calibration gives directly spot speed
of the vehicle.
6.4.5
Electronic-Principle Detectors (Photography)
In this method a camera records the distance moved by a vehicle in a selected short time. In this
exposure of photograph should be in a constant time interval and the distance travelled by the
vehicle is measured by projecting the lms during the exposure interval. The main advantage
of method that, it gives a permanent record with 100% sample obtained. This method is quite
expensive and generally used in developed cities. In this we can use video recorder which give
more accurate result.
6.5
Data Collection Sheets
The measured data by the above techniques should be collected into some formats, following
are the some types of data collection sheets which are used for manual and automatic methods,
1. For Enoscope and Pavement Marking Methods
2. For automatic methods
6.4
January 31, 2014
Location:
Date:
Weather:
Time:
Type of road:
Base Length:
Measurement Technique:
TIME TAKEN (in sec)
S NO.
Car/jeep
3 Wheeler
2 Wheeler
Cycle
LCV
HCV
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Surveyor:
Figure 6:3: Data collection sheet for Enoscope and Pavement Marking Methods
Spot Speed Data Collection Form
Data:
Location:
Time:
Weather:
Type of road:
Vehicle No.
Speed
Vehicle No.
Speed
Surveyor:
Spot Speed Data Collection Form
Location:
Date:
Weather:
Time:
Type of road:
Base Length:
Speed Range
in kmph
0
5
Tally Mark
Car/Jeep
Number
Bus/Truck
Car/Jeep
Bus/Truck
Total
5
10
10
15
15
20
20
25
25
30
30
35
35
40
40
45
45
50
50
55
55
60
60
65
Surveyor:
Figure 6:4: Data collection sheet for Automatic Methods
6.6
Data Presentation
From the above methods, the collected data have to present into the some representable form,
this makes its calculation and analysis simpler and easier. The following methods to present
the spot speed data:
6.5
January 31, 2014
6.6.1
Frequency Distribution Table
After the collection of data in the given conditions, arrange the spot speed values in order to
their magnitudes. Then select an interval speed (e.g. 5 kmph) and make grouping of data
which come under this range. Now, prepare the frequency distribution table.
6.6.2
Frequency Distribution Curve
For each speed group, the % frequency of observations within the group is plotted versus the
middle (midmark) speed of the group(s). As shown in Fig 6.5. From this curve the modal
speed and pace of trac ow can be determine. Generally the shape of the curve follows the
normal distribution curve, this because the most of the vehicles move on road near by mean
speed and very few deviate from mean speed.
6.6.3
Cumulative Frequency Distribution Curve
For each speed group, the % cumulative frequency of observations is plotted versus the higher
limit of the speed group (Fig 6.5). The cumulative frequency distribution curve, however,
results in a very useful plot of speed versus the percent of vehicles traveling at or below the
designated speed. For this reason, the upper limit of the speed group is used as the plotting
point. In both the distribution curve, the plots are connected by a smooth curve that minimizes
the total distance of points falling above the line and those falling below the line. A smooth
curve is dened as one without.
6.7
Distribution Characteristics
Common descriptive statistics may be computed from the data in the frequency distribution table or determined graphically from the frequency and cumulative frequency distribution curves.
These statistics are used to describe two important characteristics of the distribution:
6.7.1
Measure of Central Tendency
Measure which helps to describe the approximate middle or centre of the distribution. Measures
of central tendency include the average or mean speed, the median speed, the modal speed,
and the pace.
6.6
January 31, 2014
25
$\% Frequency
Mode
20
15
Pace
10
5
0
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
64
56
60
64
$Cum.\%freq$
100
Speed
(kph)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
$86\%$
$\% Veh in pace =8614= 72\%$
Median
$14\%$
32
36
40
44
48
52
Speed
(kph)
Figure 6:5: Frequency and Cumulative Frequency Distribution curve

Mean Speed
The arithmetic (or harmonic) average speed is the most frequently used speed statistics. It is
the measure of central tendency of the data. Mean calculated gives two kinds of mean speeds.
vt =
fi vi
n
(6.1)
where, vt is the mean or average speed, vi is the individual speed of the ith vehicle, fi is the
frequency of speed, and n is the total no of vehicle observed (sample size). Time mean Speed
If data collected at a point over a period of time, e.g. by radar meter or stopwatch, produce
speed distribution over time, so the mean of speed is time mean speed. Space mean Speed
If data obtained over a stretch (section) of road almost instantaneously, aerial photography or
enoscope, result in speed distribution in space and mean is space mean speed. Distribution
over space and time are not same. Time mean speed is higher than the space mean speed. The
spot speed sample at one end taken over a nite period of time will tend to include some fast
vehicles which had not yet entered the section at the start of the survey, but will exclude some
of the slower vehicles. The relationship between the two mean speeds is expressed by:
vt = vs +
2
s
vs
(6.2)
where, vt and vs are the time mean speed and space mean speed respectively. And s is the
standard deviation of distribution space.
Median Speed
The median speed is dened as the speed that divides the distribution in to equal parts (i.e.,
there are as many observations of speeds higher than the median as there are lower than
6.7
January 31, 2014
the median). It is a positional value and is not aected by the absolute value of extreme
observations. By denition, the median equally divides the distribution. Therefore, 50% of all
observed speeds should be less than the median. In the cumulative frequency curve, the 50th
percentile speed is the median of the speed distribution. Median Speed = v50
Pace
The pace is a trac engineering measure not commonly used for other statistical analyses. It is
dened as the 10Km/h increment in speed in which the highest percentage of drivers is observed.
It is also found graphically using the frequency distribution curve. As shown in g 6.5. The
pace is found as follows: A 10 Km/h template is scaled from the horizontal axis. Keeping this
template horizontal, place an end on the lower left side of the curve and move slowly along the
curve. When the right side of the template intersects the right side of the curve, the pace has
been located. This procedure identies the 10 Km/h increments that intersect the peak of the
curve; this contains the most area and, therefore, the highest percentage of vehicles.
Modal Speed
The mode is dened as the single value of speed that is most likely to occur. As no discrete values
were recorded, the modal speed is also determined graphically from the frequency distribution
curve. A vertical line is dropped from the peak of the curve, with the result found on the
horizontal axis.
6.7.2
Measure of Dispersion
Measures describe the extent to which data spreads around the centre of the distribution.
Measures of dispersion include the dierent percentile speeds i.e. 15th, 85th,etc. and the
standard deviation.
Standard Deviation
The most common statistical measure of dispersion in a distribution is the standard deviation.
It is a measure of how far data spreads around the mean value. In simple terms, the standard
deviation is the average value of the dierence between individual observations and the average
value of those observations. The Standard deviation, s , of the sample can be calculated by
s =
fi (vi vv )2
n1
6.8
(6.3)
January 31, 2014
Percentile Speeds
The 85th and 15th percentile speeds give a general description of the high and low speeds
observed by most reasonable drivers. It is generally thought that the upper and lower 15% of
the distribution represents speeds that are either too fast or too slow for existing conditions.
These values are found graphically from the cumulative frequency distribution curve of Figure
6.4. The curve is entered on the vertical axis at values of 85% and 15%. The respective speeds
are found on the horizontal axis. The 85th and 15th percentile speeds can be used to roughly
estimate the standard deviation of the distribution est , although this is not recommended when
the data is available for a precise determination.
v85 v15
est =
(6.4)
2
The 85th and 15th percentile speeds give insight to both the central tendency and dispersion of
the distribution. As these values get closer to the mean, less dispersion exists and the stronger
the central tendency of the distribution becomes.
The 98th percentile speed is also determining from the cumulative frequency curve, this
speed is generally used for geometric design of the road.
6.8
6.8.1
Data Analysis
Standard Error of the mean
The means of dierent sample taken from the same population are distributed normally about
the true mean of population with a standard deviation, is known as standard error.
s
(6.5)
Se =
n
6.8.2
Sample Size
Generally, sample sizes of 50 to 200 vehicles are taken. In that case, standard error of mean is
usually under the acceptable limit. If precision is prior then minimum no. of sample should be
taken, that can be measured by using the following equation.
nr =
2
Z 2 s
2
Se
(6.6)
where, nr is the no. of sample required, s is the Standard deviation, Z is value calculated from
Standard Normal distribution Table for a particular condence level (i.e. for 95% condence
Z=1.96 and for 99.7% condence Z=3.0) and Se is the permissible (acceptable) error in mean
calculation.
6.9
January 31, 2014
6.8.3
Precision and Condence Intervals
Condence intervals express the range within which a result for the whole population would
occur for a particular proportion of times an experiment or test was repeated among a sample
of the population. Condence interval is a standard way of articulate the statistical accuracy
of an experiment based assessment. If assess has a high error level, the equivalent condence
interval will be ample, and the less condence we can have that the experiment results depict
the situation among the whole population. When quoting condence It is common to refer to
the some condence interval around an experiment assessment or test result. So, the condence
interval for estimated true mean speed can be calculated by
= vt Zs
(6.7)
where, is the condence interval, vt is mean speed, s is standard deviation and Z is constant
for specied condence.
6.8.4
Numerical Example
Using the spot speed data given in the following table, collected from a freeway site operating
under free-ow conditions: (i) Plot the frequency and cumulative frequency curves for these
data; (ii) Obtain median speed, modal speed, pace, and percent vehicles in pace from these
plots; (iii) Compute the mean and standard deviation of the speed distribution; (iv) The
condence bounds on the estimate of the true mean speed of the underlying distribution with
95% condence? With 99.7% condence; and (v) Based on these results, compute the sample
size needed to achieve a tolerance of 1.5 kmph with 95% condence.
Solution For the spot speed study, rst draw a frequency distribution table show below.
1. From the table 6.3, we can draw frequency distribution and cumulative frequency distribution curve.(shown in Fig 6.6 and 6.7)
2. From the curves, Median speed, v50 = 43 kmph; Modal speed, = 38 kmph; the Pace =
33 - 43 kmph; Percent vehicles in pace = 54-20= 34%; and the 85th Percentile speed =
58 kmph.
3. Mean is calculated by using
fi vi
n
5950
=
= 45.77 kmph
130
vt =
6.10
January 31, 2014
Speed Range Frequency fi

21-25
2
26-30
6
31-35
18
36-40
25
41-45
19
46-50
16
51-55
17
56-60
12
61-65
7
66-70
4
71-75
3
76-80
1
Speed Range Mid speed Vi

21-25
23
26-30
28
31-35
33
36-40
38
41-45
43
46-50
48
51-55
53
56-60
58
61-65
63
66-70
68
71-75
73
76-80
78
Total
Frequency fi
2
6
18
25
19
16
17
12
7
4
3
1
130
% fi % fi
2%
2%
5%
6%
14%
20%
19%
39%
15%
54%
12%
66%
13%
79%
9%
88%
5%
94%
3%
97%
2%
99%
1%
100%
100%
fi Vi
46
168
594
950
817
768
901
696
441
272
219
78
5950
fi (Vi Vm )2
1036.876
1894.473
2934.959
1509.024
145.7041
79.6213
888.8284
1795.101
2078.296
1976.828
2224.544
1038.822
17603.08
Table 6:1: Solution of the example problem
6.11
January 31, 2014
25\%
Frequency(\%)
20\%
Mode
pace
15\%
10\%
5\%
0\%
0
10
20
30
33
38 43
40
50
60
70
80
Speed (kmph)
90
Figure 6:6: Frequency Distribution Curve

100\%
cumulative frequency(\%)
90\%
85\%
$v_85$
80\%
70\%
60\%
$v_50$
50\%
40\%
30\%
20\%
$v_15$
15\%
10\%
43
32
0
10
20
30
40
58
50
60
70
80
Speed (kmph)
90
Figure 6:7: Cumulative Frequency Distribution Curve

Standard Deviation of the Speed
s =
=
fi (vi vt )2
n1
17603.08
= 11.7 kmph
130 1
4. The condence bounds on the estimate of the true mean speed of the underlying distribution are:
= vt Zs
(a) For 95% condence, Z= 1.96, so
= 45.77 1.96 11.7 = 45.77 22.93 kmph
(b) For 99.7% condence, Z= 3.0, so
= 45.77 3.0 11.7 = 45.77 35.1 kmph
6.12
January 31, 2014
Parameter
Median speed
Modal speed
Pace
Vehicles in pace
Mean speed
Standard Deviation
85th percentile speed
15th percentile speed
98th percentile Speed
Condence interval
For 95%.
For 99.7%
Required sample Size
43
38
33-43
45.77
11.7
58
32
72
Value
kmph
kmph
kmph
34%
kmph
kmph
kmph
kmph
kmph
45.7722.93 kmph
45.7725.1 kmph
234
Table 6:2: Result of the example problem

5. Sample size required for 95% condence with acceptable error of 1.5 kmph
2
Z 2 s
2
Se
1.962 11.72
= 234.
=
1.52
nr =
So, given sample size is not sucient and we require minimum 234 samples to achieve
that condence with given acceptable error. The results are summaries in table 6.8.4
6.9
Location for Speed Studies
The speed studies are accompanied for eminently logical purposes that will inuence what
trac engineering measures are implemented in any given case. The location at which speed
measurements are taken must conform to the intentional purpose of the study. The guiding philosophy behind spot speed studies is that measurements should include drivers freely selecting
their speeds, unaected by trac congestion. For example if driver approaches to a toll plaza,
then he has to slow his speed, so this is not suitable location to conduct the study, measurements should be taken at a point before drivers start to decelerate. Similarly, if excessive speed
around a curve is thought to be contributing to o-the-road accidents, speed measurements
6.13
January 31, 2014
should be taken in advance of the curve, before deceleration begins. It may also be appropriate, however, to measure speeds at the point where accidents are occurring for evaluation
with approach speeds. This would allow the trac engineer to assess whether the problem is
excessive approach speed or that drivers are not decelerating suciently through the subject
geometric element, or a combination of both. A study of intersection approach speeds must
also be taken at a point before drivers begin to decelerate. This may be a moving point, given
that queues get shorter and longer at dierent periods of the day.
6.10
Summary
This chapter has presented the basic concepts of speed studies. Spot speed studies are conducted
to estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicle in the trac stream at a particular position
on highway. This is done by recording the speeds of vehicle at the specied location. These
data are used to obtain speed characteristics such as mean speed, modal speed, pace, standard
deviation and dierent percentile of speeds. The important factors which should consider during
plan of studies is the location of study, time and duration of study. The data sample collected
should contain samples size. These gives precision and accuracy of result.
6.11
References
2. Nicholas J Garber Lester A Hoe. Trac and Highway Engineering. Cengage Learning
Product, Fourth Edition, 2009.
3. Theodore M Matson, Wilbure S smith, and Fredric W Hurd. Trac engineering, 1955.
4. R P Roess, S E Prassas, and W R McShane. Trac Engineering. Pearson Education
International, 2005.
6.14
January 31, 2014
7. Measurement along a Length of Road
Chapter 7
Measurement along a Length of Road
7.1
Overview
This is normally used to obtain variations in speed over a stretch of road. Usually the stretch
will be having a length more than 500 meters. We can also get speed ,travel time and delay.
Speed and travel time are the most commonly used indicators of performance for trac facilities
and networks. Delays are often used to measure the performance of trac ow at intersections.
7.2
Travel time study
Travel time is the elapsed time it takes for a vehicle to traverse a given segment of a street.
Travel time studies provide the necessary data to determine the average travel time. Combined
with the length of the corridor under study, this data can be used to produce average travel
speed. Travel time and delay are two of the principal measures of roadway system performance
used by trac engineers, planners and analysts. Since vehicle speed is directly related to travel
time and delay, it is also an appropriate measure-of-performance to evaluate trac systems.
A study conducted to determine the amount of time required to traverse a specic route
or section of a street or highway. The data obtained provide travel time and travel speed
information but not necessarily delay. This term is often used to include speed and delay
study. Travel time may be dened as the total elapsed time of travel, including stop and delay,
necessary for a vehicle to travel from one point to another point over a specied route under
existing trac condition.
7.3
Delay studies
Delay is dened as an extra time spent by drivers against their expectation. Delay can have
many forms depending on dierent locations. A study made to provide information concerning
7.1
January 31, 2014
the amount, cause, location, duration and frequency of delay as well as travel time and similar
value. The time lost by trac due to trac friction and trac control device is called delay.
7.4
Types of Delay
1. Congestion delay- Congestion delay is the delay caused by the constricting or slowing down
eect of overloaded intersections, inadequate carriageway widths, parked cars, crowded
pavement and similar factor.
2. Fixed Delay- The delay to which a vehicle is subjected regardless of the amount of trac
volume and interference present.
3. Operational Delay-The delay caused by interference from other component of the trac
stream. Examples include time lost while waiting for a gap in a conicting trac stream,
or resulting from congestion, parking maneuvers, pedestrians, and turning movement.
4. Stopped Delay- The time a vehicle is not moving.
5. Travel Time Delay- The dierence between the actual time required to traverse a section
of street or highway and the time corresponding to the average speed of trac under
uncongested condition. It includes acceleration and deceleration delay in addition to
stopped delay.
6. Approach Delay -Travel time delay encountered to an approach to an intersection.
7.5
Purpose of travel time and Delay Studies
1. The purpose of a Travel Time and Delay Study is to evaluate the quality of trac movement along a route and determine the locations, types, and extent of trac delays by
using a moving test vehicle.
2. This study method can be used to compare operational conditions before and after roadway or intersection improvements have been made. It can also be used as a tool to assist
in prioritizing projects by comparing the magnitude of the operational deciencies (such
as delays and stops) for each project under consideration.
3. The Travel Time and Delay Study can also be used by planners to monitor level of service
for local government comprehensive plans.
7.2
January 31, 2014
4. The methodology presented herein provides the engineer with quantitative information
with which he can develop recommendations for improvements such as trac signal retiming, safety improvements, turn lane additions, and channelization enhancements
7.6
Method for obtaining travel time and delay study
1. Floating Car Method: Floating car data are positions of vehicles traversing city streets
throughout the day. In this method the driver tries to oat in the trac stream passing
as many vehicles as pass the test car. If the test vehicle overtakes as many vehicles as
the test vehicle is passed by, the test vehicles should, with sucient number of runs,
approach the median speed of the trac movement on the route. In such a test vehicle,
one passenger acts as observer while another records duration of delays and the actual
elapsed time of passing control points along the route from start to nish of the run.
2. Average Speed Method: In this method the driver is instructed to travel at a speed
that is judge to the representative of the speed of all trac at the time.
3. Moving-vehicle method: In this method, the observer moves in the trac stream and
makes a round trip on a test section. The observer starts at section, drives the car in a
particular direction say eastward to another section, turns the vehicle around drives in
the opposite direction say westward toward the previous section again. Let, the time in
minutes it takes to travel east (from X-X to Y-Y) is ta, the time in minutes it takes to
travel west (from Y-Y to X-X) is tw, the number of vehicles traveling east in the opposite
lane while the test car is traveling west be ma, the number of vehicles that overtake the
test car while it is traveling west be mo, and the number of vehicles that the test car
passes while it is traveling west from be mp. The volume (qw) in the westbound direction
X
Y
West
East
Figure 7:1: Illustration of moving observer method

7.3
January 31, 2014
can then be obtained from the expression and

qw =
ma + mo mp
ta + tw
the average travel time in the westbound direction is obtained from

tw(avg) = tw
mo mp
qw
4. Maximum-car method: In this procedure, the driver is asked to drive as fast as is safely
practical in the trac stream without ever exceeding the design speed of the facility.
5. Elevated Observer method: In urban areas, it is sometime possible to station observers
in high buildings or other elevated points from which a considerable length of route may
be observed. These investigator select vehicle at random and record; time, location and
causes-of-delay. The drawback is that it is sometime dicult to secure suitable points for
observation throughout the length of the route to be studied.
6. License Plate Method: when the amount of turning o and on the route is not great
and only over all speed value are to be secured, the license-plate method of speed study
may be satisfactorily employed. Investigator stationed at control point along the route
enters, on a time control basis, the license-plate numbers of passing vehicles. These
are compared from point to point along the route, and the dierence in time values,
through use of synchronized watches, is computed. This method requires careful and
time-consuming oce work and does not show locations, causes, frequency, or duration of
delay. Four basic methods of collecting and processing license plates normally considered
are:
(a) Manual: collecting license plates via pen and paper or audio tape recorders and
manually entering license plates and arrival times into a computer.
(b) Portable Computer: collecting license plates in the eld using portable computers
that automatically provide an arrival time stamp.
(c) Video with Manual Transcription: collecting license plates in the eld using
video cameras or camcorders and manually transcribing license plates using human
observers.
(d) Video with Character Recognition: collecting license plates in the eld using
video, and then automatically transcribing license plates and arrival times into a
computer using computerized license plate character recognition.
7.4
January 31, 2014
7. Photographic Method: This method is primarily a research tool, it is useful in studies of

interrelationship of several factors such as spacing, speeds, lane usage, acceleration rates,
merging and crossing maneuvers, and delays at intersections. This method is applicable
to a short test section only.
8. Interview Method: this method may be useful where a large amount of material is
needed in a minimum of time and at little expense for eld observation. Usually the
employees of a farm or establishment are asked to record their travel time to and from
work on a particular day.
9. Highway Capacity Manual 2000 or (Cycle- based method): This method is applicable to all under saturated signalized intersections. For oversaturated conditions, queue
buildup normally makes the method impractical. The method described here is applicable to situations in which the average maximum queue per cycle is no more than about
20 to 25 veh/ln. When queues are long or the demand to capacity ratio is near 1.0,
care must be taken to continue the vehicle-in-queue count past the end of the arrival
count period, vehicles that arrived during the survey period until all of them have exited
the intersection.as detailed below. This requirement is for consistency with the analytic
delay equation used in the chapter text.method does not directly measure delay during
deceleration and during a portion of acceleration, which are very dicult to measure without sophisticated tracking equipment. However, this method has been shown to yield a
reasonable estimate of control delay.
The method includes an adjustment for errors that may occurred when this type of
sampling technique is used, as well as an acceleration-deceleration delay correction factor
Table 7:1. The acceleration-deceleration factor is a function of the typical number of
vehicles in queue during each cycle and the normal free-ow speed when vehicles are
unimpeded by the signal. Before beginning the detailed survey, the observers need to
make an estimate of the average free-ow speed during the study period. Free-ow speed
is the speed at which vehicles would pass unimpeded through the intersection if the signal
were green for an extended period.be obtained by driving through the intersection a few
times when the signal is green and there is no queue and recording the speed at a location
least aected by signal control. Typically, the recording location should be upstream
about midblock. Table 7:2 is a worksheet that can be used for recording observations and
computation of average time-in-queue delay Steps for data reduction
(a) Sum each column of vehicle-in-queue counts, then sum the column totals for the
entire survey period.
7.5
January 31, 2014

Free-Flow Speed
60km/h
60-71 km/h
71 km/h
7 Vehicles
5
7
9
8-19 Vehicles
2
4
7
20-30 Vehicles
1
2
5
Table 7:1: Acceleration-Deceleration Delay Correction Factor, CF (seconds)

(b) A vehicle recorded as part of a vehicle-in-queue count is in queue, on average, for the
time interval between counts. The average time-in-queue per vehicle arriving during
the survey period is estimated.
dvq =
Is
Viq
Vtot
0.9
where, Is = interval between vehicle-in-queue counts (s), Viq = sum of vehicle-inqueue counts (veh), Vtot = total number of vehicles arriving during the survey period
(veh), and 0.9 = empirical adjustment factor. The 0.9 adjustment factor accounts
for the errors that may occur when this type of sampling technique is used to derive
actual delay values, normally resulting in an overestimate of delay.
(c) Compute the fraction of vehicles stopping and the average number of vehicles stopping per lane in each signal cycle, as indicated on the worksheet.
(d) Using Table 7:1, look up a correction factor appropriate to the lane group free-ow
speed and the average number of vehicles stopping per lane in each cycle. This
factor adds an adjustment for deceleration and acceleration delay, which cannot be
measured directly with manual techniques.
(e) Multiply the correction factor by the fraction of vehicles stopping, and then add this
product to the time-in-queue value of Step 2 to obtain the nal estimate of control
delay per vehicle.
Numerical Example
A test was conducted to determine the delay in an intersection. Table 7:3 presents a sample
computation on direct observation of vehicle-in-queue counts at the intersection. The trac
signal at the intersection operates with a cycle time of 115 sec. The test was conducted on the
2 lane road over a 15-min period, which is almost thirteen cycles . Count interval was 15-s.
The total number of vehicle is 530 and the total number of stopped vehicle is 223. Assume the
free ow speed to be 65 km/h and the empirical adjustment factor 0.9
7.6
January 31, 2014
INTERSECTION CONTROL DELAY WORKSHEET

General Information
Analyst
Agency or Company
Date Performed
Analysts Time Period
Site Information
Intersection
Area Type
Jurisdiction
Analysis Year
CAD
Others
Input Initial Parameters
Total vehicle arriving,Varr

Stopped-vehicle count,Vstopped
Number of lanes, N
Freeflow speed,FFS (km/h)
Survey count interval,ls (s)
Cycle length,C (s)
Input Field Data

Clock
Time
Cycle
Number
Number of vehicles in queue

Count interval
3
4
10
Total
Computations
Total vehicles in queue,Vtvq =
Number of cycles surveyed,N_{s}

Fraction of vehicles stopping, FVS =
Timeinqueue per vehicle,d_{vq}

No.of vehicles stopping per lane each cycle =
Accel/Decek correction delay,dacl = F V S CF

Control delay/vehicles,d = dvq + dacl
Accel/Decel correction factor, CF(Ex.A1G2)
Figure 7:2: Intersection delay worksheet

General Information
Site Information
Cicera&Beimanc
Intersection
Area Type
CBD
Jurisdiction
1999
Analysis Year
Analyst
Agency or Company
Date Performed
Analysis time period
Others
Input initial Parameters

Number of lanes, N
Freeflow speed,FFS (km/h)
2
65
Total vehicle arriving,Vtot

Stopped vehicle count,Vstop
Survey count interval,Is (s)
15
Cycle length, C (s)
530
223
Input Field Data

Number of vehicles in Queue
Count Interval
4
5
Clock
Time
Cycle
Number
4:34
"
15
12
6
7
12
15
16
"
7
14
14
13
10
12
5
3
4
7
6
13
12
12
4:47
6
7
8
"
16
37
64
88
10
10
2
13
4:42
3
4
Total
"
61
Figure 7:3: Example of the intersection control delay worksheet

Solution:
1. Number of lane, N=2
2. Free-ow Speed, FFS =65 km/h
3. Survey count interval, Is =15 sec
4. Total vehicle in queue, Viq = 371
5. Total vehicles arriving, Vtot = 530
6. Stopped vehicles count, Vstop = 223
7. No of Cycle Surveyed, Nc=7.8
8. Accel/Decel correction factor, CF=4 (from Table 7.1)
7.7
January 31, 2014
9. No. Of Vehicles stopped per lane each cycle

Vstop Nc N =
223
7.82
= 14
10. Fraction of vehicles stopping,

FV S =
Vstop
Vtot
223
530
= 0.42
11. Time-in-queue per vehicle ,

dvq = (Is
Viq
)0.9
Vtot
= 9.5sec
12. Accel/Decel correction delay,

dad = F V S CF = 0.42 4 = 1.7sec
13. Control delay/vehicle,
d = dvq + dad = 11.2sec
7.7
Summary
The information assembled as part of this travel time and delay study forms a baseline for
future assessment. This study helps to determine the amount of time required to travel from
one point to another on a given route. Often, information may also be collected on the locations,
durations, and causes of delays. Good indication of the level of service and identifying problem
locations
7.8
References
1. Highway capacity manual, 2000. chapter-16.

2. Manual on uniform trac studies, 2000. Topic No. 750-020-007 Travel Time and Delay
Study.
3. Travel Time Data Collection Handbook. 2019.
5. W S Hamburger J H Kell. Fundamentals of Trac Engineering. 1989.
7.8
January 31, 2014
9. Intrusive Technologies
Chapter 9
Intrusive Technologies
9.1
Introduction
Typical examples of intrusive technologies, their sensor types and installation locations are
shown in Fig. 9:1. The rst types of units (Fig. 9:1, Type 1) are passive magnetic or magnetometer sensors that are either permanently mounted within holes in the road, or axed to the
road surface in some fashion. The unit communicates to a nearby base station processing unit
using either wires buried in the road, or wireless communications. The sensor has a circular or
elliptically oset zone of detection (i.e., the blue area).
The second types of units (Fig. 9:1, Type 2) use pneumatic tubes that are stretched across
the carriageway and axed at the kerb side at both ends. Such systems are only be deployed
on a temporary basis, due to the fragile nature of tubes, which are easily damaged or torn up
by heavy or fast moving vehicles.
The third type (Fig. 9:1, Type 3) are inductive detector loops (IDL), consisting of coated
wire coils buried in grooves cut in the road surface, sealed over with bituminous ller. A cable buried with the loop sends data to a roadside processing unit. The zone of detection for
inductive loop sensors depends on the cut shape of the loop slots. The zones depending on
the overall sensitivity of system not correspond precisely to the slot dimensions. IDLs are a
cheap and mature technology. They are installed on both major roads and within urban areas,
forming the backbone detector network for most trac control systems.
The fourth type of intrusive system is Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) shown in Fig. 9:2, detectors
that consist of a piezoelectric sensor (e.g. bending-plate or ber-optic) system laid in a channel across the road. These systems are relatively rare and are used in specic locations for
enforcement or access control. They are usually coupled with other systems, either intrusive or
9.1
January 31, 2014
2
3
1
1
Type:1. Embedded magnetometers

2. Pneumatic tube detectors
3. Inductive detector loops
Figure 9:1: Typical intrusive detector congurations, Source: IMAGINE- Collection Methods
for Additional Data
Signal sent
to processor
Figure 9:2: Weigh-In-Motion Detector system, Source

non-intrusive, to provide additional cross-checks on collected data.
9.2
Pneumatic Tube Detector
Pneumatic road tube sensors send a burst of air pressure along a rubber tube when a vehicles
tire passes over the tube. The pulse of air pressure closes an air switch, producing an electrical
signal that is transmitted to a counter or analysis software. The pneumatic road tube sensor
is portable, using lead-acid, gel, or other rechargeable batteries as a power source. The road
tube is installed perpendicular to the trac ow direction and is commonly used for short-term
trac counting, vehicle classication by axle count and spacing. Some data to calculate vehicle
9.2
January 31, 2014
gaps, intersection stop delay, stop sign delay, and saturation ow rate, spot speed as a function of vehicle class, and travel time when the counter is utilized in conjunction with a vehicle
transmission sensor.
Advantages
1. Cheap and self-contained, the easiest to deploy of all intrusive systems, recognized technology with acceptable accuracy for strategic trac modeling purposes, hence very widely
used.
2. Axle-based classication appears attractive, given sub-vehicle categories are partially axle
based.
Disadvantages
1. Some units are not counted or classify vehicles.
2. Tube installations are not durable, the life of tubes are less than one month only.
3. The tube detectors are not suitable for high ow and high speed roads.
4. Units should not be positioned where there is the possibility of vehicles parking on the
tube.
5. It cant detect the two wheelers.
9.3
Inductive Detector Loop (IDL)
Oscillating electrical signal is applied to the loop. The metal content of a moving vehicle chassis
changes the electrical properties of circuit. Changes are detected at a roadside unit, triggering
a vehicle event. A single loop system collects ow and occupancy. The speed can be calculated
by the assumptions that are made for the mean length of vehicles. Two-loop systems collect
ow, occupancy, vehicle length, and speed.
Advantages
1. It is a very cheap technology. Almost every dynamic trac control system in this world
uses IDL data.
Disadvantages
9.3
January 31, 2014
Electronics unit
Roadway centerline
3 ft
Controller cabinet
3 ft
Loop sawcut plan
Leadin conduit
Pullbox
Conduittocurb run
Curb line
12 ft
6 ft
Shielded leadin cable
Roadway section
3 turns
Splice in pullbox
Twisted wire to suppress
electrical interference
1 ft = 0.305 m
Loop wire plan
Figure 9:3: Schematic diagram of single loop detectors, source

1. Loops are damaged by utility and street maintenance activities or penetration of water.
2. IDLs with low sensitivity fail to detect vehicles with speed below a certain threshold,
and miscount vehicles with complex or unusual chassis congurations, or vehicles with
relatively low metal content (e.g. motorcycles).
3. IDL data supplied to trac control systems have a very low sample rate.
4. Not suitable for mounting on metallic bridge decks.
5. Some radio interference occurs between loops in close proximity with each other.
9.3.1
Single Loop Detectors
A typical single loop system is shown in Fig. 9:3. The system consists of three components: a
detector oscillator, a lead-in cable and a loop embedded in the pavement. The size and shape
of loops largely depend on the specic application. The most common loop size is 1.83 m by
1.83 m and shape is hexagonal as single turn or two or three turns as shown in Fig. 9:3. When
a vehicle stops or passes over the loop, the inductance of the loop is decreased.The decreased
inductance then increases the oscillation frequency and causes the electronics unit to send a
pulse to controller, indicating the presence or passage of a vehicle. Single loop detectors output
predicts occupancy and trac count data within specic time intervals like 20 sec, 30 sec.
9.3.2
Dual-loop Detectors
Dual-loop detectors are also called speed traps, T loops, or double loop detectors. In a dual-loop
system, two consecutive single inductance loops, called M loop and S loop, are embedded
9.4
January 31, 2014
lloop
ldist
T = t2
T = t1
Figure 9:4: Schematic diagram of dual loop detectors

a few distance apart as shown in Fig. 9:4. With such a design, when one of them detects a
vehicle, timer is automatically started in the dual-loop system and runs until the same vehicle
is detected by other loop.Thus, in addition to outputs of vehicle count and occupancy data,
individual vehicle speeds can be trapped through the dividend of the distance between those
two single loops ldist by the elapsed time. Speed trap is dened as the measurement of the
time that a vehicle requires to travel between two detection points. Spot speed is measured by
following Eqn. 9.1.
ldist
(9.1)
Speed =
t2 t1
where,
ldist = Distance between two loops in meters
t1 = Vehicle entry time at rst loop in sec
t2 = Vehicle entry time at second loop in sec
Dual-loop detectors can also be used to measure vehicle lengths with extra data extracted from
controllers records. The length of vehicle is measured by following Eqn. 9.2:
Lvehicle =
Speed|ot2 + 0t1 |
2
(9.2)
where,
Lvehicle = Length of vehicle in meters.
oti = on-time for loop detector i; Speed in m/sec
Example-1
If the vehicle entering the freeway in loop M at time 8:32:22:00 am and leaving loop N at
time 8:32:22:15 am, the distance between two loops will be 3.66 m. Find the spot speed of the
vehicle. Also nd the length of the vehicle if time occupancy for M - loop is 0.25sec and 0.29
for N - loop.
9.5
January 31, 2014
lv
ld
Single Loop
Detector
Vehicle
Single Loop
Detector
Vehicle
Figure 9:5: Layout of a roadway segment with single loop detectors
Solution:
Step 1 Spot Speed calculated from the equation 1, where given that the distance between
two loops are 3.66m and entry, exit times are 8:32:22:00 and 8:32:22:15 substitute in Eqn. 9.1.
SpotSpeed = (3.66)/(15 0)/100 = 24.4 m/sec.
Step 2 The vehicle length can obtained by the spot speed of the vehicle, so substitute the
occupancy times at exit and entry in the Eqn. 9.2.
Lvehicle =
9.3.3
(52.7/3.6)|0.25 + 0.29|
= 3.95 m.
2
(9.3)
Speed Estimation by Single Loop
Fig. 9:5 shows a two-lane unidirectional roadway segment with single loop detectors installed.Assume
that the detection zone length is ld and is equal to the detector length, the length of the vehicle
is lv , the speed of the vehicle is S, then the actual time (the time period that the vehicle is over
the detector) can be calculated by:
EV L
S=
(9.4)
to
where,
S = Spot speed in m/sec
EV L =vehicle length lv + detector length ld
to = Occupancy time
There are many algorithms for estimating speed by single loop. The most common method is
based on the relationship between fundamental trac variables. It uses a constant or a function
to convert loop occupancy into density. The variables include inductive loop length, average
9.6
January 31, 2014
vehicle length, occupancy, and trac volume.For the given number of vehicle and duration of
the observed data the specimen speed can nd by following Eqn. 9.5 is shown below.
s=
N
T Og
(9.5)
where,
S = Space mean speed in m/sec
N = Number of vehicles in the observed interval
T = Observation interval in sec
O = occupancy time
g = speed correction factor; (based upon assumed vehicle length, detector conguration, and
trac conditions) Most of the algorithms followed as (40.9/6.55) for average vehicle length
6.55m.
Example-2
The length of vehicle is 4 m and the length of loop detector zone is 1.83 m. The time occupancy
in the loop is 0.3 sec, nd the spot speed of the vehicle?
Solution:
From the given data the average vehicle length is 4 m and the length of loop detector zone is
1.833 m, the time occupancy in loop is 0.3 sec substitute in Eqn. 9.1.
EV L
to
4 + 1.83
s =
= 19.4 m/sec.
0.3
spotspeed =
Example-3
In freeway 2500 vehicles are observed during 300 sec interval. The loop occupancy is 75 percentages and the average length of vehicle observed as 6.55 m, nd the space mean speed on
the freeway section?
Solution
Given data is number of vehicle is 2500, duration is 300 sec, loop occupancy is 75 percentage, the average length of vehicle is 6.55 so speed correction factor is 40.99/6.55 substitute in
Eqn. 9.5.
9.7
January 31, 2014
N
T Og
2500 6.55
s =
300 0.75 40.9
= 6.405 Kmph
specimenspeed =
9.3.4
Vehicle Signature
Loop detectors detect the frequency changes from zero to dierent level, the inductance changes
are computed by change in frequency. The change in inductance due to the presence of vehicle
is recorded at a small time interval. The waveform obtained by plotting the sampled inductance
changes is referred to as the vehicle inductive waveform or inductance signature.This waveform
depends on number of vehicle parameters such as vehicle length, speed, and metal surface of the
vehicle. Fig. 9:6 shows an inductive waveform of a typical passenger car.Horizontal axis records
data points at 10 milliseconds interval. This is the common shape of inductance waveform
that has one peak in the middle with monotonic decrease in both sides. Vehicle signatures are
functions of vehicle speed and vehicle type, so many features can be derived from the vehicle
signatures directly or indirectly. Volume and occupancy are directly derived from processing
raw vehicle signatures whereas speed is estimated based on the vehicle signature feature vectors.
Vehicle length is obtained based on vehicle speed. By combining vehicle length with existing
vehicle signature features, vehicle classication can be measured. It is easy to observe signature
dierences arising from the vehicle speed. Duration or occupancy has an inverse proportional
relationship with speed while slew rate shows a proportional correspondence with speed.
A series of vehicle signature acquired by the Inductive Loop Detectors located at upstream
and downstream of a freeway and dierent distance measures to nd the re identication accuracy level. Double-axle trucks produce a double picked vehicle signature when the resolution
of detector is adequate. Thus, it can be easily used for vehicle-type identication purposes.
9.4
Magnetometers/Passive magnetic systems
Magnetometers monitor for uctuations in the relative strength of the Earths magnetic eld,
which is changed by the presence of a moving metal object i.e., a vehicle. A single passive magnetic system collects ow and occupancy. Two magnetometer systems collect ow, occupancy,
vehicle length, and speed.
9.8
January 31, 2014
Vehicle Signature
Inductance Change (nH)
50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time (ms)
70
80
90
Figure 9:6: Inductive waveform of a typical passenger car, source

Two types of magnetic eld sensors are used for trac ow parameter measurement. The
rst type, the two-axis uxgate magnetometer, detects changes in vertical and horizontal components of the Earth s magnetic eld produced by a ferrous metal vehicle. The two-axis uxgate
magnetometer contains a primary winding and two secondary sense windings on a coil surrounding high permeability soft magnetic material core. The second type of magnetic eld sensor is
the magnetic detector, more properly referred to as an induction or search coil magnetometer
shown in Fig. 9:7. It detects the vehicle signature by measuring the change in the magnetic
lines of ux caused by the change in eld values produced by a moving ferrous metal vehicle.
These devices contain a single coil winding around a permeable magnetic material rod core.
However, most magnetic detectors cannot detect stopped vehicles, since they require a vehicle
to be moving or otherwise changing its signature characteristics with respect to time.
Advantages
1. More usually mounted in a small hole in road surface and hardwired to the processing
unit.
Suitable for deployment on bridges.
Disadvantages
1. Possibly damaged by utility maintenance activities, as with IDLs.
9.9
January 31, 2014
+
Earths magnetic field Magnetic dipole Resultant magnetic

anomaly in Earths
produced by
in the absence of
ferrous materials magnetic field
metal vehicle
(a) Magnetic anomaly induced in the Earths magnetic field by a magnetic dipole
N
W
COMPASS S
VARIATION
N
E
N
E
W
S
W
S
N
E
W
S
E
S
SENSOR SIGNAL
VARIATION
VEHICLE MAGNETIC INFLUENCE
TO THE EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD
(b) Perturbation of Earths magnetic field by a ferrous metal vehicle
Figure 9:7: Weigh-In-Motion Detector system (Source: FHWA vehicle detection manual)
9.5
9.5.1
Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) systems

Bending Plate
Bending plate WIM systems utilize plates with strain gauges bonded to the underside. The
system records the strain measured by strain gauges and calculates the dynamic load. Static
load is estimated using the measured dynamic load and calibration parameters. Calibration
parameters account for factors, such as vehicle speed and pavement or suspension dynamics
that inuence estimates of the static weight. The accuracy of bending plate WIM systems can
be expressed as a function of the vehicle speed traversed over the plates, assuming the system
is installed in a sound road structure and subject to normal trac conditions.
Advantages
Bending plate WIM systems is used for trac data collection as well as for weight enforcement
purposes. The accuracy of these systems is higher than piezoelectric systems and their cost is
lower than load cell systems. Bending plate WIM systems do not require complete replacement
of the sensor.
Disadvantages
Bending plate WIM systems are not as accurate as load cell systems and are considerably more
expensive than piezoelectric systems.
9.10
January 31, 2014
9.5.2
Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric WIM systems contain one or more piezoelectric sensors that detect a change in
voltage caused by pressure exerted on the sensor by an axle and thereby measure the axle s
weight. As a vehicle passes over the piezoelectric sensor, the system records the sensor output
voltage and calculates the dynamic load. With bending plate systems, the dynamic load provides an estimate of static load when the WIM system is properly calibrated.
The typical piezoelectric WIM system consists of at least one piezoelectric sensor and two
ILDs. The piezoelectric sensor is placed in the travel lane perpendicular to the travel direction.
The inductive loops are placed upstream and downstream of the piezoelectric sensor. The upstream loop detects vehicles and alerts the system to an approaching vehicle. The downstream
loop provides data to determine vehicle speed and axle spacing based on the time it takes the
vehicle to traverse the distance between the loops. Fig. 9:8 shows a full-lane width piezoelectric
WIM system installation. In this example, two piezoelectric sensors are utilized on either side
of the downstream loop.
Advantages
Typical piezoelectric WIM systems are among the least expensive systems in use today in terms
of initial capital costs and life cycle maintenance costs. Piezoelectric WIM systems can be used
at higher speed ranges (16 to 112 kmph) than other WIM systems. Piezoelectric WIM systems
can be used to monitor up to four lanes.
Disadvantages
Typical piezoelectric systems are less accurate than load cell and bending plate WIM systems.
Piezoelectric sensors for WIM systems must be replaced at least once every 3 years.
Problems:
1. If the vehicle 10% time occupied by loop M and 32% time occupied by loop N, the distance
between two loops are 4.22 m nd the spot speed of the vehicle. Also nd the length of
the vehicle if time occupancy for M - loop is 0.26sec and 0.32 for N-loop.
9.11
January 31, 2014
Cabinet
Traffic flow
directions
er
ld
a
Ro
u
ho
Inductive WIM strip,

loops (2) fulllength, PVC conduit
2 places below ground
Figure 9:8: WIM installation with full-length piezoelectric sensors Source: FHWA vehicle detection manual
Solution: Length is 4.22 m and occupancy times are 0.32 and 0.1.The speed is given by:
ldist
t2 t1
= (4.22)/(0.32 0.1) = 19.18 m/sec.
Speed =
For length calculation, the speed is 19.18 m/sec and occupancy times are 0.26 and 0.32.
Speed(ot2 + ot1 )
2
19.18(0.26 + 0.32)
=
= 5.56 m.
2
Lvehicle =
2. The average length of vehicle is 4.25 m and the length of loop detector zone is 1.85 m.
The time occupancy in the loop is 32 percentages, nd the spot speed of the vehicle?
Solution: The average vehicle length is 4.25 and detector zone length is 1.85 m and
t0 is 0.32.the spot speed(s) is given by:
EV L
to
4.25 + 1.85
=
= 19.06m/sec
0.32
s =
3. In freeway 1500 vehicles are observed during 120 sec interval. The lane occupancy is 65
percentage and the average length of vehicle observed as 6.55 m. Find the space mean
speed on the freeway section?
Solution: The number of vehicle N is 1500 vehicles; observation period is T= 120 sec.
9.12
January 31, 2014
The lane occupancy O is 0.65 and average length is 6.55, so g is (40.9/6.55) substitute
N
T Og
1500 6.55
=
120 0.65 (40.9)
= 3.08 m/sec
s =
9.6
Summary
Each detector technology and particular device has its own limitations and individual capability.
The successful application of detector technologies largely depends on proper device selection.
Many factors impact detector selection, such as data type, data accuracy, ease of installation,
cost and reliability. ILDs are exible to satisfy dierent variety of applications, but installation
requires pavement disturb.
9.7
References
1. Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A and M University System. Travel Time Data
Collection Handbook,Report FHWA-PL-98-035, 1998.
2. Trac Detector Handbook. Third Edition Volume II, Publication No.FHWA-HRT-06-139
October 2006., 2006.
3. Final Report of Evaluation of Freeway Travel Time Estimates. Castle Rock Consultants
Inc, Portland State University, 2019.
4. Manual on Uniform Trac Control Devices. Federal Highway Administration, U.S.
Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 2019.
5. B Coifman. Length based vehicle classication on freeways from single loop Detectors. al
University Transportation Center Final Report, 2009.
6. G C de Silva. Automation of Trac Flow Measurement Using Video Images. Thesis
Report, University of Moratuwa, 2001.
7. S Ding. Freeway Travel Time Estimation using Limited Loop Data. Master Thesis, The
University of Akron, 2008.
9.13
January 31, 2014
8. M L Y Elena and L A Klein. Summary of vehicle detection and surveillance technologies

used in intelligent transportation systems. FHWA Report, New Mexico State University
and VDC Project Consultant, 2000.
9. A Faghri and K Hamad. Applications of GPS in Trac Management. 2002.
10. L Guillaume. Road Trac Data: Collection Methods and Applications. JRC Technical
note 47967, 2008.
11. U Leeds. Collection Methods for Additional Data, IMAGINE project no. 503549. Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, United Kingdom, 2006.
12. P T Martin, Y Feng, and X Wang. Detector Technology Evaluation. Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, Utah Trac Lab, 2003.
13. S T Mohammad. Vehicle re-identication Based on Inductance Signature Matching.
Master thesis, University of Toronto, 2011.
14. N Nihan, X Zhang, and Y Wang. Improved System for Collecting Real-Time Truck Data
from Dual Loop Detectors. Transportation Northwest, 2005.
15. S G Ritchie S Park and O Cheol. Field Investigation of Advanced Vehicle Re-identication
Techniques and Detector. California PATH Research Report, 2002.
16. A Parsekar. Blind Deconvolution of Vehicle Inductive Signatures for Travel Time Estimation. Master thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Minnesota Duluth,
Duluth, Minnesota -55812, 2004.
17. C Ulberg. Vehicle occupancy forecasting, Technical Report. Washington State Department of Transportation Technical, Graduate School of Public Aairs University of
Washington Seattle, Washington 98105, 1994.
18. J Xia and M Chen. Freeway Travel Time Forecasting Under Incident. Final Report,
Southeastern Transportation Center, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, 2007.
19. B Young and M Saito. Automated Delay Estimation at Signalized Intersections. Research
Division, 2011.
20. Y Zhirui. Speed estimation using single loop detector outputs. Some studies, Ph.D thesis,
Department of CIVIL Engineering, Texas A and M University, 2007.
9.14
January 31, 2014
10. Non-Intrusive Technologies
Chapter 10
Non-Intrusive Technologies
10.1
Introduction
Non-intrusive technologies include video data collection, passive or active infrared detectors,
microwave radar detectors, ultrasonic detectors, passive acoustic detectors, laser detectors and
aerial photography. All these technologies represent emergent elds that are expanding rapidly
with continuing advances in signal processing. At present time such technologies are used to
provide supplemental information for selected locations or for specic applications (e.g., queue
detection at trac signals). Most non-intrusive systems are operationally and somewhat visually similar, consisting of small electronics unit mounted in a weatherproof housing placed in
various locations, as shown in Fig. 10:1.
The rst type of non-invasive detectors are roadside mast-mounted. The detector possesses
a eld-of-regard covering an oblique area upstream or downstream of the unit. There are also
multiple zones of detection dened within the overall eld of regard, or the overall zone of
detection same as the eld of regard, depending on the specic detector type and technology.
Obscuration problems occur when high-sided vehicles screens lower vehicles from the detector
or the eld-of-view being too large, leading to detection of vehicles outside the desired lane.
The second type of non-invasive detectors are mounted on gantries or bridge undersides, with
eld of regard directly below, or at a slight oblique to the unit. Finally, some units, such as
open-path pollutant monitors are mounted road side at ground level, ring a beam across the
road. Such units are subject to side-by-side masking and hence most suitable for only single
lane, unidirectional ows.
10.1
January 31, 2014

2
2
3
Type 1. Roadside, Mastmounted type

2. Gantry or bridge underside
3. Crossfire
Figure 10:1: Typical non-intrusive technology congurations
10.2
Video image detection (VID)
The trac parameters are collected by frame-by-frame analysis of video images captured
by roadside cameras. The following parameters are collected: Depending on the processing
methodology almost all trac parameters are captured from video analysis. Simple video systems often collect ow volume and occupancy. More complex systems allow the extraction of
further parameters.
Advantages
Possibility to capture all desired trac information, including some parameters that are not
readily obtainable using other types of detectors Possibility of a permanent visual record of the
trac ow that reviewed and analyzed by a human operator.
Disadvantages
VID systems are susceptible to obscure issues, as with other non-intrusive detectors. Performance of VID systems might be degraded in bad weather or low light conditions.
1. Video Image Processor
A video image processor (VIP) system typically consists of one or more cameras, a
microprocessor-based computer for digitizing and processing the imagery, and software
for interpreting the images and converting them into trac ow data.
2. Principles of Operation
Video image processor systems detect vehicles by analyzing the imagery from a trac
scene to determine changes between successive frames. VIP system typically consists of
10.2
January 31, 2014
one or more cameras, a microprocessor-based computer for digitizing and processing the
imagery, and software for interpreting the images and converting them into trac ow
data.
The algorithms are designed to remove gray level variations in the image background
caused by weather conditions, shadows, and daytime or night time artifacts and retain
objects identied as automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, and bicycles. Trac ow parameters are calculated by analyzing successive video frames. Color imagery can also be
exploited to obtain trac ow data. However, somewhat reduced dynamic range and
sensitivity have so far inhibited this approach. Trac ow parameters are calculated by
analyzing successive video frames. Color imagery can also be exploited to obtain trac
ow data.
Three dierent types of VIP systems are available; they are tripline, closed-loop tracking,
and data association tracking. Fig. 10:2 shows tripline systems which operate by allowing
the user to dene a limited number of detection zones in the eld of view of the video
camera. When a vehicle crosses one of these zones, it is identied by noting changes in the
pixels caused by the vehicle relative to roadway in the absence of a vehicle. Surface-based
and grid-based analyses are utilized to detect vehicles in tripline VIPs. Tripline systems
estimate vehicle speed by measuring the time it takes for an identied vehicle to travel a
detection zone of known length. The speed is found as the length divided by the travel
time.
Closed-loop tracking systems are an extension of the tripline approach that permits vehicle detection along larger roadway sections. The closed-loop systems track vehicles
continuously through the eld of view of camera. Multiple detections of the vehicle along
a track are used to validate the detection. These tracking systems provide additional
trac ow data such as lane-to-lane vehicle movements. These have the potential to
transmit information to roadside displays and radios to alert drivers to erratic behavior
that can lead to an incident. Data association tracking systems identify and track a
particular vehicle or groups of vehicles as they pass through the eld of view of camera.
The computer identies vehicles by searching for unique connected areas of pixels. These
areas are then tracked frame-to-frame to produce tracking data for the selected vehicle
or vehicle groups.
3. System Design
10.3
January 31, 2014
06
DETECTION
ZONE
02
02
05
02
02
04
Figure 10:2: Video Image processing by tripline detector system, source

System design consist of following four stages, construction of background image, detection of frame features, matching of detected frame features and rening matched vehicle
features. Creating a background image (an image representing the scene without moving vehicles) using a computer is a dicult task. The reason is that a computer, unlike
humans, is unable to distinguish background and vehicles by considering a single image.
The number of frames improves the quality of background images, it increases the time
consumed in creating them. This is caused by the large number of mathematical instructions required to construct a background image.
In the second stage it analyzes each frame in the sequence and detects features that
correspond to moving vehicles in the scene. Depending on the method used, several types
of features can be highlighted to represent moving vehicles. In the second stage apply
background subtraction on each frame to remove the static background of the scene. The
resulting image consists of blobs (collections of pixels with non-zero values) corresponding
to moving vehicles. These blobs are enhanced by processing further and detected as the
main feature. Several attributes about the blobs are recorded in memory for processing
in the coming stages.
Also, there are false blobs, not corresponding to any moving object. Such blobs are
present because of excessive noise in the image or poor quality of the background image.
Such features need not be processed further for estimating trac ow. Therefore, these
features are identied from the input features and discarded. Now, the remaining features
can be considered as vehicle features. In third stage by matching the features detected in
10.4
January 31, 2014

Passive sensor
Receiving aperture
(1 E)Tsky
ET
(Emissive term)
(Reflective term)
Tsky
Road surface with emissivity and

surface temperature
ER and TR
Vehicle with emissivity and

surface temperature
EV and TV
Figure 10:3: Emission and reection of energy by vehicle and road surface. (Source: FHWA
vehicle detection manual)
previous frames with those from the current frame, vehicles can be tracked. In the nal
stage matched vehicle features can be rened to correct features in the frames. However,
this is a complex task, as most of the information in the image has been lost after labeling.
Therefore, it is necessary to extract information from original frames to perform this task.
All these system design process are done by dierent algorithms.
10.3
Infrared Sensors
The sensors are mounted overhead to view approaching or departing trac or trac from a
side-looking conguration. Infrared sensors are used for signal control; volume, speed, and
class measurement, as well as detecting pedestrians in crosswalks. With infrared sensors, the
word detector takes on another meaning, namely the light-sensitive element that converts the
reected or emitted energy into electrical signals. Real-time signal processing is used to analyze
the received signals for the presence of a vehicle.
1. Passive Infrared (PIR)
Detection of vehicle based on emission or reection of infrared (electromagnetic radiation of frequency 1011 1014 Hz) radiation from vehicle surface, as compared to ambient
levels emitted or reected from the road surface shown in Fig. 10:3. The PIR system
collected following parameters: Flow volume, Vehicle presence, and detection zone occupancy. Speed with unit with multiple detection zones.
Advantages
(a) Relatively long wavelength of light used in PIR systems makes them less susceptible
to weather eects.
10.5
January 31, 2014
Disadvantages
(a) Accuracy of speed information is poor with low resolution sensors. Vehicle length
determination is highly problematic for the same reason.
2. Active Infrared (AIR)/Laser
Low power LED or laser diode res a pulsed or continuous beam down to road surface as
shown in Fig. 10:4. Time for reection to return is measured. Presence of a vehicle lowers
the time of reection. High scanning rates provides a detailed prole for classication
determination. Use of Doppler frequency shift from moving object allows for very accurate speed determination. The AIR system collected following parameters ow volume,
speed, classication, vehicle presence, trac density.
Advantages
(a) Very accurate ow, speed and classications possible.
(b) Laser systems work in day and night conditions.
Disadvantages
(a) Active near-IR sensors adversely aected by weather conditions.
(b) Laser systems impeded by haze or smoke.
(c) Some problems with tracking small vehicles reported.
(d) Relatively high costs compared to other units. Precise, but limited zone of detection
require additional units over other systems.
10.4
Microwave - Doppler and Radar
Low energy microwave radiation (2.5 to 24 GHz) is transmitted into the detection zone. Objects within the zone reect a portion of the radiation back to a receiver. Doppler units use
the frequency shift of the return to calculate speed as shown in Fig. 10:5. It cant detect the
stationary objects. The microwave system collected following parameters.
Doppler - Flow volume and speed;
Frequency-Modulated, Continuous Wave (FMCW) - Flow volume, speed and presence;
Microwave - Flow volume, speed, presence, possibly classication;
10.6
January 31, 2014
Scanning beams
Figure 10:4: Laser radar beam geometry. (Source: FHWA vehicle detection manual)
Microwave
Radar
Antenna
Power and
data cables
Controller
Cabinet
Path of transmitted and received

Sign bridge,
overpass, pole,
or mast arm mounting
Reflected signal from vehicle
can be used to determine presence
(occupancy), passage (count), and
and speed, depending on the waveform
that is transmitted by the radar sensor
Vehicle
Figure 10:5: Microwave radar operation. Source
Advantages
1. Very accurate. Easy to install, long ranged.
2. Multiple detection zones possible.
3. Day or night operation.
Disadvantages
1. Possible sensitivity to spurious returns from adjacent objects
2. Restrictions on use due to electromagnetic interference with other electronics.
10.7
January 31, 2014
HORIZONTAL
MOUNT
OVERHEAD
MOUNT
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
Figure 10:6: Ultrasonic range-measuring sensors, source
10.5
Pulsed and Active Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic sensors transmit pressure waves of sound energy at a frequency between 25 and 50
KHz. Pulse waveforms measure distances to the road surface and vehicle surface by detecting
the portion of the transmitted energy that is reected towards the sensor from an area dened
by the transmitters beam width. When a distance other than that to the background road
surface is measured, the sensor interprets that measurement as the presence of a vehicle as
shown in Fig. 10:6. The received ultrasonic energy is converted into electrical energy that is
analyzed by signal processing electronics that is either collocated with the transducer or placed
in a roadside controller. Vehicles ow and vehicular speed can be calculated by recording the
time at which the vehicle crosses each beam.
Advantages
1. Highly accurate.
Disadvantages
1. Environmental eects aecting sound propagation degrade performance.
2. Pulsed units with low sampling rate miscount or misclassify fast moving vehicles.
10.6
Passive Acoustic Array Sensors
An array of microphones is used to detect the sound of an approaching vehicle above an ambient threshold level. Time lags and signal variations between microphone positions are used
to determine vehicle location relative to the array as shown in Fig. 10:7. Further processing
10.8
January 31, 2014
Figure 10:7: Acoustic array sensors, source

of signal yield to speed information and possibly engine type classication. It collected ow,
speed, occupancy, possibly classication.
Advantages
1. Completely passive system

2. Direct speed measurement.
Disadvantages
1. Environmental eects aecting sound propagation degrade performance
2. Low accuracy in busy locations due to interference from adjacent sources.
10.7
Summary
A non- Intrusive technology is very eective compared to the Intrusive technologies.
10.8
References
October 2006., 2006.
10.9
January 31, 2014
note 47967, 2008.
10.10
January 31, 2014
Division, 2011.
10.11
January 31, 2014
11. Travel Time Data Collection
Chapter 11
Travel Time Data Collection
11.1
Introduction
Travel time can be dened as the period of time to transverse a route between any two points
of interest. It is a fundamental measure in transportation. Travel time is also one of the most
readily understood and communicated measure indices used by a wide variety of users, including transportation engineers, planners, and consumers. Travel time data is useful for a wide
range of transportation analyses including congestion management, transportation planning,
and traveler information. Congestion management systems commonly use travel time-based
performance measures to evaluate and monitor trac congestion. In addition, some metropolitan areas provide real-time travel time prediction as part of their advanced traveler information
systems (ATIS). Travel time data can be obtained through a number of methods. Some of the
methods involve direct measures of travel times along with test vehicles, license plate matching technique, and ITS probe vehicles. Additionally, various sensors (e.g. inductance loop
detectors, acoustic sensors) in ITS deployment collect a large amount of trac data every day,
especially in metropolitan areas. Such data can be used for travel time estimation for extensive
applications when direct measurements of travel times are not available [19].
Travel time, or the time required to traverse a route between any two points of interest,
is a fundamental measure in transportation. Travel time is a simple concept understood and
communicated by a wide variety of applications for transportation engineers and planners.
Several data collection techniques can be used to collect travel times. These techniques are
designed to collect travel times and average speeds on designated roadway segments or links.
Following are the dierent techniques available for the travel time data collection.
Test Vehicle Techniques
License Plate Matching Techniques
ITS Probe Vehicle Techniques
11.1
January 31, 2014
Emerging and Non-Traditional Techniques
11.2
Test Vehicle Techniques
Travel time data using active test vehicles in combination with varying levels of instrumentation: manual (clipboard and stopwatch), an electronic distance measuring instrument (DMI), or
a global positioning system (GPS) receiver. It involves the use of data collection vehicle within
which an observer records cumulative travel time at predened checkpoints along a travel route.
Then this information converted to travel time, speed, and delay for each segment along the
survey route. There are several dierent methods for performing this type of data collection,
depending upon the instrumentation used in the vehicle. These vehicles are instrumented and
then sent into the eld for travel time data collection, they are sometimes referred to as active
test vehicles [16].
Advantages
Advanced test vehicle techniques (e.g., DMI or GPS use) result in detailed data.
Low initial cost.
Disadvantages
Sources of possible error from either human or electric sources that require adequate
quality control,
Data storage diculties.
11.3
License Plate Matching Techniques
Travel times by matching vehicle license plates between consecutive checkpoints with varying
levels of instrumentation: tape recorders, video cameras, portable computers, or automatic
license plate character recognition [16].
Advantages
Travel times from a large sample of motorists, very simple technique.
Provides a continuum of travel times during the data collection period.
11.2
January 31, 2014
Disadvantages
Travel time data limited to locations where observers or video cameras can be positioned;
Limited geographic coverage on a single day
Accuracy of license plate reading is an issue for manual and portable computer
11.4
ITS Probe Vehicle Techniques
Travel times using ITS components and passive probe vehicles in the trac stream equipped
with signpost-based transponders, automatic vehicle identication (AVI) transponders, groundbased radio navigation, cellular phones, or GPS receivers [16].
Some vehicles are equipped with dynamic route guidance (DRG) device which act as roving
trac detectors, a non-infrastructure based trac monitoring system. Such vehicles, which are
participating in the trac ow and capable of determining experienced trac conditions and
transmitting these to a trac center, are called probe vehicles. To determine its position and
to register experienced trac conditions, a probe vehicle is equipped with on-board electronics,
such as a location and a communication device. By means of the location device, the probe
vehicle keeps track of its own geographic position [16].
Through the communication device, the probe vehicle transmits its trac experiences via a
mobile communication link to a trac center. For instance, each probe can transmit trac
messages once every time interval containing its location and its speed at the instant of transmission. In this trac center the trac data received from probe vehicles is gathered, and
combined with data from the other monitoring sources, and processed into relevant trac information. It is very useful for Advanced Traveler Information system (ATIS).
Advantages
Low cost per unit of data
Continuous data collection
Automated data collection
Data are in electronic format
No disruption of trac
11.3
January 31, 2014
Location Antenna
Signalpost
I.D
Signalpost
Transmitter
Vehicle Location
Unit
Radio
Antenna
SignpostBus Communication Link
Central Computer
Signal I.D, Bus I.D,

Odometer Reading
Time/Date Stamp
Radio
Transmitter
BusComputer Center Communication Link
Figure 11:1: Signpost-Based AVL Communication Processes, Source: Travel Time Detection
Hand Book, [16]
Disadvantages
High implementation cost
Fixed infrastructure constraints - Coverage area, including locations of antenna
Requires skilled software
Not recommended for small scale data collection eorts
ITS probe vehicle data collection systems
1. Signpost-Based Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) - This technique has mostly
been used by transit agencies. Probe vehicles communicate with transmitters mounted
on existing signpost structures shown in Fig. 11:1 [16].
2. Automatic Vehicle Identication (AVI) - Probe vehicles are equipped with electronic
tags. These tags communicate with roadside transceivers to identify unique vehicles shown
in Fig. 11:2 and collect travel times between transceivers [16].
3. Ground-Based Radio Navigation - It is used for transit or commercial eet management, this system is similar to the global positioning system (GPS). Data are collected
by communication between probe vehicles and a radio tower infrastructure as shown in
Fig. 11:3 [16].
11.4
January 31, 2014
Tag I.D. #,
Time Stamp
Date Stamp,
Antenna I.D.
Central Computer
Toll Plaza, Sign Bridge, Overpass, or Gantry
Antenna
Transceiver
Reader
Unit
Leased Phone Lines
Reader
Unit
Coaxial Cable,
Radio Wave, or
Microwave
AVI tag
.D.
ag I
Antenna Spacing
Varies, Typically
25 km
Tag I.D. #
Figure 11:2: AVI Vehicle-to-Roadside Communication Process, Source: Travel Time Detection
Hand Book, [16]
Central Computer
Vehicle I.D.
Time Stamp
Vehicle Location
Request
Vehicle I.D.
Time Stamp
Vehicle I.D.
Time Stamp
Vehicle I.D.
Time Stamp
GroundBased
Radio Tower
Vehicle Location Unit
Figure 11:3: Ground-Based Radio Navigation Communication Process, Source: Travel Time
Detection Hand Book, [16]
11.5
January 31, 2014
11.5
Cellular Geo-location
This experimental technology can collect travel time data by discretely tracking cellular telephone call transmissions. Cellular telephones are also useful to collect travel time data. Two
techniques have been applied using cellular technology: cellular telephone reporting and cellular
geolocating [16].
11.5.1
Cellular Telephone Reporting
An operator at the central control facility records each drivers identication, location, and time,
by monitoring the time between successive telephone calls, travel time or travel speed between
reporting locations are determined. It is useful for assessment of current trac conditions and
for collecting travel time data during delays or accidents. The cellular telephone reporting
method is recommended for short-term studies with low accuracy requirements.
11.5.2
Cellular Geolocation
The cellular geolocating methodology discreetly tracks cellular telephone calls to collect travel
time data and monitor freeway conditions. This technique utilizes an existing cellular telephone
network, vehicle locating devices, and a central control facility to collect travel time data. All
vehicles equipped with cellular telephones are potential probe vehicles. The system automatically detects cellular telephone call initiations and locates the respective probe vehicle within
a few seconds.
Advantages
Driver recruitment not necessary
No in-vehicle equipment to install
Large potential sample
Disadvantages
Low accuracy
Privacy issues
Infrastructure dependent
11.6
January 31, 2014
11.6
Emerging and Non-Traditional Techniques
Emerging or non-traditional techniques are based on using point vehicle detection equipment,
such as inductance loop detectors or video cameras. Travel time estimation algorithms have
been developed based upon measurable point parameters such as volume, lane occupancy, or
vehicle headways. Image matching algorithms are used to match vehicle images or signatures
captured at two consecutive observation points. Following are some of the methods used in
emerging techniques [16].
11.6.1
Extrapolation Method
Estimates average travel time by spot speeds, applied for short roadway segments between detection devices. It is more suitable for low accuracy application. The most accurate method to
measure vehicle speed with loop detectors is to place two detectors in series, which is referred to
as speed trap or loop trap. The accuracy of inductance loop speed traps is dependent upon
the trap length, inductance loop wire type, and consistency in design. Many inductance loop
detectors are single loops; primary application is to collect vehicle counts and lane occupancy.
Many research attempts have been made to utilize speed-ow relationships to estimate vehicle
speeds from single loop detectors. The following 11.1 and 11.2 equations have been used to
estimate spot speeds from single loop detectors [16].
Spotspeed =
volume
laneoccupancy g
(11.1)
where,
g = speed correction factor (based upon assumed vehicle length, detector conguration, and
trac conditions).
sec
LinkLengthinkm
3600
(11.2)
T raveltime =
km
hr
Spotspeedin hr
11.6.2
Vehicle Signature Matching
Calculates travel time by matching unique vehicle signatures between sequential observation
points. These methods can utilize a number of point detectors such as inductance loop detectors, weigh-in motion sensors, video cameras, and laser scanning detectors. Vehicle signatures
between two consecutive locations to provide a link based travel time and speed. It provides
alternative to ITS probe vehicle based on travel time measurement, in which a probe vehicle is
identied and matched between two locations using a unique identication number.
11.7
January 31, 2014
Vehicle signature matching had been investigated using a number of dierent point detection
devices, mostly with inductance loop detectors. Several algorithms are available to capture
vehicle signatures from a loop detector frequency detuning curve. Dierent types and classes of
vehicles provide dierent types of signatures. The unique features of a vehicle signature are then
compared to signatures within a given time frame at a downstream location. The signature is
matched when a large number of feature correlations have been found within vehicle signatures
at the downstream location. The vehicle signature matching technique does not match every
vehicle signature captured, but potentially match a large enough percentage as to be signicant
[16].
11.7
Summary
Detailed travel time estimation by dierent techniques has been discussed in this chapter. Also
travel time estimation by vehicle technology and emerging techniques such as vehicle signature
have also been discussed in this chapter.
11.8
References
October 2006., 2006.
11.8
January 31, 2014

note 47967, 2008.
Division, 2011.
11.9
January 31, 2014
12. Vehicle Arrival Models : Headway
Chapter 12
Vehicle Arrival Models : Headway
12.1
Introduction
Modelling arrival of vehicle at section of road is an important step in trac ow modelling.

It has important application in trac ow simulation where vehicles are to be generated how
vehicles arrive at a section. The vehicle arrival is obviously a random process. This is evident
if one observe how vehicles are arriving at a cross section. Some times several vehicles come
together, while at other times, they come sparsely. Hence, vehicle arrival at a section need to be
characterized statistically. Vehicle arrivals can be modelled in two inter-related ways; namely
modelling what is the time interval between the successive arrival of vehicles or modelling how
many vehicle arrive in a given interval of time. In the former approach, the random variables
the time denoting interval between successive arrival of vehicle can be any positive real values
and hence some suitable continuous distribution can be used to model the vehicle arrival. In the
later approach, the random variables represent the number of vehicles arrived in a given interval
of time and hence takes some integer values. Here in this approach, a discrete distribution can
be used to model the process. This chapter presents how some continuous distributions can be
used to model the vehicle arrival process.
12.2
Headway modelling
An important parameter to characterize the trac is to model the inter-arrival time of vehicle
at a section on the road. The inter-arrival time or the time headway is not constant due to
the stochastic nature of vehicle arrival. A common way of modeling to treat the inter-arrival
time or the time headway as a random variable and use some mathematical distributions to
model them. The behavior of vehicle arrival is dierent at dierent ow condition. It may be
possible that dierent distributions may work better at dierent ow conditions. Suppose the
vehicle arrive at a point at time t1 , t2 , . . . . Then the time dierence between two consecutive
12.1
January 31, 2014
Distance
Occupancy Time
111111111111
000000000000
11111
00000
111111111111
000000000000
11111
00000
111111111111
000000000000
11111
00000
111111111111
000000000000
11111
00000
111111111111
000000000000
11111
00000
111111111111
000000000000 gap
11111
00000 Time
111111111111
000000000000
11111 111111
00000 000000
1111
0000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
Observation
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
1 000000000000 1111
0 point t 000000t 0000t
111111
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
1
t4
Time
Figure 12:1: Illustration of headways

arrivals is dened as headway. This is shown as a time-distance diagram in gure 12:1. In fact
the headway consist of two components, the occupancy time which is the duration required for
the vehicle to pass the observation point and the time gap between the rear of the lead vehicle
and front of the following vehicle. Hence, the headways h1 = t2 t1 , h2 = t3 t2 , . . . It
may be noted that the headways h1 , h2 , . . . will not be constant, but follows some random
distribution. Further, under various trac states, dierent distribution may best explain the
arrival pattern. A brief discussion of the various trac states and suitable distributions are
discussed next.
12.2.1
Classication of trac state
Generally, trac state can be divided into three; namely low, medium and high ow conditions.
Salient features of each of the ow state is presented below after a brief discussion of the
probability distribution.
1. Low volume ow
(a) Headway follow a random process as there is no interaction between the arrival of
two vehicles.
(b) The arrival of one vehicle is independent of the arrival of other vehicle.
(c) The minimum headway is governed by the safety criteria.
12.2
January 31, 2014
(d) A negative exponential distribution can be used to model such ow.

2. High volume ow
(a) The ow is very high and is near to the capacity.
(b) There is very high interaction between the vehicle.
(c) This is characterized by near constant headway.
(d) The mean and variance of the headway is very low.
(e) A normal distribution can used to model such ow.
3. Intermediate ow
(a) Some vehicle travel independently and some vehicle has interaction with other vehicles.
(b) More dicult to analyze, however, has more application in the eld.
(c) Pearson Type III Distribution can be used which is a very general case of negative
exponential distribution.
12.3
Negative exponential distribution
The low ow trac can be modeled using the negative exponential distribution. First, some
basics of negative exponential distribution is presented. The probability density function f (t)
of any distribution has the following two important properties: First,
+
p[ < t < +] =
f (t) dt = 1
(12.1)
where t is the random variable. This means that the total probability dened by the probability
density function is one. Second:
b
p[a t b] =
f (t) dt
(12.2)
This gives an expression for the probability that the random variable t takes a value with in
an interval, which is essentially the area under the probability density function curve. The
probability density function of negative exponential distribution is given as:
f (t) = et ,
12.3
t0
(12.3)
January 31, 2014
= 1.5
=1
f(t)
= 0.5
Figure 12:2: Shape of the Negative exponential distribution for various values of
where is a parameter that determines the shape of the distribution often called as the shape
parameter. The shape of the negative exponential distribution for various values of (0.5, 1,
1.5) is shown in gure 12:2. The probability that the random variable t is greater than or equal
to zero can be derived as follow,
p(t 0) =
et dt
(12.4)
et dt
0
t
=
=
et
= e + e0
= 0+1=1
The probability that the random variable t is greater than a specic value h is given as
p(t h) = 1 p(t < h)
(12.5)
= 1
.et dt
0
= 1
= 1+
et
h
0
h
et 0
h
= 1+ e
e0
= 1 + eh 1
= eh
12.4
January 31, 2014
f (t)
p(t h)
t
h
f (t)
p(t h + h)
t
h+ h
f (t)
p(h t h + h)
t
h
h+ h
Figure 12:3: Evaluation of negative exponential distribution for an interval

Unlike many other distributions, one of the key advantages of the negative exponential distribution is the existence of a closed form solution to the probability density function as seen
above. The probability that the random variable t lies between an interval is given as:
p[h t (h + h)] = p[t h] p[t (h + h)]
h
= e
(12.6)
(h+h)
This is illustrated in gure 12:3. The negative exponential distribution is closely related to
the Poisson distribution which is a discrete distribution. The probability density function of
Poisson distribution is given as:
x e
p(x) =
(12.7)
x!
where, p(x) is the probability of x events (vehicle arrivals) in some time interval (t), and is
the expected (mean) arrival rate in that interval. If the mean ow rate is q vehicles per hour,
q
then = 3600 vehicles per second. Now, the probability that zero vehicle arrive in an interval
t, denoted as p(0), will be same as the probability that the headway (inter arrival time) greater
than or equal to t. Therefore,
0 e
p(x = 0) =
0!
= e
= p(h t)
= e
12.5
January 31, 2014
Here, is dened as average number of vehicles arriving in time t. If the ow rate is q vehicles
per hour, then,
t
q t
=
(12.8)
=
3600
Since mean ow rate is inverse of mean headway, an alternate way of representing the probability
density function of negative exponential distribution is given as
f (t) =
1 t
e
(12.9)
1
1
where = or = . Here, is the mean headway in seconds which is again the inverse
of ow rate. Using equation 12.6 and equation 12.5 the probability that headway between
any interval and ow rate can be computed. The next example illustrates how a negative
exponential distribution can be tted to an observed headway frequency distribution.
Numerical Example
An observation from 2434 samples is given table below. Mean headway and the standard
deviation observed is 3.5 and 2.6 seconds respectively. Fit a negative exponential distribution.
Table 12:1: Observed headway distribution

h
h + dh
po
i
0.0
1.0
0.012
1.0
2.0
0.178
2.0
3.0
0.316
3.0
4.0
0.218
4.0
5.0
0.108
5.0
6.0
0.055
6.0
7.0
0.033
7.0
8.0
0.022
8.0
9.0
0.013
9.0
>
0.045
Total
1.00
Solution: The solution is shown in Table 12:2. The headway range and the observed probability (or proportion) is given in column (2), (3) and (4). The observed frequency for the rst
12.6
January 31, 2014
interval (0 to 1) can be computed as the product of observed frequency pi and the number of
observation (N). That is, fio = pi N = 0.012 2434 = 29.21 and is shown in column (5).
The probability that the headway greater than t = 0 is computed as p(t 0) = e0 = 1 (refer
equation 12.5) and is given in column (6). These steps are repeated for the second interval,
that is fio = 0.178 2434 = 433.25, and p(t 1) = e1 = 0.751. Now, the probability of
headway lies between 0 and 1 for the rst interval is given by the probability that headway
greater than zero from the rst interval minus probability that headway greater than one from
second interval. That is pi (0 t 1) = pi (t > 0) pi (t > 1) = 1.00 0.751 = 0.249 and
is given in column (7). Now the computed frequency fic is pi N = 0.249 2434 = 604.904
and is given in column (8). This procedure is repeated for all the subsequent items. It may be
noted that probability of headway > 9.0 is computed by 1-probability of headway less than 9.0
= 1 (0.249 + 0.187 + . . . ) = 0.076.
Table 12:2: Illustration of tting a negative exponential distribution
No
h
h + dh
po
fio
p(t >= h)
pc
fic
i
i
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
1
0.0
1.0
0.012 29.21
1.000
0.249 604.904
2
1.0
2.0
0.178 433.25
0.751
0.187 454.572
3
2.0
3.0
0.316 769.14
0.565
0.140 341.600
4
3.0
4.0
0.218 530.61
0.424
0.105 256.705
5
4.0
5.0
0.108 262.87
0.319
0.079 192.908
6
5.0
6.0
0.055 133.87
0.240
0.060 144.966
7
6.0
7.0
0.033 80.32
0.180
0.045 108.939
8
7.0
8.0
0.022 53.55
0.135
0.034 81.865
9
8.0
9.0
0.013 31.64
0.102
0.025 61.520
10
9.0
>
0.045 109.53
0.076
0.076 186.022
Total
2434
1.000
2434
12.4
Normal distribution
The probability density function of the normal distribution is given by:

(t)2
1
f (t) = e 22 ; < t < , < < , > 0
2
12.7
(12.10)
January 31, 2014
f(t)
Figure 12:4: Shape of normal distribution curve

where is the mean of the headway and is the standard deviation of the headways. The
shape of the probability density function is shown in gure 12:4. The probability that the time
headway (t) less than a given time headway (h) is given by
h
p(t h) =
f (t) dt
(12.11)
and the value of this is shown as the area under the curve in gure 12:5 (a) and the probability
of time headway (t) less than a given time headway (h + h) is given by
h+h
p(t h + h) =
f (t) dt
(12.12)
This is shown as the area under the curve in gure 12:5 (b). Hence, the probability that the
time headway lies in an interval, say h and h + h is given by
p(h t h + h) = p(t h + h) p(t h)
h+h
(12.13)
f (t) dt
f (t) dt
This is illustrated as the area under the curve in gure 12:5 (c). Although the probability
for headway for an interval can be computed easily using equation 12.13, there is no closed
form solution to the equation 12.11. Eventhough it is possible to solve the above equation
by numerical integration, the computations are time consuming for regular applications. One
way to overcome this diculty is to use the standard normal distribution table which gives
the solution to the equation 12.11 for a standard normal distribution. A standard normal
distribution is normal distribution of a random variable whose mean is zero and standard
deviation is one. The probability for any random variable, having a mean () and standard
deviation () can be computed by normalizing that random variable with respect to its mean
12.8
January 31, 2014
f (t)
p(t h)
t
h
f (t)
p(t h + h)
t
h+ h
f (t)
p(h t h + h)
t
h
h+ h
Figure 12:5: Illustration of the expression for probability that the random variable lies in an
interval for normal distribution
and standard deviation and then use the standard normal distribution table. This is based on
the concept of normalizing any normal distribution based on the assumption that if t follows
normal distribution with mean and standard deviation , then (t )/ follows a standard
normal distribution having zero mean and unit standard deviation. The normalization steps
shown below.
h
t
(h + h)
(h + h)
h
= p t
p t
p[h t (h + h)] = p
(12.14)
The rst and second term in this equation be obtained from standard normal distribution table.
The following example illustrates this procedure.
Numerical Example
If the mean and standard deviation of certain observed set of headways is 2.25 and 0.875
respectively, then compute the probability that the headway lies in an interval of 1.5 to 2.0
seconds.
12.9
January 31, 2014
f(t)
Figure 12:6: Normal Distribution

Solution: The probability that headway lies between 1.5 and 2.0 can be obtained using
equation 12.14, given that = 2.25 and = 0.85 as:
p[1.5 t 2.0] = p[t 2.0] p[t 1.5]
1.5 2.25
2.0 2.25
p t
= p t
0.875
0.875
= p [t 0.29] p [t 0.86]
= 0.3859 0.1949 (from tables)
= 0.191.
Note that the p(t 0.29) and p(t 0.80) are obtained from the standard normal distribution tables. Since the normal distribution is dened from to + unlike an exponential
distribution which is dened only for positive number, it is possible that normal distribution
may generate negative headways. A practical way of avoiding this is to shift the distribution
by some value so that it will mostly generate realistic headways. The concept is illustrated in
gure 12:6. Suppose is the minimum possible headway and if we set = than about
60% of headway will be greater than . Alternatively, if we set = 2, than about 90%
of the headway will be greater than . Further, if we set = 3, than about 99% of the
headway will be greater than . To generalize,
= n
where n is 1, 2, 3, etc and higher the value of n, then is better the precision. From this equation,
we can compute the value of to be used in normal distribution calculation when the random
variable cannot be negative as:
=
12.10
(12.15)
January 31, 2014
Numerical Example
Given that observed mean headway is 3.5 seconds and standard distribution is 2.6 seconds, then
compute the probability that the headway lies between 0 and 0.5. Assume that the minimum
expected headway is 0.5 seconds.
Solution: First, compute the standard deviation to be used in calculation using equation 12.15,
given that = 3.5, = 2.6, and = 0.5. Then:
3.5 0.5
=
= 1.5
2
2
Second, compute the probability that headway less than zero.
=
(12.16)
0 3.5
1.5
= p(t 2.33) = 0.01
p(t < 0) p t
The value 0.01 is obtained from standard normal distribution table. Similarly, compute the
probability that headway less than 0.5 as
0.5 3.5
1.5
= p(t < 2)
p(t 0.5) p t
= 0.023
The value 0.23 is obtained from the standard normal distribution table. Hence, the probability
that headway lies between 0 and 0.5 is obtained using equation 12.14 as p(0 t 0.5)=0.023
0.010 = 0.023.
Numerical Example
An observation from 2434 samples is given table below. Mean headway observed was 3.5 seconds
and the standard deviation observed was 2.6 seconds. Fit a normal distribution, if we assume
minimum expected headway is 0.5.
Solutions The given headway range and the observed probability is given in column (2), (3)
and (4). The observed frequency for the rst interval (0 to 1) can be computed as the product of
observed frequency pi and the number of observation (N) i.e. po = pi N = 0.0122434 = 29.21
i
as shown in column (5). Compute the standard deviation to be used in calculation, given that
= 3.5, = 2.6, and = 0.5 as:
=
3.5 0.5
=
= 1.5
2
2
12.11
January 31, 2014

h
h + dh
po
i
0.0
1.0
0.012
1.0
2.0
0.178
2.0
3.0
0.316
3.0
4.0
0.218
4.0
5.0
0.108
5.0
6.0
0.055
6.0
7.0
0.033
7.0
8.0
0.022
8.0
9.0
0.013
9.0
>
0.045
Total
1.00
Second, compute the probability that headway less than zero.

0 3.5
1.5
= p(t 2.33) = 0.010
p(t < 0) p t
The value 0.01 is obtained for standard normal distribution table is shown in column (6).
Similarly, compute the probability that headway less than 1.0 as:
1.0 3.5
1.5
= p(t < 2)
p(t 1) p t
= 0.048
The value 0.048 is obtained from the standard normal distribution table is shown in column (6).
Hence, the probability that headway between 0 and 1 is obtained using equation 12.14 as
p(0 t 1)=0.048 0.010 = 0.038 and is shown in column (7). Now the computed frequency
Fic is p(t < h < t + 1) N = 0.038 2434 = 92.431 and is given in column (8). This procedure
is repeated for all the subsequent items. It may be noted that probability of headway > 9.0 is
computed by one minus probability of headway less than 9.0 = 1(0.038+0.111+. . . ) = 0.010.
12.12
January 31, 2014
No
(1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12.5
h
(2)
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
Total
h+
(3)
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
>
Table 12:4: Solution using normal distribution

h
po
fio = po N p(t h) p(t < h < t + h)
i
i
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
0.012
29.21
0.010
0.038
0.178
433.25
0.048
0.111
0.316
769.14
0.159
0.211
0.218
530.61
0.369
0.261
0.108
262.87
0.631
0.211
0.055
133.87
0.841
0.111
0.033
80.32
0.952
0.038
0.022
53.55
0.990
0.008
0.013
31.64
0.999
0.001
0.045
109.53
1.000
0.010
2434
fic = pc N
i
(8)
92.431
269.845
513.053
635.560
513.053
269.845
92.431
20.605
2.987
24.190
Pearson Type III distribution
As noted earlier, the intermediate ow is more complex since certain vehicles will have interaction with the other vehicles and certain may not. Here, Pearson Type III distribution can be
used for modelling intermediate ow. The probability density function for the Pearson Type
III distribution is given as
f (t) =
(K)
[(t )]K1 e(t) , K, R
(12.17)
where is a parameter which is a function of , K and , and determine the shape of the
distribution. The term is the mean of the observed headways, K is a user specied parameter
greater than 0 and is called as a shift parameter. The () is the gamma function and given as
(K) = (K 1)!
(12.18)
It may also be noted that Pearson Type III is a general case of Gamma, Erlang and Negative
Exponential distribution as shown in below:
f (t) =
=
=
[(t )]K1 e(t)

(K)
[t]K1 et
(K)
[t]K1 et
(K1)!
t
= e
12.13
K, R Pearson
if = 0
Gamma
if K I
Erlang
if K = 1
Neg. Exp.
January 31, 2014
The expression for the probability that the random headway (t) is greater than a given headway
(h), p(t h), is given as:
p(t h) =
f (t) dt
(12.19)
and similarly p(t > h + h) is given as:
p(t > h + h) =
f (t) dt
(12.20)
(h+h)
and hence, the probability that the headway between h and h + h is given as
p(h t (h + h)) =
f (t)dt
f (t) dt
(12.21)
(h+h)
It may be noted that closed form solution to equation 12.19 and equation 12.20 is not available.
Numerical integration is also dicult due to computational requirement. Using table as in the
case of Normal Distribution is dicult, since the table will be dierent for each K. A common
way of solving this is by using the numerical approximation to equation 12.21. The solution
to equation 12.21 is essentially the area under the curve dened by the probability density
function between h and h + h. If we assume that line joining f (h) and f (h + h) is linear,
which is a reasonable assumption if h is small, than the are under the curve can be found out
by the following approximate expression:
p(h t (h + h))
f (h) + f (h + h)
h
2
(12.22)
This concept is illustrated in gure 12:7

Stepwise procedure to t a Pearson Type III distribution
1. Input required: the mean () and the standard deviation () of the headways.
2. Set the minimum expected headway (). Say, for example, 0.5. It means that the
p(t < 0.5) 0.
3. Compute the shape factor using the mean () the standard deviation () and the minimum expected headway ()
K=
12.14
January 31, 2014
f (t)
f (h)
p(t h)
t
h
f (t)
p(t h + h)
f (h + h)
t
h+ h
f (t)
p(h t h + h)
f (h)+f (h+h)
2
t
h
h+ h
Figure 12:7: Illustration of the expression for probability that the random variable lies in an
interval for Person Type III distribution
4. Compute the term ow rate () as
=
Note that if K = 1 and = 0, then =
which is the ow rate.
5. Compute gamma function value for K as:

(K) = (K 1)!
if K I (Integer)
= (K 1) (K 1) if K R (Real)
(12.23)
Although the closed form solution of (K) is available, it is dicult to compute. Hence,
it can be obtained from gamma table. For, example:
(4.785) = 3.785 (3.785)
= 3.785 2.785 (2.785)
= 3.785 2.785 1.785 (1.785)

= 3.785 2.785 1.785 0.92750
= 17.45
Note that the value of (1.785) is obtained from gamma table for (x) which is given for
1 x 2.
6. Using equation 12.17 solve for f (h) by setting t = h where h is the lower value of the
range and f (h+h) by setting t = h+h where (h+h) is the upper value of the headway
12.15
January 31, 2014
range. Compute the probability that headway lies between the interval of h and h + h
using equation 12.22.
The Gamma function can be evaluated by the following approximate expression also:
Gamma(x) = xx ex
2
x
1+
1
1
+
+ ...
12 x 288x2
(12.24)
Numerical Example
An observation from 2434 samples is given table below. Mean headway observed was 3.5 seconds
and the standard deviation 2.6 seconds. Fit a Person Type III Distribution.
h
h + dh
po
i
0.0
1.0
0.012
1.0
2.0
0.178
2.0
3.0
0.316
3.0
4.0
0.218
4.0
5.0
0.108
5.0
6.0
0.055
6.0
7.0
0.033
7.0
8.0
0.022
8.0
9.0
0.013
9.0
>
0.045
Total
1.00
Solutions Given that mean headway () is 3.5 and the standard deviation () is 2.6. Assuming the expected minimum headway () is 0.5, K can be computed as
K =
3.5 0.5
=
= 1.15
2.6
and ow rate term as

=
1.15
K
=
= 0.3896
3.5 0.5
12.16
January 31, 2014
Now, since K = 1.15 which is between 1 and 2, (K) can be obtained directly from the
gamma table as (K) = 0.93304. Here, the probability density function for this example can
be expressed as
0.3846
[ 0.3846 (t 0.5) ]1.151 e0.3846 (t0.5)
0.93304
The given headway range and the observed probability is given in column (2), (3) and (4). The
observed frequency (fio ) for the rst interval (0 to 1) can be computed as the product of observed
proportion po and the number of observations (N). That is, fio = po N = 0.0122434 = 29.21
i
i
as shown in column (5). The probability density function value for the lower limit of the rst
interval (h=0) is shown in column (6) and computed as:
f (t) =
0.3846
[ 0.3846 (0 0.5)]1.151 e0.3846 (00.5) 0.
0.93304
Note that since t (00.5) is negative and K 1 (1.151) is a fraction, the above expression
cannot be evaluated and hence approximated to zero (corresponding to t=0.5). Similarly, the
probability density function value for the lower limit of the second interval (h=1) is shown in
column 6 and computed as:
0.3846
[0.3846(1 0.5)]1.151 e0.3846(10.5) = 0.264
f (1) =
0.93304
Now, for the rst interval, the probability for headway between 0 and 1 is computed by equation ?? as pc (0 t 1) = f (0)+(f (1) (1 0) = (0 + 0.0264)/2 1 = 0.132 and is
i
2
given in column (7). Now the computed frequency fic is pc N = 0.132 2434 = 321.1 and
i
is given in column (8). This procedure is repeated for all the subsequent items. It may be
noted that probability of headway > 9 is computed by 1-probability of headway less than 9
= 1 (0.132 + 0.238 + . . . ) = 0.044. The comparison of the three disribution for the above data
is plotted in Figure 12:8.
f (0) =
Observed
Exponential
Normal
Pearson Type III
0.3
0.2
0.1
1
Figure 12:8: Comparison of distributions
12.6
Conclusion
This chapter covers how the vehicle arrival can be modelled using various distributions. The
negative exponential distribution is used when the trac is low and is most simplest of the
12.17
January 31, 2014
Table 12:6: Solution using Pearson Type III distribution

No
h
h+ h
po
fio
f (t)
pc
fic
i
i
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
1
0
1
0.012 29.2 0.000 0.132 321.2
2
1
2
0.178 433.3 0.264 0.238 580.1
3
2
3
0.316 769.1 0.213 0.185 449.5
4
3
4
0.218 530.6 0.157 0.134 327.3
5
4
5
0.108 262.9 0.112 0.096 233.4
6
5
6
0.055 133.9 0.079 0.068 164.6
7
6
7
0.033 80.3 0.056 0.047 115.3
8
7
8
0.022 53.6 0.039 0.033 80.4
9
8
9
0.013 31.6 0.027 0.023 55.9
10
>9
0.045 109.5 0.019 0.044 106.4
Total
1.0
2434
1.0
2434
distributions in terms of computation eort. The normal distribution on the other hand is
used for highly congested trac and its evaluation require standard normal distribution tables.
The Pearson Type III distribution is a most general kind of distribution and can be used
intermediate or normal trac conditions.
12.7
References

New Delhi, 1987.
12.18
January 31, 2014
13. Vehicle Arrival Models : Count
Chapter 13
Vehicle Arrival Models : Count
13.1
Introduction
As already noted in the previous chapter that vehicle arrivals can be modelled in two interrelated ways; namely modelling how many vehicle arrive in a given interval of time, or modelling
what is the time interval between the successive arrival of vehicles. Having discussed in detail
the former approach in the previous chapter, the rst part of this chapter discuss how a discrete
distribution can be used to model the vehicle arrival. Traditionally, Poisson distribution is used
to model the random process, the number of vehicles arriving a given time period. The second
part will discuss methodologies to generate random vehicle arrivals, be it the generation of
random headways or random number of vehicles in a given duration. The third part will
elaborate various ways of evaluating the performance of a distribution.
13.2
Poisson Distribution
Suppose, if we plot the arrival of vehicles at a section as dot in a time axis, it may look like
Figure 13:1. Let h1 , h2 , ... etc indicate the headways, then as mentioned earlier, they take some
real values. Hence, these headways or inter arrival time can be modelled using some continuous
distribution. Also, let t1 , t2 , t3 and t4 are four equal time intervals, then the number of vehicles
arrived in each of these interval is an integer value. For example, in Fig. 13:1, 3, 2, 3 and 1
vehicles arrived in time interval t1 , t2 , t3 and t4 respectively. Any discrete distribution that best
t the observed number of vehicle arrival in a given time interval can be used. Similarly, any
h1
h2 h3 h4
h5
h6
h7 h8 h9
h10
Time
t1
t2
t3
t4
Figure 13:1: Illustration of vehicle arrival modeling
13.1
January 31, 2014
continuous distribution that best t the observed headways (or inter-arrival time) can be used in
modelling. However, since these process are inter-related, the distributions that describe these
relations should also be inter-related for better explanation of the phenomenon. Interestingly,
there exist distributions that meet the above requirements. First, we will see the distribution
to model the number of vehicles arrived in a given duration of time. Poisson distribution is
commonly used to describe such a random process. The probability density function of the
Poisson distribution is given as:
x e
p(x) =
(13.1)
x!
where p(x) is the probability for x events will occur in the time interval, and is the expected
rate of occurrence of that event in that interval. Some special cases of this distribution is given
below.
p(0) = e
e
= p(0)
p(1) =
1
2 e
p(2) =
= p(1)
2!
2
p(n) =
p(n 1).
n
Since the events are discrete, the probability that certain number of vehicles (n) arriving in an
interval can be computed as:
n
p(x n) =
p(i), i I.
i=0
Similarly, the probability that the number of vehicles arriving in the interval is exactly in a
range (between a and b, both inclusive and a < b) is given as:
b
p(a x b) =
p(i), i I.
i=a
Numerical Example
The hourly ow rate in a road section is 120 vph. Use Poisson distribution to model this vehicle
arrival.
Solution: The ow rate is given as () = 120 vph = 120 = 2 vehicle per minute. Hence, the
60
probability of zero vehicles arriving in one minute p(0) can be computed as follows:
p(0) =
x e
20 .e2
=
= 0.135.
x!
0!
13.2
January 31, 2014

Table 13:1: Probability values
n
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
of vehicle arrivals computed using Poisson distribution

p(n) p(x n) F (n)
0.135
0.135
8.120
0.271
0.406
16.240
0.271
0.677
16.240
0.180
0.857
10.827
0.090
0.947
5.413
0.036
0.983
2.165
0.012
0.995
0.722
0.003
0.999
0.206
0.001
1.000
0.052
0.000
1.000
0.011
0.000
1.000
0.011
Similarly, the probability of one vehicles arriving in one minute p(1) is given by,
p(1) =
x e
2.e2
=
= 0.271.
x!
1!
Now, the probability that number of vehicles arriving is less than or equal to zero is given as
p(x 0) = p(0) = 0.135.
Similarly, probability that the number of vehicles arriving is less than or equal to 1 is given as:
p(x 1) = p(0) + p(1) = 0.135 + 0.275 = 0.406.
Again, the probability that the number of vehicles arriving is between 2 to 4 is given as:
p(2 x 4) = p(2) + p(3) + p(4),
= .271 + .18 + .09 = 0.54.
Now, if the p(0) = 0.135, then the number of intervals in an hour where there is no vehicle
arriving is
F (x) = p(0) 60 = 0.135 60 = 8.12.
The above calculations can be repeated for all the cases as tabulated in Table 13:1. The shape
of this distribution can be seen from Figure 13:2 and the corresponding cumulative distribution
is shown in Figure 13:3.
13.3
January 31, 2014
p(n)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
n
0
10
Figure 13:2: Probability values of vehicle arrivals computed using Poisson distribution
p(n)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
n
0
10
Figure 13:3: Cumulative probability values of vehicle arrivals computed using Poisson distribution
13.4
January 31, 2014
13.3
Random variates following Poisson distribution
For simulation purposes, it may be required to generate number of vehicles arrived in a given interval so that it follows typical vehicle arrival. This is the reverse of computing the probabilities
as seen above. The following steps give the procedure:
1. Input: mean arrival rate in an interval t
2. Compute p(x = n) and p(x n)
3. Generate a random number X such that 0 X 1
4. Find n such that p(x n 1) X and p(x n) X
5. Set ni = n, where ni is the number of vehicles arrived in ith interval.
The steps 3 to 5 can be repeated for required number of intervals.
Numerical Example
Generate vehicles for ten minutes if the ow rate is 120 vph.
Solution The rst two steps of this problem is same as the example problem solved earlier and
the resulted from the table is used. For the rst interval, the random number (X) generated is
0.201 which is greater than p(0) but less than p(1). Hence, the number of vehicles generated in
this interval is one (ni = 1). Similarly, for the subsequent intervals. It can also be computed that
at the end of 10th interval (one minute), total 23 vehicle are generated. Note: This amounts
to 2.3 vehicles per minute which is higher than given ow rate. However, this discrepancy is
because of the small number of intervals conducted. If this is continued for one hour, then this
average will be about 1.78 and if continued for then this average will be close to 2.02.
13.4
Random variates following Exponential distribution
One can generate random variate following negative exponential distribution rather simply due
to availability of closed form solutions. The method for generating exponential variates is based
on inverse transform sampling:
t = f 1 (X)
13.5
January 31, 2014
Table 13:2: Vehicles generated using Poisson distribution

No
X
n
1 0.201 1
2 0.714 3
3 0.565 2
4 0.257 1
5 0.228 1
6 0.926 4
7 0.634 2
8 0.959 5
9 0.188 1
10 0.832 3
Total 23
has an exponential distribution, where f 1 , called as quantile function, is dened as

f 1 (X) =
log(1 X)
.
Note that if X is uniform, then 1 X is also uniform and = 1/. Hence, one can generate
exponential variates as follows:
t = log(X)
where, X is a random number between 0 and 1, is the mean headway, and the resultant
headways generated (t) will follow exponential distribution.
Numerical Example
Simulate the headways for 10 vehicles if the ow rate is 120 vph.
Solution Since the given ow rate is 120 vph, then the mean headway () is 30 seconds.
Generate a random number between 0 and 1 and let this be 0.62. Hence, by the above equation,
t = 30 ( log(0.62)) = 14.57. Similarly, headways can be generated. The table below given
the generation of 15 vehicles and it takes little over 10 minutes. In other words, the table below
gives the vehicles generated for 10 minutes. Note: The mean headway obtained from this 15
headways is about 43 seconds; much higher than the given value of 30 seconds. Of, course this
is due to the lower sample size. For example, if the generation is continued to 100 vehicles,
13.6
January 31, 2014

Table 13:3: Headways
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

generated using Exponential distribution
X
t
t
0.62 14.57 14.57
0.17 53.70 68.27
0.27 39.14 107.41
0.01 157.36 264.77
0.26 40.01 304.78
0.47 22.72 327.5
0.96 1.38 328.88
0.24 42.76 371.64
0.59 15.94 387.58
0.45 24.05 411.63
0.26 40.82 452.45
0.11 67.39 519.84
0.10 69.33 589.17
0.73 9.63
598.8
0.31 34.74 633.54
then the mean would be about 35 seconds, and if continued till 1000 vehicles, then the mean
would be about 30.8 seconds.
13.5
Evaluation of the mathematical distribution
The mathematical distribution such as negative exponential distribution, normal distribution,

etc needs to be evaluated to see how best these distributions ts the observed data. It can be
evaluated by comparing some aggregate statistics as discussed below.
13.5.1
Mean and Standard deviation
One of the easiest ways to compute the mean and standard deviation of the observed data
and compare with mean and standard deviation obtained from the computed frequencies. If
pc is the computed probability of the headway is the ith interval, and N is the total number of
i
observations, then the computed frequency of the ith interval is given as:
fic = pc N.
i
13.7
January 31, 2014
Then the mean of the computed frequencies (c ) is obtained as
+h
fic ( 2hi2 )
=
,
N
where hi is the lower limit of the ith interval, and h is the interval range. The standard
deviation c can be obtained by
(hm c )2 fic
i
.
N
If the distribution t closely, then the mean and the standard deviation of the observed and
tted data will match. However, it is possible, that two sample can have similar mean and
standard deviation, but, may dier widely in the individual interval. Hence, this can be considered as a quick test for the comparison purposes. For better comparison, Chi-square test
which gives a better description of the suitability of the distribution may be used.
c =
13.5.2
Chi-square test
The Chi-square value (X 2 ) can be computed using the following formula:

n
2
XC
=
i=1
(fio fic )2
fic
where fio is the observed frequency, fic is the computed (theoretical) frequency of the ith interval,
and n is the number of intervals. Obviously, a X 2 value close to zero implies a good t of the
data, while, high X 2 value indicate poor t. For an objective comparison Chi-square tables are
used. A chi-square table gives X 2 values for various degree of freedom. The degree of freedom
(DOF) is given as
DOF = n 1 p
where n is the number of intervals, and p is the number of parameter dening the distribution.
Since negative exponential distribution is dened by mean headway alone, the value of p is one,
where as Pearson and Normal distribution has the value of p as two, since they are dened by
and . Chi-square value is obtained from various signicant levels. For example, a signicance
level of 0.05 implies that the likelihood that the observed frequencies following the theoretical
distribution is is 5%. In other words, one could say with 95% condence that the observed data
follows the theoretical distribution under testing.
Numerical Example
Compute the X 2 statistic of the following distribution, where N = 2434.
13.8
January 31, 2014
Table 13:4: 2 distribution

h
h + dh
po
pc
i
i
0.0
1
0.012 0.249
1.0
2
0.178 0.187
2.0
3
0.316 0.140
3.0
4
0.218 0.105
4.0
5
0.108 0.079
5.0
6
0.055 0.060
6.0
7
0.033 0.045
7.0
8
0.022 0.034
8.0
9
0.013 0.025
9.0
>
0.045 0.076
Total
1
1
Solution: The given headway range and the observed probability is given in column (2),
(3) and (4). The observed frequency for the rst interval (0 to 1) can be computed as the
product of observed probability pi and the number of observation (N) i.e. fio = po N =
i
0.012 2434 = 29.21 as shown in column (5). Now the computed frequency for the rst
interval (0 to 1) is the product of computed probability and the number of observation (N) i.e.
fic = pc N = 0.249 2434 = 441.21 as shown in column (7). The 2 value can be computed as
i
(29.21441.21)2
= 384.73. Similarly, all the rows are computed and the total 2 value is obtained
441.21
as 1825.52. A chi-square table gives X 2 values for various degree of freedom. The degree of
freedom (DOF) is given as: DOF = n 1 p = 10 1 1 = 8, where n is the number of
intervals (10), and p is the number of parameter (1 because it is exponential distribution). Now
2
at a signicance level of 0.05 and DOF 8, from the table, XT = 15.5. Since 2 < 2 hence
T
C
reject that the observed frequency follows exponential distribution.
13.6
Conclusion
The chapter covers three aspects: modeling vehicle arrival using Poisson distribution, generation
of random variates following certain distribution, and evaluation of distributions. Specic
evaluation include comapring the mean and standard deviation at macro level and using chisquare test which is essentially a micro-level comparison.
13.9
January 31, 2014
No
(1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
13.7
Table 13:5: Solution

h
h + dh
po
i
(2)
(3)
(4)
0.0
1
0.012
1.0
2
0.178
2.0
3
0.316
3.0
4
0.218
4.0
5
0.108
5.0
6
0.055
6.0
7
0.033
7.0
8
0.022
8.0
9
0.013
9.0
>
0.045
Total
1

using comparison with X 2
fio
pc
fic
2
i
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
29.21 0.249 441.21 384.73
433.25 0.187 361.23 14.36
769.14 0.140 295.75 757.73
530.61 0.105 242.14 343.67
262.87 0.079 198.25 21.07
133.87 0.060 162.31
4.98
80.32 0.045 132.89 20.79
53.55 0.034 108.80 28.06
31.64 0.025 89.08
37.03
109.53 0.076 402.34 213.10
1
1825.52
References

New Delhi, 1987.
13.10
January 31, 2014
14. Car Following Models
Chapter 14
Car Following Models
14.1
Overview
Longitudinal spacing of vehicles are of particular importance from the points of view of safety,
capacity and level of service. The longitudinal space occupied by a vehicle depend on the
physical dimensions of the vehicles as well as the gaps between vehicles. For measuring this
longitudinal space, two microscopic measures are used- distance headway and distance gap.
Distance headway is dened as the distance from a selected point (usually front bumper) on
the lead vehicle to the corresponding point on the following vehicles. Hence, it includes the
length of the lead vehicle and the gap length between the lead and the following vehicles.
14.2
Car following models
Car following theories describe how one vehicle follows another vehicle in an uninterrupted ow.
Various models were formulated to represent how a driver reacts to the changes in the relative
positions of the vehicle ahead. Models like Pipes, Forbes, General Motors and Optimal velocity
model are worth discussing.
14.2.1
Notation
Before going in to the details, various notations used in car-following models are discussed here
with the help of gure 14:1. The leader vehicle is denoted as n and the following vehicle as
(n+1). Two characteristics at an instant t are of importance; location and speed. Location and
t
speed of the lead vehicle at time instant t are represented by xt and vn respectively. Similarly,
n
t
the location and speed of the follower are denoted by xt and vn+1 respectively. The following
n+1
vehicle is assumed to accelerate at time t + T and not at t, where T is the interval of time
required for a driver to react to a changing situation. The gap between the leader and the
follower vehicle is therefore xt xt .
n
n+1
14.1
January 31, 2014
Direction of traffic
vn
vn+1
n+1
Follower
Leader
xn
xn xn+1
yn+1
Figure 14:1: Notation for car following model
14.2.2
Pipes model
The basic assumption of this model is A good rule for following another vehicle at a safe
distance is to allow yourself at least the length of a car between your vehicle and the vehicle
ahead for every ten miles per hour of speed at which you are traveling According to Pipes
car-following model, the minimum safe distance headway increases linearly with speed. A
disadvantage of this model is that at low speeds, the minimum headways proposed by the
theory are considerably less than the corresponding eld measurements.
14.2.3
Forbes model
In this model, the reaction time needed for the following vehicle to perceive the need to decelerate and apply the brakes is considered. That is, the time gap between the rear of the leader and
the front of the follower should always be equal to or greater than the reaction time. Therefore,
the minimum time headway is equal to the reaction time (minimum time gap) and the time
required for the lead vehicle to traverse a distance equivalent to its length. A disadvantage of
this model is that, similar to Pipes model, there is a wide dierence in the minimum distance
headway at low and high speeds.
14.2.4
General Motors model
The General Motors model is the most popular of the car-following theories because of the
following reasons:
1. Agreement with eld data; the simulation models developed based on General motors
car following models shows good correlation to the eld data.
2. Mathematical relation to macroscopic model; Greenbergs logarithmic model for speeddensity relationship can be derived from General motors car following model.
14.2
January 31, 2014
In car following models, the motion of individual vehicle is governed by an equation, which
is analogous to the Newtons Laws of motion. In Newtonian mechanics, acceleration can be
regarded as the response of the particle to stimulus it receives in the form of force which includes
both the external force as well as those arising from the interaction with all other particles in
the system. This model is the widely used and will be discussed in detail later.
14.2.5
Optimal velocity model
The concept of this model is that each driver tries to achieve an optimal velocity based on the
distance to the preceding vehicle and the speed dierence between the vehicles. This was an
alternative possibility explored recently in car-following models. The formulation is based on
the assumption that the desired speed vndesired depends on the distance headway of the nth
t
vehicle. i.e.vndesired = v opt (xt ) where vopt is the optimal velocity function which is a function
n
of the instantaneous distance headway xt . Therefore at is given by
n
n
t
at = [1/ ][V opt (xt ) vn ]
n
n
(14.1)
1
where is called as sensitivity coecient. In short, the driving strategy of nth vehicle is that,
it tries to maintain a safe speed which in turn depends on the relative position, rather than
relative speed.
14.3
General motors car following model
14.3.1
Basic Philosophy
The basic philosophy of car following model is from Newtonian mechanics, where the acceleration may be regarded as the response of a matter to the stimulus it receives in the form of
the force it receives from the interaction with other particles in the system. Hence, the basic
philosophy of car-following theories can be summarized by the following equation
[Response]n [Stimulus]n
(14.2)
for the nth vehicle (n=1, 2, ...). Each driver can respond to the surrounding trac conditions
only by accelerating or decelerating the vehicle. As mentioned earlier, dierent theories on carfollowing have arisen because of the dierence in views regarding the nature of the stimulus.
The stimulus may be composed of the speed of the vehicle, relative speeds, distance headway
etc, and hence, it is not a single variable, but a function and can be represented as,
at = fsti (vn , xn , vn )
n
14.3
(14.3)
January 31, 2014
where fsti is the stimulus function that depends on the speed of the current vehicle, relative
position and speed with the front vehicle.
14.3.2
Follow-the-leader model
The car following model proposed by General motors is based on follow-the leader concept. This
is based on two assumptions; (a) higher the speed of the vehicle, higher will be the spacing
between the vehicles and (b) to avoid collision, driver must maintain a safe distance with the
vehicle ahead.
t
Let xt is the gap available for (n + 1)th vehicle, and let xsaf e is the safe distance, vn+1
n+1
t
and vn are the velocities, the gap required is given by,
t
xt = xsaf e + vn+1
n+1
(14.4)
where is a sensitivity coecient. The above equation can be written as

t
xn xt = xsaf e + vn+1
n+1
(14.5)
Dierentiating the above equation with respect to time, we get

t
t
vn vn+1 = .at
n+1
1 t
t
at = [vn vn+1 ]
n+1
General Motors has proposed various forms of sensitivity coecient term resulting in ve generations of models. The most general model has the form,
at
n+1
t
l,m (vn+1 )m
=
(xt xt )l
n
n+1
t
t
vn vn+1
(14.6)
where l is a distance headway exponent and can take values from +4 to -1, m is a speed exponent
and can take values from -2 to +2, and is a sensitivity coecient. These parameters are to
be calibrated using eld data. This equation is the core of trac simulation models.
In computer, implementation of the simulation models, three things need to be remembered:
1. A driver will react to the change in speed of the front vehicle after a time gap called the
reaction time during which the follower perceives the change in speed and react to it.
2. The vehicle position, speed and acceleration will be updated at certain time intervals
depending on the accuracy required. Lower the time interval, higher the accuracy.
3. Vehicle position and speed is governed by Newtons laws of motion, and the acceleration
is governed by the car following model.
14.4
January 31, 2014
Therefore, the governing equations of a trac ow can be developed as below. Let T is

the reaction time, and t is the updation time, the governing equations can be written as,
t
tt
vn = vn
+ att t
n
xt
n
at
n+1
1
tt
= xtt + vn
t + att t2
n
2 n
t
m
l,m (vn+1 )
tT
tT
=
(vn
vn+1 )
tT xtT )l
(xn
n+1
(14.7)
(14.8)
(14.9)
The equation 14.7 is a simulation version of the Newtons simple law of motion v = u + at and
1
equation 14.8 is the simulation version of the Newtons another equation s = ut + 2 at2 . The
acceleration of the follower vehicle depends upon the relative velocity of the leader and the
follower vehicle, sensitivity coecient and the gap between the vehicles.
Numerical Example
Let a leader vehicle is moving with zero acceleration for two seconds from time zero. Then he
accelerates by 1 m/s2 for 2 seconds, then decelerates by 1m/s2 for 2 seconds. The initial speed
is 16 m/s and initial location is 28 m from datum. A vehicle is following this vehicle with initial
speed 16 m/s, and position zero. Simulate the behavior of the following vehicle using General
Motors Car following model (acceleration, speed and position) for 7.5 seconds. Assume the
parameters l=1, m=0 , sensitivity coecient (l,m ) = 13, reaction time as 1 second and scan
interval as 0.5 seconds.
Solution The rst column shows the time in seconds. Column 2, 3, and 4 shows the acceleration, velocity and distance of the leader vehicle. Column 5,6, and 7 shows the acceleration,
velocity and distance of the follower vehicle. Column 8 gives the dierence in velocities between
the leader and follower vehicle denoted as dv. Column 9 gives the dierence in displacement
between the leader and follower vehicle denoted as dx. Note that the values are assumed to be
the state at the beginning of that time interval. At time t=0, leader vehicle has a velocity of
16 m/s and located at a distance of 28 m from a datum. The follower vehicle is also having the
same velocity of 16 m/s and located at the datum. Since the velocity is same for both, dv =
0. At time t = 0, the leader vehicle is having acceleration zero, and hence has the same speed.
The location of the leader vehicle can be found out from equation as, x = 28+160.5 = 36
m. Similarly, the follower vehicle is not accelerating and is maintaining the same speed. The
location of the follower vehicle is, x = 0+160.5 = 8 m. Therefore, dx = 36-8 =28m. These
steps are repeated till t = 1.5 seconds. At time t = 2 seconds, leader vehicle accelerates at the
rate of 1 m/s2 and continues to accelerate for 2 seconds. After that it decelerates for a period
14.5
January 31, 2014
20
Leader
19
Follower
Velocity
18
17
16
15
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time(seconds)
Figure 14:2: Velocity vz Time

1.5
Leader
Follower
Acceleration
0.5
0.5
1.5
10
15
20
25
30
Time(seconds)
Figure 14:3: Acceleration vz Time

of two seconds. At t= 2.5 seconds, velocity of leader vehicle changes to 16.5 m/s. Thus dv
becomes 0.5 m/s at 2.5 seconds. dx also changes since the position of leader changes. Since the
reaction time is 1 second, the follower will react to the leaders change in acceleration at 2.0
seconds only after 3 seconds. Therefore, at t=3.5 seconds, the follower responds to the leaders
change in acceleration given by equation i.e., a = 130.5 = 0.23 m/s2 . That is the current ac28.23
celeration of the follower vehicle depends on dv and reaction time of 1 second. The follower
will change the speed at the next time interval. i.e., at time t = 4 seconds. The speed of the
follower vehicle at t = 4 seconds is given by equation as v= 16+0.2310.5 = 16.12 The location
of the follower vehicle at t = 4 seconds is given by equation as x = 56+160.5+ 1 0.2310.52
2
= 64.03 These steps are followed for all the cells of the table.
The earliest car-following models considered the dierence in speeds between the leader and
the follower as the stimulus. It was assumed that every driver tends to move with the same
14.6
January 31, 2014
Table 14:1: Car-following example

t
a(t)
v(t)
x(t)
a(t)
v(t)
x(t)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
t
a(t)
v(t)
x(t)
a(t)
v(t)
x(t)
0.00 0.00 16.00 28.00 0.00 16.00 0.00
0.50 0.00 16.00 36.00 0.00 16.00 8.00
1.00 0.00 16.00 44.00 0.00 16.00 16.00
1.50 0.00 16.00 52.00 0.00 16.00 24.00
2.00 1.00 16.00 60.00 0.00 16.00 32.00
2.50 1.00 16.50 68.13 0.00 16.00 40.00
3.00 1.00 17.00 76.50 0.00 16.00 48.00
3.50 1.00 17.50 85.13 0.23 16.00 56.00
4.00 -1.00 18.00 94.00 0.46 16.12 64.03
4.50 -1.00 17.50 102.88 0.67 16.34 72.14
5.00 -1.00 17.00 111.50 0.82 16.68 80.40
5.50 -1.00 16.50 119.88 0.49 17.09 88.84
6.00 0.00 16.00 128.00 0.13 17.33 97.45
6.50 0.00 16.00 136.00 -0.25 17.40 106.13
7.00 0.00 16.00 144.00 -0.57 17.28 114.80
7.50 0.00 16.00 152.00 -0.61 16.99 123.36
8.00 0.00 16.00 160.00 -0.57 16.69 131.78
8.50 0.00 16.00 168.00 -0.45 16.40 140.06
9.00 0.00 16.00 176.00 -0.32 16.18 148.20
9.50 0.00 16.00 184.00 -0.19 16.02 156.25
10.00 0.00 16.00 192.00 -0.08 15.93 164.24
10.50 0.00 16.00 200.00 -0.01 15.88 172.19
11.00 0.00 16.00 208.00 0.03 15.88 180.13
11.50 0.00 16.00 216.00 0.05 15.90 188.08
12.00 0.00 16.00 224.00 0.06 15.92 196.03
12.50 0.00 16.00 232.00 0.05 15.95 204.00
13.00 0.00 16.00 240.00 0.04 15.98 211.98
13.50 0.00 16.00 248.00 0.02 15.99 219.98
14.00 0.00 16.00 256.00 0.01 16.00 227.98
14.50 0.00 16.00 264.00 0.00 16.01 235.98
15.00 0.00 16.00 272.00 0.00 16.01 243.98
15.50 0.00 16.00 280.00 0.00 16.01 251.99
16.00 0.00 16.00 288.00 -0.01 16.01 260.00
16.50 0.00 16.00 296.00 0.00 16.01 268.00
17.00 0.00 16.00 304.00 0.00 16.00 276.00
17.50 0.00 16.00 312.00 0.00 16.00 284.00
14.7
18.00 0.00 16.00 320.00 0.00 16.00 292.00
18.50 0.00 16.00 328.00 0.00 16.00 300.00
19.00 0.00 16.00 336.00 0.00 16.00 308.00
19.50 0.00 16.00 344.00 0.00 16.00 316.00
20.00 0.00 16.00 352.00 0.00 16.00 324.00
20.50 0.00 16.00 360.00 0.00 16.00 332.00
dv
(8)
dv
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
1.88
1.16
0.32
-0.59
-1.33
-1.40
-1.28
-0.99
-0.69
-0.40
-0.18
-0.02
0.07
0.12
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.05
0.02
0.01
0.00
-0.01
-0.01
-0.01
-0.01
-0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
dx
(9)
dx
28.00
28.00
28.00
28.00
28.00
28.13
28.50
29.13
29.97
30.73
31.10
31.03
30.55
29.87
29.20
28.64
28.22
27.94
27.80
27.75
27.76
27.81
27.87
27.92
27.97
28.00
28.02
28.02
28.02
28.02
28.02
28.01
28.00
28.00
28.00
28.00
January 31, 2014
28.00
28.00
28.00
28.00
28.00
28.00
speed as that of the corresponding leading vehicle so that

at =
n
1 t+1
t
(vn vn+1 )
(14.10)
1
where is a parameter that sets the time scale of the model and can be considered as a
measure of the sensitivity of the driver. According to such models, the driving strategy is to
follow the leader and, therefore, such car-following models are collectively referred to as the
follow the leader model. Eorts to develop this stimulus function led to ve generations of
car-following models, and the most general model is expressed mathematically as follows.
at+T =
n+1
tT
l,m [vn+1 ]m
tT
tT
(vn
vn+1 )
tT xtT ]l
[xn
n+1
(14.11)
where l is a distance headway exponent and can take values from +4 to -1, m is a speed exponent
and can take values from -2 to +2, and is a sensitivity coecient. These parameters are to
be calibrated using eld data.
14.4
Summary
Microscopic trac ow modeling focuses on the minute aspects of trac stream like vehicle to
vehicle interaction and individual vehicle behavior. They help to analyze very small changes
in the trac stream over time and space. Car following model is one such model where in the
stimulus-response concept is employed. Optimal models and simulation models were briey
discussed.
14.5
References

New Delhi, 1987.
2. L J Pignataro. Trac Engineering: Theory and practice. Prentice-Hall, Englewoods
Clis,N.J., 1973.
14.8
January 31, 2014
15. Lane Changing Models
Chapter 15
Lane Changing Models
15.1
Overview
The transfer of a vehicle from one lane to next adjacent lane is dened as lane change. Lane
changing has a signicant impact on trac ow. Lane changing models are therefore an important component in microscopic trac simulators, which are increasingly the tool of choice
for a wide range of trac-related applications at the operational level. Modeling the behaviour
of a vehicle within its present lane is relatively straightforward, as the only considerations of
any importance are the speed and location of the preceding vehicle. Lane changing, however,
is more complex, because the decision to change lanes depends on a number of objectives, and
at times these may conict. Gap acceptance models are used to model the execution of lanechanges. The available gaps are compared to the smallest acceptable gap (critical gap) and a
lane-change is executed if the available gaps are greater. Gaps may be dened either in terms
of time gap or free space.
15.2
Basic Lane changing model
The basic lane change model is described using the framework shown in Figure 15:1. The
subject vehicle in the current lane tries to change direction either to its left or to its right. If
the gap in the selected lane is acceptable the lane change occurs or else it will remain in the
current lane
15.3
Classication of Lane change
The classication of lane changes is done based on the execution of the lane change and accordingly two type of lane changs exists.
15.1
January 31, 2014
Change direction
Right
Current
Left
Gap
acceptance
NO CHANGE
CHANGE LEFT
NO CHANGE
CHANGE
RIGHT
NO CHANGE
Figure 15:1: Basic Lane Change Model

Start
MLC
MLC
Driving
conditions
not
satisfactory
other
lanes
Left lane
Gap
Accept
Gap
Reject
Left lane
current
lanes
Right lane
Gap
Accept
Gap
Reject
Right lane current

lanes
Left lane
current
lanes
Right lane
Left lane
Gap
Accept
Driving
conditions
satisfactory
Gap
Reject
current
lanes
Gap
Accept
Gap
Reject
Right lane current current current

lanes
lanes
lanes
Figure 15:2: Discretionary Lane change model

Mandatory Lane Change (MLC): Mandatory lane change (MLC) occurs when a driver
must change lane to follow a specied path Suppose if a driver wants to make a right turn at
the next intersection the he changes to the right most lane which is referred as Mandatory Lane
change.
Discretionary Lane Change (DLC): Discretionary lane change (DLC) occurs when a
driver changes to a lane perceived to oer better trac conditions, he attempts to achieve
desired speed, avoid following trucks, avoid merging trac, etc. Suppose if a driver perceives
better driving conditions in the adjacent lane then he makes a Discretionary Lane change.
15.3.1
MLC and DLC Model
The lane changing model structure is shown in Figure 15:2. The MLC branch in the top level
corresponds to the case when a driver decides to respond to the MLC condition. Explanatory
variables that aect such decision include remaining distance to the point at which lane change
15.2
January 31, 2014
must be completed, the number of lanes to cross to reach a lane connected to the next link,
delay (time elapsed since the MLC conditions apply), and whether the subject vehicle is a
heavy vehicle (bus, truck, etc..,). Drivers are likely to respond to the MLC situations earlier if
it involves crossing several lanes. A longer delay makes a driver more anxious and increases the
likelihood of responding to the MLC situations. And nally, due to lower maneuverability and
larger gap length requirement of heavy vehicles as compared to their non heavy counterparts,
they have a higher likelihood of responding to the MLC conditions.
15.3.2
Decision making
The MLC branch corresponds to the case where either a driver does not respond to an MLC
condition, or that MLC conditions do not apply. A driver then decides whether to perform a
discretionary lane change (DLC). This comprises of two decisions: whether the driving conditions are satisfactory, and if not satisfactory, whether any other lane is better than the current
lane. The term driving conditions satisfactory implies that the driver is satised with the driving conditions of the current lane. Important factors aecting the decision whether the driving
conditions are satisfactory include the speed of the driver compared to its desired speed, presence of heavy vehicles in front and behind the subject, if an adjacent on ramp merges with the
current lane, whether the subject is tailgated etc.
If the driving conditions are not satisfactory, the driver compares the driving conditions
of the current lane with those of the adjacent lanes. Important factors aecting this decision
include the dierence between the speed of trac in dierent lanes and the drivers desired
speed, the density of trac in dierent lanes, the relative speed with respect to the lag vehicle
in the target lane, the presence of heavy vehicles in dierent lanes ahead of the subject etc. In
addition, when a driver considers DLC although a mandatory lane change is required but the
driver is not responding to the MLC conditions, changing lanes opposite to the direction as
required by the MLC conditions may be less desirable.
If a driver decides not to perform a discretionary lane change (i.e., either the driving conditions are satisfactory, or, although the driving conditions are not satisfactory, the current is
the lane with the best driving conditions) the driver continues in the current lane. Otherwise,
the driver selects a lane from the available alternatives and assesses the adjacent gap in the
target lane.. When trying to perform a DLC, factors that aect drivers gap acceptance behavior include the gap length, speed of the subject, speed of the vehicles ahead of and behind
the subject in the target lane, and the type of the subject vehicle (heavy vehicle or not). For
instance, a larger gap is required for merging at a higher travel speed. A heavy vehicle would
require a larger gap length compared to a car due to lower maneuverability and the length of
15.3
January 31, 2014
the heavy vehicle.
15.4
Lane changing models
Most models classify lane changes as either mandatory or discretionary lane change. This separation implies that there are no trade-os between mandatory and discretionary considerations.
For example, a vehicle on a freeway that intends to take on of-ramp will not overtake a slower
vehicle if the distance to the o-ramp is below a threshold, regardless of the speed of that vehicle. Furthermore, in order to implement MLC and DLC model separately, rules that dictate
when drivers begin to respond to MLC conditions need to be dened. However, this point
is unobservable, and so only judgment-based heuristic rules, which often are dened by the
distance from the point where the MLC must be completed, are used. Just like the judgement
based lane changing models ,there also exist lot of other models like general acceleration based
lane changing models and gap acceptance based lane changing models
15.4.1
Forced merging model
If the gap on the target lane is not acceptable then the subject vehicle forces the lag vehicle on
the target to decelerate until the gap is acceptable. This process is known as Forced merging.
At every discrete point in time, a driver is assumed to (a) evaluate the trac environment in
the target lane to decide whether the driver intends to merge in front of the lag vehicle in the
target lane and (b) try to communicate with the lag vehicle to understand whether the drivers
right of way is established. If a driver intends to merge in front of the lag vehicle and right
of way is established, the decision process ends and the driver gradually move into the target
lane. We characterize this instant by state M, where M denotes start forced merging. This
process may last from less than a second to a few seconds. If right of way is not established,
the subject continues the evaluation/communication process (i.e., remains in state M) during
the next time instant.
15.4.2
Cooperative Merging
The models discussed so far assume that lane changing is executed through gap acceptance.
However, in congested trac conditions acceptable gaps may not be available, and so other
mechanisms for lane changing are needed. For example, drivers may change lanes through
courtesy and cooperation of the lag vehicles on the target lane that will slow down in order to
accommodate the lane change. In other cases, some drivers may become impatient and decide
15.4
January 31, 2014

Lane 3
Lane 2
Lane 1
Figure 15:3: Process of lane change

to force in to the target lane and compel the lag vehicle to slow down.
15.5
Discretionary lane changng process
The discretionary lane changing process is modeled as a sequence of the following three steps:
1. Decision to consider a lane change,
2. Check for the feasibility,
3. Gap acceptance
Lane changing process is explained using the example which is shown in Figure 15:3. The
subject vehicle in lane 2 makes a decision to consider a lane change and then it selects a target
lane which may be either lane 1 or lane 3. Then it checks for the feasibility of lane change.
Now this subject vehicle accepts the gap in the target lane to make a lane change.
15.5.1
Desire to change the lane
Decision to change the lane in discretionary lane change conditions may be taken due to a
number of factors but basically what the driver has in mind should be higher utility in the
target lane which may be for example higher speed. Here we use the equation suggested by
Gipps (1986) to nd if it is possible for the driver to attain his desired speed within the existing
space dierence between his vehicle and the preceding vehicle in the current lane. If required
space dierence is not available, the driver is assumed to decide lane change. The relation is
given as:
(15.1)
Vn (t + T ) = bn T + b2 T 2 bn (2Dx (t) Vn (t) T Vn1 (t)2 /b)
n
15.5
January 31, 2014
where, Vn (t + T ) is the maximum safe speed for vehicle n with respect to the preceding vehicle
at time (t+T), Vn (t) is the velocity nth vehicle, Vn1 (t) is the velocity n-1th vehicle, bn (< 0) is
the most severe braking the driver is prepared to undertake, T is the time between consecutive
calculations of speed and position, b is an estimate of bn1 employed by the driver of vehicle n,
and Dx (t) is the distance between front of subject vehicle and rear of leading vehicle at t. The
driver is assumed to decide to change lane if Dx is more than the existing space gap between
the subject vehicle and preceding vehicle in current lane.
15.5.2
Check for feasibility
The lane change is said to be feasible if the chance that the subject vehicle would collide at
the rear of preceding vehicle in the target lane and the chance that the lag vehicle in the
target lane would collide at the rear of the subject vehicle is avoided. To check if the subject
vehicle would collide at the rear of preceeding vehicle in the target lane we consider the subject
vehicle as n and preceding vehicle in the target lane as n-1.Then we substitute the values in the
equation 15.1. If the maximum safe speed can be attained in the time T with a deceleration less
than the maximum possible deceleration of the vehicle we say that the lane change is feasible.
To check if the lag vehicle after sighting the subject vehicle in the target lane, would collide
at the rear of subject vehicle in the target lane. For this we consider the lag vehicle as N and
subject vehicle in the target lane as n-1. Also we have to consider that the space dierence
available will be changed as both the vehicles would have moved a distance during the lane
change. Then we substitute the values in the equation 15.1. If the maximum safe speed can be
attained in the time T by the lag vehicle with a deceleration less than the maximum possible
deceleration of the vehicle we say that the lane change is feasible
15.5.3
Gap acceptance
A gap is dened as the gap in between the lead and lag vehicles in the target lane (see Figure 15:4). For merging into an adjacent lane, a gap is acceptable only when both lead and lag
gap are acceptable. Drivers are assumed to have minimum acceptable lead and lag gap lengths
which are termed as the lead and lag critical gaps respectively. These critical gaps vary not only
among dierent individuals, but also for a given individual under dierent trac conditions.
Most models also make a distinction between the lead gap and the lag gap and require that
both are acceptable. The lead gap is the gap between the subject vehicle and the vehicle ahead
of it in the lane it is changing to. The lag gap is dened in the same way relative to the vehicle
behind in that lane. The critical gap lengths are assumed to be log normally distributed The
15.6
January 31, 2014
critical gap for driver n at time t is assumed to have the following relation.
g
Gg,cr = e[Xn +Vn +n ]
n
g
where, Gg,cr (t) is the critical gap measure for gap G perceived by driver n at time step t, Xn (t)
n
is the explanatory variable used to characterize mean Gg,cr (t), n is the random term follows
n
log normal distribution, and g is the parameter of driver specic random term vn . Assuming
lag vehicle
total clear gap + vehicle length

lag gap
lead gap
Y
lead vehicle
subject
front vehicle
Figure 15:4: Denition of gaps

2
g (t) N(0, g ) the conditional probability of acceptance of a gap p(g) considering that the
n
probability of lead gap acceptance (p(lead)) and lag gap (p(lag)) acceptance as two independent
events is probability that the lead and lag gaps are accepted. That is:
P (g) = p(lead) p(lag)

= p(Glead log(Glead ) and Gtag log(Gtag ))
tn
cr,tn
tn
cr,tn
= p(log(Glead ) log(Glead )) P (log(Gtag ) log(Gtag ))
tn
cr,tn
tn
cr,tn
=
lead
log(Glead ) lead Xtn lead Vn
tn
,lead
lag
log(Glag ) lag Xtn lead Vn
tn
,lag
(15.2)
where (X) means X follows standard normal distribution ,N(0,1)

Numerical Example
For the given state of trac predict if the subject vehicle in the gure 5 would initiate a
lane change.if yes what is the feasibility and probability of lane change. Given is the midblock
section of 2 lane highway with no other blocks in either of the lane. Neglect lateral acceleration.
15.7
January 31, 2014
Consider update time 1 sec. Maximum deceleration driver ready to apply is -2 m/s2 and
maximum acceleration feasible is -2.2 m/s2 Assume that lane change take 1 second. Given:
lead
lead =2, lead = 3 ,Glead =40m, Glag =50m , lead = lag = 1 ,Xnlead = Xnlag = 0.8, Vn =
lag
Vn = 0.7 , lead =lag = 1.2
Y
X
lag vehicle
40m
50 m
lead vehicle
18 m/s
20.83 m/s
19.4 m/s
18 m/s
N1
30 m
Subject
X
DIRECTION OF TRAFFIC FLOW
Solution Step 1. Decision to change the lane: In the case of discretionary lange change,
the decision to change the lane is taken by the driver when he nds higher utility in any other
lane. Here, we consider higher speed or desired speed as higher utility. Let the desired speed
be 25 m/s2 . Considering the subject vehicle as vehicle n and the vehicle preceding it in the
current lane as vehicle n-1, we calculate the minimum distance required by the subject vehicle
to attain the desired speed in a time T
Dx = xn1 (t) Sn1 xn (t)
Vn (t + T ) = bn T +
25 = 2 1 +
b2 T 2 bn (2Dx Vn T Vn 12 /b)
n
22 + (2 Dx 19.4 + 182/2.5)
The Dx in this problem is 155 m, which means that the subject vehicle requires at least 155 m
to reach his desired speed. But the gap available is 30 m. So decision is to change the lange or
trigger DLC.
Step 2. Check for the feasibility of lane change: A lane change is said to be
feasible if the subject vehicle is able to maintain maximum safe speed with respect to the
preceding vehicle in the target line. In order to nd the maximum safe speed possible for the
subject vehicle to avoid collision we consider the subject vehicle as N and preceding vehicle in
the target lane as N-1. Then we substitute the values in the second equation. Vn (t + T ) =
2 1 + [22 + 22(40) 19.4 + 182 /2.5]1/2 = 17.6m/s And the deceleration required = (17.619.4)/1 = -1.79 m/s2 Since -1.79 m/s2 less than -2.2 m/s2 the lane change feasible to avoid
15.8
January 31, 2014

Y
X
50 m
lag vehicle
40 m
lead vehicle
18m/s
N1
20.83 m/s
19.4 m/s
18m/s
30 m
subject
collision with the lead vehicle in the target lane. Now we have to check if the lag vehicle
in the target line would be able to avoid the collision with the subject vehicle after the lane
change. For this we take lag vehicle as N th vehicle and subject vehicle as N 1th vehicle Here,
X
50 m
Lag vehicle
20.83 m
40 m
lead vehicle
19.4 m
N1
20.83 m/s
18 m/s
18 m/s
19.4 m/s
30 m
X
Y
Dx = 50 + 19.4 20.83 = 48.5m as the lag vehicle and subject vehicle would have moved some
distance during the lane change duration of 1 second. These distances are 20.83 m and 19.4
m respectively. Vn (t + T ) = 2x1 + [22 + 22(48.5) 20.83 + 19.42 /2.5]1/2 = 19.38m/s The
deceleration required to be applied by the lag vehicle in the target lane to avoid collision with
the subject vehicle = (19.38 20.83)/1 = 1.44m/s2 . Since -1.44 m/s2 -2.2 m/s2 the lane
change feasible to avoid collision of the lag vehicle in the target lane.
Step 3. Check for the gap acceptance of lane change in the given state of
trac: Here we nd that the lag gap that was available is 50 m and the lead gap is 40
15.9
January 31, 2014
m.using the equation 2 we get,

p(g) =
lead
log(Glead ) lead Xtn lead Vn
tn
,lead
lag
log(Glag ) lag Xtn lead Vn
tn
,lag
= (log(40) 0.8 0.84)/2 (log(50) 0.8 0.84)/2

= (1.02) (0.75) = 0.8212 0.7734 = 0.635.
This means that a given driver would opt for a lane change in the the given condition with a
probability of 0.635.
15.6
Average Delay for Lane change
The blockage length and the average delay for the lane change are calculated based on the
following formulae.
T Vs
N
1 BL
Average delay =
2
Vr
BL =
where, T = Total time of headways rejected, BL = blockage length, Vs = stream velocity, Vr

= relative velocity, N = number of acceptable gap
Numerical Example
In a two lane, one way stream of 1000 vph with 360 vehicles in Lane A and the remaining
vehicles in lane B. 8% of the vehicles in lane A have gaps less than 1 sec and 18% of the
vehicles in lane A have gaps less than 2 sec. Compute the time during which vehicles in Lane
B may not change to Lane A in 1 hour. Assume driver requires one second ahead and behind
in making a lane change.
Solution Total acceptable time for lane change in an hour = 3600 - total rejected headway
- total clearance time. Given that 0 to 1 second Gaps is 8% of 360 = 29 and 1 to 2 second
Gaps is (18-8) % of 360 = 36. Total = 65 Gaps. Time spent in Gaps 0 to 1 second = 29 x
.5 = 14.5 sec, and Time spent in Gaps 1 to 2 second = 36 x 1.5 = 54.0 sec. As 65 Gaps are
rejected, Acceptable Gaps are (360-65) = 295 Gaps. In this 295 Gaps clearance time = 295
x 2 = 590 sec. Time lost in rejected gap = 14.5+54=68.5. Therefore, Total time left in one
15.10
January 31, 2014

Lane A (360 vph)
Lane B (640 vph)
Figure 15:5: Numerical example

car
car
g
A
g
A
g
A

hour to accept Gap=(3600 - 590 - 68.5) = 2941 sec. Vehicle can change lane in (2941/3600) =
81.7% of the Total time. Vehicle is prevented from changing lane in 18.3% of the time.
Numerical Example
In a two lane, one way stream of 1000 vph with 360 vehicles in Lane A and the remaining
vehicles in lane B. 8% of the vehicles in lane A have gaps less than 1 sec and 18% of the
vehicles in lane A have gaps less than 2 sec. Compute the average waiting for the driver to
make a lane change. Assume driver velocity in lane B = 40 kmph and stream velocity = 50
kmph. Solution: The average length of headways and portions of head ways of insucient
length for a lane change, which may be considered as general blockages moving in the stream.
Division of this Blockage length by the relative speed determines potential total delay time of
the blockade. Finally since a delayed vehicle is as likely to be at the head as at the tail of
such a blockade at the moment of desired lane change, the total delay must be divided by 2 for
average delay time.
1 BL
2
Vr
T Vs
BL =
N
Average delay =
where T = 3600 18.3% = 658.8, Vs = 50 kmph, N = acceptable gaps. So 0 to 2 second Gaps

= 18 % of 360 = 65. Therefore N = 360-65 = 295. BL = 658.850 = 111.6. In the above gure
295
the vertical lines are the centre line of the cars and gr , ga represents the acceptable and rejected
gaps respectively.
1 BL
2
Vr
1
111.6
Average delay =
= 5.58sec
2 (50 40)
Average delay =
15.11
January 31, 2014
15.7
Summary
Lane changing is an important component of microscopic trac simulation model, and has
signicant impact on the results of analysis that uses these tools. In recent years, interest in
the development of lane changing models and their implementation in trac simulators have
increased dramatically. There is a lot of scope for the improvement of these lane change models
like integrating acceleration behavior, impact of the buses, bus stops, trac signals and queues
that form due to lane change maneuver.
15.8
References
1. K I Ahmed. Modeling drivers acceleration and lane changing behaviors. PhD thesis,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, MIT, 1999.
2. C F Choudhury. Modeling driving decisions with Latent plans. PhD thesis, Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, MIT, 2007.
3. D R Drew. Trac ow theory and control. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1968. IITB.
4. P G Gipps. A model for the structure of lane-changing decisions.
Research Part B: Methodological, Volume 20, Issue 5, 1986.
Transportation
15.12
January 31, 2014
16. Microscopic Trac Simulation
Chapter 16
Microscopic Trac Simulation
16.1
Overview
The complexity of trac stream behaviour and the diculties in performing experiments with
real world trac make computer simulation an important analysis tool in trac engineering.
The physical propagation of trac ows can be specically described using trac ow models.
By making use of dierent trac simulation models, one can simulate large scale real-world
situations in great detail. Depending on the level of detailing, trac ow models are classied
into macroscopic, mesoscopic and microscopic models. Macroscopic models view the trac ow
as a whole whereas microscopic ones gives attention to individual vehicles and their interactions
while the mesoscopic models fall in between these two. This chapter gives an overview of the
basic concepts behind simulation models and elaboration about the microscopic approach for
modelling trac.
A microscopic model of trac ow attempts to analyse the ow of trac by modelling
driver-driver and driver-road interactions within a trac stream which respectively analyses
the interaction between a driver and another driver on road and of a single driver on the
dierent features of a road. Many studies and researches were carried out on drivers behavior
in dierent situations like a case when he meets a static obstacle or when he meets a dynamic
obstacle. Among these, the pioneer development of car following theories paved the way for
the researchers to model the behaviour of a vehicle following another vehicle in the 1950s and
1960s.
16.2
Trac Simulation Models
Simulation modelling is an increasingly popular and eective tool for analysing a wide variety of
dynamical problems those associated with complex processes which cannot readily be described
in analytical terms. Usually, these processes are characterized by the interaction of many system
16.1
January 31, 2014
components or entities whose interactions are complex in nature. Specically, simulation models
are mathematical/logical representations of real-world systems, which take the form of software
executed on a digital computer in an experimental fashion. The most important advantage is
that these models are by no means exhaustive.
16.2.1
Need for simulation
Trac simulation models have a large variety of applications in the required elds. Now-a-days
they become inevitable tools of analysis and interpretation of real world situations especially in
Trac Engineering. The following are some situations where these models can nd their scope.
1. When mathematical or analytical treatment of a problem is found infeasible or inadequate
due to its complex nature.
2. When there is some doubt in the mathematical formulation or results.
3. When there is a need of an animated view of ow of vehicles to study their behaviour.
It is important to note that simulation can only be used as an auxiliary tool for evaluation and
extension of results provided by other conceptual or mathematical formulations or models.
16.2.2
Applications
Trac simulations models can meet a wide range of requirements:

1. Evaluation of alternative treatments
2. Testing new designs
3. As an element of the design process
4. Embed in other tools
5. Training personnel
6. Safety Analysis
16.2
January 31, 2014
16.2.3
Classications
Trac simulation models can be classied based on dierent criteria. Figure 16:1 shows various
types of classication. In a broader sense, they can be categorized into continuous and discrete
ones according to how the elements describing a system change their states. The latter is again
classied into two.
Discrete time based models
Discrete event based models
Traffic simulation models
Deterministic
Macroscopic
Stochastic
Microscopic
Mesoscopic
Discrete
Continuous
Figure 16:1: Classication of Trac simulation models

The rst, divides time into xed small intervals and within each interval the simulation model
computes the activities which change the states of selected system elements. For some specic
applications, considerable savings in computational time can be achieved by the use of event
based models where scanning is performed based on some abrupt changes in the state of the
system (events). However the discrete time models could be a better choice where the model
objectives require more realistic and detailed descriptions.
According to the level of detailing, simulation models can be classied into macroscopic,
mesoscopic and microscopic models. A macroscopic model describes entities and their activities
and interactions at a low level of detail. Trac stream is represented in an aggregate measure
in terms of characteristics like speed, ow and density. A mesoscopic model generally represents most entities at a high level of detail but describes their activities and interactions at a
much lower level of detail. A microscopic model describes both the system entities and their
interactions at a high level of detail. Car following models and lane changing models are some
signicant examples. The choice of a particular type of model depends on the nature of the
problem of interest.
Depending on the type of processes represented by the model, there are deterministic and
stochastic models. Models without the use of any random variables or in other words, all entity
interactions are dened by exact mathematical/logical relationships are called deterministic
models. Stochastic models have processes which include probability functions.
16.3
January 31, 2014
16.3
Building Trac Simulator
The basic steps involved in the development are same irrespective of the type of model. The
dierent activities involved are the following.
1. Dene the problem and the model objectives
2. Dene the system to be studied - Roadway, Vehicle and Driver characteristics
3. Model development
4. Model calibration
5. Model verication
6. Model validation
7. Documentation
The most signicant steps among the above are described with the help of stating the procedure
for developing a microscopic model.
16.3.1
Model development
The framework of a model consists of mainly three processes as mentioned below.

1. Vehicle generation
2. Vehicle position updation
3. Analysis
The ow diagram of a microscopic trac simulation model is given in Figure 16.2. The basic
structure of a model includes various component models like car following models like car
following models, lane changing models etc. which come under the vehicle position updation
part. In this chapter, the vehicle generation stage is explained in detail. The vehicles can
be generated either according to the distributions of vehicular headways or vehicular arrivals.
Headways generally follow one of the following distributions.
1. Negative Exponential Distribution (Low ow rate)
2. Normal Distribution (High ow rate)
3. Erlang Distribution (Intermediate ow rate)
16.4
January 31, 2014
The generation of vehicles using negative exponential distribution is demonstrated here. The
probability distribution function is given as follows.
f (x) = ex
(16.1)
From the above equation, the expression for exponential variate headway X can be derived as:
X = ( loge R)
(16.2)
where, is the mean headway, R is the random number between 0 and 1 Random number
Start
Input and
Initialization
Headway generation
for first vehicle
Is
currenttime= Yes
multiple of scan
interval
No
Vehicle position
updation
Is
currenttime= No
cumulative
headway
Time step
updation
Yes
vehicle generation and
next headway generation
No
Is
Simulation time
over?
Yes
End
Figure 16:2: Flow diagram of a Microscopic trac simulation model

generation is an essential part in any stochastic simulation model, especially in vehicle generation module. Numerous methods in terms of computer programs have been devised to generate
random numbers which appear to be random. This is the reason why some call them pseudorandom numbers. Therefore headways can be generated using the above expression by giving
a random number and the mean headway as the input variables.
16.5
January 31, 2014
In a similar way, the vehicular arrival pattern can be modeled using Poissons distribution.
The probability mass function is given as:
x e
p(x) =
x!
(16.3)
where, p(x) is the probability of x vehicle arrivals in an interval t, is the mean arrival rate of
vehicles If the probability of no vehicle in the interval t is given as p(0), then this probability
is same as the probability that the headway greater than or equal to t.
Numerical example
Given ow rate is 900 veh/hr. Simulate the vehicle arrivals for 1 min using negative exponential
distribution.
1
Solution Step 1: Calculate the mean headway = (900/3600) = 4sec. Step 2: Generate the
random numbers between 0 and 1. Step 3: Calculate the headways and then estimate the
cumulative headways. The calculations are given in Table 16:1
X = (loge R)
Numerical example
The hourly ow rate in a road section is 900 veh/hr. Use Poisson distribution to model this
vehicle arrival for 10 min.
Solution Step 1: Calculate the no. of vehicles arriving per min. = 900/60 = 15 veh/min.
Step 2: Calculate the probability of 0, 1, 2, ... vehicles per minute using Poisson distribution
formula. Also calculate the cumulative probability as shown below.
p(x) =
x e
x!
Step 3: Generate random numbers from 0 to 1. Using the calculated cumulative probability
values, estimate the no. of vehicles arriving in that interval as shown in Table below. Here
the total number of vehicles arrived in 10 min is 143 which is almost same as the vehicle arrival
rate obtained using negative exponential distribution.
16.6
January 31, 2014
Veh. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
R
X
Arrival time (sec)
0.73 1.23
1.23
0.97 0.14
1.37
0.27 5.26
6.63
0.44 3.25
9.88
0.52 2.63
12.51
0.77 1.05
13.55
0.43 3.39
16.94
0.81 0.84
17.79
0.08 9.96
27.75
0.74 1.18
28.93
0.53 2.58
31.51
0.81 0.83
32.34
0.15 7.46
39.80
0.44 3.26
43.06
0.29 5.02
48.08
0.68 1.56
49.63
0.05 12.09
61.72
Table 16:1: Vehicle arrivals using Negative exponential distribution
16.7
January 31, 2014
n p(x=n)
0
0.000
1
0.000
2
0.000
3
0.000
4
0.001
5
0.002
6
0.005
7
0.010
8
0.019
9
0.032
10 0.049
11 0.066
12 0.083
13 0.096
14 0.102
15 0.102
16 0.096
17 0.085
18 0.071
19 0.056
20 0.042
p(x=n)
0
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.003
0.008
0.018
0.037
0.070
0.118
0.185
0.268
0.363
0.466
0.568
0.664
0.749
0.819
0.875
0.917
Table 16:2: Calculation of probabilities using Poisson distribution
16.8
January 31, 2014

t (min)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
R
0.231
0.162
0.909
0.871
0.307
0.008
0.654
0.775
0.632
0.901
n
11
10
19
18
12
6
15
17
15
20
143
Table 16:3: Vehicle arrivals using Poisson distribution
16.3.2
Model calibration
The activity of specifying data to the model that describes trac operations and other features
which are site specic is called calibration of the model. In other words, calibration is the
process of quantifying model parameters using real-world data. This data may take the form
of scalar elements and of statistical distributions. Calibration is a major challenge during the
implementation stage of any model. The commonly used methods of calibration are regression,
optimization, error determination, trajectory analysis etc. A brief description about various
errors and their signicance is presented in this section. The optimization method of calibration
is also explained using the following example problem.
Numerical example
The parameters obtained in GM car-following model simulation are given in Table below. Field
observed values of acceleration of follower is also given. Calibrate the model by nding the value
of . Assume l=1 and m=0. Use optimization method to solve the problem.
Solution Step 1: Formulate the objective function (z).
4
aobs acal
i
i
Minimize z =
i=1
16.9
January 31, 2014
Observed Acceleration (aobs ) Velocity dierence, dv Distance headway, dx

0.23
1.5
29.13
0.46
1.88
29.97
0.67
1.16
30.73
0.82
0.32
31.10
Table 16:4: Parameters of GM Model
Step 2: Express acal in terms of . As per GM model (since l=1 and m=0),
i
acal =
i
dv
dx
Step 3: Therefore the objective function can be expressed as:

z = (0.23 0.05)2 + (0.46 0.06)2 + (0.67 0.04)2 + (0.82 0.01)2
Step 4: Since the above function is convex, dierentiating and then equating to zero will give
the solution (as stationary point is the global minimum). Dierentiating with respect to and
equating to zero,
dz
=0
d
Then, value of is obtained as 9.74.
16.3.3
Determination of Errors
Most of the available commercial trac simulation software provides advanced user-friendly
graphic user interfaces with exible and powerful graphic editors to assist analysts in the modelbuilding process. This reduces the number of errors. There are a number of manual ways to
quantify the error associated with every parameter while calibrating them. Some of the common
measures of error and their expressions are discussed below.
1. Root mean square error
1
i=1 N(xi yyi)2
N
RMSE =
(16.4)
1
xi yi 2
)
i=1 N(
N
yi
(16.5)
2. Root mean squared normalized error

RMSNE =
16.10
January 31, 2014
3. Mean error
1
i=1 N(xi yi )
N
ME =
4. Mean normalized error
MNE =
xi yi
1
i=1 N(
)
N
yi
(16.6)
(16.7)
where, xi is the ith measured or simulated value, yi is the ith observed value
The above error measures are useful when applied separately to measurements at each
location instead of to all measurements jointly. They indicate the existence of systematic bias
in terms of under or over prediction by the simulation model. Taking into account that the series
of measurements and simulated values can be collected at regular time intervals, it becomes
obvious that they can be interpreted as time series and, therefore, used to determine how close
the simulated and the observed values are. Thus it can be determined that how similar both
time series are. On the other hand, the use of aggregated values to validate a simulation seems
contradictory if one takes into account that it is dynamic in nature, and thus time dependent.
Theil dened a set of indices aimed at this goal and these indices have been widely used for that
purpose. The rst index is Theils indicator, U (also called Theils inequality coecient), which
provides a normalized measure of the relative error that reduces the impact of large errors:
U=
1
N(xi
N i=1
1
N(xi )2
N i=1
y i )2
1
N(yi )2
N i=1
(16.8)
The global index U is bounded, 0 U 1, with U = 0 for a perfect t and xi = yi for i = 1 to

N, between observed and simulated values. For U 0.2, the simulated series can be accepted
as replicating the observed series acceptably well. The closer the values are to 0, the better will
be the model. For values greater than 0.2, the simulated series is rejected.
Numerical example
The observed and simulated values obtained using Model 1 and Model 2 are given in Table
below.
1. Comment on the performance of both the models based on the following error measures
- RMSE, RMSNE, ME and MNE.
2. Using Theils indicator, comment on the acceptability of the models.
16.11
January 31, 2014
Table 16:5: Observed and Simulated values

Simulated values, x
Observed values, y Model 1 Model 2
0.23
0.2
0.27
0.46
0.39
0.5
0.67
0.71
0.65
0.82
0.83
0.84
Table 16:6: Error calculations for Model 1
(x y)
( xy )
y
Model 1
(x y)2
( xy )2
y
-0.030
-0.130
0.0009
0.0170
-0.070
-0.152
0.0049
0.0232
0.040
0.060
0.0016
0.0036
0.010
0.012
0.0001
0.0001
= -0.050
= -0.211
= 0.0075
= 0.0439
ME = 0.013 MNE = 0.053 RMSE = 0.043 RMSNE = 0.105
Solution
1. Using the formulas given below (Equations 16.4, 16.5, 16.6, 16.7), all the four errors can
be calculated. Here N = 4.
1
i=1 N(xi yyi)2
N
RMSE =
RMSNE =
1
xi yi 2
)
i=1 N(
N
yi
1
i=1 N(xi yi )
N
xi yi
1
)
MNE = i=1 N(
N
yi
Tabulations required are given below. Comparing Model 1 and Model 2 in terms of
RMSE and RMSNE, Model 2 is better. But with respect to ME and MNE, Model 1 is
better.
ME =
16.12
January 31, 2014
Table 16:7: Error calculations for Model 2
(x y)
Model 2
(x y)2
( xy )
y
( xy )2
y
0.040
0.174
0.0016
0.0302
0.040
0.087
0.0016
0.0076
-0.020
-0.030
0.0004
0.0009
0.020
0.024
0.0004
0.0006
= 0.080
= 0.255
= 0.0040
= 0.0393
ME = 0.020 MNE = 0.064 RMSE = 0.032 RMSNE = 0.099
Table 16:8: Theils indicator calculation

x2
Model 1
Model 2
0.04
0.0729
0.1521
0.25
0.5041
0.4225
0.6889
0.7056
= 1.3851 = 1.451
y2
0.0529
0.2116
0.4489
0.6724
= 1.3858
2. Theils indicator
U=
1
N(xi
N i=1
1
N(xi )2
N i=1
y i )2
1
N(yi )2
N i=1
The additional tabulations required are as follows: The value of Theils indicator is obtained as: For Model 1, U = 0.037 which is 0.2, and For Model 2, U = 0.027 which is
0.2. Therefore both models are acceptable.
16.3.4
Model Verication
Following de-bugging, verication is a structured regimen to provide assurance that the software performs as intended. Since simulation models are primarily logical constructs, rather
than computational ones, the analyst must perform detailed logical path analyses. When completed, the model developer should be convinced that the model is performing in accord with
16.13
January 31, 2014
expectations over its entire domain of application.
16.3.5
Model Validation
Validation is the process to determine whether the simulation model is an accurate representation of the system under study. This establishes that the model behaviour accurately and
reliably represents the real-world system being simulated, over the range of conditions anticipated and it involves the following major steps.
1. Acquiring and formatting real world data
2. Establishing the validation criteria - Hypotheses, Statistical tests etc.
3. Experimental design for validation including a variety of scenarios
4. Perform validation study
5. Identify the causes of failure if any and repair the model accordingly
The methodological scheme for validation is shown in the following Figure 16:3.
16.4
Simulation Packages
Now a days, trac simulation packages like CORSIM and VISSIM are frequently used as tools
for analysing trac. VISSIM is a microscopic, time step and behaviour based simulation model
developed to analyse the full range of functionally classied roadways and public transportation operations. Since all these are commercial software packages, it is not possible to make
sucient changes in the internal parameters used in these models according to the specic
requirements. Common applications of these packages include freeway and arterial corridor
studies, subarea planning studies, evacuation planning, freeway management strategy development, environmental impact studies, Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) assessments,
current and future trac management schemes etc.
Results of simulation can be interpreted in dierent ways. Animation displays of extracting
the sought information and insights from the mass of the trac environment (if available) are
a most powerful tool for analysing simulation results. If the selected trac simulation lacks
an animation feature or if questions remain after viewing the animation, then the following
procedures may be adopted:
16.14
January 31, 2014

System Data
Collection
Data Filtering
Analysis and
Completion
System Data
Model input to
Simulator
Simulation Model
System Data
Measured Values
Accept
Yes
Compare
Are
Significantly
Close?
Simulation Model
Output:Collected
Data
No
Figure 16:3: Methodological scheme for validation

1. Execute the model to replicate existing real-world conditions and compare its results with
observed behaviour. This face validation can be done to identify model or implementation deciencies.
2. Perform sensitivity tests on the study network by varying key variables and observing
model responses in a carefully designed succession of model executions.
3. Plot these results. A review will probably uncover the perceived anomalies
Statistical analysis of the simulation results are also conducted to present point estimates of
eectiveness and to form the condence intervals. Through these processes, one can establish
that which simulation system is the best among the dierent alternatives.
16.5
Conclusion
It can be observed from the study that using dierent microscopic simulation models, large scale
real-world situations can be simulated in great detail. New applications of trac simulation
can contribute signicantly to various programs in ITS. Calibration and validation are the
16.15
January 31, 2014
major challenges to be tackled. It is expected that further exploration would open up better
opportunities for better utilization and further development of these models.
16.6
References
1. J Barcelo. Fundamentals of Trac Simulation. Springer, 2010.

2. R Kitamura and M Kuwahara.
Springer, 2005.
Simulation Approaches in Transportation Analysis.
3. E Lieberman and A K Rathi. Trac simulation, Trac ow theory. 1997.

4. L J Pignataro. Trac Engineering: Theory and practice. Prentice-Hall, Englewoods
Clis,N.J., 1973.
16.16
January 31, 2014
17. Trac Flow Modeling Analogies
Chapter 17
Trac Flow Modeling Analogies
17.1
January 31, 2014
Contents
17 Trac Flow Modeling Analogies
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2 Model framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2.2 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2.3 Derivation of the Conservation equation
17.3 Analytical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.3.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.3.2 Method of Characteristics . . . . . . . .
17.3.3 Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1
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1
2
3
3
3
5
6
6
7
8
9
10
Introduction
If one looks into trac ow from a very long distance, the ow of fairly heavy trac appears
like a stream of a uid. Therefore, a macroscopic theory of trac can be developed with the
help of hydrodynamic theory of uids by considering trac as an eectively one-dimensional
compressible uid. The behaviour of individual vehicle is ignored and one is concerned only
with the behaviour of sizable aggregate of vehicles. The earliest trac ow models began by
writing the balance equation to address vehicle number conservation on a road. Infact, all
trac ow models and theories must satisfy the law of conservation of the number of vehicles
on the road.
17.2
January 31, 2014
17.2
Model framework
17.2.1
Assumptions
The trac ow is similar to the ow of uids and the trac state is described based on speed,
density and ow. However the trac ow can be modelled as a one directional compressible
uid. The two important assumptions of this modelling approach are:
The trac ow is conserved, or in other words vehicles are not created or destroyed. The
continuity or conservation equation can be applied.
There is one to one relationship between speed and density as well as ow and density.
The diculty with this assumption is that although intuitively correct, in some cases this can
lead to negative speed and density. Further, for a given density there exists many speed values
are actually measured. These assumptions are valid only at equilibrium condition, that is, when
the speed is a function of density. However, equilibrium can be rarely observed in practice and
therefore hard to get Speed-density relationship. These are some of the limitations of continuous
modelling. The advantages of the continuous modelling are:
Better than input output models because ow and density are set as a function of time
and distance.
Compressibility: ie., ow is assumed to be a function of density.
Solving the continuity equation (or ow conservation equation) and the state equation
(speed-density and ow-density) are basic trac ow equations (q = k.v). By using the
equation that dene q, k, and v at any location x and time t, we can evaluate the system
using measures of eectiveness such as delays, travel time etc.
17.2.2
Formulation
Assuming that the vehicles are owing from left to right, the continuity equation can be written
as
k(x, t) q(x, t)
+
=0
(17.1)
t
x
where x denotes the spatial coordinate in the direction of trac ow, t is the time, k is the
density and q denotes the ow. However, one cannot get two unknowns, namely k(x, t) by
and q(x, t) by solving one equation. One possible solution is to write two equations from two
17.3
January 31, 2014
regimes of the ow, say before and after a bottleneck. In this system the ow rate before and
after will be same, or
k1 v1 = k2 v2
(17.2)
From this the shockwave velocity can be derived as
v(to )p =
q2 q1
k2 k1
(17.3)
This is normally referred to as Stocks shockwave formula. An alternate possibility which

Lighthill and Whitham adopted in their landmark study is to assume that the ow rate q is
determined primarily by the local density k, so that ow q can be treated as a function of only
density k. Therefore the number of unknown variables will be reduced to one. Essentially this
assumption states that k(x,t) and q (x,t) are not independent of each other. Therefore the
continuity equation takes the form
k(x, t) q(k(x, t))
+
=0
t
x
(17.4)
However, the functional relationship between ow q and density k cannot be calculated from
uid-dynamical theory. This has to be either taken as a phenomenological relation derived from
the empirical observation or from microscopic theories. Therefore, the ow rate q is a function
of the vehicular density k; q = q(k). Thus, the balance equation takes the form
k(x, t) q(k(x, t))
+
=0
t
x
(17.5)
Now there is only one independent variable in the balance equation, the vehicle density k. If
initial and boundary conditions are known, this can be solved. Solution to LWR models are
kinematic waves moving with velocity
dq(k)
(17.6)
dk
This velocity vk is positive when the ow rate increases with density, and it is negative when
the ow rate decreases with density. In some cases, this function may shift from one regime to
the other, and then a shock is said to be formed. This shockwave propagate at the velocity
vs =
q(k2 ) q(k1 )
k2 k1
(17.7)
where q(k2 ) and q(k1 ) are the ow rates corresponding to the upstream density k2 and downstream density k1 of the shockwave. Unlike Stocks shockwave formula there is only one variable
here.
17.4
January 31, 2014
N1
N2
q1
q2
(1)
17.2.3
(2)
Derivation of the Conservation equation
Consider a unidirectional continuous road section with two counting station. Let N1 : number
of cars passing (1) in time t; q1 : the ow; N2 : number of cars passing (2) in time t; and
q2 : the ow; Assume N1 > N2 , then queuing between (1) and (2)
q1 =
N1
,
t
q = q2 q1
N2
t
N
N2 N1
=
=
t
t
q2 =
Note that q2 < q1 and therefore q is negative. Therefore,

N = q.t
(17.8)
Similarly (k2 > k1 ),

k = k2 k1 =
+N
N1 N2
=
,
x
x
Therefore
N = kx
From the above two equations:
k x + q t = 0
Dividing by t x
k q
+
=0
t
x
Assuming continuous medium (ie., taking limits) limt0
q k
+
=0
x
t
17.5
January 31, 2014
If sink or source is considered
q
k
+
= g(x, t)
x
t
where, g(x, t) is the generation or dissipation term (Ramp on and o). Solution to the above
was proposed by Lighthill and Whitham (1955) and Richard (1956) popularly knows as LWR
Model.
17.3
Analytical Solution
17.3.1
Formulation
The analytical solution, popularly called as LWR Model, is obtained by dening the relationship
between the fundamental dependant trac ow variable (k and q) to the independent variable
(x and t). However, the solution to the continuity equation needs one more equation: by
assuming q = f (k) , ie., q = k.v. Therefore:
q k
+
x
t
f (k) k
+
k
t
k (k.v)
+
t
x
k [k.f (k)]
+
t
x
= 0, becomes
= 0
= 0
= 0, v = f (k)
Therefore,
[k.f (k)]
k
f (k)
=
.f (k) + k.
x
x
x
df k
k
f (k) + k. .
=
x
dk x
k
df
=
f (k) + k.
x
dk
Continuity equation can be written as
df
k k
f (k) + k.
=0
+
t
x
dk
17.6
January 31, 2014
where f (k) could be any function relating density and speed. Eg: Assuming the Greenshields
leinear model:
vf
k
kj
df (k)
vf
vf
Therefore, f (k) + k
= vf k + k
dk
kj
kj
vf
= vf 2 k
kj
v = vf
Therefore,
vf
k k
vf 2 k = 0
+
t
x
kj
(17.9)
The equation 17.9 is rst order quasi-linear, hyperbolic, partial dierential equation (a special
kind of wave equation).
17.3.2
Method of Characteristics
df
Consider k(x, t) at each point of x and t, and k + k [f (k) + dk k] = 0 in the total derivative of
t
x
df
k along a curve which has slope x = f (k) + dk k. ie., Along any curve in (x, t), consider x, k
t
as function of t.
(k)
t
x0
Total derivative of k will be

k k dx
dk
=
+
.
dt
t
x dt
k k
df
=
f (k) + k
+
t
x
dk
At the solution,
That is,
dk
dt
df
= 0, k is constant along the curve, f (k) + k. dk is constant along the curve.
x(t) = x0 +
dx
dt
= x0 + f (k) + k.
17.7
dt
t
dk
January 31, 2014
Note that the solution is to construct some curve e so that: (a) kt +c(k).kx is the total derivative
of k along the curve (ie., directional derivative) and (b) slope of the curve dx = c(k). We know
dt
k(x, t). Therefore directional derivative k(x, t) along t
dk(x, t)
k dx k
=
+ .
dt
t
dt x
k
df k
=
+ f (k) + k.
t
dk x
= 0
dk
ie.,
= 0
dt
df
That is k is constant along the curve e or dx = f (k) + k dk is constant along curve e. Therefore
dt
e must be straight line.
df
t
x(t) = x0 + f (k) + k.
dk
If k(x, 0) = k0 is initial condition
x(t) = x0 + f (k0 ) + k0 .
df
dk
t
k=k0
This function is plotted below along with a fundamental q-k diagram.
17.3.3
Inference
1. Density k is constant along characteristic lines

2. Characteristic lines are straight lines emanating from the boundaries of x t plane
3. The slope of the characteristic line is
dx
df
dq
= f (k) + k.
dt
dk
dk
ie., Characteristic curve has the slope equal to the tangent of the ow density curve.
4. When two Characteristic lines intersect (ie., 2 k values at a given x,t) shockwaves are
generated; and characteristic line terminate.
5. Shockwave represent mathematical discontinuity ie., abrupt changes to k, q, v.
6. Speed of the Shockwave is ratio of the time storage rate to space storage rate; that is:
qd qu
.
vw =
kd kv
17.8
January 31, 2014

wave velocity
wave velocity
q = kv = k(vf kf k)
vf j
dq
dx
dk = vf 2 k k = dt
j
k = 0 kB
kA
kj
dq
uw = dx dx
dt =
Shockwave
B
Characteristic lines
t
Vehicle trajectories
17.4
Conclusion
The advantages of the continuous modelling is that it gives good insight into the understanding
of the behaviour of trac. It can also be applied to platoon movement, signal control, etc.
Finally, it also paves the way for the development of higher order models. However, it also
has some serious limitations. The rst one is the diculty in getting solutions for realistic
problems(initial boundary conditions). Second, the q k and u k relationship are complex.
It may also cause unrealistic abrupt changes in the system. Finally acceleration-deceleration
characteristics are not directly modelled in the system.
17.9
January 31, 2014
17.5
References
[1] D Chowdhury, L Santen, and A Schadschneider. Statistical physics of vehicular trac

and some related systems. Physics Report 329, 2000. 199-329.
New Delhi, 1987.
17.10
January 31, 2014
18. Cell Transmission Models
Chapter 18
Cell Transmission Models
18.1
Introduction
Models are necessary to simulate the real world scenario to some extent, or in some cases,
they can even provide the exact scenario. Characteristics of trac changes with time, place,
human behavior etc. The models in trac engineering are necessary to predict the behavior
of trac in proper planning and design of the road network. The models can be microscopic
and macroscopic. In the present chapter, a macroscopic model has been discussed known as
cell transmission model which tries to simulate the trac behavior.
In the classical methods to explain macroscopic behaviour of trac, like hydrodynamic
theory, dierential equations need to be solved to predict trac evolution. However in situations
of sudden high density variations, like bottlenecking, the hydrodynamic model calls for a shock
wave (an ad-hoc). Hence these equations are essentially piecewise continuous which are dicult
to solve. Cell transmission models are developed as a discrete analogue of these dierential
equations in the form of dierence equations which are easy to solve and also take care of high
density changes.
In this lecture note the hydrodynamic model and cell transmission model and their equivalence is discussed. The cell transmission model is explained in two parts, rst with only a
source and a sink, and then it is extended to a network. In the rst part, the concepts of
basic ow advancement equations of CTM and a generalized form of CTM are presented. In
addition, the phenomenon of instability is also discussed. In the second segment, the network
representation and topologies are established, after which the model is discussed in terms of a
linear program formulation for merging and diverging.
18.1
January 31, 2014
18.2
Single source and sink CTM model
18.2.1
Basic Premise
The cell transmission model simulates trac conditions by proposing to simulate the system
with a time-scan strategy where current conditions are updated with every tick of a clock. The
road section under consideration is divided into homogeneous sections called cells, numbered
from i = 1 to I. The lengths of the sections are set equal to the distances travelled in light
trac by a typical vehicle in one clock tick. Under light trac condition, all the vehicles in a
cell can be assumed to advance to the next with each clock tick. i.e,
ni+1 (t + 1) = ni (t)
(18.1)
where, ni (t) is the number of vehicles in cell i at time t. However, equation 18.1 is not reasonable
when ow exceeds the capacity. Hence a more robust set of ow advancement equations are
presented in a later section.
18.2.2
Flow Advancement Equations
First, two constants associated with each cell are dened, they are: (i) Ni (t) which is the
maximum number of vehicles that can be present in cell i at time t, it is the product of the
cells length and its jam density. (ii) Qi (t) : is the maximum number of vehicles that can ow
into cell i when the clock advances from t to t + 1 (time interval t), it is the minimum of the
capacity of cells from i 1 and i. It is called the capacity of cell i. It represents the maximum
ow that can be transferred from i 1 to i. We allow these constants to vary with time to be
able to model transient trac incidents. Now the ow advancement equation can be written
as, the cell occupancy at time t + 1 equals its occupancy at time t, plus the inow and minus
the outow; i.e.,
ni (t + 1) = ni (t) + yi(t) yi+1 (t)
(18.2)
where, ni (t + 1) is the cell occupancy at time t + 1, ni (t) the cell occupance at time t, yi (t)
is the inow at time t, yi+1(t) is the outow at time t. The ows are related to the current
conditions at time t as indicated below:
yi (t) = min [ni1 (t), Qi (t), Ni (t) ni (t)]
(18.3)
where, ni1 (t): is the number of vehicles in cell i 1 at time t, Qi (t): is the capacity ow into
i for time interval t, Ni (t) - ni (t): is the amount of empty space in cell i at time t.
18.2
January 31, 2014
Qi1(t), Ni1(t)
Qi(t), Ni(t)
ni1(t)
ni(t)
Qi+1(t), Ni+1(t)
ni+1(t)
t + 1 ni(t + 1)
Figure 18:1: Flow advancement
18.2.3
Boundary conditions
Boundary conditions are specied by means of input and output cells. The output cell, a sink
for all exiting trac, should have innite size (NI+1 = ) and a suitable, possibly time-varying,
capacity. Input ows can be modeled by a cell pair. A source cell numbered 00 with an innite
number of vehicles (n00 (O) = ) that discharges into an empty gate cell 00 of innite size,
N0 (t) = . The inow capacity Q0 (t) of the gate cell is set equal to the desired link input ow
for time interval t + 1.
18.2.4
Equivalence with Hydrodynamic theory
Consider equations 18.2 & 18.3, they are discrete approximations to the hydrodynamic model
with a density- ow (k-q) relationship in the shape of an isoscaled trapezoid, as in Fig.18:2.
This relationship can be expressed as:
q = min [vk , qmax , v(kj k)], f or 0 k kj ,
(18.4)
Flow conservation is given by,

k(x, t)
q(x, t)
=
(18.5)
x
t
To demonstrate the equivalence of the discrete and continuous approaches, the clock tick set
to be equal to t and choose the unit of distance such that vt = 1. Then the cell length is 1,
v is also 1, and the following equivalences hold: x i, kj N, qmax Q, and k(x, t) ni (t)
with these conventions, it can be easily seen that the equations 18.4 & 18.3 are equivalent.
Equation 18.6 can be equivalently written as:
yi (t) yi+1 (t) = ni (t) + ni+1 (t + 1)
(18.6)
This represents change in ow over space equal to change in occupancy over time. Rearranging
terms of equation 18.7 we can arrive at equation 18.3, which is the same as the basic ow
advancement equation of the cell transmission model.
18.3
January 31, 2014
vkj/2
qmax
-v
ka
kb
F low
Figure 18:2: Flow-density relationship for the basic cell-transmission model
kj
1 1
v +w
qmax
w
ka
kb
Density
Figure 18:3: Flow-density relationship for the generalized CTM
18.3
Generalized CTM
Generalized CTM is an extension of the cell transmission model that would approximate the
hydrodynamic model for an equation of state that allows backward waves with speed w v
(see Fig. 18:3 ). This is a realistic model, since on many occassions speed of backward wave
will not be same as the free ow speed.
yi (t) = min [ni1 (t), Qi (t), w/v{Ni(t) ni (t)}]
(18.7)
A small modication is made in the above equation to avoid the error caused due to numerical
spreading. Equation 18.7 is rewritten as
yi (t) = min [ni1 (t), Qi (t), {Ni( t) ni (t)}]
(18.8)
where, = 1 if ni1 (t) Qi (t), and = w/v if ni1 (t) > Qi (t).
18.4
January 31, 2014
18.3.1
Numerical example
Consider a 1.25 km homogeneous road with speed v = 50 kmph, jam density kj = 180 veh/km
and qmax = 3000 veh/hr. Initially trac is owing undisturbed at 80% of capacity: q =
2400 veh/hr. Then, a partial lane blockage lasting 2 min occurs on 1/3rd of the distance from
the end of the road. The blockage eectively restricts ow to 20% of the maximum. Clearly, a
queue is going to build and dissipate behind the restriction. After 2 minutes, the ow in cell
3 is maximum possible ow. Predict the evolution of the trac. Take one clock tick as 30
seconds.
Solution The main purpose of cell transmission model is to simulate the real trac conditions
for a dened stretch of road. The speed and cell length is kept constant and also the cell lengths
in cell transmission model. The solution has been divided into 4 steps as follows:
Step 1: Determination of cell length and number of cells Given clock tick, t =
30sec = 1/120th of an hour. So, cell length = distance travelled by vehicle in one clock tick
= v t = 50 (1/120) 5/12 km. Road stretch given = 1.25 km. Therefore, no of cells =
1.25/(5/12) = 3 cells
Step 2: Determination of constants (N & Q) N = maximum numberof vehicles that
can be at time t in cell i, = cell length x jam density, = 180 x (5/12) = 75 vehicles, Q =
maximum number of vehicles that can ow into cell I from time t to t+1, = 3000 x (1/120) =
25 vehicles. Now, to simulate the trac conditions for some time interval, our main aim is to
nd the occupancies of the 3 cells (as calculated above) with the progression of clock tick. This
is easily showed by creating a table. First of all, the initial values in the tables are lled up.
Step 3: Determination of cell capacity in terms of number of vehicles for various
trac ows. For 20% of the maximum = 600 (1/120) vehicles. For 80% of the maximum =
2400 (1/120) vehicles.
Step 4: Initialization of the table The table has been prepared with source cell as a
large capacity value and a gate is there which connects and regulates the ow of vehicles from
source to cell 1 as per the capacity of the cell for a particular interval. The cell constants (Q
and N) for the 3 cells are shown in the table. Note that the sink can accommodate maximum
number of vehicles whichever the cell 3 generates. Q3 is the capacity in terms of number of
vehicls of cell 3 . The value from H5 to H7 (i.e 5) corresponds to the 2min time interval with 4
clock ticks when the lane was blocked so the capacity reduced to 20% of the maximum (i.e. 600
(1/120) vehicles). After the 2 min time interval is passed vehicles ows with full capacity
in cell 3. So the value is 25 (i.e 3000 (1/120) vehicles).
Step 5: Computation of Occupancies Simulation need not be started in any specic
18.5
January 31, 2014
Source(00)
Q
N
Time
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
Gate(0) Cell1
20
25
999
75
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Cell2
25
75
20
Cell3
75
Cell4
25
999
20
Q3
5
5
5
5
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
Table 18:1: Entries at the start of the simulation.
18.6
January 31, 2014
Q=25,N=75
t=1
20
Q=25,N=75
20
t=2
Q=20,N=75
t=1
20
20
Q=5,N=75
5
35
Q=25,N=75
20
t=2
20
20
Q=25,N=75
20
20
20
order, it can be started from any cell in the row corresponding to the current clock tick. Now,
consider cell circled (cell 2 at time 2) in the nal table. Its entry depends on the cells marked
with rectangles. By ow conservation law: Occupancy = Storage + Inow - Outow. Note
that the Storage is the occupancy of the same cell from the preceding clock tick. Also outow
of one cell is equal to the inow of the just succeeding cell. Here, Storage = 20. For inow use
equation 18.3 Inow= min [20,min(25,25),(75-20)]= 20. Outow= min [20,min(25,5),(75-20)]=
5. Occupancy= 20+20-5=35. Now, For cell 1 at time 2, Inow= min [20,min(25,25),(75-20)]=
20, Outow= min [20,min(25,25),(75-20)]= 20, Occupancy= 20+20-20=20. Now, For cell 3 at
time 2, Inow= min [20, min (25,5),(75-20)]= 5. Outow= 20 (:.sink cell takes all the vehicles
in previous cell) Occupancy= 20+5-20=5. Similarly, rest of the entries can be lled and the
nal result is shown in Table below. From the table it can be seen that the occupancy i.e. the
number of vehicles on cell 1 and 2 increases and then decreases simulating the eect of lane
blockage in cell 3 on cell 1 and cell 2. The lane blockage lasts 2 minutes in this problem, after
that there is no congestion taken into account. So as the time passes by, the occupancy in cell
1 and cell 2 also gets reduced.
Q=25,N=75
t=1
20
Q=5,N=75
t=2
20
Q=25,N=75
20
20
18.7
January 31, 2014
Source(00)
Q
N
Time
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
999
Gate(0) Cell 1 Cell 2 Cell 3 Cell 4

20
25
25
25
999
75
75
75
999
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
30
45
40
35
30
25
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
35
50
65
70
50
50
50
50
50
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
20
20
5
5
5
5
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
20
Q3
5
5
5
5
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
Table 18:2: Final entries simulating the trac
18.8
January 31, 2014

|1(j)| = 0

|(j)| = 1
Figure 18:4: Source Cell
18.3.2
Numerical example
Consider a 1.25 km homogeneous road with speed v = 50 kmph, jam density kj = 180 veh/km
and qmax = 3000 veh/hr. Initially trac is owing undisturbed at 80% of capacity: q = 2400
VPH. Then, a partial lane blockage lasting 2 min occurs l/3 of the distance from the end of
the road. The blockage eectively restricts ow to 20% of the maximum. Clearly, a queue is
going to build and dissipate behind the restriction. Predict the evolution of the trac. Take
one clock tick as 6 seconds.
Solution This problem is same as the earlier problem, only change being the clock tick.
This problem has been solved in Excel. The simulation is done for this smaller clock tick; the
results are shown in Fig. 18:3 One can clearly observe the pattern in which the cells are getting
updated. After the decrease in capacity on last one-third segment queuing is slowly building up
and the backward wave can be appreciated through the rst arrow. The second arrow shows
the dissipation of queue and one can see that queue builds up at a faster than it dissipates.
This simple illustration shows how CTM mimics the trac conditions.
18.4
CTM: Network Trac
18.4.1
General
As sequel to his rst paper on CTM, Daganzo (1995) published rst paper on CTM applied to
network trac. In this section application of CTM to network trac considering merging and
diverging is discussed. Some basic notations: (The notations used from here on, are adopted
from Ziliaskopoulos (2000)) 1 = Set of predecessor cells. = Set of successor cells.
18.4.2
Network topologies
The notations introduced in previous section are applied to dierent types of cells, as shown in
Figures 18:4, 18:5 & 18:6. Some valid and invalid representations in a network are shown in
Fig 18:10 & Fig 18:9.
18.9
January 31, 2014

clock tick
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
1
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
2
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
8
7
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
8
9
12
14
10
10
10
10
10
9
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
6
7
10
13
14
14
14
10
4
4
4
4
4
4

5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
8
11
14
14
14
14
14
14
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
6
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
6
9
12
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
7
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
6
7
10
13
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
8
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
8
11
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
9
4
4
4
5
6
9
12
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10 11
6 4
7 1
10 1
13 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
14 1
10 5
10 5
10 5
10 5
10 5
10 5
10 5
10 5
10 5
10 5
10 5
10 5
10 5
12 13 14 15
4 4 4 4
4 4 4 4
1 4 4 4
1 1 4 4
1 1 1 4
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
5 1 1 1
5 5 1 1
5 5 5 1
5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5
Table 18:3: Illustration of trac simulation in CTM

18.10
January 31, 2014

|1(j)|=1
|(j)| = 0
Figure 18:5: Sink Cell
Cell j
|1(j)| = 1
|(j)| = 1
Figure 18:6: Ordinary Cell
Cell j
|1(j)| > 1
|(j)| = 1
Figure 18:7: Merging Cell
Cell j
|1(j)| = 1
|(j)| > 1
Figure 18:8: Diverging Cell
k
k
Figure 18:9: Invalid representations

18.11
January 31, 2014
Figure 18:10: Valid representations

B_{k}
k
E_{k}
Figure 18:11: Ordinary Link
18.4.3
Ordinary link
Consider an ordinary link with a beginning cell and ending cell, which gives the ow between
two cells is simplied as explained below.
yk (t) = min(nBk (t), min[QBk (t), QEk (t)], Ek [NEk(t) nEk(t)])
(18.9)
where, = w/v. yk (t) is the inow to cell Ek in the time interval (t,t + 1). Dening the
maximum ows that can be sent and received by the cell i in the interval between t to t + 1 as
SI (t) = min(QI, nI), and RI (t) = min(QI , I , [NI nI ]). Therefore, yk (t) can be written in a
more compact form as: yk (t) = min(SBk , REk ). This means that the ow on link k should be
the maximum that can be sent by its upstream cell unless prevented to do so by its end cell. If
blocked in this manner, the ow is the maximum allowed by the end cell. From equations one
can see that a simplication is done by splitting yk (t) in to SBk and REk terms. S represents
sending capacity and R represents receiving capacity. During time periods when SBk < REk
the ow on link k is dictated by upstream trac conditions-as would be predicted from the
forward moving characteristics of the Hydrodynamic model. Conversely, when SBk > REk , ow
is dictated by downstream conditions and backward moving characteristics.
18.4.4
Merging and Diverging
Consider two cells merging, here we have a beginning cell and its complimentary merging into
ending cell, the constraints on the ow that can be sent and received are given by equation 18.10
and equation 18.10.
yk (t) SBk ; yck (t) SCk yk (t) + yck (t) REk
18.12
(18.10)
January 31, 2014
Bk
k
Ek
ck
Ck
where, SI (t) = (QI , nI ), and RI (t) = (QI , I, [NI nI ]). A number of combinations of yk (t) +
yck (t) are possible satisfying the above said constraints. Similarly for diverging a number of
possible outows to dierent links is possible satisfying corresponding constraints, hence this
calls for an optimization problem. Ziliaskopoulos (2000), has given this LP formulations for
both merging and diverging, this has been discussed later
18.5
CTM Software - NETCELL
NETCELL is a freeway network simulation program based on the cell transmission model
developed by Cay ford, Lin and Daganzo.
It consists of two components,
NETCELL
NETVIEW(a graphical postprocessor)
This is a free software and can be downloaded from the link below http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/ daganzo/software and data.htm
NETCELL is a macroscopic simulation program in which vehicle quantities are treated as
continuous variables. Vehicles are advanced in a way consistent with the hydrodynamic
theory of trac ow.
18.6
Conclusion
18.6.1
Summary
CTM is a discrete approximation of hydrodynamic model. System evolution is based on

dierence equations.
18.13
January 31, 2014
Unlike hydrodynamic model, it explains the phenomenon of Instability.

Lesser the time per clock tick lesser are the size of cells and more accurate results would
be obtained. But a compromise is needed between accuracy and computational eort.
Largest possible cell size which would suciently give the details needed must be chosen.
CTM has many applications in DTA, NDP, trac operations, emergency evacuations etc.
There is a vast scope for improvement and applications of this model.
18.6.2
Advantages and applications
CTM is consistent with hydrodynamic theory, which is a widely used model for studying
macroscopic behavior of the trac.
It is simple and suciently accurate for planning purposes.
CTM can be used to provide real time information to the drivers.
CTM has been used in developing a system optimal signal optimization formulation.
CTM based Dynamic Trac Assignment have shown good results.
CTM has its application in Network Design Problems.(NDP)
18.6.3
Limitations
CTM is for a typical vehicle in network trac, work is needed for the multi-modal
representation of trac.
Cell length cannot be varied. For this the methods like Modied Cell Transmission Model
is to be used.
CTM is largely deterministic, stochastic variables are needed to be introduced to represent
the random human behavior.
18.7
References
1. C D Alexandru. A stochastic mesoscopic cell transmission model for operational analysis of large-scale transportation networks. A dissertation submitted to Louisiana State
University, 2006.
18.14
January 31, 2014
2. C F Daganzo. The cell transmission model Part I: A simple dynamic representation

of highway trac. Research Report UCB-ITS-PATH-RR-93-7, University of California,
Berkeley, 1993.
3. C F Daganzo. The cell transmission model: A dynamic representation of highway trac
consistent with the hydrodynamic theory. Transportation Research B, 28(4):269-287,
1994.
4. C F Daganzo. The cell transmission model. Part II: Network Trac. Transportation
Research B, 29(2):79-93, 1995.
5. A K Ziliaskopoulos. A Linear Programming Model for the Single Destination System
Optimum Dynamic Trac Assignment Problem. Transportation Science, Vol.34,No. 1,
2000.
18.15
January 31, 2014
19. Trac Progression Models
Chapter 19
Trac Progression Models
19.1
Introduction
A majority of the metro cities in India are facing the problem of trac congestion, delays,
which have further resulted in pollution. The delays are caused mainly due to the isolated
functioning of the trac signals at closely located intersections. For better regulation of trac
ow at these intersections, the trac signals need to be coordinated or linked. For the linking
of signals, the vehicle movement characteristics from upstream signal to downstream signal
need to be considered and simulated. Trac Progression Models model the vehicle movement
characteristics and help in the linking of signals. First, the concept of platoon, platoon variables
is discussed and then platoon ratio is dened which is required for determination of arrival type.
Then, the phenomenon of platoon dispersion and platoon dispersion model is introduced for
understanding dispersion behavior of the vehicles. Finally, one of the platoon dispersion models
i.e., Robersons platoon dispersion model is discussed, which estimates the vehicle arrivals at
downstream locations based on an upstream departure prole.
19.2
Characterising Platoon
A vehicle Platoon is dened as a group of vehicles travelling together. A vehicle Platoon is

shown in Fig. 19:1.
19.2.1
Variables describing platoon
The various vehicle platoon characteristics or variables include platoon size, platoon headway,
platoon speed and inter-arrival headway. Platoon behaviour and distribution patterns could be
identied with respect to these parameters. The various platoon characteristics are illustrated
in Fig. 19:2.
19.1
January 31, 2014
Vehicle
Vehicle
Vehicle
Vehicle
Vehicle
Vehicle
Vehicle
Vehicle
Vehicle
Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle
Figure 19:1: A vehicle Platoon

Stop Platoon
Line Detector
LP
Direction of traffic
IA
h1 h2
Figure 19:2: Illustration of Platoon Variables

Platoon Size (Np): It is the number of vehicles in a platoon.
Platoon Headway (hp): It is the average value of headways within a platoon.
Platoon Speed (Vp): It is the average speed of all the vehicles within a platoon.
Inter-Arrival (IA): It is the headway between the last vehicle of the preceding platoon
and the rst vehicle of the following platoon.
Various values of platoon headway and inter-arrival between consecutive platoons can be used
to determine appropriate critical headway for platoon identication and detection. Once the
critical headway is determined, platoon size and platoon speed can be detected to calculate
the signal timing adjustment to accommodate the approaching vehicle platoon. It is of great
importance to select a proper value of the critical headway since a small change in the critical
headway will generate tremendous changes in the resultant platoon characteristics. Use of a
large critical headway will result in a large average platoon size and require a large detection
area in order to detect large vehicle platoons. Consequently, a large detection area leads to
an increase of detector installation and maintenance costs. On the other hand, use of a small
critical headway will result in a small average platoon size, but may not provide sucient
vehicle platoon information. Therefore, it is desired to nd an appropriate critical headway so
19.2
January 31, 2014
Table 19:1: Relationship between Arrival Type and Platoon Ratio

Arrival Range of platoon Default value(Rp ) Progression quality
type
ratio(Rp )
1
0.50
0.333
Very poor
2
> 0.50 0.85
0.667
Unfavorable
3
> 0.85 1.15
1.000
Random arrivals
4
> 1.15 1.50
1.333
Favorable
5
> 1.5 2.00
1.667
Highly favorable
6
>2
2.000
Exceptional
that sucient platoon information can be obtained within a proper detection area. Research
has shown that headways are rarely less than 0.5 seconds or over 10 seconds at dierent trac
volumes. Many investigations have been done on nding the eects of critical headways of
1.2, 1.5, 2.1 and 2.7 seconds on platoon behaviour and these investigations have shown that a
critical headway of 2.1 seconds corresponding to a trac volume of 1500 vehicles per hour per
lane (vphpl) can be taken for data collection.
19.2.2
Platoon Ratio
The platoon ratio denoted as Rp, is a numerical value used to quantify the quality of progression
on an approach. The platoon ratio represents the ratio of the number of vehicles arriving during
the green phase to the proportion of the green interval of the total cycle. This is given by
Rp = P
C
g
(19.1)
where, P = Proportion of all vehicles during green time, C = Cycle length, g = Eective green
time. Its value ranges from 0.5 to 2.0. It is used in the calculation of delays, capacity of an
approach. The arrival types range from 1 (worst platoon condition) to 6 (the best platoon
condition). The platoon ratio approximates the arrival type and the progression quality. For
example HCM (2000) has suggested the following relationship between platoon ratio and arrival
which is as shown in Table 19:1.
19.3
Platoon Dispersion
As a platoon moves downstream from an upstream intersection, the vehicles disperse i.e., the
distance between the vehicles increase which may be due to the dierences in the vehicle speeds,
19.3
January 31, 2014

4
0m
Direction of traffic flow
2
0m
0
2 18 34 50 66 82
200 m
300 m
200 m
0
2 18 34 50 66 82
4
300 m
2
0
2 18 34 50 66 82
Figure 19:3: A simple case of Platoon Dispersion

vehicle interactions (lane changing and merging) and other interferences (parking, pedestrians,
etc.,). This phenomenon is called as Platoon Dispersion.
Dispersion has been found to be a function of the travel time from a signal to a downstream
signal (or other downstream location) and the length of the platoon. The longer the travel
time between signals, the greater the dispersion. This is intuitively logical since the longer
the travel time, the more time (opportunity) there is for dierent drivers to deviate from the
average travel time. A simple case of Platoon Dispersion is as shown in Fig. 19:3. From the
gure, it can be observed that, initially the peak of the platoon is high and the length of the
platoon is comparatively small, but as the platoon progresses downstream, the peak of the
platoon decreases and the length increases.
Various trac engineering software like TRANSYT (Trac Network Study Tool) and
SCOOT (Split Cycle Oset Optimization Technique) have employed the phenomenon of Platoon Dispersion for the prediction of Arrival Types. A ow prole obtained from TRANSYT-7F
is as shown in the Fig. 19:4. From this gure also, it can be observed that, initially the peak
of the platoon is high and the length of the platoon is small, but as the platoon progresses
downstream, the peak of the platoon decreases and the length increases.
19.3.1
Platoon Dispersion Models
Platoon dispersion models simulate the dispersion of a trac stream as it travels downstream
by estimating vehicle arrivals at downstream locations based on an upstream vehicle departure prole and a desired trac-stream speed. There are two kinds of mathematical models
describing the dispersion of the platoon, namely:
19.4
January 31, 2014
1600
1400
Flowrate
1200
1000
800
600
400
2000
1000
500
100
50
200
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time
Figure 19:4: A TRANSYT-7F Flow Prole

1. Normal Distribution Model - proposed by Pacey
2. Geometric Distribution Model - proposed by Robertson
One of the geometric distribution models is the Robertsons platoon dispersion model, which
has become a virtually universal standard platoon dispersion model and has been implemented
in various trac simulation softwares. Research has already been conducted on the applicability
of platoon dispersion as a reliable trac movement model in urban street networks. Most of
the research has shown that Robertsons model of platoon dispersion is reliable, accurate, and
robust.
19.3.2
Robertsons Platoon Dispersion Model
The basic Robertsons recursive platoon dispersion model takes the following mathematical
form
d
d
qt = Fn qtT + (1 Fn ) qtn
(19.2)
d
where, qt = arrival ow rate at the downstream signal at time t, qtT = departure ow rate at
the upstream signal at time t-T, T = minimum travel time on the link (measured in terms of
unit steps T =Ta ), Ta = average link travel time, n = modeling time step duration, Fn is the
smoothing factor given by:
1
(19.3)
Fn =
1 + n n Ta
n = platoon dispersion factor (unitless) n = travel time factor (unitless) Equation shows
that the arrival ows in each time period at each intersection are dependent on the departure
19.5
January 31, 2014

All inflow
in vehicles

q1
q2
q1*F
q2*F
q3
t+i
t+2i
q#*F
q4
t+ki
Figure 19:5: Graphical Representation of Robertsons Platoon Dispersion Model

ows from other intersections. Note that the Robertsons platoon dispersion equation means
d
that the trac ow qt , which arrives during a given time step at the downstream end of a link,
is a weighted combination of the arrival pattern at the downstream end of the link during the
d
previous time step qtn and the departure pattern from the upstream trac signal T seconds
ago qtT .
Fig. 19:5 gives the graphical representation of the model. It clearly shows that predicated
ow rate at any time step is a linear combination of the original platoon ow rate in the
corresponding time step (with a lag time of t) and the ow rate of the predicted platoon in the
step immediately preceding it. Since the dispersion model gives the downstream ow at a given
time interval, the model needs to be applied recursively to predict the ow. Seddon developed
a numerical procedure for platoon dispersion. He rewrote Robertsons equation as,
d
qt
=
i=T
Fn (1 Fn )iT qti+T
(19.4)
This equation demonstrates that the downstream trac ow computed using the Robertsons
platoon dispersion model follows a shifted geometric series, which estimates the contribution of
an upstream ow in the (ti)th interval to the downstream ow in the tth interval. A successful
application of Robertsons platoon dispersion model relies on the appropriate calibration of the
model parameters. Research has shown that the travel-time factor (n ) is dependent on the
platoon dispersion factor (n ). Using the basic properties of the geometric distribution of
Equation 19:5, the following equations have been derived for calibrating the parameters of the
Robertson platoon dispersion model.
n =
1
1 + n
OR n =
19.6
1 n
n
(19.5)
January 31, 2014
Equation 19.5 demonstrates that the value of the travel time factor () is dependent on the
value of the platoon dispersion factor () and thus a value of 0.8 as assumed by Robertson
results in inconsistencies in the formulation. Further, the model requires calibration of only
one of them and the other factors can be obtained subsequently.
2Ta + n n2 + 4 2
n =
(19.6)
2Ta
where, is the standard deviation of link travel times and Ta is the average travel time between
upstream and downstream intersections. Equation demonstrates that travel time factor can be
obtained knowing the average travel time, time step for modeling and standard deviation of
the travel time on the road stretch.
n2 + 4 2 n
(19.7)
Fn = n
2 2
Equation 19.7 further permits the calculation of the smoothing factor directly from the standard
deviation of the link travel time and time step of modeling. Thus, both n and Fn can be
mathematically determined as long as the average link travel time, time step for modeling and
its standard deviation are given.
Numerical Example 1
In a case study, the average travel time for a particular stretch was found out to be 22.8 seconds,
standard deviation is 5.951 and model time step duration is 10 sec. Find out the Robertsons
model parameters and also the ow at downstream at dierent time steps where the upstream
ows are as given as: q10 sec = 20, q20 sec = 10, q30 sec = 15, q40 sec = 18, q50 sec = 14, q60 sec = 12.
19.7
January 31, 2014
Solution Given, The model time step duration n=10sec, average travel time (Ta )=22.8sec,
standard deviation ()=5.951. From equations above.
2Ta + n n2 + 4 2
n =
2Ta
2 22.8 + 10 102 + 4 5.9512

=
2 22.8
= 0.878
1 n
n =
n
1 0.878
=
0.878
= 0.139
n2 + 4 2 n
Fn = n
2
2
102 + 4 5.9512 10
= 10
2 5.9512
= 0.783
Upstream Flows: Since the modelling time step duration is given as n=10 sec, the given
upstream ows can be written as follows:
q10
sec
= q1
q20
sec
= q2
q30
sec
= q3
On simmilar lines , q4 , q5 , q6 can be written.

Downstream Flows: On the downstream, at 10 sec the ow will be zero since the modelling
step duration is 10 sec. Hence the downstream ows can be written as follows.
d
q20
d
= q1
d
q30
sec
d
= q2
d
q40
sec
sec
d
= q3
19.8
January 31, 2014
Simmilarly, downstreams ows can be written till 80 sec. Note that since n=10 sec, T is taken
in units of n. The minimum travel time (T) is given as
T = Ta = 0.878 22.8 = 20 sec = 2
d
qt
=
i=T
d
q1
Fn (1 Fn )iT qti+T
= F (1 F )22 q12+2
= F q1
= 0.783 20 = 15.66 16 veh

d
q2 = F (1 F )22 q22+2 + F (1 F )32 q23+2
= F q2 + F (1 F )1 q1
= 0.783x10 + 0.783 (1 0.783)1 20

= 7.83 + 3.39 = 11.22 11 veh
d
q3 = F (1 F )22 q32+2 + F (1 F )32 q3+2 + F (1 F )42 q34+2
= F q3 + F (1 F )1 q2 + F (1 F )2 q1
= 0.783 15 + 0.783 (1 0.783)1 10 + 0.783 (1 0.783)2 20

= 11.75 + 1.69 + 0.737 = 14.18 14 veh
Calculating on similar lines, we get

d
q4 (50 sec) = 17 veh
d
q5 (60 sec) = 15 veh
d
q6 (70 sec) = 13 veh
d
q7 (80 sec) = 3 veh
The total upstream vehicles in 60 sec is 89. And total downstream vehicles in 80 sec is 89. That
is, all 89 vehicles coming from upstream in 6 intervals took 7 intervals to pass the downstream.
Numerical Example 2
In a case study, the average travel time from the upstream point to 1st downward point (point
in between upstream and downstream) was found out to be 22.8 seconds and from upstream
point to downward point (end point) was found out to be 32.8 seconds , standard deviation
19.9
January 31, 2014
is 5.951 and model time step duration is 10 sec. Find out the Robertsons model parameters
and also the ow at downstream at dierent time steps where the upstream ows are as given
below. q10 sec = 20, q20 sec = 10, q30 sec = 15, q40 sec = 18, q50 sec = 14, q60 sec = 12.
Solution This problem is simmilar to the earlier problem. Only there are 2 downstream
points given in this. For the rst downstream point, upstream values of ow given in the
problem will be used, whereas for the 2nd downstream point, the ow from the 1st downstream
point is to be used. Hence at 1st downstream point, ow in the rst interval is zero and at
the 2n d downstream value, ow is zero for rst 2 intervals. The calculations have been done in
excel and the following shows the results.
Upstream Vol. for (in sec.)
10
20
30
40
50
60
No. of Vehicles
20
10
15
18
14
12
0
0
0
0
89
Smoothing Factor F
Lag Time(For In Between Point)
Lag Time(For End Point)
0.783
20 sec
30 sec
Four graphs are plotted below. The rst graph shows the upstream prole, the second shows
the downstream prole at in between point, the third shows the downstream prole at the end
point. The last graph shows the comparison of all the three.
19.4
Conclusion
Initially, the concept of platoon and platoon variables was discussed. The platoon variables are
required for the determination of critical headway which further helps in platoon identication.
Then, the platoon ratio was dened which helps us in identifying the arrival type. Later,
19.10
January 31, 2014
Downstream Volume
At in between Point
(in seconds)
10
0
20
15.66
30
11.23
40
14.18
50
17.17
60
14.69
70
12.58
80
2.73
90
0.59
100
0.13
0.00
88.96
Downstream Volume
At End Point
(in seconds)
10
0.00
20
0.00
30
12.26
40
11.45
50
13.59
60
16.39
70
15.06
80
13.12
90
4.99
100
1.55
110
0.44
120
0.09
88.84
25
20
Upstream
traffic
Downstream
traffic in between
Downstream
traffic at end point
15
10
5
0
20
40
60
80 100
120 140
19.11
January 31, 2014
platoon dispersion model was discussed which model the departure prole of the downstream
vehicles based on the upstream departure prole. Finally, Robertsons platoon dispersion model
is discussed with the help of numerical examples. The Robertsons platoon dispersion model
estimates the downstream volume at dierent time intervals which can be used for the linking
of the signals and optimization of signal timings.
19.5
References

2. Y Jiang, L Shou, and E Daniel. A Platoon-based Trac Signal Timing Algorithm for
Major-Minor Intersection Types. Transportation Research Part B 40, 2006.
3. A Manar and K G Baass. Trac Flow Theory and Trac ow simulation models.
Transportation Research Record: 1566, 1996.
4. F Qiao, H Yang, and W Lam. Intelligent simulation and prediction of trac ow dispersion. Transportation Research Part B: Methodological, 35(9), 2001.
5. H Rakha and M Farzaneh. Calibration of TRANSYT Trac Dispersion Model: Issues
and Proposed Solutions. Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, 2004.
6. R H Showers. Investigation and Enhancement of models that describe the ow of trac
on arterial streets. A Ph.D. Thesis submitted to the University of Florida,4,73,97, 2002.
7. W Wey. Model formulation and solution algorithm of trac signal control in an urban
network. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 24, 2000.
19.12
January 31, 2014
20. Discrete Simulation Models
Chapter 20
Discrete Simulation Models
20.1
Introduction
In the eld of trac ow modelling, microscopic simulation involves the detailed models that
describe the behaviour of individual vehicles so it is always a time consuming and a complex
process. So, approximately a decade ago new microscopic models have been developed and
they are based on Cellular Automata programming. The main advantage was an ecient and
fast performance when used in computer simulations, due to their rather low accuracy on a
microscopic scale. These so-called trac cellular automata (TCA) are dynamical systems that
are discrete in nature, in the sense that time advances with discrete steps and space is coarsegrained (e.g., the road is discretised into cells of 7.5m wide, each cell being empty or containing
a vehicle).
A Cellular Automata is an n-dimensional array of simple cells where each cell may be in
any one of k-states. At each tick of the clock a cell will change its state based on the states of
the cells in a local neighborhood. Typically, the rule for updating the state does not change
over time, and is applied to the whole grid simultaneously. Due to its simplicity the CA rules
are used to solve the complex behaviour. Through the use of powerful computers, these models
can encapsulate the complexity of the real world trac behavior and produces clear physical
patterns that are similar to those we see in everyday life. One more advantage of cellular
automata models is their eciency in showing the clear transition from the moving trac to
jamming trac. CA models have the distinction of being able to capture micro-level dynamics
and relate these to macro level trac ow behavior.
20.2
Cellular Automata
20.2.1
Components of Cellular Automata
There are four components, which play a major role in cellular automata.
20.1
January 31, 2014
Figure 20:1: Physical environment as dierent types of cells
i1
i+1
Figure 20:2: Neighbourhoods of the present cell i

The physical environment
The term physical environment indicates the physical platform on which CA is computed. It
normally consists of discrete lattice of cells with rectangular, hexagonal etc shown in Fig. 20:1.
All these cells are equal in size. They can be nite or innite in size and its dimensionality can
be 1 (a linear string of cells called an elementary cellular automaton or ECA).
The cells states
Every cell can be in a particular state where typically an integer can determine the number of
distinct states a cell can be in, eg (binary state). Generally, the cell is assigned with an integer
value or a null value based upon its state. The states of cells collectively are called as Global
conguration. This convention clearly indicates that states are local and refer to cells, while
a conguration is global and refers to the whole lattice.
The cells neighbourhoods
The future state of a cell is mainly dependent on its state of its neighbourhood cell, so neighbourhood cell determines the evolution of the cell. So generally, the lattices vary as one-dimensional
and two-dimensional. In one dimensional lattice, the present cell and the two adjacent cells
forms its neighbourhoods ( shown in Fig. 20:2), whereas in the context of two dimensional
lattice there are four adjacent cells which acts as the neighbourhoods. Therefore, it is clear
that as the dimensionality increases the no of adjacent cells also increases.
20.2
January 31, 2014
A local transition rule

This rule (also called function) acts upon a cell and its direct neighbourhood, such that the
cells state changes from one discrete time step to another (i.e., the systems iterations). The
CA evolves in time and space as the rule is subsequently applied to all the cells in parallel.
Typically, the same rule is used for all the cells (if the converse is true, then the term hybrid
CA is used). When there are no stochastic components present in this rule, we call the model
a deterministic CA, as opposed to a stochastic (also called probabilistic) CA.
20.2.2
Road and physical environment
When the cellular automaton analogy is applied to vehicular road trac ows, the physical
environment of the system represents the road on which the vehicles are been driving. In a
general single-lane setup for trac cellular automata, this layout consists of a one-dimensional
lattice that is composed of individual cells (our description here mainly focuses on unidirectional, single-lane trac). Every cell either can be empty, or occupied by exactly one vehicle.
We use the term single-cell models to describe these systems. Multi-cell models are those models, where the vehicle has a possibility to span several consecutive cells. Because vehicles move
from one cell to another, TCA models are also called particle-hopping models.
An example of the tempo-spatial dynamics of such a system is depicted in the below Fig.4,
where two consecutive vehicles i and j are driving on a one-dimensional lattice. Here we assume
T = 1 s and X = 7.5m, corresponding to speed increments of V =X/T =27 km/h. The spatial
discretisation corresponds to the average length a conventional vehicle occupies in a closely jam
packed (and as such, its width is neglected), whereas the temporal discretisation is based on a
typical drivers reaction time and we implicitly assume that a driver does not react to events
between two consecutive time steps.
20.2.3
Vehicle movements
In trac stream, the movement of the individual vehicles is described by means of a rule
set that reects the car-following and lane-changing behaviour of a trac cellular automaton
evolving in time and space. The TCAs local transition rule actually comprises this set of rules.
These rules are applied to all the vehicles in parallel (where in that case it is called as parallel
update). Therefore, in a classic setup, the systems state is changed through synchronous
position updates of all the vehicles.
For each vehicle, the new speed is computed, after which its position is updated according
to this speed and a possible lane-change manoeuvre. Note that there are other ways to perform
20.3
January 31, 2014
this update procedure, e.g., a random sequential update. It is assumed that a driver does not
react to events between consecutive time steps. For single-lane trac, we assume that vehicles
act as anisotropic particles, i.e., they only respond to frontal stimuli. So typically, the carfollowing part of a rule set only considers the direct frontal neighbourhood of the vehicle to
which the rules are applied.
The radius of this neighbourhood should be taken large enough such that vehicles are able
to drive collision-free. In most cases, this radius is equal to the maximum speed a vehicle can
achieve, expressed in cells per time step. From a microscopic point of view, the process of a
vehicle following its predecessor is typically expressed using a stimulus-response relation. This
response is the speed or the acceleration of a vehicle in TCA models. A vehicles stimulus is
mainly composed of its speed and the distance to its leader, with the response directly being a
new (adjusted) speed of the vehicle.
20.2.4
Mathematical notations
CA model represents a discrete dynamic system, consisting of four ingredients namely, the
physical environment denoted as (), the set of possible states denoted as (), the associated
neighbourhood cells of ith cell represented as (Ni ) and the set of the possible future update
cells is denoted by the notation (). So the CA is the function of the four ingredients and is
formulated mathematically as CA = (, , N, ). The physical environment () is a discrete
lattice with the neighbourhood of radius 1 in normal case where as it changes with the user
based upon his usage of the dierent cells sizes. The set of possible states denoted as () takes
the values as ( 0,1) where 1 indicates the presence of vehicle in the cell or 0 for the empty
condition. So, for every time step t the ith cell of a lattice has a state i(t) which belongs to .
In normal case of one-dimensional, lattice the neighbourhood cells of i are Ni = i 1, i, i + 1,
where (i 1) is the left hand side cell and (i + 1) is the right hand side cell. The set of possible
future update cells is represented as i 1(t), i(t), i + 1(t) i(t + 1), where left hand side are
the present cell and the neighbourhood cells and the right hand side part is the state of the cell
i at time t + 1.
Converting between TCA and real world units seems straightforward, as we only need
to suitably multiply with or divide by the temporal and spatial discretisation T and X,
respectively. The conversions for the macroscopic trac stream characteristics densities, ows,
and space-mean speeds, as well as the microscopic vehicle speed, are as follows:
k = k 1000/X
(20.1)
q = q 3600/T
v = v 3.6 X/T
(20.2)
(20.3)
20.4
January 31, 2014
where k , v , q are the values of density, speed, ow in the units of CA, and k, q, v are the real
world values of density, ow and speed.
The length of our cell is 7.5 m and if our stretch of road is 1000m (i.e., 1 km ) then the
no of cells in CA turns out to be 1000/7.5 =133.333 cells. So, for a single cell model if the
density turns out to be one unit (i.e., one vehicle per cell) then in the real world its density
(Kj) is 1*1000/7.5 = 133vehicles/km as per the equation. 20.1. The speed increment of the
vehicles is the ratio of distance and time. In our case the distance is the length of one cell and
time interval is one unit (sec) so the speed in km/hr is 7.5*3600/1000 =27km/hr as per the
equation. 20.3.
20.2.5
Wolfram 184 rule
In this section, we shall discuss about the Wolfram rule 184, which is used to determine the
new state of the cell. In a single lane highway, rule 184 is used as a simple model for trac
ow and it forms the basis for many cellular automaton models of trac ow.
In this model, vehicles move in a single direction, stopping and starting depending on the
vehicles in front of them. The number of vehicles remains unchanged throughout the simulation.
Because of this application, Rule 184 is sometimes called the trac rule. Rule 184 in a simpler
way can be understood as a system of particles moving both leftwards and rightwards through
a one-dimensional medium. The rule set for Rule 184 is described as; At each step, if a cell
with value 1 has a cell with value 0 immediately to its right, the 1 moves rightwards leaving a
0 behind. A 1 with another 1 to its right remains in place, while a 0 that does not have a 1 to
its left stays a 0. This description is most apt for the application to trac ow modeling.
The truth table for rule 184 is shown in Table. 20:1. The operation of the rule is easily
summarized as: if the center cell is at state zero, shift the state of the left neighbor into the
center cell, else shift the state of the right neighbor into the center cell (equation. 20.4).
t
t
i1 : i = 0
t+1
t
i =
(20.4)
t
: i = 1
i+1
The rst three columns are the neighborhood and the rightmost column is the state of the
center cell that results from applying the transition function on the neighborhood.
The name for this rule, Rule 184, is the Wolfram code describing the state in the Fig. 20:3:
the bottom row of the gure, 10111000, when viewed as a binary number, is equal to the
decimal number 184. All 8 possible congurations for the local neighbourhood are sorted in
descending order, expressing the local transition rule (i, t) as explained by Fig. 20:3.
20.5
January 31, 2014
Table 20:1: Operation of Wolfram rule 184

t
t
Si1 Sit Si+1 Sit+1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
11 1
1 10
101
100
011
010
001
000
1 27 + 0 26 + 1 25 + 1 24 + 1 23 + 0 22 + 0 21 + 0 20
128 + 0 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 184
Figure 20:3: New state of each cell as a function of the previous state
20.2.6
Single cell models
Till now we have discussed the physical and mathematical aspects of cellular automata and TCA
models in particular, we shall now focus on single-cell models. As explained before each cell can
either be empty, or is occupied by exactly one vehicle all vehicles have the same length li =1
cell. Trac is also considered homogeneous, so all vehicles characteristics are assumed the same.
In earlier section, 2.5 we had discussed the wolfram rule 184 which is actually a deterministic
model but in the realistic trac scenario there is stochastic term coming into picture so Wolfram
rule proved to inecient in explaining such cases and hence stochastic models are have been
emerged. In the subsequent sections, we look at such stochastic TCA models (accompanied
by their suggested abbreviations). In summary, Wolframs rule 184 (CA-184) falls under the
deterministic model and the stochastic models have emerged when Nagel with the help of
Schreckenberg proposed a TCA model which is the well known cellular automata in the trac
perspective.
Models that allow for the spontaneous emergence of phantom jams are called stochastic
models. In 1992, Nagel and Schreckenberg proposed a TCA model that was able to reproduce
several characteristics of real-life trac ows, e.g., the spontaneous emergence of trac jams.
Their model is called the NaSch TCA, but is more commonly known as the Stochastic trac
20.6
January 31, 2014
cellular automaton (STCA).
20.2.7
Stochastic Cellular Automata (STCA)
We shall now discuss stochastic TCA models (i.e., these are probabilistic CAs) that allow for the
spontaneous emergence of phantom jams. All these models explicitly incorporate a stochastic
term in their equations, in order to accomplish this kind of real-life behaviour.
In 1992, Nagel and Schreckenberg proposed. A TCA model that was able to reproduce
several characteristics of real-life trac ows, e.g., the spontaneous emergence of trac jams.
Their model is called the NaSch TCA, but is more commonly known as the stochastic trac
cellular automaton (STCA). It explicitly includes a stochastic noise term in one of its rules,
which we present in the same fashion as those of the previously discussed deterministic TCA
models. The space is divided into cells (cell may contain vehicle or can be empty). The length of
a cell is the minimum space headway available between vehicles in times of jam, and numerically
it is reciprocal of jam density and is set to 7.5 m( Kj=133veh/km).
The STCA then comprises the following three rules (note that in Nagel and Schreckenbergs
original formulation, they decoupled acceleration and braking, resulting in four rules). Here we
shall discuss about the NaSch model based upon its rules. There are four rules, mainly rules
for acceleration, rules of deceleration, rules for randomization and lastly the vehicle updation
step.
Step 1: Rule for acceleration
if (vn < vmax ), then vn min(vn + 1, vmax )
(20.5)
This step reects the general tendency of the drivers to drive as fast as possible without crossing
the maximum speed limit. If the present speed is smaller than the desired maximum speed, the
vehicle is accelerated. The desired speed vmax can be assumed to be distributed by a statistical
distribution function where the values of vmax are only allowed to be 1, 2,..., 5 cell/t.
Step 2: Rule for deceleration
if (dn vn ), then vn min(vn , dn 1)
(20.6)
This step ensures that the driver doesnt collide with any vehicle ahead of him so that deceleration is applied to those vehicles which may collide. If the present speed is larger than the gap
in the front, set v = gap. This rule avoids rear end collisions between vehicles. Note that here
a very unrealistic braking rule allowing for arbitrarily large decelerations is involved. This rule
forces minimum time headway of t s.
20.7
January 31, 2014
velocity
Step 3: Rule for randomization

if (vn > 0), then vn max(vn 1, 0)
(20.7)
This step of randomization takes into account the dierent behavioral patterns of the individual
drivers, especially, overreaction while slowing down and nondeterministic acceleration where
overreaction while slowing down will be mostly responsible for the formation of trac jams.
This rule introduces a random element into the model. This randomness models the uncertainties of driver behavior, such as acceleration noise, inability to hold a xed distance to the
vehicle ahead. Fluctuations in maximal speed, and assign dierent acceleration values to dierent vehicles. If present velocity of a vehicle is greater than zero then the velocity of the vehicle
reduces by a single unit with a probability Pbrake. This rule has no theoretical background
and is introduced quite heuristically.
Step 4: Vehicle updation
xn xn + vn
(20.8)
After the above three steps the position of vehicles are updated according to their respective
velocities. Even changing the precise order of the steps of the update rules stated above would
change the properties of the model.
Numerical Example
Assume a single lane stretch road divided into 8 cells and vehicles are present in the rst, third,
sixth, seventh cells with 2, 1, 1, 0 as their velocities respectively. Apply the rules of cellular
automata.
Solution Apply the CA rules (equation. 20.5 - 20.8) in a sequential way as per the requirements of acceleration, deceleration, randomization and vehicle updation. The rules are applied
step wise as shown below.
Solution Step 1: Acceleration stage (according to equation. 20.5)
if (vn < vmax ), then vn min(vn + 1, vmax )
20.8
January 31, 2014
Here the velocity of the present vehicle is 2 where the maximum velocity is 5 so the vehicle gets
accelerated and acquires the new velocity based upon the min of the (present velocity (2) +1,
or the maximum velocity).
First vehicle: (2 < 5) so min(2 + 1, 5) = 3. Similarly applying the same rule for the rest
of the vehicles the velocities acquired are as follows.
Second vehicle: (1 < 5) so min(1 + 1, 5) = 2
Third vehicle: (1 < 5) so min(1 + 1, 5) = 2
Fourth vehicle: (0 < 5) so min(0 + 1, 5) = 1
Step 2: Deceleration stage ( according to equation. 20.6)
if (dn vn ), then vn min(vn , dn 1)
In this step the vehicle decelerates if it doesnt nd enough gap ahead of it in its lane. The new
velocity of the rst vehicle is 3 where as the gap ahead of it 2 so it needs to decelerate by an
amount of gap minus one i.e., (2-1)=1.
First vehicle : ( 2 3) , min ( 2-1, 3) = 1
Similarly applying it to remaining vehicles the updated velocities are obtained and are
shown below.
Second vehicle : (3 > 2), no deceleration.
Third vehicle : (1 < 2), (1 1, 2) =0
Fourth vehicle : (2 > 1), no deceleration.
20.9
January 31, 2014
Step 3: Randomization stage ( according to equation. 20.7)

if (vn > 0), then vn max(vn 1, 0)
This step is generally a randomly applied rule for a particular number of vehicles in a set of
total n vehicles. This number depends upon the probability ratio p that the user denes. But
in our case as we are working with a limited number of vehicles so we cannot use the probability
function so for the simplicity of the rule we shall apply this rule ( additional deceleration) to all
the those vehicles which undergo deceleration stage. So in our case the rst vehicle undergoes
randomization stage and acquires a new velocity of 0.
First vehicle : (1 > 0), max(1 1, 0) = 0
Step 4: Vehicle updation: ( according to equation. 20.8)
xn xn + vn
The velocity of the rst vehicle after undergoing the three rules has been reduced from two to
zero, so the position of the vehicle is not changed in the next time step.
First vehicle : Xn = 1 + 0 = 1
Similarly applying the rule to the rest of the vehicles in the same way will obtained the
following results as below.
Second vehicle :Xn = 3 + 2 = 5
Third vehicle : Xn = 6 + 0 = 6
Fourth vehicle :Xn = 7 + 1 = 8
The gure below gives the reader a clear overview if all the four stages at a glance.
20.10
January 31, 2014

Actual
position
Acceleration
stage
Deceleration
stage

1
Randomization
Vehicle
updation
20.2.8
Limitations
Every model has some limitations and as such this cellular automata for single lane trac
has also some limitations which are stated below.
A single lane model doesnt suit the realistic trac where it has vehicle types of dierent
velocities. So here in single lane model if such vehicles are entertained the result is the
platooning eect and the average velocity of the stream becomes the velocity of slow
moving velocity.
So, two lane models are introduced to meet the requirement and four more additional
rules are included for the exchange of vehicles between the lanes.
20.3
Lane changing
The concept of lane changing came into picture with the disadvantage of the single lane model of
unexplained realistic trac conditions. The reason behind this disadvantage is that a realistic
trac is usually composed of vehicle types of dierent desired velocities.
The presence of such vehicles will result in platooning eect. The generic two lane model is
the combination of two parallel single lane models with periodic boundary conditions with some
additional rules as stated in the below sections. The update step is split into two sub-steps. In
20.11
January 31, 2014
rst sub-step the exchange of vehicles in the two lanes, take place according to the new rule
set. Vehicles are moved only sideways. They do not advance in one go. However, in reality
this does not happen and this is step is also not seen. This step has a meaning when it is
coordinated with the second step. In the second step, the independent single-lane updates on
both lanes according to the single lane update rules.
20.3.1
STCA models of two lane trac:
Nagatani has formulated an oversimplied model for two-lane trac. There are some assumptions in this model, one of which is that the maximum allowable speed of each vehicle is
identical. Therefore, the model turns out to be a homogeneous type model and hence cannot
explain heterogeneous trac consisting of dierent types of vehicles. Some of the notations,
which will be used to indicate the gaps in the lanes, are
f
Xp (n) = gaps in front of nth vehicle in its present lane.
f
Xo (n) = gaps in front of nth vehicle in other lane.
b
Xo (n) =gap in the other lane behind the site.
All lane-changing rules consist of two parts: Trigger criterion (Do I want to change the lane)
and Safety criterion (Is it safe if I change the lane). Once if both the criteria are fullled,
the vehicle will change the lane.
In a two lane model proposed by Rickert, a vehicle changes its lane with a probability p,
provided there is not enough gap in the current lane in front of the vehicle, if the gap in the
front of the vehicle in the target lane is adequate, if it is possible without collision and nally
when the lane changing activity doesnt block someone elses way. The above sentences are
formulated in form of rules from equations. 20.9 to 20.11
The vehicle does not nd enough gap in its current lane ahead of it.
f
Xp (n) < V (n) + 1
(20.9)
The gap in the target lane ahead of it is adequate.

f
Xo (n) > V (n) + 1
(20.10)
No collision takes place (i.e.,The cell where the vehicle is intending to change should be
empty)
20.12
January 31, 2014

1
Figure 20:4: CA Example

2
Figure 20:5: CA Example

It should not block some others way.
b
Xo (n) > Vmax
(20.11)
Rules 9 and 10 are called the trigger criterion and the rule 11 is called the safety criterion.
These rules are applicable for both left to right and right to left lane changes and it changes
the lane with probability.
Numerical Example
Assume a two-lane road divided into nine cells in each of its lane. In rst lane vehicles are
present in rst (1), third (1), fourth (2), eight (1) cells and in second lane vehicles are present
in fth (1) and sixth (1) cells. The numbers in the brackets indicate the present velocities of
the respective velocities. Apply the lane changing rules and determine which vehicles fullled
the lane changing requirements.
Solution Initially the solution starts with the acceleration stage of the vehicles, where the
vehicles are applied with the acceleration rule (equation. 20.5). In the acceleration stage, a
single unit increase in every vehicle, which possesses a velocity less than the maximum velocity.
So stage of the vehicles after the acceleration are shown in the Fig. 20:5. Lane changing is
required for L1 (1), L1 (2), L2 (1) where L1 (1) indicates number in the subscript as its lane
number and the superscript as it vehicle number in respective lanes.
p
Rule 1: Xp (n) < V (n) + 1 The rst vehicle has a velocity two and the gap ahead of it in
its current lane is 2 so according to the rule (velocity +1 > gap). Therefore, the vehicle satised
the rule so that it can change the lane. L1 (1) = (2 < 2 + 1) . . . satised. Similarly checking
20.13
January 31, 2014
for all the other vehicles. L1 (2) = (1 < 2 + 1) . . . satised, L2 (1) = (1 < 2 + 1) . . . satised.
The term gap is generally referred in two dierent ways, where it is explained as the distance
between bumper to bumper of the vehicles. The other way to state, the term gap is the number
of empty cells in front of a vehicle. Here in the present discussion it is taken as the earlier one
but anyways it depends on the reader of choosing it where a slight modication (i.e., addition
of 1on the other side of the equations).
f
Rule 2 : (Xo (n) > V (n) + 1 ) (as per the rule 10) The velocity of the rst vehicle is
two and the gap in the target lane ahead of it is four so the rule ( gap ( target lane ) > velocity
+ one ) is satised for the rst vehicle. L1 (1) = (4 > 2 + 1) . . . satised. Similarly checking
for other vehicles also will obtain the following results. L1 (2) = (2 > 2 + 1) . . . rejected, and
L2 (1) = (34 > 2 + 1) . . . rejected.
Rule 3: No collision of vehicles is observed as per the pattern given.
b
Rule 4: (Xo (n) > Vmax ) (as per the rule 11)
The maximum velocity of any vehicle is given as four and the gap behind the rst vehicle
in the target lane is ve which is greater than the maximum velocity so the vehicle satised
the rule and subjected to lane change. L1 (1) = (5 > 4). Therefore the rst vehicle in the rst
lane satised all the four rules.
20.3.2
Limitations
In real world trac the vehicles dont have unique velocities but it was an assumption in the
model. So the vehicles are further divided into two types of dierent Vmax , namely Vf max , Vsmax ,
corresponding to fast vehicles and a slow vehicles. Introduction of symmetric two lane model
for inhomogeneous trac.
20.4
Extensions
20.4.1
Types of updates
There are two types

Sequential update :
This updating procedure considers each cell in the lattice one at a
time. If all cells are considered consecutively, two updating directions are possible, left-to-right
and right-to-left. There is also a third possibility, called random sequential update. Under this
scheme and with N particles in the lattice, each time step is divided in N smaller sub steps.
20.14
January 31, 2014
v
3
t
Figure 20:6: Without randomization
v
3
Figure 20:7: With randomization

At each of these sub steps, a random cell (or vehicle) is chosen and the CA rules are applied
to it.
Parallel update: This type of update is the classic update procedure generally used in all
the models. For a parallel update, all cells in the system are updated in one and the same time
step. Compared to a sequential updating procedure, this one is computationally more ecient
(note that it is equivalent to a left-to-right sequential update).
20.4.2
Eect of Randomization
The Fig. 20:6 shows the updation without randomization and the Fig. 20:7 is with randomization where an extra deceleration is observed in second vehicle and then updation.
20.4.3
Totally asymmetric simple exclusion principle
The simple exclusion process is a simplied well-known particle transport model from nonequilibrium statistical mechanics, dened on a one-dimensional lattice. In the case of open
boundary conditions (i.e., the bottleneck scenario), particles enter the system from the left side
at an entry rate , move through the lattice, and leave it at an exit rate . The term simple
20.15
January 31, 2014

v
Global spacemean speed [cells/time step]
Figure 20:8: Total asymmetric exclusion process
CA184 (vMax = 1)
STCA (vMax = 1, p = 0.1)
TASEP (vMax = 5)
TASEP (vMax = 1)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Global density [vehicles/cell]
Figure 20:9: Speed-density relation

exclusion refers to the fact that a cell in the lattice can only be empty, or occupied by one
particle.
When moving through the lattice, particles move one cell to the left with probability, and
one cell to the right with probability . When = , the process is called the symmetric simple
exclusion process (SSEP); if = then it is called the asymmetric simple exclusion process
(ASEP). Finally, if we set = 0 and = 1, the system is called the totally asymmetric simple
exclusion process (TASEP). If we consider the TASEP as a TCA model, then all vehicles move
with Vmax = 1 cell/time step to their direct right-neighbouring cell, on the condition that this
cell is empty. The process is shown in the below Fig. 20:8.
20.4.4
Comparisons
The above Fig. 20:9 gives a dierentiation between four types of models and interestingly it is
observed that the TASEP with Vmax = 1 has a trend of the Greenshield model and following a
20.16
January 31, 2014
Global flow [vehicles/time step]
0.5
CA184 (vMax = 1)
STCA (vMax =1, p = 0.1)
TASEP (vMax =5)
TASEP (vMax = 1)
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Global density [vehicles/cell]
Figure 20:10: Flow density relation

linearity in the speed-density relation. The same trend is also observed in the below Fig. 20:10
ow density curve.
20.5
References
1. Sven Maerivoet and Bart De Moor. Cellular automata models of road trac, 2005.
2. K Nagel and M Schreckenberg. A cellular automaton model for freeway trac. France,
1992.
3. M Rickert, K Nagel, M Schreckenberg, and A Latour. Two lane trac simulations using
cellular automata. 1996.
4. Debashish Chowdhury Ludger Santen and Andreas Schadschneider. Statistical physics
of vehicular trac and some related systems, 2000.
5. Andreas Schadschneider. Statistical physics of trac ow, 2000.
6. Christopher Stone and Larry Bull. Solving the Density Classication Task Using Cellular
Automaton 184 with Memory. Complex Systems Publications,Inc., 2009.
20.17
January 31, 2014
21. Capacity and Level of Service LOS
Chapter 21
Capacity and Level of Service LOS
21.1
Introduction
Often it is required to ascertain how much a transport facility can accommodate. Such information is useful in the design of trac facility. Capacity analysis helps in answering the
question. It is a quantitative assessment of the ability of a trac facility to handle vehicles or
people for which it is designed.
A related question is, what is the performance level of the system at various operating
conditions. Or in other words, how good is the operation of the trac facility. Level of Service
analysis tries to answer this question which is essentially a qualitative analysis. Capacities and
Level of Services are therefore closely related analysis of a trac facility.
21.2
Concepts
21.2.1
Capacity
Capacity of a transport facility is dened as the maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or

the like, per unit time which can be accommodated under given conditions with a reasonable
expectation of occurrence. The Highway Capacity Manual(2010) denes the capacity as the
maximum howdy rate at which persons or vehicles can be reasonably expected to traverse a
point or a uniform segment of a lane or roadway during a given time period, under prevailing
roadway, trac and control conditions. Several observations can be made from the above denition. Although capacity is the maximum howdy rate, in many situations the break 15 minute
ow rate is expressed as the capacity. The above denition also contains the term reasonably
expected to account for the variation in trac and driving habit at various location. However,
it can be termed as a probabilistic measure. Further, analytical derivations are possible for
getting the maximum ow rate, seldom it is achieved in the eld. However, capacity measures
21.1
January 31, 2014
are often empirically derived. Capacity is usually dened for a point or a uniform segment
where operating conditions do not vary.
The capacity measure depends on these operating conditions. The rst is the trac conditions and the factors that inuence the capacity includes vehicle composition, turning, movements, etc. The second factor is the roadway conditions and it includes geometrical characteristics such as lane width, shoulder width, horizontal alignment, vertical alignment. The third
factor is the control conditions such as the trac signal timings, round-about characteristics.
It is also to be noted that the above capacity denition holds good for a point or at a section
of the road having uniform control conditions. Another aspect of the above capacity denition
is the expression that the maximum ow rate which accounts for the worst 15 minutes trac
within the peak hour trac. Lastly the term reasonable expectancy indicates that the capacity measure is probabilistic and not an analytically derived deterministic value. The capacity
measure is probabilistic, for it accounts for the unexplainable variation in trac and diverse
driving characteristics.
21.2.2
Level of service
Level-of-Service(LOS) of a trac facility is a concept introduced to relate the quality of trac

service to a given ow rate. Level-of-Service is introduced by HCM to denote the level of quality
one can derive from a local under dierent operation characteristics and trac volume. HCM
proposes LOS as a letter that designate a range of operating conditions on a particular type of
facility. Six LOS letters are dened by HCM, namely A, B, C, D, E, and F, where A denote
the best quality of service and F denote the worst. These denitions are based on Measures of
Eectiveness(MoE) of that facility. Typical measure of eectiveness include speed, travel-time,
density, delay etc. There will be an associated service volume for each of the LOS levels. A
service volume or service ow rate is the maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or the like,
which can be accommodated by a given facility or system under given conditions at a given
LOS.
21.2.3
Type of Facilities
HCM has developed the capacities standard and LOS measure for various facilities. Each trac
facility has its own unit for the capacity and measure of eectiveness for each item will also vary.
The trac facilities can be divided into three, namely: the uninterrupted facilities, interrupted
facilities, and others. Interrupted facilities include freeway (basic freeway, weaving sections,
and ramps), multi-lane highways (unidirectional), two-lane highways(bidirectional). Freeways
normally have density as the measure of eectiveness, while multi-lane and two-lane highways
21.2
January 31, 2014
have delay/speed as the MoE. Interrupted facilities include un-signalized intersection, signalized
intersection, and arterials or corridors. They have respectively control delay, total delay and
average travel speed as the measure of eectiveness. Other facilities may include pedestrian
pathways, bicycle tracks, bus-transit system, rail-transit system and air-transportation system.
Each of them have facility specic measure of eectiveness.
21.3
Illustrations
For a typical freeway mid block section the capacity and LOS can be dened for an ideal section.
An ideal section has uninterrupted ow from both sides and has only passenger cars and the
drivers are regular travelers who are familiar with the facility. The lane width is 3.65m wide
with proper shoulder and 1.8m lateral clearance is available from the edge of the pavement.
The free ow speed of 115kmph is achievable on the multi-lane and 100kmph on the two-lane
highway.
21.3.1
Capacity
Such a facility is considered as an ideal facility and for such facilities the following values can
be taken as capacity.
1. A capacity of 2000 vehicle per hour per lane for a speed of 115kmph
2. A capacity of 1900 vehicles per hour per lane for a speed of 80kmph
3. A capacity of 2800 vehicle per hour for both direction at 100kmph
Note that the above values are not analytical or experimentally derived, but, statistically derived from the observed eld values from large number of such sections. Needly to say that it
is possible to have a ow higher than this capacity measure, but not necessary.
21.3.2
Level of service
The above capacity value drop due to various non-ideal condition which includes changes in
speed or travel time, trac interruptions or restriction etc. Accordingly HCM has dened
various levels of services for the trac facility. Assigning quality value is based on several user
surveys capturing the perception of drivers on the quality of the trac under various operating
condition. The Fig. 21:1 illustrate the quality of services or Level-of-Services (A to F) and the
various operating conditions. The same can be shown in the form of a table ??.
21.3
January 31, 2014
Operating Speed
A
B
C
D
E
F
V/C Ratio
1.0
Figure 21:1: The LOS of a Mid Block Section
Table 21:1: The LOS of a Mid Block Section

LOS
Quality
Speed V/C
Description
(kmph)
A
Free-ow
80
0.6
High level of physical
and psychological comfort
B
Reasonable
70
0.7
Reasonable level of
free-ow
physical and psychological comfort
C
Near
60
0.8
Local deterioration
free-ow
possible with blockages
D
Medium
50
0.85
Non-recoverable
ow
local disruptions
E
At capacity
40
0.9
Minor disturbances
ow
resulting breakdown
F
Congested
15
1.0
Break down of ow
ow
capacity drops
21.4
January 31, 2014
21.4
Conclusion
In this lecture the concepts of capacity and LOS is presented. Capacity is a quantitative
measure, whereas LOS is a qualitative measure. Capacity dened for various trac facilities
considering the trac, geometric and control condition and obtained from eld observation.
LOS on the other side is assigning quality levels of trac based on performance measure like
speed, density, etc. Together, the concepts gave planner a valuable tool in designing and
evaluating various trac facilities.
21.5
References
1. James H Banks. Introduction to transportation engineering. Tata Mc-Graw Hill, 2004.

2. W R McShane and P R Roger. Trac Engineering. Prentice Hall Publication, 1990.
3. C. S Papacostas.
Delhi, 1987.
21.5
Prentice-Hall, New
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
Chapter 22
Urban Streets
22.1
Introduction
Cities and trac have developed hand-in-hand since the earliest large human settlements and
forcing inhabitants to congregate in large urban areas and in turn enforcing need of urban
transportation. To develop ecient street transportation, to serve eectively various land use
in an urban area, and ensure community development, it is desirable to establish a network of
streets divided into systems, each system serving a particular function or particular purpose.
Accordingly, a community should develop an ultimate street-classication in which each system
has a specic transportation service function to perform. There are several operational performance measures and level of services (LOS) which have to be taken into account to evaluate
the system of streets. Increasing population of urban areas due to shifting of people from rural
to urban areas and thus certainly increasing vehicular population on urban streets, have caused
problems of congestion in urban areas. Road trac congestion poses a challenge for all large
and growing urban areas. This document provides a summary of urban street with respect
to their classication, related operational performance measures and level of services (LOS)
involved in each class of urban street and it also provides strategies necessary for any eective
congestion management policy to curb the congestion.
22.2
Classication of urban streets
There are three ways of classifying urban streets

Functional based
Design based
Combination of functional and design based
22.1
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
Arterials
Mobility
Collectors
Land access
Locals
Figure 22:1: Relationship of functionally classied systems in service trac mobility and land
access
22.2.1
Function based
Functional classication is the process by which streets and highways are grouped into classes,
or systems, according to the character of service they are intended to provide. Basic to this
process is the recognition that individual roads and streets do not serve travel independently in
any major way. Rather, most travel involves movement through a network of roads. It becomes
necessary then to determine how this travel can be channelized within the network in a logical
and ecient manner. Functional classication denes the nature of this channelization process
by dening the part that any particular road or street should play in serving the ow of trips
through a highway network. The four functional systems for urbanized areas are:
1. Principal Arterial streets
2. Minor Arterial streets
3. Collector street
4. Local roads
General idea of various streets as per their mobility and land use is shown in the Fig. 22:1.
22.2
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
Principal arterial system

Arterial streets are basically meant to carry longer and through trac. Function of arterial
is to provide access to commercial and residential land uses. A downtown street not only
carries through trac but also turning tracs and it resembles arterials. As shown in Fig. ??
mobility of principal arterials is high but land access is very low. Major arterial serves as
principal network for through trac ow. This should be connected with principal trac
generations, important rural highways entering the city. It should be well coordinated with
existing and proposed expressway system for good distribution and circulation of through trac
and continuity of routes should be maintained. In every urban environment there exists a
system of streets and highways which can be identied as unusually signicant to the area
in which it lies in terms of the nature and composition of travel it serves. In smaller urban
areas (population under 50,000) these facilities may be very limited in number and extent and
their importance may be primarily derived from the service provided to travel passing through
the area. In larger urban areas their importance also derives from service to rural oriented
trac, but equally or even more important, from service for major movements within these
urbanized areas. The principal arterial system should carry the major portion of trips entering
and leaving the urban area, as well as the majority of through movements desiring to bypass
the central city. In addition, signicant intra-area travels, such as between central business
districts and outlying residential areas between major inner city communities or between major
suburban centers should be served by this system. Frequently the principal arterial system will
carry important intra urban as well as intercity bus routes. Finally, this system in small urban
and urbanized areas should provide continuity for all rural arterials which intercept the urban
boundary.
Minor arterials
The minor arterial street system should interconnect with and augment the urban principal
arterial system and provide service to trips of moderate length at a somewhat lower level of
travel mobility than principal arterials. This system also distributes travel to geographic areas
smaller than those identied with the higher system. The minor arterial street system includes
all arterials not classied as a principal and contains facilities that place more emphasis on
land access than the higher system, and oer a lower level of trac mobility. Such facilities
may carry local bus routes and provide intra-community continuity, but ideally should not
penetrate identiable neighborhoods. This system should include urban connections to rural
collector roads where such connections have not been classied as urban principal arterials.
The spacing of minor arterial streets may vary from half to one km in the central business
22.3
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
City
Town
Village
Arterials
Collector
Streets
Local
Streets
Figure 22:2: Schematic illustration of functional classication of rural highway network
Legend
Collector street
Arterial street
Commercial
Public
Figure 22:3: Schematic illustration of a portion of urban street network

district to 4 to 5 km in the suburban fringes, but should normally be not more than 2 km in
fully developed areas.
Collector streets
This system of streets includes all distributer and collector streets. Function of this system
is serving between major arterials and local streets to connect adjacent neighborhood areas
placed approximately at half miles intervals to accommodate local through trac movements
and interconnect local streets with the major arterial street system. Unlike arterials their
operation is not always dominated by trac signals.
Local Street
Local streets are primarily meant for direct access to residential commercial, industrial or other
abutting property. All through tracs should be discouraged on local streets. Land access is
very high but mobility is very low for local streets.
22.4
January 31, 2014
22.2.2
22. Urban Streets
Design based Classication
This classication basically depends upon speed limits, signal density, driveways / access point
density etc.
1. High speed
2. Suburban
3. Intermediate
4. Urban
High speed streets
These are the streets with very low driveway or access point density. These are provided with
separate right turn lanes and; no parking is permitted on street. Streets may be multilane
divided or undivided or two lane facility with shoulders. Signals are infrequent and spaced at
long distances. Road side development is very low. A speed limit on these roads is 75 to 90
kmph.
Sub-urban streets
They represent streets with a low driveway/access-point density,separate or continuous right
turn lane and some portions where parking is permitted. These roads possess comparatively
higher density of roadside development than that on high speed streets. It has about three
signals per Km. and speed limit on these roads is 65 to 75 kmph.
Intermediate design streets
They represent urban streets with moderate driveway/access point density. Like sub-urban
streets they also have some separate or continuous right turn lane and some portions where
parking is permitted. These roads possess comparatively higher roadside development than
that on sub-urban streets. It has about two to six signals per Km. and speed limit on these
roads is 50 to 60 Kmph.
Urban streets
They represent urban streets with high driveway/access point density. These are usually provided with road side parking. It has highest road side development density among all above
stated four classes. Signal density is about four to eight per Km. Speed limit is 40 to 55 Kmph.
22.5
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
Table 22:1: Combined classication of urban streets

Design category
Functional category
Principal arterial Minor arterial
High speed
I
NA
Suburban
II
II
Intermediate
II
III or IV
Urban
III or IV
IV
Table 22:2: Specications of street classes

Urban Street Class Signal density
Free ow
(signals/km) speed(kmph)
I
0.2
80
II
2
65
III
4
55
IV
6
45
22.2.3
Combination of functional and design based
This type of classication considers for combination of functional and design classes divided
into four classes viz. I, II, III, IV which reects a unique combination for of street function and
Design, as shown in table 1 and related signal densities are shown in table 2.
22.3
Operational performance measures
Engineer has to quantify how well the system or facility is working. The facilities will usually
assembled by specic qualitative and quantitative index of ow characteristics termed as Level
of Service (LOS), in this regard engineer has to do following works.
1. Assessing the existing condition
2. Evaluating alternative improvements
3. Quantifying associated cost and benets
4. Communicating results to both technical and non technical people
22.6
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
As far as operational performance of urban streets is considered we are interested in determining

arterial level of service which is discussed in succeeding section.
22.3.1
Arterial LOS
Urban streets LOS is mainly based on average travel speed for the segment or for the entire
street under consideration. The average travel speed is computed from the running times
on the urban street and the control delay of through movements at signalized intersections.
The control delay is the portion of the total delay for a vehicle approaching and entering a
signalized intersection. Control delay includes the delays of initial deceleration, move-up time
in the queue, stops, and reacceleration, these delays are also known as intersection approach
delays.
The LOS for urban streets is inuenced both by the number of signals per kilometer and
by the intersection control delay. Inappropriate signal timing, poor progression, and increasing
trac ow can degrade the LOS substantially. Streets with medium-to-high signal densities
(i.e., more than one signal per kilometer) are more susceptible to these factors, and poor LOS
might be observed even before signicant problems occur. On the other hand, longer urban
street segments comprising heavily loaded intersections can provide reasonably good LOS,
although an individual signalized intersection might be operating at a lower level. The term
through vehicle refers to all vehicles passing directly through a street segment and not turning.
Considering all the above aspects, HCM provides a seven step methodology to determine the
level of service of an arterial which will be discussed in following section.
22.3.2
HCM Method of performance measurement
HCM method of arterial performance measurement involves seven steps which aim to compute
average travel speed of arterial to measure the Level of Service. These seven steps are as
follows,
1. Establish arterial to be considered
2. Determine arterial class by free ow speed
3. Dene arterial section
4. Compute running time
5. Compute intersection approach delay
6. Compute average travel speed
22.7
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
Table 22:3: Range and typical values of FFS for dierent arterial classes
Free ow
Arterial Class
speed (kmph)
I
II
III
IV
Speed range 90 to 70 70 to 55 55 to 50 55 to 40
Typical value
80
65
55
45
7. Estimate the LOS.

The above ow chart shows the steps to determine LOS in a schematic form. Further in this
section we are going to discuss these seven steps in detail.
22.3.3
Step 1: Establish arterial to be considered
Establishing the arterial is the very rst step in the process of determining the LOS. In this
step, an engineer has to dene arterial segment or entire arterial whose LOS is to be determined.
Arterial may be established by arterial class, its ow characteristics and signal density. Arterial
class may be dened as per its free ow speed as explained in step 2 as follows.
22.3.4
Step 2: Determine arterial class by free ow speed
Free ow speed is the speed on the arterial which most of the drivers choose if they had green
indication and they are alone in the direction of movement are not the part of platoon) but
have to be conscious about all other prevailing conditions. (e.g. Block spacing, contiguous
land use, right of way, characteristic, pedestrian activity, parking, etc.) Free ow speed should
be measured at just the time when the entire factors are present except for the prevailing
trac levels and red indication. An arterial can be classied on the basis of its free ow speed
as explained under the section design based classication and combined classication . The
following table 3 can be used to determine the arterial class.
22.3.5
Step 3: Dene arterial section
After determining the arterial class it is required to be more specic about the particular section
of an arterial for which LOS is to be determined. The arterial section may be mid block or
intersection. Generally signalized intersection is taken into account to determine intersection
approach delays which are further required to determine level of service.
22.8
January 31, 2014
22.3.6
22. Urban Streets
Step 4: Arterial running time
There are two principal components for the total time that a vehicle spends on a segment of an
urban street. These are running time and control delay at signalized intersections. To compute
the running time for a segment, the analyst must know the streets classication, its segment
length, and its free ow speed. Arterial running time can be obtained by Travel time studies,
information of running times from local data and intersection delays etc.
22.3.7
Step 5: Intersection Approach Delay
Intersection approach delay is the correct delay which is to be used in arterial evaluation. It
gives consideration not only for absolute stopped delay but also for the delay in retarding the
vehicle approaching at signal for stopping and reaccelerating on starting of green. It is longer
than the stopped delay. This can be related to intersection stopped delay and is computed by,
D = 1.3 d
(22.1)
where, D = intersection approach delay (sec/veh), and d = intersection stopped delay (sec/veh).
Delay at intersection approach is of special interest because it is a Measure of Eectiveness
(MOE) used to quantify LOS. To determine intersection approach (or control) delay it is necessary to calculate stopped delay which is discussed below.
Stopped Delays
Stopped vehicles on intersection are counted for intervals of 10 to 20 seconds. It is assumed
that vehicles counted as stopped during one of these intervals will be stopped for the length
of the interval. Measuring the stopped delays involves following steps.
1. Maximum extent of queue length on intersection approach during the study period must
be observed in advance (observer must be able to count all stopped vehicles in the longest
possible queue).
2. Count intervals are set at 10, 15, or 20 seconds stopped vehicles within the queuing area
observed and recorded at each interval.
3. Discharge volumes are separately counted for the study period.
22.9
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
Table 22:4: Data observed at an intersection for stopping vehicles

Seconds into minute
Minute 0 sec 15 sec 30 sec 45 sec
5.00 pm
2
4
1
3
5.01 pm
4
5
3
0
5.02 pm
6
3
2
1
5.03 pm
2
5
4
3
5.04 pm
4
2
6
4
5.05 pm
5
4
1
1
5.06 pm
1
2
5
5
5.07 pm
4
3
3
3
5.08 pm
2
5
2
2
5.09 pm
3
1
4
2
Total
33
34
31
24
Numerical example
In an intersection the following data was observed for stopping times for vehicles as tabulated
in table 4. Calculate intersection approach delay for the given data set. Total exiting vehicles:
100.
Solution: Total of stopped-vehicle counts (density counts) for study sample is: 33+34+31+24=122
veh. Each of the vehicle interval is 15 seconds. Aggregate delay for the 10 minutes study period
is, 122 15 sec=1830 veh-sec. Average stopped delay per vehicle for study period of 10 minutes
is, 1830/100 =18.3 sec per vehicle. That is, d=18.3 sec per vehicle. We use this in the rst
equation. So, intersection approach (or control) delay D
D = 1.3 d = 1.3 18.3 = 23.79 sec/veh.
22.3.8
Step 6: Average travel speed
Arterial LOS is based on the average travel speed for segment, section or entire arterial under
consideration. Arterial average travel speed is given by
vavg =
3600L
Tr L + D
22.10
(22.2)
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
Table 22:5: Urban Street LOS by Class and Average Travel Speed
LOS Average Travel Speed (km/h)
I
II
III
IV
A
> 72 > 59 > 50
> 41
B
> 56 > 46 > 39
> 32
C
> 40 > 33 > 28
> 23
D
> 32 > 26 > 22
> 18
E
> 26 > 21 > 17
> 14
F
> 26 < 21 < 17
< 14
where, vavg = arterial or segmental average travel speed (Kmph), L = arterial or segmental
length (Km), Tr = total of the running time per kilometer on all segments in the arterial or
section (seconds), D = total of the approach delay at all intersections within the dened arterial
(seconds). It is the actual speed in consideration with the additional eect of control and all
stop delays. It is the measure by which LOS is dened.
22.3.9
Step 7: Estimate the LOS
This is the last step of determination of LOS. After calculation of average travel speed we can
determine the level of service of an arterial by using Table 22:5.
Numerical example
Consider an arterial which has free ow speed of 65 kmph and average running time of vehicles
is 145 sec/km determine LOS for this arterial.
Solution: From Table 22:5 we can nd LOS of an arterial. As free ow speed is 65 kmph
by using table 3 we can classify this as Arterial Class II, Now we should know average travel
speed, to nd out LOS. Delay is determined in problem 1. Hence D=23.79sec/veh.
vavg =
3600 1
3600L
=
= 21.32 km/hr
Tr L + D
145 + 23.79
As average travel speed is 21.32 kmph we can have LOS as E from Table 22:5.
22.11
January 31, 2014
22.4
22. Urban Streets
Congestion Management
When demand on a facility exceeds the capacity Congestion takes place. The travel time or
delay is in excess of that normally incurred under light or free ow trac condition. The
travel time or delay is in excess of agreed upon norm which may vary by type of transport
facility, travel mode, geographical location, and time of day. In the procedure for congestion
management initially we have to nd out the root cause of congestion and nding out the
remedies for managing the congestion, updating the signalization if it is needed. It is always
better to use good signalization for minimizing impact of congestion. We can provide more
space by making use of turn bays if geometry permits. Parking restrictions also help in
congestion management on urban streets. Now we will discuss some important strategies to
manage the congestion on urban streets.
22.4.1
Managing surface street congestion
Basically at street level congestion can be encountered by following ways,

1. Signal based
2. Non-signal based
22.4.2
Signal based remedies
Signal based remedies for congestion management can be achieved by implementing following
two strategies,
1. Metering plans
2. Reasonably shorter cycle lengths
Metering plans
It is the congestion management policy for street congestion to limit the volumes arriving at
critical locations. It uses some control strategies within the congestion networks by storing
vehicles at links dened to be part of system under control. It should be noted that metering
concept does not explicitly minimize delays and stops but manages queue formation. There are
three types of metering strategies,
1. Internal metering: It is the management policy which makes use of control strategies
within the congested network by inuencing the distribution of vehicles arriving at and
22.12
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
Figure 22:4: g/C is reduced to limit discharge

departing from critical locations as shown in Fig. 22:4 Limit the upstream or downstream
blockage by limiting the turn in ows as shown in Fig. 22:5. It deals with upstream
control by creating moving storage situation on upstream link. It manages congestion by
limiting turn-in ows from cross streets and preserving arterials for their through ow by
metering from face of back up from outside as shown in Fig. 22:6
2. External metering: Control of major access points shown in Fig. 22:7 (e.g. river crossing,
downtown surrounded by water from three sides, a system that receives limited no. of
arterials etc.) so as to limit inow rates. It is conceptually convenient because the storage
of problem vehicles belongs to somebody else outside the system. But while metering it
should be noted that metering should not be upto such extent that other areas.
3. Release metering: It uses policy of controlling the release of vehicles from the places
where vehicles are stored such as parking, garages etc. they are stored o-street so as to
reduce their spillback potential. This type of metering can be used in shopping centers,
mega center, etc. by lowering the discharge rates of vehicles.
Shorter cycle length
If on any intersection higher cycle time is provided then it will certainly create problems like
increase in queue length and platoon length discharged and it will lead to increase in blockage
22.13
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
Figure 22:5: g/C is reduced to preserve through ow
critical intersection
undersaturated
internally metered
Figure 22:6: Internal metering

22.14
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
external metering plans

innerbound routes that are metered
Figure 22:7: External metering

of intersection, with substantial adverse impact on system capacity. This is particularly when
short link lengths are involved. Length of downstream space should be greater than queue
length to store the vehicles. Note that a critical lane ow of Vi nominally discharges Vi*C/3600
vehicles in a cycle. If each vehicle requires D meters of storage space, the downstream link would
be
Vi C
DL
(22.3)
3600
Vi C
where, 3600 = no. of vehicles per cycle, D= storage space required for each vehicle, L= available
downstream space in m. (This may be set by some lower value to keep the queue away from
the discharging intersection, or to allow for turn-ins.) Equation may be re-arranged as,
L
D
3600
Vi
(22.4)
Note that Vi in this case is the discharge volume per downstream lane, which may dier from
the demand volume, particularly at the fringes of the system being considered. Note that only
rather high ows (maximum f > 800 veh per hour per lane (vphpl)) and short blocks will create
very severe limits on the cycle length. However, these are just the situations of at most interest
for extreme congestion situations. An illustratise example to show the requirement of shorter
cycle length is given below.
Numerical example
Flow on an critical lane is 300 veh/h, cycle time is 80 seconds, suppose storage space required
per lane vehicle is 6m as an average and space available on downstream is 30 m, nd whether
the space is sucient and comment on the result and suggest some remedy if required.
22.15
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
Solution: Given: Vi = 300 veh/h, C = 80 sec, and L = 30 m. Vehicles discharged by a

Vi C
critical lane per cycle to be found out and which is given by, ( 3600 ) = 300 * 80/3600 = 60/9
=6.6 veh/cycle. Therefore, space required for storing these vehicles for cycle time is, = 6.6 *
D, = 6.6 * 6, = 39.6 m. 40 m. So, 40 m > 30 m (length of downstream storage i.e. space
available), So length is inadequate. As the length is xed the only possible variable is cycle
time so we will reduce the cycle time, let the new cycle time be, 40 seconds instead of 80
seconds. Space required will be get reduced to half i.e. 20m which is lesser than the available
space i.e. 30m so it is feasible to reduce the cycle length to manage the congestion.
22.4.3
Non-signal based remedies
If the problem of congestion does not get resolved by signalization the next set of actions are
summarized in two words more space means there is need of provision of additional lanes or
some other facility. It can be achieved by adding left turn bays / right turn bays, removing
obstructions to through ows by adding more space and free movements Some non-signal based
remedies are given below,
1. Two way turn lanes
2. Reversible lanes
3. Kerb parking prohibition
4. Lane marking
Two way turn lanes
On suburban and urban arterials dedication of a central laneas shown in Fig. 22:8 for turns in
either direction is provided. This also allows for storage and vehicles to make their maneuvers
in two distinct steps.
Leaving the arterial and entering it is separated into two distinct
steps. Vehicles leaving (Fig. 22:9) the arterial do not have to block a moving lane while waiting
for a gap in the opposing ow. Entering vehicles (Fig. 22:10) do not have to wait for a gap
simultaneously in both directions. The Figure 22:8 shown above is the road sign for two way left
turn lane which indicates that the center lane is provided exclusively for two way left turning
trac.
Reversible lane
Reversible lanes shown in Figure 8 have great advantage of matching lane availability to the
peak demand. Lanes are reversible means can be split into various combinations for dierent
22.16
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
2 way sign
Figure 22:8: Two way left-turn lane on arterial
2
Vehicle
1
Figure 22:9: A vehicle leaving arterial in two steps
1
Vehicle
2
Figure 22:10: A vehicle entering arterial in two steps
22.17
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
Reversible lane
Figure 22:11: Lane marking and associated signal /signs for reversible lane
times of day to match the demand. E.g. eight lanes can be split into 6:2 or 5:3 and so forth
if required to match up for the demand. It should be noted that some jurisdictions have
combined two-way lanes and reversible lanes on same arterial because combination of peakperiod congestion and increased road side development. The concerns with reversible lanes
and relates to the misuse and lanes by the driver (particularly the unfamiliar driver), despite
the signalization over the lanes.
HOV lanes
High occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes are designed to help move more people through congested
areas. HOV lanes oer users a faster, more reliable commute, while also easing congestion in
regular lanes - by moving more people in fewer vehicles. HOV lanes on provincial highways are
reserved for any of the following passenger vehicles carrying at least two people (often referred
to as 2+):
1. Car
2. Commercial truck less than 6.5 metres long
3. Minivan
4. Motorcycle
5. Taxi or limousine
In addition, vehicles with a special green licence plate (plug-in hybrid electric or battery electric
vehicle) A bus of any type can use an HOV lane, even without passengers. This helps buses
keep to their schedules and provide reliable, ecient service. Emergency vehicles are permitted
to use the HOV lanes at all times.
22.18
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
Kerb Parking Prohibition

Congestion can be managed by prohibiting the kerb parking. Kerb parking means on street
parallel parking. If such parking is avoided it implies oblique and right angled parking is also
prohibited and hence provides more space for trac ow so congestion is minimized.
Lane marking
Longitudinal lane markings such solid white lines and broken white lines restricts overtaking maneuver of vehicles which encourages mix through trac ow unobstructed resulting in
reducing the congestion.
Equity osets
This topic can be read in reference to congestion management by signal based remedies. Oset
on an arterial are usually set to move vehicles smoothly along the arterial, as is logical. Equity
oset allows the congested arterial to have its green at upstream intersection until the vehicle
just begin to move , then switch the signal, so that these vehicles ush out the intersection,
but no new vehicles continue to enter.
Imbalanced split
This topic can be referred under signal based congestion management remedies. It is the procedure of allocating the available green in proportion to the relative demands. It is sometimes
desirable to split green as per demand of various routes to meet peak hour demands of respective
routes.
HOV Lanes
This topic can be referred as non signal based remedies On provincial highways HOV lanes are
developed by adding a new inside (leftmost) lane to existing corridors. Where the HOV lane
begins, signs on the left side of the highway inform carpools and buses to move left into the
new lane. An overhead sign indicates the beginning of the HOV lane. In some locations, where
a highway on-ramp used to end, the on-ramp lane has been extended as the new HOV lane.
In this situation, motorists not permitted to use the HOV lane have to exit that lane before
the start of the HOV lane designation. Overhead signs at 1 kilometre and again at 500 metres
before the start of the HOV lane designation advise drivers to exit the lane. Overhead signing
and closely spaced white broken lines and diamond symbol pavement markings indicate the
beginning of the HOV lane (Figure 22:12).
22.19
January 31, 2014
22. Urban Streets
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
Figure 22:12: High Occupancy Vehicle Lane
22.5
Conclusion
It can be understood that urban streets are integral part of transportation system. Urban
streets plays vital role in development of country. These are classied on their function, design
for various considerations taking into account. Performance measures are to be worked out
to determine LOS. Congestion is a huge problem which can be curbed by some preventive
measures and design strategies. Signalized remedies are more ecient than any other measures
of street congestion management. Non signalized remedies can be used to manage congestion
by providing more space in terms of extra lanes.
22.6
References

New Delhi, 1987.
3. W R McShane and P R Roger. Trac Engineering. Prentice Hall Publication, 1990.
4. C D Papacostas and P D Prevedouros. Transportation Engineering and Planning. 2002.
5. B K Woods. Highway Engineering Handbook. McGraw Hill Company. 1960.
22.20
January 31, 2014
23. Multilane Highways
Chapter 23
Multilane Highways
23.1
Introduction
Increasing trac ow has forced engineers to increase the number of lanes of highways in order
to provide good manoeuvring facilities to the users. The main objectives of this lecture is to
analyse LOS which is very important factor for a trac engineer because it describes the trac
operational conditions within a trac stream. Also we are going to study the characteristics
and capacity for multilane highways. Free-ow speed is an important parameter that is being
used extensively for capacity and level-of- service analysis of various types of highway facilities.
23.2
Multilane Highways
A highway is a public road especially a major road connecting two or more destinations. A
highway with at least two lanes for the exclusive use of trac in each direction, with no control
or partial control of access, but that may have periodic interruptions to ow at signalized
intersections not closer than 3.0 km is called as multilane highway. They are typically located
in suburban areas leading to central cities or along high-volume rural corridors that connect
two cities or important activity centres that generate a considerable number of daily trips.
23.2.1
Highway Classication
There are various ways of classication of highways; we will see classication of highways
according to number of lanes.
Two lane highways.
Multilane highways
23.1
January 31, 2014

11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
Figure 23:1: Divided multilane highway in a rural/suburban environment
Figure 23:2: UnDivided multilane highway in a rural/suburban environment
23.2.2
Highway Characteristics
Multilane highways generally have posted speed limits between 60 km/h and 90 km/h. They
usually have four or six lanes, often with physical medians or two-way right turn lanes (TWRTL),
although they may also be undivided. The trac volumes generally varies from 15,000 - 40,000
vehicles per day. It may also go up to 100,000 vehicles per day with grade separations and no
cross-median access. Trac signals at major intersections are possible for multilane highways
which facilitate partial control of access. Typical illustrations of multilane highway congurations are provided in Fig. 23:1 and 23:2
23.3
Highway Capacity
An important operation characteristic of any transport facility including the multi lane highways
is the concept of capacity. Capacity may be dened as the maximum sustainable ow rate at
which vehicles or persons reasonably can be expected to traverse a point or uniform segment of
23.2
January 31, 2014
Table 23:1: Free ow speed and capacity for Multilane highway

Types of facility
Multilane
Free ow
speed(kmph)
100
90
80
70
Capacity
(pcphpl)
2200
2100
2000
1900
a lane or roadway during a specied time period under given roadway, trac, environmental,
and control conditions; usually expressed as vehicles per hour, passenger cars per hour, or
persons per hour. There are two types of capacity, possible capacity and practical capacity.
Possible capacity is dened as the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a point in one
hour under prevailing roadway and trac condition. Practical capacity on the other hand is
the maximum number that can pass the point without unreasonable delay restriction to the
average drivers freedom to pass other vehicles. Procedure for computing practical capacity for
the uninterrupted ow condition is as follows:
1. Select an operating speed which is acceptable for the class of highways the terrain and
the driver.
2. Determine the appropriate capacity for ideal conditions from table 1.
3. Determine the reduction factor for conditions which reduce capacity (such as width of
road, alignment, sight distance, heavy vehicle adjustment factor).
4. Multiply these factors by ideal capacity value obtained from step 2.
23.4
Level of Service
Level of service (LOS) is a qualitative term describing the operational performance of any
transportation facility. The qualitative performance measure can be dened using various
quantitative terms like:
1. Volume to capacity ratio,
2. Mean passenger car speed,( in km/h)
23.3
January 31, 2014
Figure 23:3: LOS A

3. Density, (in p/kmln).
Basically any two of the following three performance characteristics can describe the LOS for a
multilane highway. Each of these measures can indicate how well the highway accommodates
the trac demand since speed does not vary over a wide range of ows, it is not a good indicator
of service quality. Density which is a measure of proximity of other vehicles in the trac stream
and is directly perceived by drivers and does not vary with all ow levels and therefore density
is the most important performance measure for estimating LOS. Based on the quantitative
parameter, the LOS of a facility can be divided into six qualitative categories, designated as
LOS A,B,C,D,E,F The denition of each level of service, is given below:
23.4.1
Level of Service A
Travel conditions are completely free ow. The only constraint on the operation of vehicles
lies in the geometric features of the roadway and individual driver preferences. Lane changing,
merging and diverging manoeuvre within the trac stream is good, and minor disruptions to
trac are easily absorbed without an eect on travel speed. Average spacing between vehicles
is a minimum of 150 m or 24 car lengths. Fig. 23:3 shows LOS A.
23.4.2
Level of Service B
Travel conditions are at free ow. The presence of other vehicles is noticed but it is not a constraint on the operation of vehicles as are the geometric features of the roadway and individual
driver preferences. Minor disruptions are easily absorbed, although localized reduction in LOS
are noted. Average spacing between vehicles is a minimum of 150 m or 24 car lengths. Fig. 23:4
below shows LOS B.
23.4
January 31, 2014
Figure 23:4: LOS B
Figure 23:5: LOS C
23.4.3
Level of Service C
Trac density begins to inuence operations. The ability tomanoeuvre within the trac stream
is aected by other vehicles. Travel speeds show some reduction when free-ow speeds exceed
80 km/h. Minor disruptions may be expected to cause serious local deterioration in service,
and queues may begin toform. Average spacing between vehicles is a minimum of 150 m or 24
car length. Fig. 23:5 shows LOS C.
23.4.4
Level of Service D
The ability to manoeuvre is severely restricted due to congestion. Travel speeds are reduced
as volumes increase. Minor disruptions maybe expected to cause serious local deterioration in
service, and queues may begin to form. Average spacing between vehicles is a minimum of 150
m or 24 car length. Fig. 23:6 shows LOS D.
Figure 23:6: LOS D
23.5
January 31, 2014
Figure 23:7: LOS E
Figure 23:8: LOS F
23.4.5
Level of Service E
Operations are unstable at or near capacity. Densities vary, depending on the free-ow speed.
Vehicles operate at the minimum spacing for which uniform ow can be maintained. Disruptions
cannot be easily dissipated and usually result in the formation of queues and the deterioration
of service to LOS F. For the majority of multilane highways with free-ow speed between 70
and 100km/h, passenger-car mean speeds at capacity range from 68 to 88 km/h but are highly
variable and unpredictable. Average spacing between vehicles is a minimum of 150 m or 24 car
length. Fig. 23:7 shows LOS E.
23.4.6
Level of Service F
A forced breakdown of ow occurs at the point where the numbers of vehicles that arrive at
a point exceed the number of vehicles discharged or when forecast demand exceeds capacity.
Queues form at the breakdown point, while at sections downstream they may appear to be at
capacity. Operations are highly unstable, with vehicles experiencing brief periods of movement
followed by stoppages. Travel speeds within queues are generally less than 48 km/h. Note that
theterm LOS F may be used to characterize both the point of the breakdown and the operating
condition within the queue. Fig. 23:8 shows LOS F.
23.6
January 31, 2014
23.5
Determination of Level of Service
The determination of level of service for a multilane highway involves three steps:
1. Determination of free-ow speed
2. Determination of ow rate
3. Determination of level of service
23.5.1
Free-ow speed
Free-ow speed is the theoretical speed of trac density, when density approaches zero. It is
the speed at which drivers feel comfortable travelling under the physical, environmental and
trac conditions existing on an uncongested section of multilanehighway. In practice, free-ow
speed is determined by performing travel-timestudies during periods of low-to-moderate ow
conditions. The upper limit for low to moderate ow conditions is considered 1400 passenger
cars per hour per lane(pc/h/ln) for the analyses. Speed-ow and density ow relationships are
shown in Fig. 23:9 and Fig. 23:10. These relationships hold for a typical uninterrupted-ow
segment on a multilane highway under either base or no base conditions in which free-ow
speed is known. Fig. 23:9 indicates that the speed of trac volume up to a ow rate of 1400
pc/h/ln. It also shows that the capacity of a multilane highway under base conditions is 2200
pc/h/ln for highways with a 90 km/h free-ow speed. At ow rates between 1400 and 2200
pc/h/ln, the speed on a multilane highway drops; for example, by 8 km/h for a highways with
a free-ow speed of 90 km/h. Fig. 23:10 shows that density varies continuously throughout the
full range of ow rates. The capacity value of 2200 pc/h/ln is representative of the maximum
15-min ow rate that can be accommodated under base conditions for highways with 90 km/h
free-ow speed. From various studies of the ow characteristics, base conditions for multilane
highways are dened as follows:
1. Lane widths are 3.6 m.
2. Lateral clearance is 1.8 m.
3. A minimum of 3.6 m of total lateral clearance in the direction of travel. Clearances
are measured from the edge of the outer travelled lanes (shoulders included) and lateral
clearance of 1.8 m or greater are considered to be equal to 1.8 m.
4. No direct access points along the highway.
23.7
January 31, 2014
110
Speed (km/hr)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
400
800 1200 1600 2000
2400
Flow (pc/h/ln)
Figure 23:9: Speed-ow relationship on multilane highways
Density (pc/h/ln)
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
Free flow speed = 70 km/hr

15
10
1
5
0
0
400
800
1200 1600 2000 2400
Flow (pc/h/ln)
Figure 23:10: Density-ow relationships on multilane highways

FreeFlow Speed, FFS = 100 km/h
100
90 km/h
90
80 km/h
80
70
LOS A
70 km/h
B
30
m
/ln
/ln
/km
/ln
/k
pc
28
pc
/k
16
pc
22
sit
pc
40
11
50
y=
7p
c/k
m/
ln
/km
/ln
E
60
De
n
Average PassengerCar Speed (km/h)
110
20
10
0
400
800
1200
1600
2000
2400
Flow Rate (pc/h/ln)
Figure 23:11: Speed-ow curves with LOS criteria for multilane highways
23.8
January 31, 2014
Speed (km/hr)
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
Density = 7 pc/km/ln
40
30
20
10
0
0
400
800
1200 1600
2000 2400
Flow (pc/h/ln)
Figure 23:12: Flowchart showing step by step procedure to nd density and LOS
5. A divided highway.
6. Only passenger cars in the trac stream.
7. A free-ow speed of 90 km/h or more.
The average of all passenger-car speeds measured in the eld under low volume conditions can
be used directly as the free-ow speed if such measurements were taken at ow rates at or below
1400 pc/h/ln. No adjustments are necessary as this speed reects the net eect of all conditions
at the site that inuence speed, including lane width, lateral clearance, type of median, access
points, posted speedlimits, and horizontal and vertical alignment. Free-ow speed also can be
estimated from 85th-percentile speed or posted speed limits, research suggests that free-ow
speed under base conditions is 11 km/h higher than the speed limit for 65 km/h to 70 km/h
speed limits and 8 km/h higher for 80 km/h to 90 km/h speed limits. Fig. 23:12 shows speedow curves with LOS criteria for multilane highways, here LOS is easily determined for any
value of speed simply by plotting the point which is a intersection of ow and corresponding
speed. Note that density is the primary determinant of LOS. LOS F is characterized by highly
unstable andvariable trac ow. Prediction of accurate ow rate, density, and speed at LOS
F is dicult.
23.5.2
Determination of free-ow speed
When eld data are not available, the free-ow speed can be estimated indirectly as follows:
F F S = BF F S fLW fLC fM fA
(23.1)
where, F F S is the estimated FFS (km/h), BF F S= base FFS (km/h), fLW = adjustment for
lane width, from Table 3 (km/h), fLC = adjustment for lateral clearance, from Table 4 (km/h),
23.9
January 31, 2014
Table 23:2: Level of Service criteria for a typical free ow speed of 100 kmph proposed in HCM
2000
Free-Flow
Speed
100 km/h
Criteria
Max. density
(pc/km/ln)
Average speed
(kmph)
Max. volume
capacity ratio
Max. service
ow rate
(pc/h/ln)
(LOS)
A
7
(LOS) (LOS)
B
C
11
16
(LOS) (LOS)
D
E
22
25
100
100
98.4
91.5
88
0.32
0.50
0.72
0.92
1.00
700
1100
1575
2015
2200
fM = adjustment for median type, from Table 5 (km/h), and fA = adjustment for access points,
from Table 6 (km/h). FFS on multilane highways under base conditions is approximately 11
km/h higher than the speed limit for 65 and 70 km/h speed limits, and it is 8 km/h higher for
80 and 90 km/h speed limits. BFFS is approximately equal to 62.4 km/h ( i.e decrease in 1.6
km/h) when the 85 th percentile speed is 64 km/h, and it is 91.2 km/h ( i.e decrease in 4.8
km/h) when the 85 th percentile speed is 96 km/h and the in between speed values is found
out by interpolation. According to Table 3, the adjustment in km/h increase as the lane width
decreases from a base lane width of 3.6 m. No data exist for lane widths less than 3.0m.
The adjustment for lateral clearance (TLC ) is given as:
TLC = LCL + LCR
(23.2)
where, TLC = Total lateral clearance (m), LCL = Lateral clearance (m), from the right edge of
the travel lanes to roadside obstructions (if greater than 1.8 m, use 1.8 m), and LCR = Lateral
clearance (m), from the left edge of the travel lanes to obstructions in the roadway median
(if the lateral clearance is greater than 1.8 m, use 1.8 m). Once the total lateral clearance is
computed, the adjustment factor is obtained from Table 4. For undivided highways, there is
no adjustment for the right-side lateral clearance as this is already accounted for in the median
type. Therefore, in order to use Table 5 for undivided highways, the lateral clearance on the
left edge is always 1.8 m, as it for roadways with TWRTLs. The access-point density, which
is use in Table 6, for a divided roadway is found by dividing the total number of access points
23.10
January 31, 2014
Table 23:3: Adjustment for lane width (Source: HCM, 2000)

Lane Width (m)
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.1
3.0
Reduction in FFS(km/h)
0.0
1.0
2.1
3.1
5.6
8.1
10.6
Table 23:4: Adjustment for lateral clearance(Source: HCM, 2000)

Four-Lane Highways
Total Lateral
Reduction in FFS
Clearance a (m)
(km/h)
3.6
0.0
3.0
0.6
2.4
1.5
1.8
2.1
1.2
3.0
0.6
5.8
0.0
8.7
Six-Lane Highways
Total Lateral
Reduction in FFS
Clearance a (m)
(km/h)
3.6
0.0
3.0
0.6
2.4
1.5
1.8
2.1
1.2
2.7
0.6
4.5
0.0
6.3
Table 23:5: Adjustment to free ow speed for median type(Source: HCM, 2000)
Median Type
Undivided highways
Divided highways
Reduction in FFS (km/h)

2.6
0.0
23.11
January 31, 2014
Table 23:6: Adjustment to free ow speed for Access-point density(Source: HCM, 2000)
Access Points/Kilometre
0
6
12
18
24
Reduction in FFS (km/h)

0.0
4.0
8.0
12.0
16.0
(intersections and driveways) on the right side of the roadway in the direction of travel being
studied by the length of the segment in kilometres. The adjustment factor for access-point
density is given in Table 6. Thus the free ow speed can be computed using equation 1 and
applying all the adjustment factors.
23.5.3
Determination of Flow Rate
The next step in the determination of the LOS is the computation of the peak hour factor. The
fteen minute passenger-car equivalent ow rate (pc/h/ln), is determined by using following
formula:
V
vp =
(23.3)
(P HF N fHV fp )
where, vp is the 15-min passenger-car equivalent ow rate (pc/h/ln), V is the hourly volume
(veh/h), P HF is the peak-hour factor, N is the number of lanes, fHV is the heavy-vehicle
adjustment factor, and fp is the driver population factor. PHF represents the variation in
trac ow within an hour. Observations of trac ow consistently indicate that the ow rates
found in the peak 15-min period within an hour are not sustained throughout the entire hour.
The PHFs for multilane highways have been observed to be in the range of 0.75 to 0.95. Lower
values are typical of rural or o-peak conditions, whereas higher factors are typical of urban
and suburban peak-hour conditions. Where local data are not available, 0.88 is a reasonable
estimate of the PHF for rural multilane highways and 0.92 for suburban facilities. Besides that,
the presence of heavy vehicles in the trac stream decreases the FFS because base conditions
allow a trac stream of passenger cars only. Therefore, trac volumes must be adjusted to
reect an equivalent ow rate expressed in passenger cars per hour per lane (pc/h/ln). This
is accomplished by applying the heavy-vehicle factor (fHV ). Once values for ET and ER have
23.12
January 31, 2014
Table 23:7: Passenger-car equivalent on extended general highway segments(Source: HCM,

2000)
Factor
ET (Trucks and Buses)
ER (RVs)
Type of Terrain
Level Rolling Mountainous
1.5
2.5
4.5
1.2
2.0
4.0
been determined, the adjustment factors for heavy vehicles are applied as follows:
fHV =
1
(1 + PT (ET 1) + PR (ER 1)
(23.4)
where, ET and ER are the equivalents for trucks and buses and for recreational vehicles (RVs),
respectively, PT and PR are the proportion of trucks and buses, and RVs, respectively, in the
trac stream (expressed as a decimal fraction), fH V is the adjustment factor for heavy vehicles.
Adjustment for the presence of heavy vehicles in trac stream applies for three types of vehicles:
trucks, buses and recreational vehicles (RVs). Trucks cover a wide range of vehicles, from lightly
loaded vans and panel trucks to the most heavily loaded coal, timber, and gravel haulers. An
individual trucks operational characteristics vary based on the weight of its load and its engine
performance. RVs also include a broad range: campers, self-propelled and towed; motor homes;
and passenger cars or small trucks towing a variety of recreational equipment, such as boats,
snowmobiles, and motorcycle trailers. There is no evidence to indicate any distinct dierences
between buses and trucks on multilane highways, and thus the total population is combined.
23.5.4
Determination of Level of Service
The level of service on a multilane highway can be determined directly from Fig. 23:12 or Table2 based on the free-ow speed (FFS) and the service ow rate (vp) in pc/h/ln. The procedure
as follows:
1. Dene a segment on the highway as appropriate. The following conditions help to dene
the segmenting of the highway,
Change in median treatment
Change in grade of 2% or more or a constant upgrade over 1220 m
Change in the number of travel lanes
23.13
January 31, 2014
The presence of a trac signal

A signicant change in the density of access points
Dierent speed limits
The presence of bottleneck condition
In general, the minimum length of study section should be 760 m, and the limits should
be no closer than 0.4 km from a signalized intersection.
2. On the basis of the measured or estimated free-ow speed on a highway segment, an
appropriate speed-ow curve of the same as the typical curves is drawn.
3. Locate the point on the horizontal axis corresponding to the appropriate ow rate (vp)
in pc/hr/ln and draw a vertical line.
4. Read up the FFS curve identied in step 2 and determine the average travel speed at the
point of intersection.
5. Determine the level of service on the basis of density region in which this point is located.
Density of ow can be computed as
vp
D=
(23.5)
S
where, D is the density (pc/km/ln), vp is the ow rate (pc/h/ln), and S is the average passenger-car travel speed (km/h). The level of service can also be determined by
comparing the computed density with the density ranges shown in table given by HCM.
To use the procedures for a design, a forecast of future trac volumes has to be made
and the general geometric and trac control conditions, such as speed limits, must be
estimated. With these data and a threshold level of service, an estimate of the number
of lanes required for each direction of travel can be determined.
Numerical example 1
A segment of undivided four-lane highway on level terrain has eld-measured FFS 74.0-km/h,
lane width 3.4-m, peak-hour volume 1,900-veh/h, 13 percent trucks and buses, 2 percent RVs,
and 0.90 PHF. What is the peak-hour LOS, speed, and density for the level terrain portion of
the highway?
Solution The solution steps are given below:
23.14
January 31, 2014
1. Data given: Level terrain, eld measured FFS = 74 km/h, lane width is 3.4 m, peakhour volume = 1900 veh/h, percent trucks and buses pt = 0.13, percent RVs PR = 0.02,
and PHF=0.90.
2. Determination of ow rate(Vp): LOS can be calculated by knowing ow rate and
free ow speed. Flow rate (Vp) is calculated from the equation
V
(P HF N f HV f p)
Vp =
Since fHV is unknown it is calculated from the equation

fHV
1
(1 + P T (ET 1) + P R(ER 1)
where, ET and ER are passenger-car equivalents for trucks and buses and for recreational
vehicles (RVs) respectively PT and PR are proportion of trucks and buses, and RVs,
respectively, in the trac stream (expressed as a decimal fraction)
1
1 + 0.13(1.5 1) + 0.02(1.2 1)
= 0.935.
fHV
Assume no RVs, since none is indicated.

1900
(0.90 2 0.935 1)
= 1129 pc/h/ln.
Vp =
3. Determination of free ow speed(S): In this example the free ow speed (FFS)

measured at the eld is given and hence no need to compute free ow speed by indirect
method. Therefore, F F S = S = 74.0km/h.
4. Determination of density(D): The density of ow is computed from the equation
D = V p/S = 15.3
5. Determination of LOS: LOS determined from the speed-ow diagram. LOS = C.
Numerical example 2
A segment of an east-west ve-lane highway with two travel lanes in each direction separated
by a two-way left-turn lane (TWLTL) on a level terrain has- 83.0-km/h 85th-percentile speed
,3.6-m lane width, 1,500-veh/h peak-hour volume, 6 % trucks and buses, 8 access points/km
(WB), 6 access points/km (EB), 0.90 PHF, 3.6-m and greater lateral clearance for westbound
and eastbound. What is the LOS of the highway on level terrain during the peak hour?
23.15
January 31, 2014
Solution The solution steps are enumeratd below:

1. Data given: Level terrain, 85th-percentile speed is 83.0 km/h , lane width is 3.6 m, peakhour volume, v=1500 veh/h percent of trucks and buses PT=0.06, 8 access points/km
in WB, 6 access points/km in EB, PHF = 0.90, and lateral clearance for westbound and
eastbound is more than 3.6 m.
2. Determination of ow rate(VP): LOS can be calculated by knowing ow rate and
free ow speed. Flow rate (Vp) is calculated from the equation
V
(P HF N f HV f p)
Vp =
where, Vp = 15-min passenger-car equivalent ow rate (pc/h/ln), V = hourly volume

(veh/h), PHF = peak-hour factor, N = number of lanes, fHV = heavy-vehicle adjustment
factor, and fp = driver population factor Since fHV is unknown it is calculated from the
equation
1
fHV =
(1 + P T (ET 1) + P R(ER 1)
where, ET and ER = passenger-car equivalents for trucks and buses and for recreational
vehicles (RVs), respectively PT and PR = proportion of trucks and buses, and RVs,
respectively, in the trac stream (expressed as a decimal fraction) Assume no RVs, since
none is indicated.
1
fHV =
1 + 0.06(1.5 1) + 0
= 0.970.
1500
(0.90 2 0.970 1)
= 858 pc/h/lane
Vp =
3. Determination of free ow speed(S): BFFS is approximately equal to 62.4 km/h

when the 85 th percentile speed is 64 km/h, and it is 91.2 km/h when the 85 th percentile
speed is 96 km/h and the in between speed values is found out by interpolation. Hence,
BFFS = 80 km/h. Now, compute east bound and west bound free-ow speeds
F F S = BF F S fLW fLC fA fM
= 80 0 0 4 0
= 76 kmph (WB)
= 80 0 0 5.3 0
= 74.7 kmph (EB)
23.16
January 31, 2014
4. Determination of LOS: LOS determined from the speed-ow diagram. LOS = C (for
EB) LOS = C (for WB)
Numerical example 3
A 10 km long 4 lane undivided multilane highway in a suburban area has a segment 1 km
long with a 3% upgrade and a segment 1 km long with a 3% downgrade. The section has a
volume of 1900 vehicles/hr in each direction with 13% trucks and buses and 2% recreational
vehicles. The 85 th percentile speed of passenger car is 80 km/hr on upgrade and 86km/hr on
downgrade. There are total of 12 access points on both sides of the roadway. The lane width
is 3.6 m, PHF is 0.90 and having a 3m lateral clearance. Determine the LOS of the highway
section (upgrade and downgrade) during the peak hour? From HCM, For a 3% upgrade and 1
km length( ET=1.5 , ER=3) For a 3% downgrade and 1 km length( ET=1.5 , ER=1.2 )
Solution
1. Data given: 3%upgrade and 3%downgrade No of lanes = 4, N = 4, 80.0 km/h 85thpercentile speed for upgrade, 86 km/h 85t h-percentile speed for downgrade, 3.6-m lane
width, 1,900-veh/h peak-hour volume, (V =1900 veh/h) 13 % trucks and buses, (PT
=0.13) 2 % Recreational vehicles, ( Pr=0.02 ) 12 access points/km, PHF = 0.90 lateral
clearance = 3 m
2. Determination of ow rate(VP): LOS can be calculated by knowing ow rate and
free ow speed.
For upgrade: Flow rate is calculated from the equation
Vp=
V
(P HF N f HV f p)
where, Vp = 15-min passenger-car equivalent ow rate (pc/h/ln), V = hourly volume

(veh/h), PHF = peak-hour factor, N = number of lanes, fHV = heavy-vehicle adjustment
factor, and fp = driver population factor Since fHV is unknown it is calculated from the
equation
fHV
1
(1 + P T (ET 1) + P R(ER 1)
where, ET and ER = passenger-car equivalents for trucks and buses and for recreational
vehicles (RVs), respectively PT and PR = proportion of trucks and buses, and RVs,
23.17
January 31, 2014
respectively, in the trac stream (expressed as a decimal fraction) Assume no RVs, since
none is indicated.
1
1 + 0.13(1.5 1) + 0.02(3 1)
= 0.905.
1900
Vp =
(0.90 2 0.905 1)
= 1166 pc/h/ln
fHV
For downgrade:
1
1 + 0.13(1.5 1) + 0.02(1.2 1)
= 0.935
1900
Vp =
(0.90 2 0.935 1)
= 1128 pc/h/ln
fHV
3. Determination of free ow speed(S): For upgrade: BFFS is approximately equal

to 62.4 km/h when the 85 th percentile speed is 64 km/h, and it is 91.2 km/h when
the 85 th percentile speed is 96 km/h and the in between speed values is found out by
interpolation. Hence for 86 km/hr 85th percentile speed from interpolation we get, BFFS
= 77.0 km/h Now, Compute east bound and west bound free-ow speeds
= 77 0 0.6 8.0 2.6
= 65.8 km/h
For downgrade: BFFS is approximately equal to 62.4 km/h when the 85 th percentile
speed is 64 km/h, and it is 91.2 km/h when the 85 th percentile speed is 96 km/h and the
in between speed values is found out by interpolation. Hence for 86 km/hr 85th percentile
speed from interpolation we get, BFFS= 82.0 km/h Now, Compute the free-ow speed
= 82 0 0.6 8.0 2.6
= 71 km/h
4. Determination of LOS LOS determined from the speed-ow diagram. LOS = D (for
upgrade) LOS = D (for downgrade)
23.18
January 31, 2014
23.6
Conclusion
This chapter helps to determine the level of service and capacity for a given road segment. In
the rst part we studied highways in general there classication and characteristics which gives
the overall idea of multilane highways. Then we studied determination of capacity for multilane
highway which is again a very important parameter used to determine the level of service, then
we studied the concept of level of service and procedure to determine level of service. Also by
using its applications, number of lanes required (N), and ow rate achievable (vp), Performance
measures related to density (D) and speed (S) can also be determined.
23.7
References
1. R Asworth. Highway Engineering. Heinemann Education books limited, London, 1966.

2. Nicholas J Garber and Lester A Hoel.
Learning, 2009.
Trac and Highway Engineering.
Cengage

4. R W McShane and R P Roess. Highway Engineering. McGraw Hill Company, 1984.
5. P Y TSENG and F B LIN. Journal of the eastern asia society for transportation studies,
2005.
6. B K Woods. Highway Engineering Handbook. McGraw Hill Company. 1960.
7. H R Wright.
Data, 1996.
Highway Engineering.
Library Of Congress Catlaloging-in-Publication
23.19
January 31, 2014
24. Freeway Operations
Chapter 24
Freeway Operations
24.1
Introduction
A freeway is dened as a divided highway with full control of access and two lanes for the
exclusive use of trac in each direction. Freeways were originally intended to serve longer trips
of generally regional and interurban character. Trac on freeways diers from that on city
streets and rural roads in that it moves at higher speeds (depending on trac conditions, design
standards, etc.), more smoothly, and at much larger rates of ow. Speed limits are generally
higher on freeways, and are occasionally non-existent. Because higher speeds reduce decision
time, freeways are usually equipped with a larger number of guide signs than other roads, and
the signs themselves are physically larger. Guide signs are often mounted on overpasses or
overhead gantries so that drivers can see where each lane goes. Access to freeways is typically
provided only at grade-separated interchanges, though lower-standard right-in/right-out access
can be used for direct connections to side roads. This chapter basically describes the capacity
and level of service. Later weaving phenomenon in has been described.
24.2
Basic features of freeway
Freeway provides uninterrupted trac ow on a freeway. Trac on freeway is free-owing. All

cross-trac (and left-turning trac) is relegated to overpasses or underpasses, so that there are
no trac conicts on the main line of the highway which must be regulated by trac lights,
stop signs, or other trac control devices. Spec features are:
1. There are no signalized or stop-controlled at-grade intersections.
2. Direct access to and from adjacent property is not permitted.
3. Acess to and from the freeway is limited to ramp locations.
24.1
January 31, 2014

Not to scale
Basic Freeway Segment
Basic Freeway Segment
Figure 24:1: Basic freeway segment

4. Opposing directions of ow are continuously separated by a raised barrier, an at-grade
median, or a continuous raised median.
5. The advantage of grade-separated interchanges is that freeway drivers can almost always
maintain their speed at junctions since they do not need to yield to vehicles crossing
perpendicular to mainline trac.
A freeway is composed of following three components
1. Basic freeway segment
2. Ramp junction
3. Weaving areas
24.2.1
Basic freeway segment
Basic freeway are that part of segment of freeway which are outside of the inuence area of
ramps or weaving areas of freeway. We can see in Fig.24:1 that a basic freeway segment is
independent of the ramps and weaving areas and the ow in such section occurs smoothly at
the much larger rates. Merging and diverging of trac occurs where on-or-o ramps join the
basic freeway segment. Weaving occurs when vehicles cross each others path while travelling
on freeway lanes. The exact point at which basic freeway segment begins or ends- that is, where
the inuence of weaving areas and ramp junctions has dissipated- depends on local conditions,
particularly the level of service operating at the time. If trac ow is light, the inuence may
be negligible, whereas under congested conditions, queues may be extensive.
24.2
January 31, 2014
Base condition of basic freeway segment

The base conditions under which the full capacity of a basic freeway segment is achieved are
good weather, good visibility, and no incidents or accidents. For the analysis procedures in this
chapter, these base conditions are assumed to exist. A set of base conditions for basic freeway
segments has been established. These conditions serve as a starting point for the
1. Lane widths of 3.6 m,
2. Clearance of 1.8 m between the edge of the travel lanes and the nearest obstructions or
objects at the roadside and in the median,
3. Free-ow speed of 120 km/h for freeways,
4. Only passenger cars in the trac stream (no heavy vehicles),
5. Level terrain,
6. No no-passing zones on two-lane highways, and
7. No impediments to through trac due to trac control or turning vehicles.
Base conditions for intersection approaches include the following:
1. Lane widths of 3.6 m,
2. Level grade,
3. No curb parking on the approaches,
4. Only passenger cars in the trac stream,
5. No local transit buses stopping in the travel lanes,
6. Intersection located in a noncentral business district area, and
7. No pedestrians
24.3
Capacity of a freeway segment
Freeway capacity is dened as:
24.3
January 31, 2014
the maximum sustained 15-min ow rate, expressed in passenger cars per hour per
lane, that can be accommodated by a uniform freeway segment under prevailing
trac and roadway conditions in one direction of ow.
Capacity analysis is based on freeway segments with uniform trac and roadway conditions.
If any of the prevailing conditions change signicantly, the capacity of the segment and its
operating conditions change as well. Therefore, each uniform segment should be analysed
separately.
24.3.1
Factors aecting Capacity
Roadway conditions
Roadway conditions include geometric and other elements. In some cases, these inuence the
capacity of a road; in others, they can aect a performance measure such as speed, but not the
capacity or maximum ow rate of the facility. Roadway factors include the following:
1. Number of lanes, Number of lanes decided for basic freeway is ve or more than ve but
if number of lanes is less than ve then capacity of freeway is reduced.
2. Lane widths, If the lanewidth is less than the specied lane width for basic freeway
segment, i.e 3.6m then capacity is reduced because trac ow tends to be restricted.
3. Shoulder widths and lateral clearances, shoulder width and lateral clearance inuences
the capacity of freeway. When lane widths are less than 3.65 m, drivers are forced
to travel closer to one anotherlaterally than they would normally desire. Drivers tend
to compensate for this by reducing their travel speed. The eect of restricted lateral
clearance is similar. When objects are located too close to the edge of the median and
roadside lanes, drivers in these lanes will shy away from them, positioning themselves
further from the lane edge hence capacity is reduced.
4. Design speed, freeway is designed for free ow speed around 120 km per hour ,if some
vehicle is moving less than the design speed then capacity of freeway.
5. Grades: Eect of grade depends on both the length and slope of the grade.Trac operations signicantly aected when grades of 3% or more are longer than one quarter miles
and when grades are less than 3% and longer than mile.The eect of heavy vehicles on
such grades is much greater.
24.4
January 31, 2014
Trac conditions
Trac conditions that inuence capacities and service levels include vehicle type and lane or
directional distribution.
Vehicle type The entry of heavy vehicles - that is, vehicles other than passenger cars (a
category that includes small trucks and vans) - into the trac stream aects the number of
vehicles that can be served. Heavy vehicles are vehicles that have more than four tires touching
the pavement. Trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles (RVs) are the three groups of heavy
vehicles.
1. They are larger than passenger cars and occupy more roadway space; and
2. They have poorer operating capabilities than passenger cars, particularly with respect to
acceleration, deceleration, and the ability to maintain speed on upgrades.
Directional and Lane Distribution In addition to the distribution of vehicle types, two
other trac characteristics aect capacity and level of service: directional distribution and lane
distribution. Each direction of the facility usually is designed to accommodate the peak ow
rate in the peak direction. Typically, morning peak trac occurs in one direction and evening
peak trac occurs in the opposite direction. Lane distribution also is a factor on multilane
facilities. Typically, the shoulder lane carries less trac than other lanes.
Control conditions
For interrupted-ow facilities, the control of the time for movement of specic trac ows
is critical to capacity and level of service. The most critical type of control is the trac
signal. The type of control in use, signal phasing, allocation of green time, cycle length,
and the relationship with adjacent control measures aect operations. Stop signs and yield
signs also aect capacity, but in a less deterministic way. A Impact of control conditions
trac signal designates times when each movement is permitted; however, a stop sign at a
two-way stop-controlled intersection only designates the right-of-way to the major street. The
capacity of minor approaches depends on trac conditions on the major street. An all-way stop
control forces drivers to stop and enter the intersection in rotation. Capacity and operational
characteristics can vary widely, depending on the trac demands on the various approaches.
24.5
January 31, 2014
24.4
Level of service (LOS) of a basic freeway segment
Level of service is dened as:

qualitatively measures both the operating conditions within a trac system and
how these conditions are perceived by drivers and passengers.
These operational conditions within a trac stream are generally described in terms of service
measures as speed and travel time, freedom to manoeuver, trac interruptions, and comfort
and convenience. The three measures of speed, density and ow are interrelated. If values
of two are known, the third can be computed. Six LOS are dened for each type of facility
that has analysis procedures available. Letters designate each level, from A to F, with LOS A
representing the best operating conditions and LOS F the worst. Each level of service represents
a range of operating conditions and the drivers perception of those conditions. Safety is not
included in the measures that establish service levels.
1. LOS A describes free-ow operations. Free-ow speeds prevail. Vehicles are almost
completely unimpeded in their ability to manoeuver within the trac stream. The eects
of incidents or point breakdowns are easily absorbed at this level.
2. LOS B represents reasonably free ow, and free-ow speeds are maintained. The ability
to manoeuver within the trac stream is only slightly restricted, and the general level of
physical and psychological comfort provided to drivers is still high. The eects of minor
incidents and point breakdowns are still easily absorbed.
3. LOS C provides for ow with speeds at or near the FFS of the freeway. Freedom to
manoeuver within the trac stream is noticeably restricted, and lane changes require
more care and vigilance on the part of the driver. Minor incidents may still be absorbed,
but the local deterioration in service will be substantial. Queues may be expected to form
behind any signicant blockage.
4. LOS D is the level at which speeds begin to decline slightly with increasing ows and
density begins to increase somewhat more quickly. Freedom to manoeuver within the
trac stream is more noticeably limited, and the driver experiences reduced physical and
psychological comfort levels. Even minor incidents can be expected to create queuing,
because the trac stream has little space to absorb disruptions.
5. LOS E describes operation at capacity. Operations at this level are volatile, because there
are virtually no usable gaps in the trac stream. Vehicles are closely spaced leaving
24.6
January 31, 2014
Figure 24:2: LOS A

little room to manoeuver within the trac stream at speeds that still exceed 80 km/h.
Any disruption of the trac stream, such as vehicles entering from a ramp or a vehicle
changing lanes, can establish a disruption wave that propagates throughout the upstream
trac ow. At capacity, the trac stream has no ability to dissipate even the most
minor disruption, and any incident can be expected to produce a serious breakdown with
extensive queuing. Manoeuverability within the trac stream is extremely limited, and
the level of physical and psychological comfort aorded the driver is poor.
6. LOS F describes breakdowns in vehicular ow. Such conditions generally exist within
queues forming behind breakdown points. Breakdowns occur for a number of reasons:
(a) Trac incidents can cause a temporary reduction in the capacity of a short segment,
so that the number of vehicles arriving at the point is greater than the number of
vehicles that can move through it.
(b) Points of recurring congestion, such as merge or weaving segments and lane drops,
experience very high demand in which the number of vehicles arriving is greater than
the number of vehicles discharged.
In all cases, breakdown occurs when the ratio of existing demand to actual capacity
forecast demand to estimated capacity exceeds 1.00. The gures 24:2-24:7 given below
gives a better idea of the LOS classication done on the basis of density of the trac
stream.
24.5
Determination of LOS
A basic freeway segment can be characterized by three performance measures: density in terms
of passenger cars per kilometre per lane, speed in terms of mean passenger-car speed, and
volume-to-capacity (v/c) ratio. Each of these measures is an indication of how well trac ow
is being accommodated by the freeway. The measure used to provide an estimate of level of
24.7
January 31, 2014
Figure 24:3: LOS B
Figure 24:4: LOS C
Figure 24:5: LOS D
Figure 24:6: LOS E
Figure 24:7: LOS F

24.8
January 31, 2014
service is density. The three measures of speed, density, and ow or volume are interrelated. If
values for two of these measures are known, the third can be computed.
24.5.1
Methodology
Level of service of an existing freeway is determined considering it as a stretch of basic freeway

segment. It means that we have to take all the base conditions decided for basic freeway
segment as a standard or intial input. The following steps are followed to determine the level
of service of a freeway.
1. The very rst step of methodology is to collect all the input data like geometric data,
measured FFS or BFFS, volume.
2. volume adjustment: The hourly volume is converted into ow rate of passenger cars i.e
pc/hr/ln.
3. Computation of FFS: If BFFS is the input, then for getting the value of FFS ,we have
to adjust the BFFS for the lane width,number of lanes,interchange density and lateral
clearance.
4. computation of S(average passenger car speed): S is calculated from the FFS. If FFS is
measured directly in eld, then FFS can be taken as S.
5. Speed-ow curve is designed and speed is determined using this curve.
6. Density is determined from the ow rate and speed taken from the speed-ow curve.
7. Based on the density, the corresponding level of service(LOS) can be determined .
The steps involved in calculation of LOS are1. Calculation of ow rate (Vp )
2. Calculation of average passenger car (S)
3. Calculation of density (D) and determining LOS
24.9
January 31, 2014
24.5.2
Calculating Flow rate (Vp )
The hourly ow rate must reect the inuence of heavy vehicles, the temporal variation of trac
ow over an hour, and the characteristics of the driver population. These eects are reected
by adjusting hourly volumes or estimates, typically reported in vehicles per hour (veh/h), to
arrive at an equivalent passenger-car ow rate in passenger cars per hour (pc/h). The equivalent
passenger-car ow rate is calculated using the heavy-vehicle and peak-hour adjustment factors
and is reported on a per lane basis (pc/h/ln). The ow rate can be given asVp =
V
P HF N fHV fP
(24.1)
where, V = hourly volume, P HF = peak hour factor (0.80-0.95), N = no. of lanes, fHV =
heavy vehicle adjustment factor, fP = driver population factor
Peak hour factor (PHF) The peak-hour factor (PHF) represents the variation in trac
ow within an hour. Observations of trac ow consistently indicate that the ow rates found
in the peak 15-min period within an hour are not sustained throughout the entire hour.
P HF =
V
V154
(24.2)
Where, V = hourly volume in veh/hr for hour of analysis, V1 5 = Maximum 15-min ow rate
within peak hour, 4 = number of 15-min period per hour.
On freeways, typical PHFs range from 0.80 to 0.95. Lower PHFs are characteristic of rural
freeways or o-peak conditions. Higher factors are typical of urban and suburban peak-hour
conditions. Field data should be used, if possible, to develop PHFs representative of local
conditions.
Heavy vehicle adjustment factor (fHV ) Freeway trac volumes that include a mix of
vehicle types must be adjusted to an equivalent ow rate expressed in passenger cars per hour
per lane. This adjustment is made using the factor fHV . Once the values of ET and ER are
found, the adjustment factor, fHV , is determined by using equation given below fHV = 11 + PT (ET 1) + PR (ER 1)
(24.3)
where, ET , ER = passenger car equivalents for truck buses and recreational vehicles (RVs)
in trac stream respectively, PT , PR = proportion of truck/buses and recreational vehicles in
trac stream. Adjustments for heavy vehicles in the trac stream apply for three vehicle types:
trucks, buses, and RVs. There is no evidence to indicate distinct dierences in performance
24.10
January 31, 2014
between trucks and buses on freeways, and therefore trucks and buses are treated identically.
The factor fHV is found using a two-step process. First, the passenger-car equivalent for
each truck/bus and RV is found for the trac and roadway conditions under study. These
equivalency values, ET and ER , represent the number of passenger cars that would use the same
amount of freeway capacity as one truck/bus or RV, respectively, under prevailing roadway and
trac conditions. Second, using the values of ET and ER and the proportion of each type of
vehicle in the trac stream (PT and PR ), the adjustment factor fHV is computed.
Driver population factor: Under base conditions, the trac stream is assumed to consist of
regular weekday drivers and commuters.Such drivers have a high familiarity with the roadway
and generally manoeuver and respond to the maneuvers of other drivers in a safe and predictable
fashion. But weekend drivers or recreational drivers are a problem. Such drivers can cause a
signicant reduction in roadway capacity relative to the base condition of having only familiar
drivers. To account for the composition of the driver population, the fp adjustment factor is
used and its recommended range is 0.85 1.00.
24.5.3
Calculating average passenger car speed (S)
The average passenger car speed depends on the free ow speed (FFS) and ow rate as calculated earlier and can be given as - For, 90 F F S 120 and Vp (3100 15F F S),
S = FFS
(24.4)
For, 90 F F S 120 and (3100 15F F S) vP (1800 + 5F F S)

S = F F S 1/28(23F F S 1800
Vp + 15F F S 3100
26
20F F S 1300
(24.5)
The average of all passenger-car speeds measured in the eld under low- to moderate- volume
conditions can be used directly as the FFS of the freeway segment.
Concept of free ow speed (FFS) Free ow speed can be dened as:
the mean speed of passenger cars that can be accommodated under low to moderate ow rates on a uniform freeway segment under prevailing roadway and trac
conditions.
FFS is the mean speed of passenger cars measured during low to moderate ows (up to
1,300 pc/h/ln). For a specic segment of freeway, speeds are virtually constant in this range of
24.11
January 31, 2014
Table 24:1: Adjustment for Lane Width (reduction in free-ow speed for various widths of lane
Lane Width (m) fLW (km/h)
3.6
0.0
3.5
1.0
3.4
2.1
3.3
3.1
3.2
5.6
3.1
8.1
3.0
10.6
ow rates. Two methods can be used to determine the FFS of a basic freeway segment: eld
measurement and estimation with guidelines provided in this section. The eld-measurement
procedure is provided for users who prefer to gather these data directly. If eld measurement of
FFS is not possible, FFS can be estimated indirectly on the measurement is not possible basis of
the physical characteristics of the freeway segment being studied. The physical characteristics
include lane width, number of lanes, right-shoulder lateral clearance, and interchange density.
Equation given below is used to estimate the free-ow speed of a basic freeway segment:
F F S = BF F S fLW fLC f N fID
(24.6)
where, F F S = free ow speed (km/h), BF F S = base free ow speed (km/h), fLW = adjustment
for lane width (km/h), fLC = adjustment for right shoulder clearance (km/h),fN = adjustment
for no. of lanes (km/h), fID = adjustment for interchange density (km/h) Estimation of FFS
for an existing or future freeway segment is accomplished adjusting a base free-ow speed
downward to reect the inuence of four factors: lane width, lateral clearance, number of
lanes, and interchange density. Thus, the analyst is required to select an appropriate BFFS as
a starting point.
Adjustment for Lane Width The base condition for lane width is 3.6 m or greater. When
the average lane width across all lanes is less than 3.6 m, the base free-ow speed (e.g., 120
km/h) is reduced. Adjustments to reect the eect of narrower average lane width are given
in Table 24:1.
Adjustment for Lateral Clearance Base lateral clearance is 1.8 m or greater on the right
side and 0.6 m or greater on the median or left side, measured from the edge of the paved
shoulder to the nearest edge of the travelled lane. When the right-shoulder lateral clearance
24.12
January 31, 2014
Table 24:2: Adjustment for Lateral Clearance (reduction in free-ow speed for various values
of lateral clearence)
Right Shoulder
fLC (km/h)
Lateral
Lanes in One Direction
Clearance (m)
2
3
4
5
1.8
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0
1.5
1.0 0.7 0.3
0.2
1.2
1.9 1.3 0.7
0.4
0.9
2.9 1.9 1.0
0.6
0.6
3.9 2.6 1.3
0.8
0.3
4.8 3.2 1.6
1.1
0.0
5.8 3.9 1.9
1.3
Table 24:3: Adjustment for number of lanes (reduction in free-ow speed for number of lanes
in one direction)
Number of Lanes fN (km/h)
5
0.0
4
2.4
3
4.8
2
7.3
is less than 1.8 m, the BFFS is reduced. Adjustments to reect the eect of narrower rightshoulder lateral clearance are given in Table 24:2.
Adjustment for Number of Lanes Freeway segments with ve or more lanes (in one
direction) are considered as having base conditions with respect to number of lanes. When
fewer lanes are present, the BFFS is reduced. Table 24:3 provides adjustments to reect the
eect of number of lanes on BFFS. In determining number of lanes, only mainline lanes, both
basic and auxiliary, should be considered.
Adjustment for Interchange Density The base interchange density is 0.3 interchanges
per kilometer, or 3.3-km interchange spacing. Base free-ow speed is reduced when interchange
density becomes greater. Adjustments to reect the eect of interchange density are provided in
Table 24:4. Interchange density is determined over a 10-km segment of freeway (5 km upstream
24.13
January 31, 2014
Table 24:4: Adjustment for Interchange Density (Reduction in Free-Flow Speed for various
values of interchange density)
Interchanges per km fID (km/h)
0.3
0.0
0.4
1.1
0.5
2.1
0.6
3.9
0.7
5.0
0.8
6.0
0.9
8.1
1.0
9.2
1.1
10.2
1.2
12.1
and 5 km downstream) in which the freeway segment is located. An interchange is dened as

having at least one on-ramp. Therefore, interchanges that have only o-ramps would not be
considered in determining interchange density. Interchanges considered should include typical
interchanges with arterials or highways and major freeway-to-freeway interchanges.
24.5.4
Calculation of Density and determining LOS
Level of service on the basis of density can be calculated using the equation 24.7
Vp
(24.7)
S
Where, D = density (pc/km/ln), Vp = ow rate (pc/h/ln), S = average passenger car speed
(km/h). The density of the trac stream can be used to determine the level of service of a
freeway segment. Level-of-service thresholds based on density for a basic freeway segment are
summarized in the Table 24:5 shown below.
D=
Numerical example 1
Consider an existing four lane freeway in rural area, having very restricted geometry with
rolling terrain. Peak hour volume is 2000 veh/h with 5% trucks. The trac is commuter type
with peak hour factor 0.92 and interchange density as 0.6 interchanges per kilometer. Freeway
consists of two lanes in each direction of 3.3 m width with lateral clearance of 0.6 m. Find the
LOS of freeway during peak hour.
24.14
January 31, 2014
Table 24:5: LOS for a freeway segment

LOS Density Range (pc/km/ln)
A
0-7
B
>7 - 11
C
>11 - 16
D
>16 - 22
E
>22 - 28
F
>28
Solution Assumptions: Assume 0 percent buses and RVs since none are indicated. Assume
BFFS of 120 km/h for rural areas. Since the freeway is in a rural area assume that the number
of lanes does not aect free-ow speed. Assume fp = 1.00 for commuter trac. We can get the
corresponding values of adjustment factors from the tables as - fLW =3.1, fLC =3.9, fID =3.9
and fN =0.
Step 1 Find fHV using equation 24.3 as given below fHV
1
1 + PT (ET 1) + PR (ER 1)
1
=
1 + 0.05(2.5 1) + 0
= 0.930
=
Step 2 Convert volume (veh/h) to ow rate (pc/h/ln) using equation as given below
V
P HF N fHV fP
2000
=
0.92 2 0.930 1.00
= 1, 169 pc/h/ln
Vp =
Step 3 Compute free-ow speed from equation 24.6 as given below and putting the respective
values of adjustment factors we get F F S as
F F S = BF F S fLW fLC fN fID
= 120 3.1 3.9 0.0 3.9
= 109.1 kmph.
24.15
January 31, 2014
Step 4 Determine the density using the equation 24.7 as Vp

S
Since, 90 F F S 120 and Vp (3100 15F F S) we can take S = F F S (from equation 24.4).
Keeping values of Vp and S we can get the value of density as D =
D =
1169
= 10.7 pc/km/ln
109.1
Step 5 Find Level of service, for the calculated value of density we can get the level of service
from the LOS table. i.e for D = 10.7 pc/km/ln we get LOS = B
Numerical example 2
A new suburban freeway is designed in the level terrain. Peak hour volume is 4,000 veh/h and
the ow consists of 15% trucks and 3% recreational vehicles (RVs). The trac is commuter
type with peak hour factor 0.85 and interchange density as 0.9 interchanges per kilometer. Lane
width is proposed to be 3.6 m with lateral clearance of 1.8 m. How many lanes are needed to
provide LOS C during the peak hour?
Solution Assumptions: Assume BF F S of 120 km/h. Since the freeway is being designed in
a suburban area assume that the number of lanes aects free-ow speed. For commuter trac
we can take fp = 1.00. We can get the corresponding values of adjustment factors from the
tables as - fLW = 0, fLC = 0, fID = 8.1 and fN = 4.8.
Step 1 Find fHV using equation 24.3 as given below:
fHV
1
1 + PT (ET 1) + PR (ER 1)
1
=
1 + 0.15(1.5 1) + 0.03(1.2 1)
= 0.925
Step 2 Convert volume (veh/h) to ow rate (pc/h/ln) using equation 24.2. Consider a four
lane option, for four lane N = 2, keeping value of fHV and N in equation 24.2 we get Vp as:
V
P HF N fHV fP
4000
=
0.85 2 0.925 1.00
= 2, 544 pc/h/ln.
Vp =
24.16
January 31, 2014
Four lane option is not acceptable as 2544 pc/h/ln exceeds capacity of 2400 pc/h/ln. Here
2400 pc/h/ln is the capacity of a single lane under standard conditions.
Step 4 Consider a six lane option
4000
(.85 3 0.925 1.00
= 1, 696 pc/h/ln.
Vp =
Step 5 Compute FFS for a six-lane freeway from equation 24.6 and putting the respective
values of adjustment factors we get F F S as:
F F S = BF F S fLW fLC fN fID
= 120 0 0 4.8 8.1
= 107.1. km/h.
Step 6 Determine density from equation 24.7
D =
Vp
S
Since, 90 F F S 120 and vp (310015F F S) we can take S = F F S (from equation 24.4)

Putting values of Vp and S we get density as
D =
1696
= 15.8 pc/km/ln
107.1
Step 7 Check the LOS, for the calculated value of density we can get the level of service
from the LOS table; i.e for D = 15.8 pc/km/ln we get LOS = C. Hence number of lanes to be
provided to satisfy LOS C during peak hour = 6.
24.6
Weaving in freeways
Weaving is dened as the crossing of two or more trac streams travelling in the same general
direction along a signicant length of highway without the aid of trac control devices (with the
exception of guide signs). Weaving segments are formed when a merge area is closely followed
by a diverge area, or when an on-ramp is closely followed by an o-ramp and the two are joined
by an auxiliary lane.
Weaving segments require intense lane-changing manoeuvers as drivers must access lanes
appropriate to their desired exit points. Thus, trac in a weaving segment is subject to
24.17
January 31, 2014
Figure 24:8: Simple weaving segment

turbulence in excess of that normally present on basic freeway segments. The turbulence
presents special operational problems and design requirements. Fig. 24:8 shows the simple
weaving segment formed by a single merge point followed by a single diverge point. Multiple
weaving segments may be formed where one merge is followed by two diverge points or where
two merge points are followed by one diverge point.
24.6.1
Weaving congurations
The most critical aspect of operations within a weaving segment is lane changing. Weaving
vehicles, which must cross a roadway to enter on the right and leave on the left, or vice versa,
accomplish these manoeuvers by making the appropriate lane changes. The conguration of the
weaving segment (i.e., the relative placement of entry and exit lanes) has a major eect on the
number of lane changes required of weaving vehicles to successfully complete their manoeuver.
There is also a distinction between lane changes that must be made to weave successfully and
additional lane changes that are discretionary (i.e., are not necessary to complete the weaving
manoeuver). The former must take place within the conned length of the weaving segment,
whereas the latter are not restricted to the weaving segment itself. There are three major
categories of weaving congurations: Type A, Type B, and Type C.
Type A weaving conguration
The identifying characteristic of a Type A weaving segment is that all weaving vehicles must
make one lane change to complete their manoeuver successfully. All of these lane changes occur
across a lane line that connects from the entrance gore area directly to the exit gore area. Such
a line is referred to as a crown line. Type A weaving segments are the only such segments to
have a crown line.
The most common form of Type A weaving segment is shown in Fig. 24:9. The segment is
formed by a one-lane on-ramp followed by a one-lane o-ramp, with the two connected by a
continuous auxiliary lane. The lane line between the auxiliary lane and the right-hand freeway
lane is the crown line for the weaving segment. All on-ramp vehicles entering the freeway must
24.18
January 31, 2014
Figure 24:9: Ramp Weave

A
Figure 24:10: Major Weave

make a lane change from the auxiliary lane to the shoulder lane of the freeway. All freeway
vehicles exiting at the o-ramp must make a lane change from the shoulder lane of the freeway
to the auxiliary lane. This type of conguration is also referred to as a ramp-weave. Fig. 24:10
illustrates a major weaving segment that also has a crown line. A major weaving segment is
formed when three or four of the entry and exit legs have multiple lanes. As in the case of a
ramp-weave, all weaving vehicles, regardless of the direction of the weave, must execute one
lane change across the crown line of the segment.
Type B weaving conguration
Type B weaving segments are shown in Figs. 24:11 to 24:13. All Type B weaving segments
fall into the general category of major weaving segments in that such segments always have
at least three entry and exit legs with multiple lanes (except for some collector distributor
congurations). It is the lane changing required of weaving vehicles that characterizes for the
Type B conguration:
1. One weaving movement can be made without making any lane changes, and
2. The other weaving movement requires at most one lane change.
Figs. 24:11 to 24:13 show two Type B weaving segments. In both cases, Lane balance dened
Movement B-C (entry on the right, departure on the left) may be made without executing any
lane changes, whereas Movement A-D (entry on the left, departure on the right) requires only
one lane change. Essentially, there is a continuous lane that allows for entry on the right and
departure on the left.
24.19
January 31, 2014
A
C
B
D
Figure 24:11: Major Weave with Lane Balance at Exit Gore

A
Figure 24:12: Major Weave with Merge at Entry Gore

In Fig. 24:11 this is accomplished by providing a diverging lane at the exit gore. From this
lane, a vehicle may proceed down either exit leg without executing a lane change. This type
of design is also referred to as lane balanced, that is, the number of lanes leaving the diverge
is one more than the number of lanes approaching it. In Fig. 24:12 the same lane-changing
scenario is provided by having a lane from Leg A merge with a lane from Leg B at the entrance
gore. This is slightly less ecient than providing lane balance at the exit gore but produces
similar numbers of lane changes by weaving vehicles. The conguration shown in Fig. 24:13
is unique, havingboth a merge of two lanes at the entrance gore and lane balance at the exit
gore. In this case, both weaving movements can take place without making a lane change. Such
congurations are most often found on collector-distributor roadways as part of an interchange.
Figure 24:13: Major Weave with Merge at Entry Gore and Lane Balance at Exit Gore
24.20
January 31, 2014
A
C
Figure 24:14: Major Weave without Lane Balance or Merging

D
Figure 24:15: Two-Sided Weave

Type C weaving conguration
Type C weaving segments are similar to those of Type B in that one or more through lanes
are provided for one of the weaving movements. The distinguishing characteristic of a Type C
weaving segment is that the other weaving movement requires a minimum of two lane changes
for successful completion of a weaving maneuver. Thus, a Type C weaving segment is characterized by the following:
1. One weaving movement may be made without making a lane change, and
2. The other weaving movement requires two or more lane changes.
Figs. 24:14 to 24:15 shows two types of Type C weaving segments. In Fig. 24:14 Movement
B-C does not require a lane change, whereas Movement A-D requires two lane changes. This
type of segment is formed when there is neither merging of lanes at the entrance gore nor lane
balance at the exit gore, and no crown line exists. Although such a segment is relatively ecient
for weaving movements in the direction of the freeway ow, it cannot eciently handle large
weaving ows in the other direction.
Fig. 24:15 shows a two-sided weaving segment. It is formed when a right-hand on-ramp is
followed by a left-hand o-ramp, or vice versa. In such cases, the through freeway ow operates
functionally as a weaving ow. Ramp-to-ramp vehicles must cross all lanes of the freeway to
execute their desired manoeuver. Freeway lanes are, in eect, through weaving lanes, and
ramp-to-ramp vehicles must make multiple lane changes as they cross from one side of the
freeway to the other.
24.21
January 31, 2014
24.6.2
Eect of weaving conguration
The conguration of the weaving segment has a marked eect on operations because of its inuence on lane-changing behavior. A weaving segment with 1,000 veh/h weaving across 1,000
veh/h in the other direction requires at least 2,000 lane changes per hour in a Type A segment,
since each vehicle makes one lane change. In a Type B segment, only one movement must
change lanes, reducing the number of required lane changes per hour to 1,000. In a Type C
segment, one weaving ow would not have to change lanes, while the other would have to make
at least two lane changes, for a total of 2,000 lane changes per hour.
Conguration has a further eect on the proportional use of lanes by weaving and lanes nonweaving vehicles. Since weaving vehicles must occupy specic lanes to eciently complete their
manoeuvers, the conguration can limit the ability of weaving vehicles to use outer lanes of
the segment. This eect is most pronounced for Type A segments, because weaving vehicles
must primarily occupy the two lanes adjacent to the crown line. It is least severe for Type
B segments, since these segments require the fewest lane changes for weaving vehicles, thus
allowing more exibility in lane use.
24.7
Conclusion
Freeways are most ecient type of highway. Level of service (LOS) is a quality measure
describing operational conditions within a trac stream of freeways. Prevailing roadway, trac
and control conditions dene capacity; these conditions should be reasonably uniform for any
section of freeway analysed. Freeway management system works for smooth operations of
freeway.
24.8
References
1. Trac operations, trac signal systems and freeway operations, 1995.

2. Freeway operations, 2019. Highway Research Board, bulletin 324; 1962 ; pageno. 46-73.
5. C S Papacostas. Transportation engineering and planning by Papacostas. C. S, 3rd
edition, Prentice-Hall of India in 2001. Prentice-Hall of India, 2001.
24.22
January 31, 2014
6. Roess P Roger and Jose M Ulerio. Level of Service Analysis of Freeway Weaving Segments.
Transportation Research Record:2130, 2009.
7. S Wolfgang, Homburger, and James H Kell. Fundamentals of Trac Engineering 12th
Edition. San Francisco, 1997.
24.23
January 31, 2014
25. Ramp Metering
Chapter 25
Ramp Metering
25.1
Introduction
Ramp metering can be dened as a method by which trac seeking to gain access to a busy
highway is controlled at the access point via trac signals. This control aims at maximize the
capacity of the highway and prevent trac ow breakdown and the onset of congestion. Ramp
metering is the use of trac signals to control the ow of trac entering a freeway facility.
Ramp metering, when properly applied, is a valuable tool for ecient trac management on
freeways and freeway networks.
25.1.1
Objectives
The objectives of ramp metering includes:

1. Controling the number of vehicles that are allowed to enter the freeway,
2. Reducing freeway demand, and
3. Breaking up of the platoon of vehicles released from an upstream trac signal.
Figure 25:1 given below is a typical example of ramp metering. The signal placed at the ramp,
controls the trac ow which can enter the freeway through merge lane. Vehicle detectors are
also shown at the downstream end of the freeway.
25.1.2
Benets
Ramp metering has many positive benets in freeway management with in measurable parameters such as reduced delay, reduced travel time, reduced accident risk and increased operating
speed. The typical advantages are:
25.1
January 31, 2014
25. Ramp Metering
Traffic signal
on merge
ramp
Merge lane
Vehicle detectors monitoring

traffic density through lane
occupancy
Direction of travel
Figure 25:1: Schematic diagram of ramp metering

1. Improved System Operation: Ramp metering essentially aims to control the access to a
freeway to reduce congestion, freewaydelay and ultimately overalldelay. Although several ramp metering strategies are available with individual pros and cons, overall, ramp
metering helps to break up plantoons of vehicles from entering a freeway and causing
turbulence, reduces delay due to random access and defers if not eliminates the onset of
congestion.
2. Improved Safety: Ramp areas are accident prone areas due to unmanaged merging and
diverging. Ramp metering makes merging and diverging operation to a freeway smooth
and controlled, reducing the risk of accidents arising out of sudden driver decisions. Random entry of platoons is also prevented which decreases the risk of accidents at merge or
diverge areas.
3. Reduced vehicle operating expense and emission: Ramp metering essentially reduces the
number of stops and delays for the freeway as well as the ramps. This in turn reduces
the fuel consumption and emission for a vehicle.
25.2
Metering strategies
Metering strategies can be dened as the approach used to control the trac the ow on the
ramps. Three Ramp metering strategies are available to control the ow on the ramps which
can enter the busy freeway. Capacity of an uncontrolled single-lane freeway entrance ramp
is 1800 to 2200 vehicles per hour (VPH). Since Ramp metering is a trac ow controlling
approach it decreases the capacity of the ramps. Three ramp-metering strategies are as follows:
25.2.1
Single-lane one car per green
Single-lane one car per green ramp metering strategy allows only one car to enter the freeway
during each singal cycle. The salient features of this strategy are:
25.2
January 31, 2014
25. Ramp Metering
1. The length of green plus yellow indications is set to ensure sucient time for one vehicle
to cross the stop line. The length of red interval should be sucient to ensure that the
following vehicle completely stops before proceeding.
2. A typical cycle length is taken as, the smallest possible cycle is 4 seconds with 1 second
green, 1 second yellow, and 2 seconds red. This produces a meter capacity of 900 VPH.
3. A more reasonable cycle is around 4.5 seconds, obtained by increasing the red time to 2.5
seconds. This increase in red would result in a lower meter capacity of 800 VPH.
25.2.2
Single-lane multiple cars per Green
Single-Lane Multiple Cars per Green is also known as Platoon metering, or bulk metering. This
approach allows two or more vehicles to enter the freeway during each green indication. The
most common form of this strategy is to allow two cars per green. The salient features of this
type of ramp metering are:
1. Three or more cars can be allowed; however, this will sacrice the third objective(breaking
up large platoons).
2. Furthermore, contrary to what one might think, bulk metering does not produce a drastic
increase in capacity over a single-lane one car per green operation. This is because this
strategy requires longer green and yellow times as ramp speed increases, resulting in a
longer cycle length. Consequently, there are fewer cycles in one hour.
3. Two cars per green strategy requires cycle lengths between 6 and 6.5 seconds and results
in metering capacity of 1100 to 1200 VPH. This analysis illustrates that bulk metering
does not double capacity and this nding should be noted.
25.2.3
Dual-lane metering
In dual lane metering two lanes are required to be provided on the ramp in the vicinity of the
meter which necks down to one lane at the merge. The salient features of this type of ramp
metering are:
1. In this strategy, the controller displays the green-yellow-red cycle for each lane.
2. Synchronized cycles are used such that the green indications never occur simultaneously
in both lanes.
25.3
January 31, 2014
25. Ramp Metering
Fair
Good
Metering quality
100
90
80
70
60
Dual lane,
single entry
1 car/green
2 cars/green
50
40
Fail
30
3 cars/green
20
10
0
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
Ramp demand volume (vph)
Figure 25:2: Comparison of metering quality of dierent approaches with Ramp demand volume
3. The green indications are timed to allow a constant headway between vehicles from both
lanes. Dual-lane metering can provide metering capacity of 1600 to 1700 VPH.
4. In addition, dual-lane ramps provide more storage space for queued vehicles.
25.2.4
Quality of metering
The quality of ramp metering essentially implies the eciency of handling the ow and reducing
unnecessary delays through metering strategies. For a ramp meter to produce the desired
benets, the engineer should select a metering strategy appropriate for the current or projected
ramp demand. The ramp width will depend on this selection. The following g. 25:2 shows the
metering availability (percent of time the signal is metering) of the three metering strategies
for a range of ramp demand volumes. In Figure 25:2, if the ow on a single lane ramp which
has Single-Lane One Car per Green approach is 1000 vph, then the metering availability is
only 80 percent since the metering approach installed has the capacity of 800 vph. Therefore
metering availability decreases as the trac ow increases. If the ow is around 1600 vph then
Dual-Lane Metering gives 100 percent metering availability. Thus it is imperative to select the
metering strategy based on the ow and accordingly select the required ramp width.
25.3
Design of ramp metering
There are some considerations to be taken into account before designing and installing a ramp
meter. Installation of a ramp meter to achieve the desired objectives requires sucient room
25.4
January 31, 2014
25. Ramp Metering
at the entrance ramp. The determination of minimum ramp length to provide safe, ecient,
and desirable operation requires careful consideration of several elements described below:
1. Sucient room must be provided for a stopped vehicle at the meter to accelarate and
attain safe merge speeds.
2. Sucient space must be provided to store the resulting cyclic queue of vehicles without
blocking an upstream signalized intersection.
3. Sucient room must be provided for vehicles discharged from the upstrem signal to safely
stop behind the queue of vehicles being metered.
Provision for the distances mentioned is an integral part of ramp design. Figure 25:3 illstrates
the requirements for the dierent types of distances explained above.
25.3.1
Minimum stopping distance to the back of queue
Sucient stopping distance is required to be provided prior to entry to the ramp. Motorists
leaving an upstream signalized interchange will likely encounter the rear end of a queue as they
proceed toward the meter. Adequate maneuvering and stopping distances should be provided
for both turning and frontage road trac. This stopping distance calculated simmilar to the
stopping sight distance which is a combination of the brake distance and lag distance travelled
by a vehicle before stopping. The equation to calculate the minimum stopping distance is given
below:
v2
(25.1)
X = vt +
2gf
where, X is the stopping distance in meters, v is the velocity of the vehicle in m/sec, t is the time
in seconds, g is the gravity coecient in m/sec2 , f is the friction coecient. This is the minimum
distance to be provided from the back of the queue for safe stopping of vehicles approaching
the ramp. Figure 25:3 shows Safe stopping distance, storage distance and acceleration distance
which are respective three criteria for ramp design.
25.3.2
Storage distance
The storage distance is required to store the vehicles in queue to a ramp meter. The queue
detector controls the maximum queue length in real-time. Thus, the distance between the meter
and the queue detector denes the storage space. The following generalized spacing model can
be used to determine the single-lane storage distance:
L = aV bV 2
V 1600 vph
25.5
(25.2)
January 31, 2014
25. Ramp Metering
Queue Single lane

Detector meter
Acceleration distance
Ramp length
Storage space
Safe stopping distance
Distance to meter (metres)
Figure 25:3: Components of Ramp design criteria
200
Dual lane
Bulk metering
Single lane
150
100
50
0
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
Ramp demand volume (vph)
Figure 25:4: Variation of distance to meter with Ramp demand volume for dierent strategies
of Ramp metering
In this equation, L (in meters) is the required single-lane storage distance on the ramp when
the expected peak-hour ramp demand volume is V vph and a, b are constants. This gure
shows the requirements for three metering strategies:
1. Single-lane with single vehicle release per cycle.
2. Single-lane with bulk metering (three vehicles per green).
3. Dual-lane metering assuming single-line storage.
In the Figure 25:4 the curve is shown for the variation of storage distance i.e. distance to meter
with ramp demand volume for dierent strategy used for Ramp metering.
25.3.3
Distance from meter to merge
The distance from meter to merge is provided so that vehicles can attain a suitable merging
speed after being discharged from the ramp meter. AASHTO provides speed-distance proles
25.6
January 31, 2014
Distance to merge (metres)
25. Ramp Metering
700
3%
600
500
0%
400
3%
300
200
100
0
60
70
80
90
100
Freeway merge speed (km/hr)
Figure 25:5: Acceleration length v/s merge speed for dierent strategies of Ramp metering
Table 25:1: Acceleration length of ramps
Merge speed
(kmph)
60
70
80
90
100
Ramp Grade (%)

-3
0
+3
90 112 150
127 158 208
180 228 313
248 323 466
331 442 665
for various classes of vehicles as they accelerate from a stop to speed for various ramp grades.
Figure 25:5, given below provides similar acceleration distances needed to attain various freeway
merging speeds based on AASHTO design criteria. Table 25:1 provides the acceleration length
for dierent merge speed and with ramps of dierent grade. The desired distances to merge
increases with increasing freeway merge speed and the same ramp grade.
25.4
Ramp design methodology
To model the ramp inuence area, a length of 450 m just upstream (for o ramp) and downstream (for on ramp) is considered to be aected. The input data required is the geometric
data of the freeway and the ramp and the demand ow. The three steps of design are:
25.7
January 31, 2014
V
F
V12
25. Ramp Metering
D S
R R
VR 12
VFO
450 m
Figure 25:6: Schematic view of a typical merging area

1. The ow enetering lanes 1 and 2 of the freeway upstream of merge area or diverge area
is rst determined.
2. The capacity of the freeway, ramp and merge and diverge areas are determined and
checked with limiting values to determine the chance of occurenece of congestion.
3. The density in the ramp inuence area is then found out and depnedinf on the value f
this variable, the level of service is determined.
From design point of view analysis of merge area and diverge area are treated separately but
follows the same basic principle already explained.
25.5
Merging inuence area
The Merging inuence area is the area where increase in local density, congestion, and reduced
speeds is generally observed due to merging trac from ramps. The ramp contributing trac
to the freeway is called an ON ramp. The analysis of the merging inuence area is done to nd
out the level of service of the ON ramp (Figure 25:6). The analysis of merge area is done in
following three primary steps:
25.5.1
Predicting entering ow
The rst step of the merge area analysis is to predict the ow enetering lanes 1and 2 of the
freeway (V12 ). The terms used in above gure are explained below. V12 is inuenced by the
following factors:
1. Total freeway ow approaching merge area (VF ) (pc/h): The total approach ow is the
most important inuencing factor for the ow remaining in lanes 1 and 2 of the freeway.
2. Total Ramp Flow (VR ): This is the total ow on the ramp which ultimately enters the
freeway to merge with exinting ow.
25.8
January 31, 2014
25. Ramp Metering
3. Total length of acceleration lane: A longer acceleration lane reduces the turbulence and
hence the density in the inuence area of the ramp. The ow in the lanes 1 and 2 thus
are higher.
4. Free- ow speed of ramp at point of merge area: Higher the free ow speed of ramp
vehicles, vehicles on freeway tend to move away from merging ow to avoid high speed
turbulence.
HCM 2000 provides model for predicting V12 at on-ramps as given below:
V12 = VF PF M
(25.3)
where V12 is the ow rate in lane 1 and 2 of freeway entering ramp inuence area (pc/h), VF
is the total freeway ow approaching merge area, and PF M is the Proportion of approaching
freeway ow remaining in lanes 1 and 2 immediately upstream of merge. For four lanes freeway
(2 lanes in each direction) PF M = 1.00
25.5.2
Determining capacity
Determining the capacity of the merge area is the second step of the analysis. The capacity
of a merge area is determined by the capacity of the downstream freeway segment. Thus, the
total ow arriving on the upstream freeway and the on-ramp cannot exceed the basic freeway
capacity of the departing downstream freeway segment.
vR12 = v12 + vR
(25.4)
Two conditions may occur in a given analysis:

1. The total departing freeway ow, given as V = vF + vR , is greater than the capacity of
the down steam freeway segment, and hence the LOS is F and queuing is expected on
the freeway.
2. Flow entering the ramp inuence area exceeds its capacity but total departing freeway
ow is within capacity. This may result in in local high densities and queuing is not
expected on the freeway.
25.5.3
Determining LOS
Determining the level of service (LOS) of the merge area is the third step in merge area analysis.
LOS depends on the density in the inuencing area. HCM 2000 provides the equation to
25.9
January 31, 2014
25. Ramp Metering
Table 25:2: LOS criteria for merge and diverge areas

LOS
Density (pc/km/lane)
A
6
B
6 - 12
C
12 - 17
D
17 - 22
E
> 22
F
Demands exceeds capacity
estimate the density in the merge inuence area.

DR = a + b VR + c V12 + d LA
(25.5)
where, DR is the density of merge inuence area (pc/km/ln), VR is the on-ramp peak 15-min
ow rate (pc/h), LA is the length of acceleration lane (m), V12 is the ow rate entering ramp
inuence area (pc/h), and a, b, c, and d are constants.
Numerical example
Consider a single lane on-ramp to a six-lane freeway. The length of the acceleration lane is 150
m. What is the LOS during the peak hour for the rst on-ramp? Given that the peak hour
factor is 0.95, the heavy vehicle adjustment factor is 0.976, the driver adjustment factor is 1.0
and proportion of approaching freeway ow remaining is 55.5%? The freeway volume is 3000
veh/hr and the on-ramp volume is 1800 veh/hr.
Solution
1. Convert volume to ow rate: Convert volume in (veh/hr) to ow rate (pc/hr) using
vi =
Vi
P HF Fhv Fp
where, vi is the ow rate in pc/hr for direction i, Vi is the hourly volume in veh/hr for
direction i, PHF is the peak hour factor, and Fhv is the adjustment factor for heavy
vehicles, and Fp is the adjustment factor for driver population.
VF = 3236 pc/hr (Fhv = 0.976, F p = 1.000)
VR = 1941 pc/hr (Fhv = 0.976, F p = 1.000)
25.10
January 31, 2014
25. Ramp Metering
2. Compute V12 as:

V12 = VF PF M
= 3236 0.555 = 1796 pc/hr.
3. Compute density at ramp inuence area using equation:
DR = a + b VR + c V12 + d LA
= 3.402 + 0.00456 VR + 0.0048 V12 0.01278 LA
= 3.402 + 0.00456 1941 + 0.0048 1796 0.01278 150
= 18.96 pc/km/ln.
4. Compute LOS For DR =18.96 pc/km/ln, the LOS = D from the LOS table above.
25.6
Diverge inuence area
The Diverging inuence area is the area where increase in local density, congestion, and reduced
speeds is generally observed due to diverging trac to ramps. The ramp which diverge trac
to the ramp is called an OFF ramp. The analysis of the diverging inuence area is done to
nd out the level of service of the OFF ramp. The analysis of diverge area is done in following
three primary steps:
25.6.1
Predicting entering ow
The rst step is same as that of merge area analysis. The ow in lanes 1 and 2 of the freeway
is rst predicted. However, there are two major dierences in the analysis of diverge area.
1. First, approaching ow V12 is measured for a point immediately upstream of the deceleration lane.
2. Second, V12 includes VR at the diverge area. V12 is the ow rate entering ramp inuence
area (pc/h), and vR is the O-ramp demand ow rate (pc/h).
The general model given by HCM 2000 treats V12 as the sum of the o-ramp ow plus a
proportion of the through freeway ow.
V12 = VR + (VF VR ) PF D
25.11
(25.6)
January 31, 2014
V
F
V12
25. Ramp Metering
VR12
D S
R R
450 m
V
FO
V
R
Figure 25:7: Typical diverging area diagram

where, V12 is the ow rate in lanes 1 and 2 of freeway upstream of diverge area in (pc/hr),
VF is the freeway demand ow rate immediately upstream of diverge in (pc/h), and PF D is
the proportion of through freeway ow remaining in lanes 1 and 2 immediately upstream of
diverge. For four lanes freeway (2 lanes in each direction) PF D is 1.00.
25.6.2
Determining capacity
As in the merge area analysis, determining the capacity is the second step of the diverge area
analysis. Three limiting values should be checked:
1. Total ow that can depart from the diverge: this is limited by the capacity of the lanes
in the freeway prior to approach of the diverge.
2. The capacities of the departing freeway leg or legs or ramp or both. This is the most
important of the three as generally diverge areas fail due to failure of one or more exit
legs..
3. V12 (approaching ow) prior to deceleration lane: this ow also includes the o-ramp ow
and must be checked against capacity.
25.6.3
Determining LOS
Determing the level of service (LOS) of the diverge area is the third step of the diverge area
analysis. LOS criteria for diverge area are based on density in the diverge inuence area. HCM
2000 provides the equation to estimate the density in the merge inuence area.
DR = a + b V12 + cLD
(25.7)
where, DR is the density of diverge inuence area (pc/km/ln), V12 is the ow rate entering ramp
inuence area (pc/h), LD is the length of deceleration lane(m), and a, b & c are constants.
This equation is applicable only for undersaturated conditions of ow. The density calculation
25.12
January 31, 2014
25. Ramp Metering
DR S R
150 m
225 m
90 m

is not done when either of the three capacities mentioned earlier are exceeded. In such cases,
the LOS is assigned as F.
Numerical example
Consider an o-ramp (Single-lane) pair, 225 meters apart, from a six lane freeway. The length
of the rst deceleration lane is 150m and that of the second deceleration lane is 90 m. What is
the LOS during the peak hour for the rst o-ramp given that the peak hour factor is 0.95, the
heavy vehicle adjustment factor is 0.93, the driver adjustment factor is 1.0 and the proportion
of through freeway ow remaining is 61.7%? The freeway volume is 4500 veh/hr and the rst
o-ramp volume is 300 veh/hr.
Solution
1. Convert volume to ow rate: Convert volume in veh/hr to ow rate in pc/hr as
follows:
Vi
(P HF Fhv Fp )
= 5093 pc/hr (Fhv = 0.930, Fp = 1.0)
vi =
VF
VR =
340 pc/hr (Fhv = 0.930, Fp = 1.0)
2. Compute V12 as below:

V12 = VR + (VF VR ) P F D
= 340 + (5093 340) (0.617)
= 3273 pc/hr
25.13
January 31, 2014
25. Ramp Metering
3. Compute density at ramp inuence area as below:

DR = 2.642 + 0.0053 V12 0.0183 LD
DR = 2.642 + 0.0053 3273 0.0183 150
DR = 17.2 pc/km/ln.
4. Determine LOS: For DR =17.2 pc/km/ln the LOS is D.
25.7
Fixed, reactive and predictive systems
There are two dierent metering approaches available. First is Pre-timed metering, which use
xed signal cycles. Second is Trac responsive, which uses real time trac data to calculate
signal cycle lengths. Trac responsive systems can be local or system-wide.
25.7.1
Pre-timed (xed) systems
In the pre-timed ramp metering systems, the ramp signal operates with a constant cycle in accordance with a metering rate prescribed for the particular control period.. the salient features
of this type of ramp metering are:
1. It is the simplest and least expensive form of ramp metering for construction and installation.
2. It is also the most rigid approach because it cannot make adjustments for real-time
conditions including non-recurring congestion (i.e., congestion that occurs as a result of
weather, collisions, etc.).
3. Th system being pre-timed, it is best used to address conditions that are predictable from
day-today.
4. If there is no mainline or ramp detection, agencies must regularly collect data by alternative means in order to analyze trac conditions on the freeway and determine the
appropriate metering rates.
5. The metering operation will require frequent observation so that rates can be adjusted to
meet trac conditions which is a drawback.
25.14
January 31, 2014
25.7.2
25. Ramp Metering
Trac responsive systems
In contrast to the pre-timed metering control, trac-responsive metering is directly inuenced

by the mainline and ramp trac conditions during the metering period. Metering rates are
selected on the basis of real-time measurements of trac variables indicating the current relation
between upstream and downstream capacity. The salient features of this type of ramp metering
system are:
1. This system uses freeway loop detectors or other surveillance systems to calculate or select
ramp metering rates based on current freeway conditions.
2. It is generally considered to be ve to ten percent better than those of pre-timed metering.
3. A trac responsive approach can be used either locally or system-wide.
Local trac responsive
Local ramp metering is employed when only the conditions local to the ramp (as compared
with other ramps) are used to provide the metering rates. The salient features are:
1. Local trac responsive metering approaches base metering rates on freeway conditions
near the metered ramp.
2. This is used where the trac congestion at a location can be reduced by the metering of
a single ramp.
3. They are used as backups when system-wide algorithms fail.
4. Unlike pre-timed systems, local systems require surveillance of the freeway using trac
detectors.
5. Although, more capital costs are required to implement trac responsive systems, they
more easily adapt to changing conditions and can provide better results than their pretimed counterparts.
System-wide trac responsive
In most cases, it is preferable to meter a series of ramps in a freeway section in a coordinated
fashion based on criteria that consider the entire freeway section. The strategy may also consider
the freeway corridor consisting of the freeway section as well as the surface streets that will be
aected by metered trac. The salient features are:
25.15
January 31, 2014
25. Ramp Metering
1. This is used when there are multiple bottlenecks or locations of recurring congestion along
a freeway.
2. This type of ramp metering is used to optimize trac ow along a metered stretch of
roadway, rather than at a specic point on the freeway (as is the case of local trac
responsive systems).
3. Like local trac responsive systems, system-wide trac responsive systems require data
from ramp detectors and local freeway detectors.
4. In addition to these components, system-wide trac responsive systems are unique in the
fact that data is also needed from downstream detectors and/or upstream detectors at
multiple locations, potentially from cross-street signal controllers, and from the central
computer.
5. System-wide trac responsive systems have the most complex hardware conguration
compared to the other metering approaches discussed so far (i.e., pre-timed and local
trac responsive).
25.8
Summary
In this chapter we discussed ramp metering, dierent strategies of ramp metering, procedure
to nd out the level of service of on and o ramps, dierent kind of metering systems. From
the analysis that we have done in this chapter we can say that the Ramp metering can result
into increased freeway speed, decreased travel time, increase in freeway capacity, reduction in
accidents and congestion, improved fuel economy and ecient use of capacity.
25.9
References
1. Ismail Chabini and Amedeo R Odoni. Transportation Flow Systems. MIT, 2019.
2. A Chaudhary and J Messer. Report on design criteria for ramp metering.
Transportation Institute, Texas, 2000.
Texas

4. P Stewart. Ramp metering study. SIAS Limited, Dundee, UK, 2003.
25.16
January 31, 2014
27. Principles of Trac Control
Chapter 27
Principles of Trac Control
27.1
Overview
Intersection is an area shared by two or more roads. This area is designated for the vehicles
to turn to dierent directions to reach their desired destinations. Its main function is to
guide vehicles to their respective directions. Trac intersections are complex locations on any
highway. This is because vehicles moving in dierent direction wan to occupy same space at the
same time. In addition, the pedestrians also seek same space for crossing. Drivers have to make
split second decision at an intersection by considering his route, intersection geometry, speed
and direction of other vehicles etc. A small error in judgment can cause severe accidents. It also
causes delay and it depends on type, geometry, and type of control. Overall trac ow depends
on the performance of the intersections. It also aects the capacity of the road. Therefore,
both from the accident perspective and the capacity perspective, the study of intersections very
important for the trac engineers especially in the case of urban scenario.
27.2
Conicts at an intersection
Conicts at an intersection are dierent for dierent types of intersection. Consider a typical
four-legged intersection as shown in gure. The number of conicts for competing through
movements are 4, while competing right turn and through movements are 8. The conicts
between right turn tracs are 4, and between left turn and merging trac is 4. The conicts
created by pedestrians will be 8 taking into account all the four approaches. Diverging trac
also produces about 4 conicts. Therefore, a typical four legged intersection has about 32
dierent types of conicts. This is shown in gure 27:1.
The essence of the intersection control is to resolve these conicts at the intersection for
the safe and ecient movement of both vehicular trac and pedestrians. Two methods of
intersection controls are there: time sharing and space sharing. The type of intersection control
27.1
January 31, 2014

Conflicts in a traffic signal
4 Through traffic
4 Right turn
8 Right turnThrough
4 Merging
4 Diverging
P 8 Pedestrian
Total = 32 Conflicts
P
Figure 27:1: Conicts at an intersection

that has to be adopted depends on the trac volume, road geometry, cost involved, importance
of the road etc.
27.3
Levels of intersection control
The control of an intersection can be exercised at dierent levels. They can be either passive
control, semi control, or active control. In passive control, there is no explicit control on the
driver . In semi control, some amount of control on the driver is there from the trac agency.
Active control means the movement of the trac is fully controlled by the trac agency and
the drivers cannot simply maneuver the intersection according to his choice.
27.3.1
Passive control
When the volume of trac is less, no explicit control is required. Here the road users are
required to obey the basic rules of the road. Passive control like trac signs, road markings
etc. are used to complement the intersection control. Some of the intersection control that are
classied under passive control are as follows:
1. No control If the trac coming to an intersection is low, then by applying the basic
rules of the road like driver on the left side of the road must yield and that through
movements will have priority than turning movements. The driver is expected to obey
these basic rules of the road.
2. Trac signs: With the help of warning signs, guide signs etc. it is able to provide
some level of control at an intersection. Give way control, two-way stop control, and
27.2
January 31, 2014
all-way stop control are some examples. The GIVE WAY control requires the driver in
the minor road to slow down to a minimum speed and allow the vehicle on the major
road to proceed. Two way stop control requires the vehicle drivers on the minor streets
should see that the conicts are avoided. Finally an all-way stop control is usually used
when it is dicult to dierentiate between the major and minor roads in an intersection.
In such a case, STOP sign is placed on all the approaches to the intersection and the
driver on all the approaches are required to stop the vehicle. The vehicle at the right
side will get priority over the left approach. The trac control at at-grade intersection
may be uncontrolled in cases of low trac. Here the road users are required to obey the
basic rules of the road. Passive control like trac signs, road markings etc. are used to
complement the intersection control.
3. Trac signs plus marking: In addition to the trac signs, road markings also complement the trac control at intersections. Some of the examples include stop line marking,
yield lines, arrow marking etc.
27.3.2
Semi control
In semi control or partial control, the drivers are gently guided to avoid conicts. Channelization
and trac rotaries are two examples of this.
1. Channelization: The trac is separated to ow through denite paths by raising a
portion of the road in the middle usually called as islands distinguished by road markings.
The conicts in trac movements are reduced to a great extent in such a case. In
channelized intersections, as the name suggests, the trac is directed to ow through
dierent channels and this physical separation is made possible with the help of some
barriers in the road like trac islands, road markings etc.
2. Trac rotaries: It is a form of intersection control in which the trac is made to ow
along one direction around a trac island. The essential principle of this control is to
convert all the severe conicts like through and right turn conicts into milder conicts
like merging, weaving and diverging. It is a form of at-grade intersection laid out for the
movement of trac such that no through conicts are there. Free-left turn is permitted
where as through trac and right-turn trac is forced to move around the central island
in a clock-wise direction in an orderly manner. Merging, weaving and diverging operations
reduces the conicting movements at the rotary.
27.3
January 31, 2014
27.3.3
Active control
Active control implies that the road user will be forced to follow the path suggested by the
trac control agencies. He cannot maneuver according to his wish. Trac signals and grade
separated intersections come under this classication.
1. Trac signals: Control using trac signal is based on time sharing approach. At a
given time, with the help of appropriate signals, certain trac movements are restricted
where as certain other movements are permitted to pass through the intersection. Two or
more phases may be provided depending upon the trac conditions of the intersection.
When the vehicles traversing the intersection is very large, then the control is done with
the help of signals. The phases provided for the signal may be two or more. If more than
two phases are provided, then it is called multiphase signal.
The signals can operate in several modes. Most common are xed time signals and vehicle
actuated signals. In xed time signals, the cycle time, phases and interval of each signal
is xed. Each cycle of the signal will be exactly like another. But they cannot cater
to the needs of the uctuating trac. On the other hand, vehicle actuated signals can
respond to dynamic trac situations. Vehicle detectors will be placed on the streets
approaching the intersection and the detector will sense the presence of the vehicle and
pass the information to a controller. The controller then sets the cycle time and adjusts
the phase lengths according to the prevailing trac conditions.
2. Grade separated intersections: The intersections are of two types. They are at-grade
intersections and grade-separated intersections. In at-grade intersections, all roadways
join or cross at the same vertical level. Grade separated intersections allows the trac to
cross at dierent vertical levels. Sometimes the topography itself may be helpful in constructing such intersections. Otherwise, the initial construction cost required will be very
high. Therefore, they are usually constructed on high speed facilities like expressways,
freeways etc. These type of intersection increases the road capacity because vehicles can
ow with high speed and accident potential is also reduced due to vertical separation of
trac.
27.4
Channelized intersection
Vehicles approaching an intersection are directed to denite paths by islands, marking etc. and
this method of control is called channelization. Channelized intersection provides more safety
and eciency. It reduces the number of possible conicts by reducing the area of conicts
27.4
January 31, 2014

111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
Figure 27:2: Channelization of trac through a three-legged intersection

111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
Figure 27:3: Channelization of trac through a four-legged intersection

available in the carriageway. If no channelizing is provided the driver will have less tendency to
reduce the speed while entering the intersection from the carriageway. The presence of trac
islands, markings etc. forces the driver to reduce the speed and becomes more cautious while
maneuvering the intersection. A channelizing island also serves as a refuge for pedestrians and
makes pedestrian crossing safer. Channelization of trac through a three-legged intersection
(refer gure 27:2) and a four-legged intersection (refer gure 27:3) is shown in the gure.
27.5
Summary
Trac intersections are problem spots on any highway, which contribute to a large share of
accidents. For safe operation, these locations should be kept under some level of control depending upon the trac quantity and behavior. Based on this, intersections and interchanges
are constructed, the dierent types of which were discussed in the chapter.
27.5
January 31, 2014
27.6
References

New Delhi, 1987.
27.6
January 31, 2014
26. Corridor Analysis
Chapter 26
Corridor Analysis
26.1
Introduction
Transport problems are very critical one to be solved frequently, sequentially and economically
for all sectors of one nation. Even though these solutions are mandatory, they are continuous
and expensive so needs to be planned systematically. These all requirements will lead us to
Transportation System Planning. Transportation System Planning is a tool that attempts to
provide feasible and systematic method for solving transport problems of the society. Transportation system planning starts from the problem of the society which is the dierence of users
desire to the existing condition of the system. Afterwards following its stages it will attempt
to meet its goals and objectives. While in the process so many analyses are required to be
done from them the one is done to know the performance of the existing system. This can be
expressed as either individual component performance or the whole system performance. Doing
this is dependent on the type of transportation system. Among them multimodal multi facility
system is the one which requires aggregate performance measurement for all components which
constitutes. According to our study area we can choose from the two methods of performance
measurement alternatives which are Corridor analysis and Area wide analysis.
26.2
Terminologies
The terminologies used in the corridor analysis is provided below.
26.2.1
Corridor system
1. Corridor: A corridor is a set of essentially parallel and competing facilities and modes
with cross-connectors that serve trips between two designated points. A corridor may
contain several subsystems of facilities freeway, rural highway, urban street, transit, pedestrian, and bicycle Figure. 26:1.
26.1
January 31, 2014
Segment
Point
Freeway
Arterials
Figure 26:1: Showing the Point Segment and Corridor Model

2. Segment: Segments are stretches of a facility in which the trac demand and capacity
conditions are relatively constant.
3. Point: Points are locations at the beginning and end of each segment, at which trac
enters, leaves, or crosses the facility.
4. Facility: is a structure built or road design modication to increase the eciency of the
two main road way services (accessibility and Mobility).
26.2.2
Highway sub systems
1. Freeway: A freeway is dened as a divided highway with full control of access and having
two uninterrupted ow or more lanes for the exclusive use of trac in each direction. All
the access is through a ramp a separate entrance or exit way to or from the Freeway.
2. Rural highway: A road with only one lane in each direction and trac signals spaced
no closer than 3.0 km. mostly recognized by its low ow condition.
3. Urban Street: With trac signals spaced no farther than 3.0 km apart. Since in
Urban areas most activities are fond of Transportation, are characterized by its high
ow condition and high trac movements due the complex interaction between vehicles
accidents are also high in urban areas. To avoid this and other conicts Trac control is
required especially in urban areas.
26.2
January 31, 2014
26.2.3
Transit
Transits are a means of transporting massive either passenger or freight on a separated route.
These modes of transportations are a key to every city especially in urban areas. The most
common types of Transits include:
1. Bus transit is a term applied to a variety of public transportation systems using buses
to provide faster, more ecient service than an ordinary bus line. Often this is achieved
by making improvements to existing infrastructure, vehicles and scheduling. Bus rapid
transit also called Bus way and/or Quality bus.
2. Street car is a means of public transport which requires their own rail to ow through the
system these rails can be built embedded in roadways. Streetcar (also called Tram) is a
passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes
on separate rights of way.
3. Rail transit is a form of urban rail public transportation that generally has a lower
capacity and lower speed than heavy rail and metro systems, but higher capacity and
higher speed than traditional street-running tram systems.
26.3
Segment capacity
Capacity is the maximum hourly ow rate, at which persons or vehicles reasonably can be
expected to traverse a point or a uniform section, of a lane or roadway during a given time
period, under prevailing roadway, trac and control conditions. But sometimes the demand
may exceed the capacity during peak hours, which will bring queue delay. Thus demand
adjustment is required and is done as follows. Adjusting for excess demand from the capacity
is necessary only if working with forecasted or estimated demands rather than counted trac.
If the demand exceeds the capacity at any point in time or space, then the excess demand must
be stored on the segment and carried over to the following hour. The downstream demands
are reduced by the amount of excess demand stored on the segment. The algorithm starts with
the entry gate segments on the periphery of the corridor and works inward until all segment
demands have been checked against their capacity.
26.3.1
Demand adjustment algorithm
The following steps are used to adjust demand when excess demand occurs in a time period.
Step 1. Select the entry gate segment with the highest priority and the highest v/c ratio.
26.3
January 31, 2014
Step 2. Select the rst time period.

Step 3. If demand capacity or the initial queue = 0, go to Step 7.
Step 4. If demand > capacity or queue > 0, then calculate new queue by using eqn. 26.1.
queuei = queuei1 + demand capacity
(26.1)
where, i is the current analysis period, i 1 is the previous analysis period, queuei1 is
the queue remaining from the preceding analysis period.
Step 5. Reduce downstream segment demand by the amount that the demand exceeds
the capacity. Propagate this reduction to all connecting downstream segments in proportion to the ratio of each downstream segment demand to all segments exiting from
the subject segment. Continue the process downstream until the reduction is less than 5
percent of capacity.
Step 6. Add the excess demand - the amount by which the demand exceeds the capacity
- to the next time period demand for the subject segment.
Step 7. Apply the increment to the next time period. Repeat Steps 3 through 6 until
the processes for all the time periods are nished.
Step 8. Go to next gate tree with unanalyzed segments in current rank. Repeat Steps 2
through 7 until all segments of current rank have been analyzed.
Step 9. Apply the increment to current Rank (the new one). Go to the segment with
the highest v/c ratio among those of the new rank. Repeat Steps 2 through 8 until all
segments are analyzed.
26.3.2
Free ow Travel time
The segment free-ow traversal times are obtained by dividing the length of the segment by
the estimated free-ow speed (FFS), as shown in equation 26.2
Rf =
L
Sf
(26.2)
where, Rf is the Segment free-ow travel time for given Direction of Segment and Time Period,
(hr), L is the length of segment (km), and Sf is the Segment free-ow speed computed (km/hr).
The FFS is computed according to the Part III methods using the adjusted demands determined
in the previous step. The computation is repeated for each direction of each segment for each
time subperiods.
26.4
January 31, 2014
26.3.3
Queue delay
The queuing delay only the amount due to demand exceeding capacity is computed for all
segments. The queuing delay is computed for each direction of each segment and time period
only when demand is greater than Capacity by eqn. 26.3.
Di =
T2
T
Di1 + [V c]
2
2
(26.3)
where, Di is the total delay due to excess demand (veh-hr) for direction, segment, and time
period; T is the duration of time subperiod (hr); Di1 is the queue left over at end of previous
time period (veh); V is the demand rate for current time period (veh/hr); and c is the capacity
of segment in subject direction (veh/hr). These the above steps are repeated for any additional
time periods to be analyzed. For example, if the peak period lasts for 4 hours, it might
be divided into four 1hr periods (or 16 quarter hr periods), with each time period analyzed
in sequence. The rst and the last analysis periods must be uncongested for all delay to
be included in the performance measures. Once all time periods have been analyzed, the
performance measures are computed.
26.4
Determining performance measures
This step describes how to compute performance measures of congestion intensity, duration,
extent, variability, and accessibility for the corridor.
26.4.1
Intensity
The possible performance measures for the intensity of congestion on the highway subsystems
(freeway, two-lane highway, and arterial) in the corridor are computed from one or more of the
following: person-hours of travel, person-hours of delay, mean trip speed, and mean trip delay.
If average vehicle occupancy (AVO) data are not available, then the performance measures are
computed in terms of vehicle-hours rather than person-hours.
1. The eqn. 26.4 given below is used to determine PHT.
P HT = AV O d,l,h [V R + DQ]
(26.4)
where, P HT is the person-hours of travel in corridor, AV O is the average vehicle occupancy, V is the vehicle demand in Direction on Link during Time Period (veh), R is the
segment traversal time (h/km), and DQ is the queuing delay (veh-h).
26.5
January 31, 2014
2. The mean trip time is computed by dividing the total person hours of travel by the
number of person trips.
t = 60 P HT /P
(26.5)
where, t is the mean trip time (min/person), P HT is the person-hours of travel, and P
is the total number of person trips.
3. The mean trip speed is computed by dividing the total number of person-kilometres by
the total person-hours of travel as in eqn. 26.6 below:
d,l,h [V L]
P kmT
= AV O
(26.6)
P HT
P HT
where, S is the mean corridor trip speed (km/h), P kmT is the person-kilometres of travel,
PHT is the person-hours of travel, AV O is the average vehicle occupancy, V is the vehicle
demand in the given Direction on a Segment and Period (veh), and L is the length of
segment (km).
S=
4. The mean trip delay is computed by subtracting the PHT under free-ow conditions from
the PHT under congested conditions and dividing the result by the number of persontrips. The person-hours of travel under free-ow conditions is computed like PHT for
congested conditions, but using free-ow traversal times and zero queuing delay. It can
be determined using eqn. 26.7 given below:
(P HT P HTf )
(26.7)
P
where, d is the mean trip delay (s/person), P HT is the person-hours of travel, P HTf is
the person-hours of travel under free-ow conditions, and P is the total number of person
trips.
d = 3600
26.4.2
Duration
Performance measurements of duration can be computed from the number of hours of congestion observed on any segment. The duration of congestion is the sum of the length of each
analysis subperiods for which the demand exceeds capacity. The duration of congestion (i.e.,
oversaturation) for any link is computed using Eqn. 26.8 as:Hi = Ni T
(26.8)
where, Hi is the duration of congestion for Link i(h), Ni is the number of analysis subperiods
for which v/c > 1.00 on Link i, and T is the duration of analysis subperiods (h). The maximum
duration on any link indicates the amount of time before congestion is completely cleared from
the corridor.
26.6
January 31, 2014
Table 26:1: Queue density defaults given by HCM 2000

Sub system
Storage Density Vehicle Spacing
(veh/Km/ln)
(m)
Freeway
75
13.3
Two lane highway
130
7.5
Urban Street
130
7.5
26.4.3
Extent
Performance measures of the extent of congestion can be computed from the sum of the length
of queuing on each segment. One can also identify segments in which the queue overows the
storage capacity; this is particularly useful for ramp metering analyses. To compute the queue
length, an assumption must be made about the average density of vehicles in a queue. Default
values are suggested in Table. 26:1 To compute queue length, Eqn. 26.9 is used.
QL =
T [v c]
N ds
(26.9)
where, QL is the queue length (km) for the given Direction, of Segment, for Time Subperiod;
v is the segment demand (veh/h); c is the segment capacity (veh/h); N is the number of lanes;
ds is the storage density (veh/km/ln); and T is the duration of analysis period (h). Note that if
v < c, then QL = 0, and if QL > L, then the queue overows the storage capacity. The queue
lengths for all segments then can be added up to obtain the length of queuing in kilometres in
the subsystem during the analysis period. The number of segments in which the queue exceeds
the storage capacity also might be reported. This statistics is particularly useful for identifying
queue overows that result from ramp metering.
26.4.4
Variability
Variability is a sensitivity measure. The variability or sensitivity of the results can be determined by substituting higher and lower demand estimates. For example assuming 110 percent
of the original demand estimates for all segments and repeating the calculations.
26.4.5
Accessibility
Accessibility can be measured in terms of the number of trip destinations reachable within a
selected travel time for a designated set of origin locations such as a residential zone. The
26.7
January 31, 2014

8
7
Arterials
6
2
Figure 26:2: Two way Arterials Highway system
control
point
2
4
Table 26:2: Peak hour input demand rate 1

North bound
South bound
East bound
West bound
Lt Th Rt Lt Th Rt Lt
Th Rt Lt Th Rt
53 268 34 378 536 176 163 963 55 110 779 110
43 684 109 144 810 153 113 1065 81 126 945 145
results for each origin zone are tabulated and reported as X percent of the homes in the study
area can reach Y percent of the jobs within Z minutes.
Numerical example
For the given Urban street system geometry and Data inputs determine the performance measurement using Corridor analysis. Given that:
1. Average vehicle vccupancy (AVO) is 1.2.
2. Peak Hour Demand data all Volumes are in (veh/hr) is given in Table. 26:2.
3. Capacities, Lengths, Free ow speeds and average ow speeds for each link input data is
also given in Table. 26:3.
Solution:
1. Step 1. Because we have Trac count data we should convert it as link data. This can
be done by allocating the ow and adding the volume as per its logical direction (Table
4 col (3)). The ow allocation overview is as shown below. In Fig. 26:3
26.8
January 31, 2014
Table 26:3: Capacity, length and Speeds input

link length Capacity
FFS
Actual
(km) (veh/hr) (km/hr) speed(km/hr)
1 2 1.06
1400
56
40
2 1 1.06
3400
56
56
2 4 1.67
1400
56
41
4 2 1.67
1400
56
46
2 8 1.21
1400
56
43
8 2 1.21
1700
56
26
2 3 0.09
3400
56
40
3 2 0.09
1400
56
12
4 7 1.21
1400
56
43
7 4 1.21
1200
56
43
4 6 0.76
3400
56
56
6 4 0.76
1400
56
33
4 5 0.09
3400
56
40
5 4 0.09
1400
56
11
8
541
1090
Rt WB
Th NB SB
Lt EB
Rt Lt
During Variation use the smaller
366
3
701
Rt
NB
Lt WB
Th SB
Rt EB
836
22
1318
Lt SB
Th EB
Rt NB
Th
Rt
Lt
22
Use 999
Th
Lt
Lt WB
Th SB
Rt EB
WB
1216
1375
WB
999
Rt
Th
Lt
1141
NB
Lt NB
Th WB
Rt SB
1008
Lt NB
Th WB
Rt SB
Th
Lt Rt
Th
Rt
Th
Rt
22
Lt
Lt
1101
EB
1259
Lt SB
Th EB
Rt NB
Th
Th
942
1107
Rt WB SB
Th NB
Lt EB
Rt Lt
1017
22
5
Figure 26:3: Showing how the ow allocation is done
26.9
January 31, 2014
Table 26:4: Demand by Capacity

link
Demand(V) Capacity(C)
V/c
(1) (2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
1
2
1181
1400
0.843571
2
1
1008
3400
0.296471
2
4
1375
1400
0.899286
4
2
1141
1400
0.713571
2
8
541
1400
0.386429
8
2
1090
1700
0.641176
2
3
701
3400
0.206176
3
2
355
1400
0.253571
4
7
942
1400
0.672857
7
4
1107
1200
0.9225
4
6
1318
3400
0.387647
6
4
1216
1400
0.868571
4
5
1017
3400
0.299118
5
4
836
1400
0.597143
2. Step 2. Calculate V/C ratio demand by capacity for each link which is as shown below
in Table. 5 col (5).
3. Step 3. For V/C > 1 nd the Queued vehicles simply the dierence of demand to
capacity.
4. Step 4. Adjust the demand downstream till it reaches 10% of the volume before doing
further check up. Until all V/C ratios are below 1.
5. Step 5. Determination of person hour delay (PHD), person hours travel (PHT), person
kilometre hour travel (PkmT).
Note that in Table. 5
(a) None of them(V/C) is greater of unity.
(b) No Adjustment is required.
(c) Indicates No Queue delay Determination
6. Step 6. Free VHT (col(7))= (col (3) col (4))/col (5)
26.10
January 31, 2014
Table 26:5: PHD and PHT calculation

Link Len. Dem- FFS Actual free actual Free Actual
Delay
and speed speed VHT VHT PHT PHT PHT Total
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
(6)
(7) (8)
(9)
(10) (11)
(12)
1 2 1.06 1181
56
40
22.35 31.30 26.83 37.56 10.73 1251.86
2 1 1.06 1008
56
56
19.08 19.08 22.90 22.90
2 4 1.67 1375
56
41
41.00 56.01 49.21 67.21 18.00 2296.25
4 2 1.67 1141
56
46
34.03 41.42 40.83 49.71
8.88 1905.47
2 8 1.21 541
56
43
11.69 15.22 14.03 18.27
4.24
8 2 1.21 1090
56
26
23.55 50.73 28.26 60.87 32.61 1318.9
2 3 0.09 701
56
40
1.13 1.58
1.35
1.89
0.54
63.09
3 2 0.09 355
56
12
0.57 2.66
0.68
3.20
2.51
31.95
4 7 1.21 942
56
43
20.35 26.51 24.42 31.81
7.38 1139.82
7 4 1.21 1107
56
43
23.92 31.15 28.70 37.38
8.68 1339.47
4 6 0.76 1318
56
56
17.89 17.89 21.46 21.46
0.00 1001.68
6 4 0.76 1216
56
33
16.50 28.00 19.80 33.61 13.80 924.16
4 5 0.09 1017
56
40
1.63 2.29
1.96
2.75
0.78
91.53
5 4 0.09 836
56
11
1.34 6.84
1.61
8.21
6.60
75.24
12.18 13828
0.00 1068.48
654.61
Sum 282.05 396.81 114.76 13162.51
26.11
January 31, 2014
Table 26:6: Performance measurement

Facility type
Length
PkmT
PHT
PHD
(Km) Pers. Km Pers. Hr Pers. Hr
Arterial sub. system
12.8
15795
396.8
114.75
Speed(S)
km/hr
39.6
7. Step 7. Actual VHT (col(8))= Qd +(col (3) col (4))/col (6), where, Qd is the queue
delay in our case zero.
8. Step 8. Free PHT (col(9))= AVO col (7)
9. Step 9. Actual PHT (col(10))= AVO col (7)
10. Step 10. Travel Delay (PHD) (col(11))= Actual PHT (col(10)) - Free PHT (col(9))
11. Step 11. Calculation of PkmT
P kmT = AV O V L
where, V is adjusted volume, L is length of the Link, and V L is col(12) last cell in
Table. 26:5.
12. Step 12. Intensity measures
P HT = actualP HT
= 396.8pers.hr
60 P HT
= 1.43min/pers
t =
AV O V
P kmT
S =
= AV O (d,l,h [V L])/P HT
P HT
= 39.6km/hr
(P HT P HTf )
d = 3600
P
= 24.9sec/pers.
26.5
Summary
Corridor Analysis is the method of combining Point, Segment and Facility analysis to estimate
the overall performance of multimodal corridor. Mostly the performance measures of any
corridor are determined by calculating its capacity, the travel time and queue delay in the
26.12
January 31, 2014
given section. Since this tool is required for multi facility and multimodal transportation
system mostly it covers Highway subsystems (Freeways, Rural highways and urban streets)
and Transit.
26.6
References
1. Urban transportation planning model update - phase ii, 1981. Task F- Development of
Corridor Analysis Procedures.
2. Highway Capacity manual part V Draft Working Paper 385-9. University of Florida
Transportation Research Center and T-Concepts Corp, Proposed 2010 Highway Capacity
manual part V Draft Working Paper 385-9, 2007., 2010.
26.13
January 31, 2014
28. Trac Signs
Chapter 28
Trac Signs
28.1
Overview
Trac control device is the medium used for communicating between trac engineer and road
users. Unlike other modes of transportation, there is no control on the drivers using the road.
Here trac control devices comes to the help of the trac engineer. The major types of
trac control devices used are- trac signs, road markings , trac signals and parking control.
This chapter discusses trac control signs. Dierent types of trac signs are regulatory signs,
warning signs and informatory signs.
28.2
Requirements
The requirements of trac control devices are listed below:

1. The control device should fulll a need : Each device must have a specic purpose
for the safe and ecient operation of trac ow. The superuous devices should not be
used.
2. It should command attention from the road users: This aects the design of signs.
For commanding attention, proper visibility should be there. Also the sign should be
distinctive and clear. The sign should be placed in such a way that the driver requires no
extra eort to see the sign.
3. It should convey a clear, simple meaning: Clarity and simplicity of message is
essential for the driver to properly understand the meaning in short time. The use of
color, shape and legend as codes becomes important in this regard. The legend should be
kept short and simple so that even a less educated driver could understand the message
in less time.
28.1
January 31, 2014
28. Trac Signs
4. Road users must respect the signs: Respect is commanded only when the drivers are
conditioned to expect that all devices carry meaningful and important messages. Overuse,
misuse and confusing messages of devices tends the drivers to ignore them.
5. The control device should provide adequate time for proper response from the
road users: This is again related to the design aspect of trac control devices. The sign
boards should be placed at a distance such that the driver could see it and gets sucient
time to respond to the situation. For example, the STOP sign which is always placed
at the stop line of the intersection should be visible for atleast one safe stopping sight
distance away from the stop line.
28.3
Communication tools
A number of mechanisms are used by the trac engineer to communicate with the road user.
These mechanisms recognize certain human limitations, particularly eyesight. Messages are
conveyed through the following elements.
1. Color: It is the rst and most easily noticed characteristics of a device. Usage of dierent
colors for dierent signs are important. The most commonly used colors are red, green,
yellow, black, blue, and brown . These are used to code certain devices and to reinforce
specic messages. Consistent use of colors helps the drivers to identify the presence of
sign board ahead.
2. Shape : It is the second element discerned by the driver next to the color of the device.
The categories of shapes normally used are circular, triangular, rectangular, and diamond
shape. Two exceptional shapes used in trac signs are octagonal shape for STOP sign
and use of inverted triangle for GIVE WAY (YIELD) sign. Diamond shape signs are not
generally used in India.
3. Legend : This is the last element of a device that the drive comprehends. This is an
important aspect in the case of trac signs. For the easy understanding by the driver,
the legend should be short, simple and specic so that it does not divert the attention of
the driver. Symbols are normally used as legends so that even a person unable to read
the language will be able to understand that. There is no need of it in the case of trac
signals and road markings.
4. Pattern: It is normally used in the application of road markings, complementing trac
signs. Generally solid, double solid and dotted lines are used. Each pattern conveys different type of meaning. The frequent and consistent use of pattern to convey information
28.2
January 31, 2014
28. Trac Signs
is recommended so that the drivers get accustomed to the dierent types of markings and
can instantly recognize them.
28.4
Types of trac signs
There are several hundreds of trac signs available covering wide variety of trac situations.
They can be classied into three main categories.
1. Regulatory signs: These signs require the driver to obey the signs for the safety of
other road users.
2. Warning signs:These signs are for the safety of oneself who is driving and advice the
drivers to obey these signs.
3. Informative signs: These signs provide information to the driver about the facilities
available ahead, and the route and distance to reach the specic destinations
In addition special type of trac sign namely work zone signs are also available. These type
of signs are used to give warning to the road users when some construction work is going on
the road. They are placed only for short duration and will be removed soon after the work is
over and when the road is brought back to its normal condition. The rst three signs will be
discussed in detail below.
28.4.1
Regulatory signs
These signs are also called mandatory signs because it is mandatory that the drivers must obey
these signs. If the driver fails to obey them, the control agency has the right to take legal action
against the driver. These signs are primarily meant for the safety of other road users. These
signs have generally black legend on a white background. They are circular in shape with red
borders. The regulatory signs can be further classied into :
1. Right of way series: These include two unique signs that assign the right of way to
the selected approaches of an intersection. They are the STOP sign and GIVE WAY sign
For example, when one minor road and major road meets at an intersection, preference
should be given to the vehicles passing through the major road. Hence the give way sign
board will be placed on the minor road to inform the driver on the minor road that he
should give way for the vehicles on the major road. In case two major roads are meeting,
then the trac engineer decides based on the trac on which approach the sign board
28.3
January 31, 2014
28. Trac Signs
has to be placed. Stop sign is another example of regulatory signs that comes in right of
way series which requires the driver to stop the vehicle at the stop line.
2. Speed series: Number of speed signs may be used to limit the speed of the vehicle on
the road. They include typical speed limit signs, truck speed, minimum speed signs etc.
Speed limit signs are placed to limit the speed of the vehicle to a particular speed for
many reasons. Separate truck speed limits are applied on high speed roadways where
heavy commercial vehicles must be limited to slower speeds than passenger cars for safety
reasons. Minimum speed limits are applied on high speed roads like expressways, freeways
etc. where safety is again a predominant reason. Very slow vehicles may present hazard
to themselves and other vehicles also.
3. Movement series: They contain a number of signs that aect specic vehicle maneuvers.
These include turn signs, alignment signs, exclusion signs, one way signs etc. Turn signs
include turn prohibitions and lane use control signs. Lane use signs make use of arrows
to specify the movements which all vehicles in the lane must take. Turn signs are used to
safely accommodate turns in unsignalized intersections.
4. Parking series: They include parking signs which indicate not only parking prohibitions
or restrictions, but also indicate places where parking is permitted, the type of vehicle to
be parked, duration for parking etc.
5. Pedestrian series: They include both legend and symbol signs. These signs are meant
for the safety of pedestrians and include signs indicating pedestrian only roads, pedestrian
crossing sites etc.
6. Miscellaneous: Wide variety of signs that are included in this category are: a KEEP
OF MEDIAN sign, signs indicating road closures, signs restricting vehicles carrying
hazardous cargo or substances, signs indicating vehicle weight limitations etc.
Some examples of the regulatory signs are shown in gure 28:1. They include a stop sign, give
way sign, signs for no entry, sign indicating prohibition for right turn, vehicle width limit sign,
speed limit sign etc.
28.4.2
Warning signs
Warning signs or cautionary signs give information to the driver about the impending road
condition. They advice the driver to obey the rules. These signs are meant for the own safety
of drivers. They call for extra vigilance from the part of drivers. The color convention used for
28.4
January 31, 2014
28. Trac Signs
0000000000
1111111111
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
0000000000
1111111111
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
GIVE
WAY
STOP
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
50
Figure 28:1: Examples of regulatory signs ( stop sign, give way sign, signs for no entry, sign
indicating prohibition for right turn, vehicle width limit sign, speed limit sign)
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
Figure 28:2: Examples of cautionary signs ( right hand curve sign board, signs for narrow road,
sign indicating railway track ahead)
this type of signs is that the legend will be black in color with a white background. The shape
used is upward triangular or diamond shape with red borders. Some of the examples for this
type of signs are given in g 28:2 and includes right hand curve sign board, signs for narrow
road, sign indicating railway track ahead etc.
28.4.3
Informative signs
Informative signs also called guide signs, are provided to assist the drivers to reach their desired
destinations. These are predominantly meant for the drivers who are unfamiliar to the place.
The guide signs are redundant for the users who are accustomed to the location.
Some of the examples for these type of signs are route markers, destination signs, mile posts,
service information, recreational and cultural interest area signing etc. Route markers are used
to identify numbered highways. They have designs that are distinctive and unique. They are
written black letters on yellow background. Destination signs are used to indicate the direction
to the critical destination points, and to mark important intersections. Distance in kilometers
28.5
January 31, 2014

1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111
0000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111
0000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111
0000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111
0000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111
0000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111
0000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111
0000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111
0000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
11111111
00000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
111
000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
111
000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
111
000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
111 111
000 000
111
000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
111 111
000 000
111
000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
111 111
000 000
111
000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
111 111
000 000
111
000
111
000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
111 111
000 000
111
000
111
000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
111
000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
111
000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
111
000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
1111111
0000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
28. Trac Signs

111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
NH
8
TOLL BOOTH
AHEAD
Figure 28:3: Examples of informative signs (route markers, destination signs, mile posts, service
centre information etc)
are sometimes marked to the right side of the destination. They are, in general, rectangular
with the long dimension in the horizontal direction. They are color coded as white letters with
green background.
Mile posts are provided to inform the driver about the progress along a route to reach his
destination. Service guide signs give information to the driver regarding various services such
as food, fuel, medical assistance etc. They are written with white letters on blue background.
Information on historic, recreational and other cultural area is given on white letters with brown
background. In the gure 28:3 we can see some examples for informative signs which include
route markers, destination signs, mile posts, service centre information etc..
28.5
Summary
Trac signs are means for exercising control on or passing information to the road users. They
may be regulatory, warning, or informative. Among the design aspects of the signs, the size,
shape, color and location matters. Some of the signs along with examples were discussed in this
chapter. A few web sites discussing on trac signs are giben below: www.aptransport.org/html/signs.htm,
www.indiacar.com/infobank/Trac-signs.htm.
28.6
References

New Delhi, 1987.
28.6
January 31, 2014
29. Road Markings
Chapter 29
Road Markings
29.1
Overview
The essential purpose of road markings is to guide and control trac on a highway. They
supplement the function of trac signs. The markings serve as a psychological barrier and
signify the delineation of trac path and its lateral clearance from trac hazards for the safe
movement of trac. Hence they are very important to ensure the safe, smooth and harmonious
ow of trac. Various types of road markings like longitudinal markings, transverse markings,
object markings and special markings to warn the driver about the hazardous locations in the
road etc. will be discussed in detail in this chapter.
29.2
Classication
The road markings are dened as lines, patterns, words or other devices, except signs, set
into applied or attached to the carriageway or kerbs or to objects within or adjacent to the
carriageway, for controlling, warning, guiding and informing the users. The road markings
are classied as longitudinal markings, transverse markings, object markings, word messages,
marking for parkings, marking at hazardous locations etc.
29.3
Longitudinal markings
Longitudinal markings are placed along the direction of trac on the roadway surface, for the
purpose of indicating to the driver, his proper position on the roadway. Some of the guiding
principles in longitudinal markings are also discussed below.
Longitudinal markings are provided for separating trac ow in the same direction and the
predominant color used is white. Yellow color is used to separate the trac ow in opposite
direction and also to separate the pavement edges. The lines can be either broken, solid or
29.1
January 31, 2014
29. Road Markings
150
3m
4.5 m
Figure 29:1: Centre line marking for a two lane road

double solid. Broken lines are permissive in character and allows crossing with discretion, if
trac situation permits. Solid lines are restrictive in character and does not allow crossing
except for entry or exit from a side road or premises or to avoid a stationary obstruction.
Double solid lines indicate severity in restrictions and should not be crossed except in case
of emergency. There can also be a combination of solid and broken lines. In such a case, a
solid line may be crossed with discretion, if the broken line of the combination is nearer to the
direction of travel. Vehicles from the opposite directions are not permitted to cross the line.
Dierent types of longitudinal markings are centre line, trac lanes, no passing zone, warning
lines, border or edge lines, bus lane markings, cycle lane markings.
29.3.1
Centre line
Centre line separates the opposing streams of trac and facilitates their movements. Usually
no centre line is provided for roads having width less than 5 m and for roads having more
than four lanes. The centre line may be marked with either single broken line, single solid line,
double broken line, or double solid line depending upon the road and trac requirements. On
urban roads with less than four lanes, the centre line may be single broken line segments of 3 m
long and 150 mm wide. The broken lines are placed with 4.5 m gaps (gure 29:1). On curves
and near intersections, gap shall be reduced to 3 metres. On undivided urban roads with at
least two trac lanes in each direction, the centre line marking may be a single solid line of
150 mm wide as in gure 29:2, or double solid line of 100 mm wide separated by a space of
100 mm as shown in gure 29:3. The centre barrier line marking for four lane road is shown
in gure 29:4.
29.3.2
Trac lane lines
The subdivision of wide carriageways into separate lanes on either side of the carriage way helps
the driver to go straight and also curbs the meandering tendency of the driver. At intersections,
these trac lane lines will eliminate confusion and facilitates turning movements. Thus trac
lane markings help in increasing the capacity of the road in addition ensuring more safety. The
29.2
January 31, 2014
1.5m
29. Road Markings
3m
3m
4.5 m
Figure 29:2: Centre line and lane marking for a four lane road
1.5m
3m
100
100
Figure 29:3: Double solid line for a two lane road
100 mm
150 mm
1.5m
3m
Figure 29:4: Centre barrier line marking for four lane road
29.3
January 31, 2014
29. Road Markings
100
3.0 m
150
1.5m
Figure 29:5: Lane marking for a four lane road with solid barrier line
100
1.5m
3.0 m
150
3.0 m
4.5 m
Figure 29:6: Trac lane marking for a four lane road with broken centre line
trac lane lines are normally single broken lines of 100 mm width. Some examples are shown
in gure 29:5 and gure 29:6.
29.3.3
No passing zones
No passing zones are established on summit curves, horizontal curves, and on two lane and
three lane highways where overtaking maneuvers are prohibited because of low sight distance.
It may be marked by a solid yellow line along the centre or a double yellow line. In the case of
a double yellow line, the left hand element may be a solid barrier line, the right hand may be a
either a broken line or a solid line . These solid lines are also called barrier lines. When a solid
line is to the right of the broken line, the passing restriction shall apply only to the opposing
trac. Some typical examples are shown in gure 29:7 and gure 29:8. In the latter case, the
no passing zone is staggered for each direction.
29.3.4
Warning lines
Warning lines warn the drivers about the obstruction approaches. They are marked on horizontal and vertical curves where the visibility is greater than prohibitory criteria specied for
no overtaking zones. They are broken lines with 6 m length and 3 m gap. A minimum of seven
line segments should be provided. A typical example is shown in gure 29:9
29.4
January 31, 2014
29. Road Markings
yellow single/double line
Figure 29:7: Barrier line marking for a four lane road

e
in
rl
e
rri
Ba
3m 6m
Figure 29:8: No passing zone marking at horizontal curves
Figure 29:9: Warning line marking for a two lane road

29.5
January 31, 2014
29. Road Markings
300
200
STOP
150
Figure 29:10: Stop line marking near an intersection
29.3.5
Edge lines
Edge lines indicate edges of rural roads which have no kerbs to delineate the limits upto which
the driver can safely venture. They should be at least 150 mm from the actual edge of the
pavement. They are painted in yellow or white.
All the lines should be preferably light reective, so that they will be visible during night
also. Improved night visibility may also be obtained by the use of minute glass beads embedded
in the pavement marking materials to produce a retroreective surface.
29.4
Transverse markings
Transverse markings are marked across the direction of trac. They are marked at intersections
etc. The site conditions play a very important role. The type of road marking for a particular
intersection depends on several variables such as speed characteristics of trac, availability of
space etc. Stop line markings, markings for pedestrian crossing, direction arrows, etc. are some
of the markings on approaches to intersections.
29.4.1
Stop line
Stop line indicates the position beyond which the vehicles should not proceed when required to
stop by control devices like signals or by trac police. They should be placed either parallel to
the intersecting roadway or at right angles to the direction of approaching vehicles. An example
for a stop line marking is shown in gure 29:10.
29.6
January 31, 2014
29. Road Markings
Figure 29:11: Pedestrian marking near an intersection
29.4.2
Pedestrian crossings
Pedestrian crossings are provided at places where the conict between vehicular and pedestrian
trac is severe. The site should be selected that there is less inconvenience to the pedestrians
and also the vehicles are not interrupted too much. At intersections, the pedestrian crossings
should be preceded by a stop line at a distance of 2 to 3m for unsignalized intersections and at a
distance of one metre for signalized intersections. Most commonly used pattern for pedestrian
crossing is Zebra crossing consisting of equally spaced white strips of 500 mm wide. A typical
example of an intersection illustrating pedestrian crossings is shown in gure 29:11.
29.4.3
Directional arrows
In addition to the warning lines on approaching lanes, directional arrows should be used to guide
the drivers in advance over the correct lane to be taken while approaching busy intersections.
Because of the low angle at which the markings are viewed by the drivers, the arrows should
be elongated in the direction of trac for adequate visibility. The dimensions of these arrows
are also very important. A typical example of a directional arrow is shown in gure 29:12.
29.5
Object marking
Physical obstructions in a carriageway like trac island or obstructions near carriageway like
signal posts, pier etc. cause serious hazard to the ow of trac and should be adequately
marked. They may be marked on the objects adjacent to the carriageway.
29.7
January 31, 2014
29. Road Markings

1.2 m
1.2 m
0.55 m
3.5m
0.5m
3.5m
1.25m
0.4m
0.2m
0.4m
0.3m
0.3m
Figure 29:12: Directional arrow marking
29.5.1
Objects within the carriageway
The obstructions within the carriageway such as trac islands, raised medians, etc. may be
marked by not less than ve alternate black and yellow stripes. The stripes should slope forward
at an angle of 45 with respect to the direction of trac. These stripes shall be uniform and
should not be less than 100 m wide so as to provide sucient visibility.
29.5.2
Objects adjacent to carriageway
Sometimes objects adjacent to the carriageway may pose some obstructions to the ow of trac.
Objects such as subway piers and abutments, culvert head walls etc. are some examples for
such obstructions. They should be marked with alternate black and white stripes at a forward
angle of 45 with respect to the direction of trac. Poles close to the carriageway should be
painted in alternate black and white up to a height of 1.25 m above the road level. Other
objects such as guard stones, drums, guard rails etc. where chances of vehicles hitting them are
only when vehicle runs o the carriageway should be painted in solid white. Kerbs of all islands
located in the line of trac ow shall be painted with either alternating black and white stripes
of 500 mm wide or chequered black and white stripes of same width. The object marking for
central pier and side walls of an underpass is illustrated in gure 29:13.
29.6
Word messages
Information to guide, regulate, or warn the road user may also be conveyed by inscription
of word message on road surface. Characters for word messages are usually capital letters.
29.8
January 31, 2014
29. Road Markings
Figure 29:13: Marking for objects adjacent to the road way

The legends should be as brief as possible and shall not consist of more than three words for
any message. Word messages require more and important time to read and comprehend than
other road markings. Therefore, only few and important ones are usually adopted. Some of
the examples of word messages are STOP, SLOW, SCHOOL, RIGHT TUN ONLY etc. The
character of a road message is also elongated so that driver looking at the road surface at a low
angle can also read them easily. The dimensioning of a typical alphabet is shown in gure 29:14.
29.6.1
Parking
The marking of the parking space limits on urban roads promotes more ecient use of the
parking spaces and tends to prevent encroachment on places like bus stops, re hydrant zones
etc. where parking is undesirable. Such parking space limitations should be indicated with
markings that are solid white lines 100 mm wide. Words TAXI, CARS, SCOOTERS etc. may
also be written if the parking area is specic for any particular type of vehicle. To indicate
parking restriction, kerb or carriage way marking of continuous yellow line 100 mm wide covering
the top of kerb or carriageway close to it may be used.
29.6.2
Hazardous location
Wherever there is a change in the width of the road, or any hazardous location in the road,
the driver should be warned about this situation with the help of suitable road markings.
29.9
January 31, 2014
29. Road Markings
1250
260
313
78
Figure 29:14: Typical dimension of the character T used in road marking
Figure 29:15: Approach marking for obstructions on the road way

Road markings showing the width transition in the carriageway should be of 100 mm width.
Converging lines shall be 150 mm wide and shall have a taper length of not less than twenty
times the o-set distance. Typical carriageway markings showing transition from wider to
narrower sections and vice-versa is shown in gure 29:15. In the gure, the driver is warned
about the position of the pier through proper road markings.
29.7
Summary
Road markings are aids to control trac by exercising psychological control over the road
users. They are made use of in delineating the carriage way as well as marking obstructions, to
ensure safe driving. They also assist safe pedestrian crossing. Longitudinal markings which are
provided along the length of the road and its various classications were discussed. Transverse
markings are provided along the width of the road. Road markings also contain word messages,
29.10
January 31, 2014
29. Road Markings
but since it is time consuming to understand compared to other markings there are only very few
of them. Markings are also used to warn the driver about the hazardous locations ahead. Thus
road markings ensure smooth ow of trac providing safety also to the road users. The following
web link give further insight in to the road markings: mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/pdfs/200311/pdfindex.htm.
29.8
References

New Delhi, 1987.
29.11
January 31, 2014
30. Uncontrolled Intersection
Chapter 30
Uncontrolled Intersection
30.1
Introduction
Uncontrolled intersections are the trac junctions where there is no explict trac control measures are adopted. The important aspects that will be covered in this chapter are: the concept
of two-way stop controlled intersection, all-way stop controlled intersection, gap acceptance,
critical gap, follow-up time, potential capacity, and delay determination. These concepts are
primarily adopted from Highway Capacity Manual.
30.1.1
Categories of Intersection
An intersection is a road junction where two or more roads either meet or cross at grade.
This intersection includes the areas needed for all modes of travel: pedestrian, bicycle, motor
vehicle, and transit. Thus, the intersection includes not only the pavement area, but typically
the adjacent sidewalks and pedestrian curb cut ramps.
All the road junctions designated for the vehicles to turn to dierent directions to reach
their desired destinations. Trac intersections are complex locations on any highway. This is
because vehicles moving in dierent direction want to occupy same space at the same time. In
addition, the pedestrians also seek same space for crossing. Drivers have to make split second
decision at an intersection by considering his route, intersection geometry, speed and direction
of other vehicles etc. A small error in judgment can cause severe accidents. It causes delay
and it depends on type, geometry, and type of control. Overall trac ow depends on the
performance of the intersections. It also aects the capacity of the road. Therefore, both
from the accident perspective and the capacity perspective, the study of intersections are very
important by the trac engineers. Intersection design can vary widely in terms of size, shape,
number of travel lanes, and number of turn lanes. Basically, there are four types of intersections,
determined by the number of road segments and priority usage.
1. Priority Intersection: Occur where one of the intersecting roads is given denite priDr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay
30.1
January 31, 2014
ority over the other. The minor road will usually be controlled by some form of sing
marking, such as stop or yield sign; thus ensuring that priority vehicles travailing on the
main street will incur virtually no delay.
2. Space sharing intersection: Are intended to permit fully equally priority and to permit
continuous movement for all intersecting vehicle ows; example would be rotaries and
other weaving areas.
3. Time Sharing Intersection: Are those at which alternative ows are given the right
of way at dierent point in time. This type of intersection is controlled by trac signal
or by police ocer.
4. Uncontrolled intersection: are the most common type of intersection usually occurs
where the intersecting roads are relatively equal importance and found in areas where
there is not much trac shown in Fig. 30:1.
At uncontrolled intersection the arrival rate and individuals drivers generally determine the
manner of operation, while the resulting performance characteristics are derived from joint
consideration of ow conditions and driver judgment and behavior patterns. In simplest terms,
an intersection, one ow of trac seeks gaps in the opposing ow of trac.
At priority intersections, since one ow is given priority over the right of way it is clear
that the secondary or minor ow is usually the one seeking gaps. By contrast at uncontrolled
intersection, each ow must seek gaps in the other opposing ow. When ows are very light,
which is the case on most urban and rural roads large gaps exist in the ows and thus few
situation arise when vehicles arrive at uncontrolled intersection less than 10 second apart or at
interval close enough to cause conicts. However when vehicles arrive at uncontrolled intersection only a few second apart potential conicts exist and driver must judge their relative time
relationships and adjusts accordingly.
Generally one or both vehicles most adjust their speeds i.e. delayed somewhat with the
closer vehicle most often taking the right of way; in a sense, of course, the earlier arriving
vehicle has priority and in this instance when two vehicles arrive simultaneous, the rule of
the road usually indicate priority for the driver on the right. The possibility of judgmental in
these, informal priority situation for uncontrolled intersection is obvious. At an Uncontrolled
intersection: Service discipline is typically controlled by signs (stop or yield signs) using two
rules two way stop controlled intersection (TWSC) and all way stop controlled intersection
(AWSC).
30.2
January 31, 2014
Figure 30:1: Example showing uncontrolled intersection

STOP
STOP
STOP
STOP
Figure 30:2: Two way stop controlled intersection
30.1.2
Two-way stop-controlled intersection
Researchers rely on many specic denitions to describe the performance of trac operation
systems. The clear understanding of such terminology is an important element is studying
two-way stop-controlled (TWSC) trac operation system characteristics; dened as: One of
the uncontrolled intersections with stop control on the minor street shown in Fig. 30:2.
Characteristics of TWSC Intersections
At TWSC intersections, the stop-controlled approaches are referred to as the minor street
approaches; the intersection approaches that are not controlled by stop signs are referred to as
the major street approaches. A three-leg intersection is considered to be a standard type of
30.3
January 31, 2014
Fourleg intersection
Tintersection
11
12 10
STOP
16
6
5
4
13
13
14
1
2
3
14
2
3
15
15
STOP
STOP
78 9
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
4
7 9
Traffic stream
2, 3, 5, 6, 15, 16
1, 4, 13, 14, 9, 12
8, 11
7, 10
Rank
1
2
3
Traffic stream
2, 3, 5, 15
4, 13, 14, 9
7
Figure 30:3: Trac ow stream in two way stop controlled intersection

TWSC intersection if the single minor street approach is controlled by a stop sign. Three-leg
intersections where two of the three approaches are controlled by stop signs are a special form
of uncontrolled intersection control.
Flows at TWSC Intersections
TWSC intersections assign the right-of-way among conicting trac streams according to the
following hierarchy:
1. The major street through and right-turning movements are the highest-priority movements at a TWSC intersection. This movements shown Fig. 30:3 are 2, 3, 5, 6, 15 and
16.
2. Vehicles turning left from the major street onto the minor street yield only to conicting
major street through and right-turning vehicles. All other conicting movements yield to
these major street left-turning movements. The movements on this rank are 1, 4, 13, 14,
9 and 12.
3. Minor Street through vehicles yield to all conicting major street through, right-turning,
and left-turning movements. The movements on this rank are 8 and 11.
4. Minor Street left-turning vehicles yield to all conicting major street through, rightturning, and left-turning vehicles and to all conicting minor street through and rightturning vehicles. The movements on this rank are 7 and 10.
30.4
January 31, 2014
A
STOP
STOP
STOP
STOP
B
Figure 30:4: All way stop controlled intersection
30.1.3
All-way-stop-controlled intersection
All-way-stop-controlled intersection (AWSC) are mostly used approaching from all directions
and is required to stop before proceeding through the intersection as shown in Fig. 30:4. An
all-way stop may have multiple approaches and may be marked with a supplemental plate
stating the number of approaches.
The analysis of AWSC intersection is easier because all users must stop. In this type of
intersection the critical entity of the capacity is the average intersection departure head way.
Secondary parameters are the number of cross lanes, turning percentages, and the distribution
volume on each approach. The rst step for the analysis of capacity is select approach called
subject approach the approach opposite to subject approach is opposing approach, and the
approach on the side of the subject approach is are called conicting approach.
Characteristics of AWSC intersections
AWSC intersections require every vehicle to stop at the intersection before proceeding. Since
each driver must stop, the judgment as to whether to proceed into the intersection is a function
of trac conditions on the other approaches. If no trac is present on the other approaches, a
driver can proceed immediately after the stop is made. If there is trac on one or more of the
other approaches, a driver proceeds only after determining that there are no vehicles currently
in the intersection and that it is the drivers turn to proceed.
30.5
January 31, 2014
30.2
Gap acceptance and follow-up time
Gap acceptance is one of the most important components in microscopic trac characteristic.
The gap acceptance theory commonly used in the analysis of uncontrolled intersections based
on the concept of dening the extent drivers will be able to utilize a gap of particular size
or duration. A driver entering into or going across a trac stream must evaluate the space
between a potentially conicting vehicle and decide whether to cross or enter or not. One of
the most important aspects of trac operation is the interaction of vehicles with in a single
stream of trac or the interaction of two separate trac streams. This interaction takes place
when a driver changes lanes merging in to a trac stream or crosses a trac stream. Inherent
in the trac interaction associated with these basic maneuvers is concept of gap acceptance.
30.2.1
Basic Terminologies
1. Gap means the time and space that a subject vehicle needs to merge adequately safely
between two vehicles. Gap acceptance is the minimum gap required to nish lane changing
safely. Therefore, a gap acceptance model can help describe how a driver judges whether
to accept or not.
2. Gap acceptance: The process by which a minor stream vehicle accepts an available gap
to maneuver.
3. Critical gap: The minimum major-stream headway during which a minor-street vehicle
can make a maneuver.
4. Lag: Time interval between the arrival of a yielding vehicle and the passage of the next
priority stream vehicle (Forward waiting time).
5. Headway: The time interval between the arrivals of two successive vehicles. Headway
diers from gap because it is measured from the front bumper of the front vehicle to the
front bumper of the next vehicle.
6. Minimum Headway: The minimum gap maintained by a vehicle in the major trac
stream.
7. Follow-up time: Time between the departure of one vehicle from the minor street and
the departure of the next vehicle using the same gap under a condition of continuous
queuing.
8. Delay: The additional travel time experienced by a driver, passenger or pedestrian.
30.6
January 31, 2014
9. Conicting movements: The trac streams in conict at an intersection.

10. Capacity: The maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles can reasonably be
expected to traverse a point or uniform section of a lane or a roadway during a given time
period under prevailing roadway, trac, and control conditions.
30.2.2
Critical Gap
The critical gap tcx for movement x is dened as the minimum average acceptable gap that
allows intersection entry for one minor street or major street. The term average acceptable
means that the average driver would accept or choose to utilize a gap of this size. The gap is
measured as the clear time in the trac stream dened by all conicting movements. Thus, the
model assumes that all gaps shorter than tcx are rejected or unused, while all gaps equal to or
larger than tcx would be accepted or used. The adjusted critical gap tcx computed as follows.
tcx = tcb + tcHV P HV + tcG G tc,T t3,LT
(30.1)
where, tcx is the critical gap for movement x, tcb is the base critical gap from Table. 30:1 tcHV
is the adjustment factor for heavy vehicles PHV is the proportion of heavy vehicles tcG is the
adjustment factor for grade G is the percent grade divided by 100, tcT is the adjustment factor
for each part of a two-stage gap acceptance process, and t3LT is the critical gap adjustment
factor for intersection geometry.
30.2.3
Follow-up time
The follow up time tf x for movement x is the minimum average acceptable time for a second
queued minor street vehicle to use a gap large enough admit two or more vehicles. Followup times were measured directly by observing trac ow. Resulting follow-up times were
analyzed to determine their dependence on dierent parameters such as intersection layout.
This measurement is similar to the saturation ow rate at signalized intersection. Table. 30:1
and 30:2 shows base or unadjusted values of the critical gap and follow up time for various
movements. Base critical gaps and follow up times can be adjusted to account for a number
of conditions, including heavy - vehicle presence grade, and the existence of two stage gap
acceptance. Adjusted Follow up Time computed as:
tf x = tf b + tf HV PHV
(30.2)
where, tf x is the follow-up time for minor movement x tf b is the base follow-up time from table
1 tf HV is the adjustment factor for heavy vehicles, and PHV is the proportion of heavy vehicles
for minor movement.
30.7
January 31, 2014
Table 30:1: Base critical gap and follow up times

Base Critical Gap,tc ,base (s) Base Follow-up
Vehicle Movement
Two-Lane
Four-Lane
Time
MajorStreet Major Street
tf,base (s)
Left turn from major
4.1
4.1
2.2
Right turn from minor
6.2
6.9
3.3
Through trac on minor
6.5
6.5
4.0
Left turn from minor
7.1
7.5
3.5
Table 30:2: Adjustments to base critical gap and follow up times

Adjustment
Values(s)
Factor
tcHV
1.0
Two-lane major streets
2.0
Four-lane major streets
tcG
0.1
Movements 9 and 12
0.2
Movements 7,8,10 and 11
1.0
Otherwise
tcT
1.0 First or second stage of two-stage process
0.0
For one-stage process
T3LT
0.7
Minor-street LT at T-intersection
0.0
Otherwise
tf HV
0.9
Two-lane major streets
1.0
Four-lane major streets
30.8
January 31, 2014
Vehicle/Pedestrian Conflicts
Vehicle/Vehicle Conflicts
Figure 30:5: Conicts at four legged intersection
30.2.4
Conicting volume
The trac ow process at un-controlled intersection is complicated since there are many distinct
vehicular movements to be accounted for. Most of this movements conict with opposing
vehicular volumes. These conicts result in decreasing capacity, increasing delay, and increasing
potentials for trac accidents. Consider a typical four-legged intersection as shown in Fig. 30:5
The numbers of conicts for competing through movements are 4, while competing right turn
and through movements are 8. The conicts between right turn tracs are 4, and between left
turn and merging trac are 4. The conicts created by pedestrians will be 8 taking into account
all the four approaches. Diverging trac also produces about 4 conicts. Therefore, a typical
four legged intersection has about 32 dierent types of conicts. Conicts at an intersection are
dierent for dierent types of intersection. The essence of the intersection control is to resolve
these conicts at the intersection for the safe and ecient movement of both vehicular trac
and pedestrians. The movements for determining conict in four legged intersection are:
1. Major street left turns seek gaps through the opposing through movement, the opposing right turn movement and pedestrians crossing the far side of the minor street.
2. Minor street right turns seek to merge in to the right most lane of the major street,
which contains through and right turning vehicles. Each right turn from the minor street
must also cross the two pedestrians path shown.
3. Through movements from the minor street must cross all major street vehicular and
pedestrians ows.
4. Minor street left turns must deal not only with all major street trac ow but with
two pedestrians ows and the opposing minor street through and right turn movements.
30.9
January 31, 2014
5
4
13
14
2
3
15
STOP
7 9
Figure 30:6: Three legged intersection conicts volume determination for movement 7
Through this movements the conict volume (Vcx ) for the given movement x is can be computed.
As an example the formula of conict volume for movement 7 for three legged intersection shown
in Fig. 30:6 computed as:
Vc7 = 2Vc4 + Vc5 + Vc2 + 0.5V3 + V13 + V15
30.3
(30.3)
Potential Capacity
Capacity is dened as the maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or the like, per unit
time, which can be accommodated under given conditions with a reasonable expectation of
occurrence. Potential capacity describes the capacity of a minor stream under ideal conditions
assuming that it is unimpeded by other movements and has exclusive use of a separate lane.
Once of the conicting volume, critical gap and follow up time are known for a given
movement its potential capacity can be estimated using gap acceptance models. The concept
of potential capacity assumes that all available gaps are used by the subject movement i.e.;
there are no higher priority vehicular or pedestrian movements and waiting to use some of
the gaps it also assumes that each movement operates out of an exclusive lane. The potential
capacity of can be computed using the formula:
cpx
evcx tcx /3600

= vcx
1 evcx tf x /3600
(30.4)
where, cpx is the potential capacity of minor movement x (veh/h), vcx is the conicting ow rate
30.10
January 31, 2014
for movement x (veh/h), tcx is the critical gap for minor movement x, and tf x is the follow-up
time movement x.
30.4
Movement capacity and impedance eects
Vehicles use gaps at a TWSC intersection in a prioritized manner. When trac becomes
congested in a high-priority movement, it can impede lower-priority movements that are streams
of Ranks 3 and 4 as shown in Fig. 30:4 from using gaps in the trac stream, reducing the
potential capacity of these movements. The ideal potential capacities must be adjusted to
reect the impedance eects of higher priority movements that may utilize some of the gaps
sought by lower priority movements. This impedance may come due to both pedestrians and
vehicular sources called movement capacity.
The movement capacity is found by multiplying the potential capacity by an adjustment
factor. The adjustment factor is the product of the probability that each impeding movement
will be blocking a subject vehicle. That is
Cmx = Cpx
Pvi Ppi
(30.5)
where, Cmx is the movement capacity in vph, Cpx is the potential capacity movement x in
vph, Pvi is the probability that impeding vehicular movement i is not blocking the subject
ow; (also referred to as the vehicular impedance factor for movement i, Ppi is the probability
that impeding pedestrian movement j is not blocking the subject ow; also referred to us the
pedestrian impedance factor for the movement j.
30.4.1
Vehicular movements
Priority 2 vehicular movements LTs from major street and RTs from minor street are not
impeded by any other vehicular ow, as they represent the highest priority movements seeking
gaps. They are impeded, however, by Rank 1 pedestrian movements. Priority 3 vehicular
movements are impeded by Priority 2 vehicular movements and Priority l and 2 pedestrian
movements seeking to use the same gaps. Priority 4 vehicular movements are impeded by
Priority 2 and 3 vehicular movements, and Priority 1 and 2 pedestrian movements using the
same gaps. Table. 30:3 lists the impeding ows for each subject movement in a four leg.
Generally the rule stated the probability that impeding vehicular movement i is not blocking
the subject movement is computed as
Pvi = 1
30.11
vi
Cmi
(30.6)
January 31, 2014
Table 30:3: Relative pedestrian/vehicle hierarchy

Vehicle Stream
Must Yield to
Impedance Factor for
Pedestrian Stream
Pedestrians, Pp,x
V1
V16
Pp,16
V4
V15
Pp,15
V7
V15 , V13
(Pp,15)(Pp,13 )
V8
V15 , V16
(Pp,15)(Pp,16 )
V9
V15 , V14
(Pp,15)(Pp,14 )
V10
V16 , V14
(Pp,16)(Pp,14 )
V11
V15 , V16
(Pp,15)(Pp,16 )
V12
V16 , V13
(Pp,16)(Pp,13 )
where, vi is the demand ow for impeding movement i, and Cmi is the movement capacity for
impeding movement i vph. Pedestrian impedance factors are computed as:
30.4.2
Pedestrian Movements
One of the impeding eects for all the movement is pedestrians movement. Both approaches of
Minor-street vehicle streams must yield to pedestrian streams. Table. 30:3 shows that relative
hierarchy between pedestrian and vehicular streams used. A factor accounting for pedestrian
blockage is computed by Eqn. 30.7 on the basis of pedestrian volume, the pedestrian walking
speed, and the lane width that is:
Ppj = 1
Vj (W/Sp )
3600
(30.7)
where, ppj is the pedestrian impedance factor for impeding pedestrian movement j, vj is the
pedestrian ow rate, impeding movement j in peds/hr, w is the lane width in m, and Sp is the
pedestrian walking speed in m/s.
30.4.3
Determining Shared Lane Capacity
The capacities of individual streams (left turn, through and right turn) are calculated separately. If the streams share a common trac lane, the capacity of the shared lane is then
calculated according to the shared lane procedure. But movement capacities still represent an
assumption that each minor street movement operates out of an exclusive lane. Where two or
30.12
January 31, 2014
three movements share a lane its combined capacity computed as:

CSH =
y Vy
y ( CVy )
my
(30.8)
where, CSH is the shared lane capacity in veh/hr, Vy is the ow rate, movement y sharing lane
with other minor street ow, and Cmy is the movement capacity of movement y sharing lane
with other minor street.
30.5
Determining control delay
Delay is a complex measure and depends on a number of variables it is a measure of driver

discomfort, frustration, fuel consumption, increased travel time etc. Total delay is the dierence
between the travel time actually experienced and the reference travel time that would result
during base conditions, in the absence of incident, control, trac, or geometric delay. Also,
Average control delay for any particular minor movement is a function of the Capacity of the
approach and The degree of saturation. The control delay per vehicle for a movement in a
separate lane is given by:
3600 Vx
Vx
Vx
3600
(30.9)
+ 900T
1 + (
1)2 + Cmx Cmx + 5
dx =
Cmx
Cmx
Cmx
450T
where, dx is the average control delay per vehicle for movement x in s/veh, Cmx is the capacity
of movement or shared lane x in veh/hr, T is the analysis period h (15 min=0.25 h), and Vx is
the demand ow rate, movement or shared lane x in veh/hr.
30.5.1
Performance measures
Four measures are used to describe the performance of TWSC intersections: control delay,
delay to major street through vehicles, queue length, and v/c ratio. The primary measure
that is used to provide an estimate of LOS is control delay. This measure can be estimated
for any movement on the minor (i.e., the stop-controlled) street. By summing delay estimates
for individual movements, a delay estimate for each minor street movement and minor street
approach can be achieved.
For AWSC intersections, the average control delay (in seconds per vehicle) is used as the
primary measure of performance. Control delay is the increased time of travel for a vehicle
approaching and passing through an AWSC intersection, compared with a free ow vehicle if
it were not required to slow or stop at the intersection. According to the performance measure
30.13
January 31, 2014
Table 30:4: Level of service criteria for TWSC intersection

Level of Service Control delays(s/veh)
A
0-10
B
> 10-15
C
> 15-25
D
> 25-35
E
> 35-50
F
> 50
4
12
75)7)
400(5)
STOP
200(2)
15(13)
20(4)
7
30(3)
(9)
30(15)
Pedestrians Movement
9
Vehicle Movement
Figure 30:7: Three legged intersection

of the TWSC intersection, LOS of the minor-street left turn operates at level of service C
approaches to B.
Numerical example
For a three legged intersection given in gure 30:7 determine the control delay and level of
service for movement 7. The total volume of both pedestrian and vehicular trac at each
movement is given in the gure itself. Following data is also given:
The speed of the pedestrians is 1.2m/s
All ows contains 10% trucks
The percentage of the grade is 0.00
Ignore moments coming from south bound
The analysis period is 15 min. (T=0.25)
30.14
January 31, 2014
Solution:
1. Compute the critical gap and follow up time:
(a) Critical gap tcx = tcb + tcHV P HV + tcG GtcT tLT . From table. 30:1 and table. 30:2 we
have tcb = 7.1 s , tcG = 0.2, tcT = 0.0, tLT = 0.0. Then tcx at movement 7 computed
as: tc7 = 7.1 + 1.0 0.1+0.2 0.0 - 0.0 - 0.0 = 6.50 sec
(b) To compute the Follow up time: From table. 30:1 and table. 30:2 we have tf b = 3.5
s , tf HV = 0.9. Then tf x at movement 7 computed as: tf x = tf b + tf HV PHV tf 7 =
3.5 + 0.9 0.1 = 3.59 sec.
2. Compute the conicting ow rate:
Vc7 = 2V4 + V5 + V13 + V2 + 0.5V3 + V15
= 40 + 400 + 15 + 200 + 0.5 30 + 30
= 700 conicts/hr
3. Determining potential capacity:
e(vcx tcx /3600)
1 e(vcx tf x /3600)
e(7006.5/3600)
= 700
1 e(7003.59/3600)
= 394 vph.
Cpx = vcx
Cp7
4. Determine the impudence eect of the movement capacity for movement 7: From the
given gure movement 7 is impeded by vehicular movement 4 and 1 and pedestrian 13
and 15.
(a) Pedestrian impedance probability computed as:
Ppi = 1
vj
w
Sp
3600
6
15 1.2
Pp 13 = 1
= 1 0.0417 = 0.958
3600
4.5
30 1.2
= 1 0.03125 = 0.969.
Pp 15 = 1
3600
(b) Vehicular impedance probabilities are:
vi
Cmi
= 1 20/394 = 0.949
Pvi = 1
Pv4
30.15
January 31, 2014
(c) Once the pedestrian and vehicular impedence is determined, the moment capacity
is computed as:
Cmx = Cpx P Pvi Ppj
Cm7 = 394 (0.949)(0.969)(0.958) = 347 vph.
5. Delay computation: The delay is Calculated by using the formula
3600 Vx
3600
Vx
Vx
d7 =
+ 900T
1 + (
1)2 + Cmx Cmx + 5
Cmx
Cmx
Cmx
450T
3600 75
75
75
3600
+ 900 0.25
1 + (
1)2 + 347 347 + 5
=
347
347
347
450 0.25
= 18.213 sec/veh
The delay of movement 7 is 18.213 sec/veh.

6. Determine the level of service: From the computed delay (18.213 se) in step 5 the level
of service is LOS C obtained from HCM table.
30.6
Conclusion
This chapter focuses on theoretical analysis of capacity at uncontrolled intersections. First the
gap acceptance theory and follow time was described; including conict volume determination
through the hierarchy of priorities for two ways stop controlled intersection. Second, after
determining the potential capacity using the computed value and then prepare an adjustment
for this capacity. Finally, computation of the delay to determine the level of service (LOS) of
the given intersection is alos described.
30.7
References

2. W S Homburger. Fundamentals of trac engineering. 2019. 12th Edition, pp 5-1 to 5-5.
30.16
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Chapter 31
Channelization
31.1
Introduction
One of the most eective and ecient methods of controlling the trac on a highway is the
adoption of high intersection geometric design standards. Channelization is an integral part
of at grade intersections and is used to separate turning movements from through movements
where this is considered advisable and hence helps reduce the intensity and frequency of loss
of life and property due to accidents to a large extent. Proper channelization increases capacity, improves safety, provides maximum convenience, and instils driver condence. Improper
channelization has the opposite eect and may be worse than none at all. Over channelization
should be avoided because it could create confusion and worsen operations.
31.2
Denitions and Important Terms
1. Channelization - It is the separation or regulation of conicting trac movements into

denite paths of travel by trac islands or pavement marking to facilitate the safe and
orderly movements of both vehicles and pedestrians.
2. Conict - It is dened as the demand for the same highway space by two or more users
of the highway. Conicts are classied into mainly three types:
(a) Crossing conicts
(b) Diverging conicts
(c) Merging conicts
3. Angle of Intersection - The angle of intersection is that formed by the centerlines
of the intersecting streets. Where the angle of intersection departs signicantly (more
than approximately 20o ) from right angles, the intersection is referred to as a skewed
31.1
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Min
or
L eg
Angle of Intersection
Major Leg
Figure 31:1: Angle of Intersection

intersection. Fig. 31:1 shows the angle made between the centre lines of the major and
minor legs.
4. Refuge Areas - The area which is used to give refuge to the pedestrians crossing a
street (the open area between two medians) is known as a refuge area.
31.3
Objectives
The use of channelization is often creative and innovative, providing for vehicle path separation
and distinct and thus in general making trac ow safer, smoother, simpler and ecient. The
main objectives of channelization can be summarized as follows:
1. Separation of maneuver areas: The drivers should be presented with only one decision
at a time to reduce confusion and the inuence of operations caused due to the overlapping
of maneuver areas.
2. Reduce excessively large paved areas: The spread of the paved area can be considerably reduced by the construction of raised islands and medians where these are considered
safe and necessary.
3. Control of maneuver angle:The intensity of accidents can be reduced to a large extent
by providing small angles for merging, diverging and weaving (at low relative speeds) and
approximately right angles for crossing (at high relative speeds). The maneuver angle
can be easily controlled by constructing islands of appropriate shapes and sizes.
4. Favor predominant turning movements: Channelization is also directed for giving
preference to turning movements at an intersection where the proportion of such trac
is high.
31.2
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
1
4
2
Figure 31:2: Illustration of T-intersection channelization, (a)Intersection with no channelization

5. Control of speed: Channelization is also used for supporting stop or speed regulations
by removing dierentials in speed for merging, diverging, weaving and crossing by using
the bending and funneling techniques.
6. Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles: To shadow slow or
stopped vehicles from other trac ows.
7. Blockage of prohibited movements: Proper channelization also helps maintain trac
regulations by making prohibited movements impossible or inconvenient.
8. Provide space for trac control devices: To provide space for trac control devices
when the ideal location for the same is within the intersection area.
9. Segregation of non-homogenous ows: Channelization provides separate channels
for turning and through, fast and slow, and opposite direction trac.
10. Protection of pedestrians and reduction of crossing distances between refuses:
Non-traversable and wide medians provide a refuge for pedestrians crossing a street.
Consider for example the T-intersection shown in Figs. 31:2, 31:3, and 31:4. In Fig. 31:2,
the intersection has no special channelization for helping drivers in avoiding conicts between
movements. In Fig. 31:3, a passing lane for through vehicles in the eastbound direction and a
westbound right-turn lane has been added, which helps in separating the turning trac from
the through ones. In Fig. 31:4, the use of lanes is further claried due to the addition of
channelizing islands.
31.4
Design Principles
Design of a channelized intersection usually involves the following signicant controls: the type
of design vehicle, the cross sections on the crossroads, the projected trac volumes in relation
31.3
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
1
4
2
6
3
Figure 31:3: Illustration of T-intersection channelization, (b)Intersection with right-turn and

passing lane
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
1111 11
0000 00
1111 11
0000 00
1111 11
0000 00
1111 11
0000 00
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
Figure 31:4: Illustration of T-intersection channelization, (c)Fully channelized intersection

to capacity, the number of pedestrians, the speed of vehicles, and the type and location of
trac control devices. Furthermore, the physical controls such as right-of-way and terrain have
an eect on the extent of channelization that is economically feasible.
The degree to which each of these principles applies will depend upon the features mentioned
above. While a principle may be modied in its application to a particular site, disregard of
these may result in a hazardous design. The principles may be summarized as follows:
1. Reduction of the Area of Conict: The impact area is decreased when channelization
is provided, and hence the probability of conicts is also reduced. The gure below further
claries the statement. Fig. 31:5 shows the conict area in a Y-intersection without
channelization and Fig. 31:6 shows the reduced conict area in the same intersection
after providing medians.
2. Merging trac streams at small angles: Merging at small angles permits the ow
of trac streams with minimum speed dierentials. Hence, the gap acceptance time is
also small in such cases. The merging of roadways should be done as shown below in
Fig. 31:7.
3. Reduction of the speed of incoming trac by bending its path: The speed
31.4
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Figure 31:5: Conict area in all paved intersection
Figure 31:6: Conict area in a channelized intersection
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
111111111
000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
111111111
000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
111111111
000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
111111111
000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
111111111
000000000
Figure 31:7: Merging of trac streams

31.5
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
111111111111111111111 11111111
000000000000000000000 00000000
111111111111111111111 11111111
000000000000000000000 00000000
111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111
000000000000000000000
111111111111111111111 111111111
000000000000000000000 000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
Figure 31:8: Bending path of incoming minor street
6m
3.5m
3.5m
111111111
000000000
4m
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
6m
4m
Figure 31:9: Reduction of speed by funneling

of vehicles entering into the intersection can be reduced by bending the path to the
intersection approach. However as far as possible the path of the major trac stream
should not be bent. The above technique is shown below in Fig. 31:8.
4. Reduction of speed of trac by funneling: The funneling technique can also be
used for reducing the speeds of the incoming vehicles. Due to the decrease in the width
of the lane at the approach, the drivers tend to reduce the speed of their vehicles near
the intersection. Fig. 31:9 shows the funneling technique used for reduction of speed.
5. Protection for turning vehicles/crossing conicting trac streams: Provision
of a refuge area between the two opposing streams allows the driver of a crossing vehicle
to select a safe gap in one stream at a time and also provides a safer crossing maneuver.
Fig. 31:10further claries the above statement.
6. Discourage prohibited turns by island placement and shape: Undesirable and
prohibited turns can be discouraged by the proper selection of shape and location of the
31.6
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
Figure 31:10: Refuge area for protecting crossing or turning trac

ONE WAY
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
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11111
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11111
00000
11111
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11111
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11111
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11111
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11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
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11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
Figure 31:11: Properly placed islands discourage prohibited movements

islands. Fig. 31:11 shows how prohibited turns can be discouraged by proper shaping and
placement of islands.
7. Providing locations of trac control devices: Channelization may provide locations
for the installation of essential trac control devices, such as stop and directional signs,
signals etc. Fig. 31:12 shows how channelizing devices can also be used for locating trac
control devices.
31.5
Channelizing devices
A channelizing device can be dened as any structure which helps in providing channelization.
These can be wide raised medians, non-traversable road islands, traversable raised curbs or
even ush channelizing devices. A brief description of the various devices which are used for
the purpose of channelization are given in the following sections.
1. Wide Raised Medians
In this form of channelizing device, a raised wide separator is constructed between the
31.7
January 31, 2014

111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
31. Channelization
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
Figure 31:12: Location of signal posts on medians at intersections
Figure 31:13: Wide raised median

two opposing lanes and the space on the separator (median) is used either for planting
some trees and/or for providing space for trac signs etc. Fig. 31:13 shows a typical wide
raised median on a freeway. A median varying between 1.2 m and 30 m in width may
be employed. The higher values of width are adopted on freeways, where sucient space
is available for the construction of these. In addition, a well-landscaped wide median
will also provide aesthetic benets to the surrounding neighborhood. A wide median, if
attractively landscaped, is often the most aesthetically pleasing separation method.
2. Non- traversable Raised Islands
In this type of device, a narrower and a higher median than the traversable island is
constructed between the opposing lanes. This class of device has the advantage of a
narrower median, but its use should be restricted to approach roadways with vehicle
speeds of 60 kmph or below. These are generally 15 to 20 cm high and about 60 cm
in width. Due to the height, most of the vehicles are not able to cross the median,
and hence the name. Fig. 31:14 shows a non-traversable raised island constructed on a
31.8
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Figure 31:14: Non-traversable Raised Island (source: [13])

roadway. These devices are substantial enough that each installation should be carefully
designed, as an inappropriately placed median can constitute a hazard if struck by an
errant vehicle and hence the severity and crash risk is highly increased on the roadways
having non-traversable raised islands.
3. Traversable Raised Curb Systems
In this device, a narrow and mountable type of raised curb is constructed to separate the
trac moving in the opposing lanes. This class of channelizing device is the narrowest,
and therefore the easiest to t in a wide range of roadway cross-section widths. The curb
is upto 10 cm in height and upto about 30 cm in width. Curbs are formed with a rounded
shape that will create minimal vehicle deection upon impact. Generally, it is used with
reboundable, reectorized vertical panels to provide a visual deterrent to the drivers to
cross over to opposite trac lane. The main advantage of this type of device is that it can
be installed on existing roadway centerlines, without the need for widening the roadway
approaches to the crossing. Figs. 31:15 and 31:16 shows traversable raised curbs with
and without vertical panels.
4. Flush Channelization
In this type of channelization, a variety of treatments, including raising them above the
pavement just slightly (2 to 5 cm); the application of pavement markings and other types
of contrasting surfaces etc are possible. These may also be unpaved where they are
formed by the pavement edges of existing roadways. In areas where snow plowing may be
necessary, ush islands are the preferred design. Fig. 31:17 below shows how ush islands
can also be used for achieving channelizing objectives. The area seen ushed with the
road surface in Fig. 31:17 is the ush island.
31.9
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Figure 31:15: Traversable Raised Curb System (without vertical panels)
Figure 31:16: Traversable Raised Curb System (with vertical panels)
0
Flash Median
11
Travel lane
5
Bike lane
8.5
Parking
Figure 31:17: Flush island providing channelization objectives

31.10
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
Figure 31:18: Channelizing Islands
31.6
Trac Islands
A principle concern in channelization is the design of the islands. An island is a dened area
between trac lanes for control of vehicle movements. Within an intersection area, a median
or an outer separation is considered to be an island. It may range from an area delineated by
barrier curbs to a pavement area marked by paint.
31.6.1
Classication of Islands
Trac islands usually serve more than one function, but may be generally classied in three
separate types:
1. Channelizing Islands - These are designed to control and direct trac movement,
usually turning. Channelizing islands are are shown in Fig. 31:18.
2. Divisional Islands - These are designed to divide opposing or same direction trac
streams, usually through movements. Fig. 31:19 shows the placing of divisional islands
in a roadway.
3. Refuge islands - Pedestrian islands are provided to serve as safety zones for the aid
and protection of persons on foot. If a divisional island is located in an urban area where
pedestrians are present, portions of each island can be considered a refuge island. Refuge
islands are shown below I Fig. 31:20. The design aspects of the trac islands are dealt
in detail in the following sections.
31.11
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
Figure 31:19: Divisional Islands
Figure 31:20: Refuge Islands
31.12
January 31, 2014
31.6.2
31. Channelization
Design Considerations for Trac Islands
The necessity for an island should be determined only by careful study, since it is placed in
an area that would otherwise be available for vehicular trac. The island design should be
carefully planned so that the shape of the island will conform to natural vehicular paths and so
that a raised island will not constitute a hazard in the roadway. A judiciously placed island at
an intersection on a wide street may eliminate the need for trac signal control by channelizing
trac into orderly movements. The total design of trac islands can be studied in three steps:
1. Selection of appropriate island type (barrier, mountable, painted or ush):
The site and trac conditions in each intersection are dierent and hence the island type
suitable for each requires separate attention. The trac island selected may vary from
barrier type islands to ush islands marked on the roadway surface.
2. Determination of shape and size of islands: The shape of the island and its size
in an intersection depends on the geometry and space availability at the same. A proper
shape and size of the island (in case of raised islands) must be selected so that it is able
to both channelize the trac and not pose any type of hazard.
3. Location relative to adjacent trac lanes: The islands must be oset from the
roadway by some distance to remove the risk of a vehicle dashing against the same. The
width of oset is maximum at the entry of the island and decreases gradually as one
moves towards the end of it.
31.6.3
Guidelines for selection of island type
As mentioned earlier, each intersection has a unique geometry and ow values, and hence needs
special attention as far as the use of channelization devices are concerned. The main factors
aecting the selection of the island type are:
1. Trac characteristics at the intersection
2. Cost considerations, and
3. Maintenance needs
The raised islands and ush channelization are dealt with in details in the following sections.
31.13
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Flush Channelization
Flush Channelization is usually appropriate in the following conditions:
1. On high speed rural highways to separate turning lanes.
2. In constrained locations, i.e. the locations where vehicle path denition is desired but
space for raised islands not available.
3. For separating opposing trac streams of low speed streets.
4. In areas where frequent removal of snowfall is required, i.e. in places of high snow fall.
5. It can also be used as a temporary channelization either during construction or to test
trac operations prior to the actual installation of raised islands.
However, the main demerits of this type of channelization are :
1. It is not eective in prohibiting or preventing trac movements.
2. It is also not appropriate for islands intended to serve as pedestrian refuge.
Raised Islands
The locations where the construction of raised islands assumes importance are:
1. The primary function of the channelizing device is shielding pedestrians or to provide
refuge to pedestrians crossing a street.
2. Also, the primary/secondary function is locating trac signals or other xed objects.
3. Intension is to prohibit or prevent certain trac movements.
4. To separate high volume opposing trac ows.
5. The raised islands are also particularly important at intersections with unusual geometry
i.e. skewed intersections.
A comparison between the usefulness and the operating conditions of the two types of channelization is presented in Table. 31:1.
31.14
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:1: Flush Channelization vs

FLUSH CHANNELIZATION
1. For Right turns
2. To provide temporary or trail channelization
3. To shadow left turns
RAISED CHANNELIZATION
1. Post signs or signals
2. Provide pedestrian refuse
3. Prevent wrong way movements
31.6.4
Raised Channelization
OPERATING CONDITIONS
High Speeds
Rural highway
Minor urban intersections
OPERATING CONDITIONS
Urban streets
Low speeds
High volumes
Guidelines for design of Trac Islands
The main design principles followed for the design of the shape and size and shape of the trac
island are as follows:
1. Shape and size: Islands are generally either narrow and elongated or triangular in
shape, are normally situated in areas of the roadway outside the planned vehicle paths,
and are shaped and dimensioned as component parts of the street or intersection layout.
The actual size diers as governed by site conditions, but the following minimum size
requirements should be met to insure that the island will be large enough to command
attention.
2. Trac lanes or turning roadways should appear natural and convenient to their intended
users.
3. Number of islands should be held to a practical minimum to avoid confusion.
4. The islands should be large enough to be eective. Small islands do not serve as channelizing devices and pose maintenance problems.
5. These should not be introduced at locations with restricted sight distance or middle of
sharp horizontal curves due to sight distance considerations.
Table. 31:2 gives the recommended minimum and desired area values of the trac islands in
typical urban and rural intersections.
31.15
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:2: Recommended Island Sizes

Location of Intersection
Size(Sq.metres)
Minimum Desired
Urban
4.65
7
Rural and High Speed urban/Suburban
7
9.3
Oe
Of
R3
Direction of
Traffic
Direction of
Traffic
Oa
Od
R1
R2
Ob
Oe
Direction of Traffic
Figure 31:21: Recommended Oset Dimensions for location of Trac Islands
31.6.5
Guidelines for providing oset to the trac islands from the

road edge
The orientation of islands near intersections is dictated by the alignment of the intersecting
roadways and their associated travel paths. Proper island design must minimize the potential
for vehicle impacts and reduce their severity. This is most often accomplished by osetting the
approach ends of islands from the edge of travel lane them, tapering them inward. Another
technique that is the use of rounded approach noses that may also be sloped downward on
their approach ends. The general design dimensions of corner islands for roadways in shown
in Fig. 31:21. Another design consideration for islands is their surface nishing. Islands may
be paved or landscaped. Though paved islands are easier to maintain, yet they are typically
not as aesthetically pleasing. The use of colors that have contrast with the pavement surface is
desirable because they allow the island to be more clearly seen by drivers. Normally concrete
islands are paired with asphalt roadways and vice versa. Brick pavers are also used in areas
where aesthetics are important. Other concerns include the need to provide adequate slope to
the surface of the island to facilitate drainage and to keep the island free of sight obstructions
and collision. Thus, all landscaping features should be kept below the clear vision envelop and
31.16
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Single
Radius
Figure 31:22: Various types of curves used for a turning roadway , (a)Simple Radius
should not incorporate other xed hazards.
Curve/taper combinations for turning roadways and islands
The combination of a simple radius anked by tapers can often t the pavement edge more
closely to the design motor vehicle than a simple radius (with no tapers). Figs. 31:22, 31:23
and 31:24 shows the various types of curves that can be used for a roadway. The closer t
can be important for large design motor vehicles where eective pavement width is small (due
either to narrow pavement or need to avoid any encroachment), or where turning speeds greater
than the design speed are desired. Table. 31:3 and Table. 31:4 summarizes design elements
for curve/taper combinations that permit various design motor vehicles to turn, without any
encroachment, from a single approach lane into a single departure lane (Note: W should be
determined using the turning path of the design vehicle) The width of the roadway can be
found out from Table. 31:5 given below.
31.17
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Offset
Taper
Single
Radius
Taper
Figure 31:23: Various types of curves used for a turning roadway, (b)Radius and Taper
Island
Larger
Radius
Smaller
Radius
Larger
Radius
Figure 31:24: Various types of curves used for a turning roadway, (c)Turning Roadway
31.18
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:3: Curve and Taper Corner Design Elements

Angle of Turn
Design Vehicle
Radius
Oset
Taper Length
(Degrees)
(metres) (OS metres) (T1 metres)
Passenger Car
7.5
0.6
6
75
Single Unit Truck
13.5
0.6
6
Sigle Trailor Unit
19.5
0.9
13.5
Passenger Car
6
0.75
7.5
90
Single Unit Truck
12
0.6
6
Sigle Trailor Unit
18
1.2
18
Passenger Car
6
0.6
120
Single Unit Truck
9
0.9
Sigle Trailor Unit
13.5
1.2
18
Table 31:4: Design elements for Turning Roadways

Angle of Turn
Design Vehicle
Radius(metre)
Oset
(Degrees)
R1-R2-R1
(OS metre)
Passenger Car (P)
30-22.5-30
0.6
75
Single Unit Truck (SU)
36-13.5-36
0.6
Semi-Trailor Unit (WB-50)
45-15-45
2
Passenger Car (P)
30-6-30
0.8
90
36-12-36
0.6
54-18-54
2
Passenger Car (P)
30-6-30
0.6
120
30-9-30
0.9
54-12-54
2.6
31.19
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:5: Width of roadway required for negotiating the turn for dierent classes of vehicles
(W)
Radius on
inner edge
of
pavement
in metre
15
22.5
30
45
60
90
31.7
One-Lane One Way

Operation (No
provision of passing a
stalled vehicle) in metre
P SU
WB-50
3.9 5.4
7.8
3.9 5.1
6.6
3.9 4.8
6.3
3.6 4.8
5.7
3.6 4.8
5.1
3.6 4.5
5.1
One-Lane One Way

Operation (Having
provision of passing a
stalled vehicle) in metre
P SU
WB-50
6 8.7
13.2
5.7 8.1
10.8
5.7 7.5
10.2
5.4 7.2
8.7
5.4 6.9
8.1
5.4 6.6
7.5
Two way operation

Either One way or Two
way (Same Type of vehicle
in both lanes) in metre
P
SU
WB-50
7.8 10.5
15
7.5 9.9
12.6
7.5 9.3
12
7.2
9
10.5
7.2 8.7
9.9
7.2 8.4
9.3
Guidelines for design of Median islands
The general guidelines to be followed in the design of median islands (separators of opposing
trac ows) are:
1. The approach noses should be oset 0.6 to 1.8 m from through lanes to minimize accidental
impacts.
2. Shape should be based on design turning paths and island function. (Generally parabolic
or circular arcs are used)
3. The length of median before the intersection is related to approach speed (normally 3 sec
driving time to intersection). It is also aected by available widths, taper designs and
local constraints.
4. The width of the medians should serve its primary intended function.
5. The median should always be provided well past crest vertical curves.
Fig. 31:25 shows the general design elements of medians provided just at the approach to a
intersection. The required median widths for performing their intended functions are provided
by AASHTO and are shown in Table. 31:6 below. These widths are empirical and can be
applied at an intersection with reasonable eciency.
31.20
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
1
1 2 Sec.
Travel
time
3 Sec. Travel time(min)

RC at barrier nose or beyond
desirable
Mountable type median

0.6m R
W1
W4
111111111111111111
000000000000000000 3
0.3m R 000000000
W
111111111
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
W5
W5
Offset nose
from
(0.6m min)
W2
0.6m Stub
W2
Barrier type
median
W1 = U ndivided approach width

W2 = Divided approach width
W3 = (W1/2) or 4.2m whichever is larger
W4 = (W3 + W2/2 desirable
W3 = W2 + 0.3m
Figure 31:25: Design Criteria for raised median approaches to intersections
Table 31:6: Basic median functions and their required width

Function
Width in metre
Minimum Desirable
Separation of opposing trac
1.2
3
Provision of pedestrian refuse
1.8
4.2
Provision of storage for left-turn vehicles
4.8
6
Provision for protection of vehicles crossing
7.5
9
through lanes
Provision for U turns, inside to outside lanes
4.8
6
Provision for U-turns, inside to inside lanes
7.8
9
31.21
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Departure Taper
Approach Taper
Bay
Taper
Storage
Deceleration Length
Length
Figure 31:26: Components of Auxiliary Lane
31.7.1
Auxiliary Lanes
Auxiliary lanes are used under conditions of relatively high trac volumes in the intersections.
In these cases, trac congestion problems can be signicantly alleviated with auxiliary lanes
to handle turning movements. The median lane should be 12 feet (3.6m), but not less than 10
feet (3.0m) wide and should be clearly marked for this purpose.
Auxiliary lanes can also be introduced to provide for both left turns and right turns at intersections. The need for such lanes is determined by capacity analysis and the acceptable level of
service designated for the facility. The lanes should be at least 2.7m wide for reconstruction and
resurfacing projects and at least 3.0m, preferably 3.6m for new construction projects. Auxiliary
lane shoulders can be reduced to 0.6 m wide on rural sections and 0 m wide on sections with
curb and gutter. The length of auxiliary lanes consists of ve components:
1. Approach Taper
2. Deceleration Length
3. Bay Taper
4. Storage Length, and
5. Departure Taper.
A typical auxiliary lane with the components are shown in Fig. 31:26 below. These are discussed
in detail in the following section.
1. Approach Taper- The length of the approach taper varies with operating speeds. Guidelines for determining lengths are: (i) For speeds 70 kmph and over: L = 0.6W S, and (ii)
For speeds under 70 kmph: L = W S 2 /100 where, L is the length of entering taper in m,
W is the width to be tapered in m, and S is the operating Speed in kmph.
31.22
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:7: Deceleration length vs Design Speed

Design Speed Deceleration Length
(kmph)
(m)
40
35
55
45
65
55
70
65
80
95
2. Deceleration Length- The deceleration length is that required for a comfortable stop
of a vehicle from a speed that is typical of the average running speed on the facility.
The Bay Taper can be considered part of the deceleration length. AASHTO has again
given a table for calculating the decelerating length value from the design speed value
(Table. 31:7).
3. Bay Taper - This is a straight line taper with ratios varying from 5:1 to 10:1. Higher
speed facilities should generally have longer tapers. Empirically, the minimum and maximum values of bay taper are taken as 18m and 36m respectively.
4. Storage Length - The storage length should be suciently long to store the number of
vehicles likely to accumulate during the average daily peak period.
(a) At unsignalized intersections, length to be based on the number of vehicles likely to
arrive in an average 2-minute period within the peak hour.
(b) At signalized intersections, the required length depends on the signal cycle length,
the signal phasing arrangement and the rate of arrivals and departures of left turning
vehicles.
5. Departure Taper - The departure taper is normally taken equal in length to that of
the approach taper and should begin opposite the beginning of the Bay Taper.
31.7.2
Shape of Median Ends
Generally, two types of end shapes are used in practice:-semicircular shapes and bullet nose.
The shape adopted normally depends on the eective median width at the end of the median.
The dimensions of the various parameters for semi-circular and bullet nose ends area as: Semicircular- L = 2 ControlR, R1 = M/2. Bullet-nose- L = ControlR, R1 = M/2, R2 = M/5
31.23
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:8: Criteria for

Eective Median Width
Less than 3m
3m - 20m
Over 20m
selection of median end shape

Median End Shape
Semi-circular
Bullet Nose
Treated as a separate intersection
L
nt
ro
R1
Co
(Normal)
M
Lane
Lane
Figure 31:27: Shapes of Median ends, (a)Semi-circular

The criteria for the selection of median end is as given below in Table. 31:8. The two shapes
are illustrated in Figs. 31:27 and 31:28. The designer should evaluate each intersection to
determine the best median opening shape that will accommodate the design vehicle.
31.7.3
Design of Median Openings
Median openings, sometimes called crossovers, provide for vehicular crossings of the median at
designated locations. The design of a median opening should be based on trac volumes and
L
Lane
R2
R1
R2
R1
R1
R1
Co
R
ntr
ol
Lane
Figure 31:28: Shapes of Median ends, (b)Bullet-nose

31.24
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
intersection
L
Bay Taper
Shoulder Median M
Left turn Lane

5.1
5.1
Parabolic
Parabolic
Flare
Flare
5.1
5.1
Left turn Lane R=Var
Shoulder
Bay Taper
Figure 31:29: Intersection Median Opening

types of turning vehicles. Cross and turning trac must operate in conjunction with the through
trac on the divided highway. This requirement makes it necessary to know the volume and
composition of all movements occurring simultaneously during the design hours. The design
of a median opening becomes a matter of considering what trac is to be accommodated,
choosing the design vehicle to use for layout controls for each cross and turning movement,
investigating whether larger vehicles can turn without undue encroachment on adjacent lanes
and, nally, checking the intersection for capacity. If the capacity is exceeded by the trac
load, the design must be expanded, possibly by widening or otherwise adjusting widths for
certain movements. Trac control devices such as yield signs, stop signs or trac signals
may be required to regulate the various movements eectively and to improve the eciency of
operations. Median openings at close intervals on other types of highways create interference
with fast through trac. Median openings should be spaced at intervals no closer than 500
m. However, if a median opening falls within 100 m of an access opening, it should be placed
opposite the access opening. Also, the length of median opening varies with width of median
and angle of intersecting roads. Fig. 31:29 shows the intersection median opening. The median
openings for the dierent classes of design vehicle are as given in the Table. 31:9.
31.8
Developing a Channelization Plan
1. Channelization is more of an art rather than science. Every intersection requires a special study because of variations in physical dimensions, turning movements, trac and
pedestrian volumes, type of trac control etc.
2. In the next step several island congurations are considered and compared. Then a choice
is made between curbed, raised islands and ush channelization or pavement markings.
3. Next it must be checked that the design is compatible to handle turning movements of
31.25
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:9: Median Openings

Width of
Median(m)
1.2
1.8
2.4
3
3.6
4.2
4.8
6
Passenger Car
Semi - circular Bullet nose
22.8
22.8
22.2
18
21.6
15.9
21
14.1
20.4
12.9
19.2
12
18
12
16.8
12
Single Unit Truck

28.8
28.8
28.2
22.8
27.6
20.4
27
18.6
26.4
17.4
25.8
15.9
25.2
15
24
13.2
Single Trailor Unit

43.8
36.6
43.2
34.5
42.6
33
42
31.5
41.4
30
40.8
28.8
40.2
27.6
39
25.5
large vehicles. Also, it should be such that the vehicles are guided in normal wheel paths,
so that the island does not create an obstruction in the roadway.
4. Signing and marking are redesigned to guide drivers and avoid confusion.
5. The nal plan includes details of civil and electrical engineering features (like drainage
facilities, curbs, lightings, signals etc.) required for the project completion.
31.9
Typical Channelization Examples
Some typical channelization ways used in practice are as given below. Figs. 31:30 to 31:41
indicate both normal channelization and high type channelization techniques for various intersections and situations.
31.10
Turning Vehicle Templates
In the design of intersections the turning paths of vehicles assumes utmost importance. The
turning paths of design vehicles are given in transparent templates such as the one shown in
Fig. 31:17 and Fig. 31:18. These templates are placed over the intersection plan to trace the
path of the turning vehicle. Once this is done, proper islands and other trac control devices
can be designed. As per AASHTO, the turning templates are drawn at an approximate scale of
1=50. The radius of the template is measured to the outside front wheel path at the beginning
31.26
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
f
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Figure 31:30: Channelization for Y Intersections, (a)For low Flows
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Figure 31:31: Channelization for Y Intersections, (b)For High Flows
b
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NOT RECOMMENDED WITHOUT
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Figure 31:32: Channelization for T Intersections, (a)For low Flows

31.27
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
1
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Figure 31:33: Channelization for T Intersections, (b)For High Flows
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Figure 31:34: Channelization for T or Y Intersections (Channelized-High Type)
1111
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31.28
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
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11
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Figure 31:38: Channelization for 4-Leg Intersections (Channelized-High Type)

31.29
January 31, 2014
111111
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31. Channelization
11111111111111111
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Figure 31:39: Channelization for 4-Leg Intersections (Channelized-High Type)
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Figure 31:40: Channelization for Multi - leg Intersections
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Figure 31:41: Channelization for Multi - leg Intersections
31.30
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:10: Dimensions of some common Design vehicles

Design Vehicle Type
Symbol
Overall Dimension
Height (m) Width (m) Length (m)
Passenger Car
P
1.3
2.1
5.8
Single Unit Truck
SU
4.1
2.6
9.1
Single Unit Bus
BUS
4.1
2.6
12.1
Intermediate Semi-Trailer WB-15
4.1
2.6
16.7
L
B
Single Rear
Wheel for
P Vehicle
F_A
wb_2
Double Rear Axle
Single Rear Axle
wb_1
WB
WB
R_1
Figure 31:42: Design vehicle Dimensions and Turning Properties

of the curve. The design vehicle for the purpose can be taken out of a list of 16 dierent types
of vehicles suggested by AASHTO. The dimensions of some of the design vehicles are given in
Table. 31:10 below. The templates are applied to the layout of intersections and other facilities
in accommodating vehicle maneuvers, including driveways, car parking, truck loading and bus
terminals. Here we shall take the cases of a passenger car (P) and a single unit truck (BUS) as
the design vehicles. The various design elements and their dimensions are shown in Fig. 31:42
and Table. 31:11 respectively. The templates were developed to include a variety of angles,
with specic congurations for every 30 degrees of turn (30, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180). By
special manipulation of the template, any degree of turning can be produced within an overall
range of 20 to 200 degrees. The four variables-vehicle type, turning radius, angle of turn and
scale-provide full exibility in the use of turning vehicle templates for layout and design. To
permit greater latitude in maneuvering of buses, single unit trucks and passenger cars, special
Table 31:11: Design vehicle Dimensions and Turning Properties for 90o turns
Vehicle
WB
MinimumTurn
Designation
L(m) (m) A(m) B(m) W(m) U(m) U** (m) FA RT
(m)
(m) (m)
BUS
12.1 7.5
2
2.5
2.6
2.6
4.98
1.25 13
Passenger Car (P) 5.8
3.4
0.9
15
2.1
1.8
2.61
0.6 7.5
31.31
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
Table 31:12: List of Templates

Vehicle Type Scales Turning Radius-m Average Size-cm
1:250
R= 13 & 18
20 25
BUS
1:500
R= 13 & 18
18 18
1:250
R=13 to 50
20 25
Bar Template
1:250
R=7.5
18 18
Passenger car 1:250
R=7.5 to 30
18 18
Bar template
bar tenders are included, consisting of turning radii in the range of 13 to 50 meters for the
rst two and 5.5 to 30 meters for the last type of vehicles which are outside the scope of this
discussion. The list of templates for bus and passenger cars is shown in the Table. 31:12. The
templates for the Passenger Car (P) and Bus are as shown in Fig. 31:43, 31:44 below.
31.32
January 31, 2014
1.8
Passenger Car("P")
31. Channelization
30 o

o
60
90o
120 o
150
180o
Figure 31:43: Design Template for Passenger Car (P)

Numerical example 1
Provide channelization for an intersection having EW as the major road. The major and minor
roads intersect at right angles. The design vehicle is WB-50 (R=25m) and design speed is 45
kmph. The intersection is unsignalised. EW road has 2 lanes in each direction and NS has
1 lane for each direction. Take lane width =3.6 m. Provide bullet nose median ends. Also
provide channelizing island for free right for WS bound trac.
Solution : The approach taper for auxiliary lane is equal to 3.6 45 45/100 = 73 m. The
deceleration Taper is taken as 40 m. Considering a 1:10 taper, the Bay Taper is found out
to be 18 m. Let the storage length = 30 m (say). Now from Table. 31:9, it is found that for
bullet nose median end, Median Opening = 30 m. The dimensions of all the components of
the auxiliary lane are shown in Fig. 31:45. The width required for the WB- 50 semi-trailor
unit is found to be about 6.5 m. Additional 0.5 m is provided on the outer side and 0.3 m is
provided on the inner side away from the edge of the island. For the turning roadway for the
W-S direction, the single oset method is used. At 0.3 + 0.5 + 6.5 = 7.3 m from the island
edge, a circle of radius 25 m is laid out. Then two tapers of slope 1:15 is laid out on either side
of the arc to join with the straight edge on either side. Thus the channelization is provided for
the W-S approach. Similar method can be used for designing the channelization schemes of the
other directions as well. The channelization for the W-S approach is shown in Fig. 31:46.
31.33
January 31, 2014
Bus
30 o
31. Channelization
60
90o
120 o
150
180o
Figure 31:44: Design Template for Bus

30 m
73 m
73 m
18 m
30 m
40 m
Figure 31:45: Dimensions of components of the auxiliary lane for the intersection
73 m
1:15
R=25m
1:15
Figure 31:46: Channelization for the W-S direction with trac island
31.34
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
WYE INTERSECTION
Figure 31:47: Wye Intersection

Numerical example 2
Following the principles of channelization suggest suitable island schemes for the following
intersections (considering both high relative speed and low relative speed) (Figs. 31:47, 31:48)
Solution
1. Y Intersection (Figs. 31:49, 31:50 and 31:51)
2. Skewed intersection (Figs. 31:52, 31:53 and 31:54)
31.11
Summary
This chapter presents one of the simple and cost eective way of intersection control, namely
the channelization. This is normally adopted for low and medium volume roads. The chapter
contains the design principles, trac islands, and median.
31.12
References
1. Transportation research board channelization-the design of highway intersections at grade,

1962.
2. Mass highway, 2006- intersections, 2006.
31.35
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
SKEWED CROSS ROAD
Figure 31:48: Skewed Cross Road
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Figure 31:49: (a) Y - Intersection
31.36
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
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Figure 31:50: (b) Y - Intersection
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Figure 31:51: (c) Y - Intersection
31.37
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
JO
MA
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OW
FL
Figure 31:52: (a) Skewed Intersection
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Figure 31:53: (b) Skewed Intersection
31.38
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
FL
O
W
JO
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Figure 31:54: (c) Skewed Intersection

3. 2011.
4. Channelization, 2011.
5. Highway design manual, 2000- pedestrian facility design, 2011.
6. Road design manual, 2011.
7. Roosevelt street - neighborhood trac management plan, 2011.
8. Streetsblog, 2011.
9. Us department of transportation federal highway administration- guidance on the use of
trac channelizing devices at highway-rail grade crossings, 2011.
10. Us department of transportation federal highway administration- innovative intersection
safety improvement strategies and management practices:a domestic scan, 2011.
11. Us department of transportation federal highway administration-safety benets of raised
medians and pedestrian refuge areas, 2011.
12. S K Khanna C E G Justo. Highway Engineering. Nem Chand and Bros, Roorkee, 2001.
13. T R Neuman. Intersection channelization design guide. Transportation Research Board.
TRB NCHRP R 279, Washington, D.C., 1985.
31.39
January 31, 2014
31. Channelization
14. R J Paquette, N Ashford, and P H Wright. Transportation Engineering : Planning and

Design. John Wiley, New York, 1972.
31.40
January 31, 2014
32. Trac Rotaries
Chapter 32
Trac Rotaries
32.1
Overview
Rotary intersections or round abouts are special form of at-grade intersections laid out for the
movement of trac in one direction around a central trac island. Essentially all the major
conicts at an intersection namely the collision between through and right-turn movements are
converted into milder conicts namely merging and diverging. The vehicles entering the rotary
are gently forced to move in a clockwise direction in orderly fashion. They then weave out of
the rotary to the desired direction. The benets, design principles, capacity of rotary etc. will
be discussed in this chapter.
32.2
General
32.2.1
Advantages and disadvantages
The key advantages of a rotary intersection are listed below:

1. Trac ow is regulated to only one direction of movement, thus eliminating severe conicts between crossing movements.
2. All the vehicles entering the rotary are gently forced to reduce the speed and continue to
move at slower speed. Thus, none of the vehicles need to be stopped,unlike in a signalized
intersection.
3. Because of lower speed of negotiation and elimination of severe conicts, accidents and
their severity are much less in rotaries.
4. Rotaries are self governing and do not need practically any control by police or trac
signals.
32.1
January 31, 2014
32. Trac Rotaries
5. They are ideally suited for moderate trac, especially with irregular geometry, or intersections with more than three or four approaches.
Although rotaries oer some distinct advantages, there are few specic limitations for rotaries
which are listed below.
1. All the vehicles are forced to slow down and negotiate the intersection. Therefore, the
cumulative delay will be much higher than channelized intersection.
2. Even when there is relatively low trac, the vehicles are forced to reduce their speed.
3. Rotaries require large area of relatively at land making them costly at urban areas.
4. The vehicles do not usually stop at a rotary. They accelerate and exit the rotary at
relatively high speed. Therefore, they are not suitable when there is high pedestrian
movements.
32.2.2
Guidelines for the selection
Because of the above limitation, rotaries are not suitable for every location. There are few
guidelines that help in deciding the suitability of a rotary. They are listed below.
1. Rotaries are suitable when the trac entering from all the four approaches are relatively
equal.
2. A total volume of about 3000 vehicles per hour can be considered as the upper limiting
case and a volume of 500 vehicles per hour is the lower limit.
3. A rotary is very benecial when the proportion of the right-turn trac is very high;
typically if it is more than 30 percent.
4. Rotaries are suitable when there are more than four approaches or if there is no separate
lanes available for right-turn trac. Rotaries are ideally suited if the intersection geometry
is complex.
32.3
Trac operations in a rotary
As noted earlier, the trac operations at a rotary are three; diverging, merging and weaving.
All the other conicts are converted into these three less severe conicts.
32.2
January 31, 2014
32. Trac Rotaries

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Figure 32:1: Trac operations in a rotary

1. Diverging: It is a trac operation when the vehicles moving in one direction is separated
into dierent streams according to their destinations.
2. Merging: Merging is the opposite of diverging. Merging is referred to as the process of
joining the trac coming from dierent approaches and going to a common destination
into a single stream.
3. Weaving: Weaving is the combined movement of both merging and diverging movements
in the same direction.
These movements are shown in gure 32:1. It can be observed that movements from each
direction split into three; left, straight, and right turn.
32.3.1
Design elements
The design elements include design speed, radius at entry, exit and the central island, weaving
length and width, entry and exit widths. In addition the capacity of the rotary can also
be determined by using some empirical formula. A typical rotary and the important design
elements are shown in gure 32:2
32.3.2
Design speed
All the vehicles are required to reduce their speed at a rotary. Therefore, the design speed
of a rotary will be much lower than the roads leading to it. Although it is possible to design
roundabout without much speed reduction, the geometry may lead to very large size incurring
32.3
January 31, 2014
32. Trac Rotaries

splitter
island
le
ng
th
exit radius
ea
vi
n
w
entry
width
entry
radius
exit width
radius of
the inscribed
circle
speed = 30 40kmph
radius of
the central
Rentry = 20 25m
island
weaving Rexit = Rentry 1.5to2
width
circulation RCentralIsland = Rentry 1.3
width
GIVE WAY
line
approach
width
Figure 32:2: Design elements of a rotary

huge cost of construction. The normal practice is to keep the design speed as 30 and 40 kmph
for urban and rural areas respectively.
32.3.3
Entry, exit and island radius
The radius at the entry depends on various factors like design speed, super-elevation, and
coecient of friction. The entry to the rotary is not straight, but a small curvature is introduced.
This will force the driver to reduce the speed. The entry radius of about 20 and 25 metres is
ideal for an urban and rural design respectively.
The exit radius should be higher than the entry radius and the radius of the rotary island so
that the vehicles will discharge from the rotary at a higher rate. A general practice is to keep
the exit radius as 1.5 to 2 times the entry radius. However, if pedestrian movement is higher
at the exit approach, then the exit radius could be set as same as that of the entry radius.
The radius of the central island is governed by the design speed, and the radius of the entry
curve. The radius of the central island, in practice, is given a slightly higher radius so that the
movement of the trac already in the rotary will have priority. The radius of the central island
which is about 1.3 times that of the entry curve is adequate for all practical purposes.
32.3.4
Width of the rotary
The entry width and exit width of the rotary is governed by the trac entering and leaving the
intersection and the width of the approaching road. The width of the carriageway at entry and
exit will be lower than the width of the carriageway at the approaches to enable reduction of
speed. IRC suggests that a two lane road of 7 m width should be kept as 7 m for urban roads
and 6.5 m for rural roads. Further, a three lane road of 10.5 m is to be reduced to 7 m and
7.5 m respectively for urban and rural roads.
The width of the weaving section should be higher than the width at entry and exit. Normally this will be one lane more than the average entry and exit width. Thus weaving width
32.4
January 31, 2014
32. Trac Rotaries
b
a
Figure 32:3: Weaving operation in a rotary

is given as,
wweaving =
e1 + e2
2
+ 3.5m
(32.1)
where e1 is the width of the carriageway at the entry and e2 is the carriageway width at exit.
Weaving length determines how smoothly the trac can merge and diverge. It is decided
based on many factors such as weaving width, proportion of weaving trac to the non-weaving
trac etc. This can be best achieved by making the ratio of weaving length to the weaving
width very high. A ratio of 4 is the minimum value suggested by IRC. Very large weaving
length is also dangerous, as it may encourage over-speeding.
32.4
Capacity
The capacity of rotary is determined by the capacity of each weaving section. Transportation
road research lab (TRL) proposed the following empirical formula to nd the capacity of the
weaving section.
p
e
280w[1 + w ][1 3 ]
(32.2)
Qw =
1+ w
l
where e is the average entry and exit width, i.e, (e1 +e2 ) , w is the weaving width, l is the length
2
of weaving, and p is the proportion of weaving trac to the non-weaving trac. Figure 32:3
shows four types of movements at a weaving section, a and d are the non-weaving trac and b
and c are the weaving trac. Therefore,
p=
b+c
a+b+c+d
(32.3)
This capacity formula is valid only if the following conditions are satised.
1. Weaving width at the rotary is in between 6 and 18 metres.
32.5
January 31, 2014
32. Trac Rotaries

N
1433
400
W 1405
375
505
510
408
600
650
1260
500
350
420
250
370
1140
S
Figure 32:4: Trac approaching the rotary

2. The ratio of average width of the carriage way at entry and exit to the weaving width is
in the range of 0.4 to 1.
3. The ratio of weaving width to weaving length of the roundabout is in between 0.12 and
0.4.
4. The proportion of weaving trac to non-weaving trac in the rotary is in the range of
0.4 and 1.
5. The weaving length available at the intersection is in between 18 and 90 m.
Numerical example
The width of a carriage way approaching an intersection is given as 15 m. The entry and exit
width at the rotary is 10 m. The trac approaching the intersection from the four sides is
shown in the gure 32:4 below. Find the capacity of the rotary using the given data.
Solution
The trac from the four approaches negotiating through the roundabout is illustrated in
gure 32:5.
Weaving width is calculated as, w = [ e1 +e2 ] + 3.5 = 13.5 m
2
Weaving length, l is calculated as = 4w = 54 m
32.6
January 31, 2014
32. Trac Rotaries

N
650
+
375
600
+
350
400
505
+
510
370
510
600
375
408
505
+
370
E
W
500 +375
420
510
+
650
350
+
370
500 +600
250
Figure 32:5: Trac negotiating a rotary

The proportion of weaving trac to the non-weaving trac in all the four approaches is
found out rst.
It is clear from equation,that the highest proportion of weaving trac to non-weaving
trac will give the minimum capacity. Let the proportion of weaving trac to the nonweaving trac in West-North direction be denoted as pW N , in North-East direction as
pN E , in the East-South direction as pES , and nally in the South-West direction as pSW .
The weaving trac movements in the East-South direction is shown in gure 32:6. Then
using equation,
510+650+500+600
pES = 510+650+500+600+250+375 = 2260 =0.783
2885
505+510+350+600
pW N = 505+510+350+600+400+370 = 1965 =0.718
2735
1900
650+375+505+370
pN E = 650+375+505+370+510+408 = 2818 =0.674
350+370+500+375
1595
pSW = 350+370+500+375+420+600 = 2615 =0.6099
Thus the proportion of weaving trac to non-weaving trac is highest in the East-South
direction.
Therefore, the capacity of the rotary will be capacity of this weaving section. From
equation,
10
280 13.5[1 + 13.5 ][1 0.783 ]
3
= 2161.164veh/hr.
(32.4)
QES =
13.5
1 + 54
32.7
January 31, 2014

d
32. Trac Rotaries

375
510+650
c
b
500+600
a
250
Figure 32:6: Trac weaving in East-South direction
32.5
Summary
Trac rotaries reduce the complexity of crossing trac by forcing them into weaving operations.
The shape and size of the rotary are determined by the trac volume and share of turning
movements. Capacity assessment of a rotary is done by analyzing the section having the greatest
proportion of weaving trac. The analysis is done by using the formula given by TRL.
32.6
References

New Delhi, 1987.
32.8
January 31, 2014
33. Grade Separated Intersection
Chapter 33
Grade Separated Intersection
33.1
Overview
An intersection is the area shared by the joining or crossing of two or more roads. Since the
main function of an intersection is to enable the road user to make a route choice, it is a point
of decision. Hence the problems that are encountered by the motorist while passing through an
intersection must be recognized and the design should be in such a way that the driving task
is as simple as possible.
Intersection is also a point of large number of major conicts, besides a point of decision.
These conicts may be due to the crossing maneuvers of vehicles moving in dierent directions.
Good intersection design results from a minimization of the magnitude and characteristics of
the conicts and a simplication of driver route selection process.
33.2
Classication of Intersection
Intersections are classied depending upon the treatment of crossing conicts as follows (i) At
Grade Intersection and (ii) Grade Separated Intersection.
33.2.1
Grade Separated Intersection
It is a bridge that eliminates crossing conicts at intersections by vertical separation of roadways

in space. Grade separated intersection are otherwise known as Interchanges. Grade separated
intersections cause less hazard and delay than grade intersections. Route transfer at grade
separations is accommodated by interchange facilities consisting of ramps. Interchange ramps
are classied as Direct, Semi-Direct and Indirect. Interchanges are described by the patterns
of the various turning roadways or ramps. The interchange congurations are designed in such
a way to accommodate economically the trac requirements of ow, operation on the crossing
33.1
January 31, 2014
facilities, physical requirements of the topography, adjoining land use, type of controls, rightof-way and direction of movements.
The ultimate objective of grade separated intersections is to eliminate all grade crossing
conicts and to accommodate other intersecting maneuvers by merging, diverging and weaving
at low relative speed. The relative speed of the conicting vehicle streams is an important
factor aecting the signicance of a conict. The benet of providing for low relative speed is
twofold. First, events unfold more slowly allowing more judgement time and second, in case of
an impact the total relative energy to be absorbed are less and hence, the damage is less. In
addition, when relative speed is low, the average motorist will accept a smaller time gap space
between successive vehicles to complete his move. This condition increases roadway capacity.
33.2.2
Classication of Grade Separated Intersection
One of the distinctions made in type of interchange is between the directional and the non
directional interchange. Directional interchanges are those having ramps that tend to follow
the natural direction of movement. Nondirectional interchanges require a change in the natural
path of trac ow. A comprehensive classication plan for grade separated intersection design
which includes all possible geometric patterns has not yet been developed. The design and
operational characteristics of each of the major interchange types are mentioned as follows and
are discussed in the following sections.
1. Underpass
2. Overpass
3. Trumpet Interchange
4. Diamond Interchange
5. Cloverleaf Interchange
6. Partial Cloverleaf Interchange
7. Directional Interchange
8. Bridged Rotary
33.2
January 31, 2014
Underpass
An underpass or a tunnel is an underground passageway, completely enclosed except for openings for ingress and egress, commonly at each end. A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road
trac, for rail trac. If an underpass is constructed for pedestrians and/or cyclists beneath
a road or railway, allowing them to reach the other side in safety, then such a construction
is termed as a Subway. These are constructed when it is necessary for pedestrians to cross a
railroad or a limited-access highway. Subways may also be constructed for the benet of wildlife
Overpass
An overpass also known as a yover, is a bridge, road, railway or similar structure that crosses
over another road or railway. A pedestrian overpass allows pedestrians safe crossing over busy
roads without impacting trac. And Railway overpasses are used to replace at-grade crossing
as a safer alternative. Overpasses allows for unobstructed rail trac ow from mixing with
vehicular and pedestrian trac. Stack interchanges are made up of many overpasses.
Trumpet Interchange
Trumpet interchanges have been used where one highway terminates at another highway. These
involve at least one loop ramp connecting trac either entering or leaving the terminating
expressway with the far lanes of the continuous highway. These interchanges are useful for
highways as well as toll roads, as they concentrate all entering and exiting trac into a single
stretch of roadway, where toll booths can be installed. Trumpets are suitable at the locations
where the side road exists on only one side of the freeway, and trac is relatively low. Each
entrance and exit consists of acceleration or deceleration lanes at each end. It requires only one
bridge and is the most traditional way of grade separating a three way junction. The principal
advantages are low construction cost and are useful for highways as well as toll roads. But
33.3
January 31, 2014
the limitations in employing trumpet interchanges are it leaves a redundant patch of the land
within the loop, Disorienting to navigate for those driving in the direction that uses the loop.
Moreover scaling down the interchange often results in a more dangerous suers congestion
from articulated lorries that have tipped over.
Diamond Interchange
The diamond Interchange is the simplest form of grade separated intersection between two roadways. The conicts between through and crossing trac are eliminated by a bridge structure.
This particular intersection has four one way ramps which are essentially parallel to the major
artery. The left turn crossing movement conicts are considerably reduced by eliminating the
conict with the trac in opposite direction. All the remaining left turn conicts, merging
and diverging maneuver conicts take place at the terminal point of each ramp. Limitation in
application of this design depends on the operations of these terminals. So, it is suitable for
locations where the volume of left turn trac is relatively low.
The diamond interchange requires a minimum amount of land and is economical to construct. Also,a diamond interchange generally requires less out-of-the-way travel and vehicle
operating costs are less than those on most other types of interchanges. The single point of exit
from the major roadway eases the problem of signing. This type of interchange requires the
33.4
January 31, 2014
least of right-of-way. With these advantages, the diamonds appear to be the ideal solution to
an intersection problem. But there might be chances of occurrence of conicts at the locations
where ramps meet the grade separated cross street are to be considered foe high ramp volumes.
Improper design of signal timings at cross streets may result in the inadequacy of capacity for
certain ows.
Cloverleaf Interchange
The full clover interchange eliminates all crossing movement conicts by the use of weaving
sections. This weaving section is a critical element of cloverleaf design. It replaces a crossing
conict with a merging, followed some distance farther by a diverging conict. There are two
points of entry and exit on each through roadway. The rst exit is provided before the cross
road structure allows right turn movements. The second exit, immediately after the cross road
structure, allows for left turn movements. A weaving section is created between the exit and
entry points near the structure. Sucient length and capacity is to be provided to allow for a
smooth merging and diverging operation.
Cloverleaf design requires only one bridge. In this respect, it is the cheapest form providing
for elimination of all crossing maneuvers at grade. Although full cloverleaf interchanges eliminate the undesirable crossing movements of diamond interchanges, they have the disadvantages
of greater travel distances, higher operating costs, dicult merging sections, circuity of travel,
large areas for loops, sight distances to exits at the other side of the bridge, confusion caused by
turning right to go left and large rights-of-way occasioned by the radius requirements necessary
for satisfactory speeds on the ramps.
A variation of the cloverleaf conguration is the cloverleaf with collector-distributor roads.
With the collector-distributor roadway, main roadway operations are much the same as in
diamond interchange. For each direction of travel, there is a single point for exits and a single
point for entrances. Speed change, detailed exit directional signing and the storage and weaving
33.5
January 31, 2014
problems associated with a cloverleaf are transferred to the collector-distributor road, which
can be designed to accommodate greater relative speed dierences or encourage smaller ones.
Although this conguration improves the operational characteristics of a cloverleaf interchange,
the disadvantages of greater travel distances and the requirement of extra right-of-way are still
present. The use of a cloverleaf with collector-distributor roads is appropriate at junctions
between a freeway and an expressway where a diamond interchange would not adequately
serve trac demand.
Collector Distributor Roads
Major Highway
Cross Street
Partial Cloverleaf Interchange

This is another variation of the cloverleaf conguration. Partial clover leaf or parclo is a
modication that combines some elements of a diamond interchange with one or more loops of a
cloverleaf to eliminate only the more critical turning conicts. This is the most popular freeway
-to- arterial interchange. Parclo is usually employed when crossing roads on the secondary road
will not produce objectionable amounts of hazard and delay. It provides more acceleration and
deceleration space on the freeway.
33.6
January 31, 2014
Directional Interchange
A Directional interchange provides direct paths for left turns. These interchanges contain ramps
for one or more direct or semi direct left turning movements. Interchanges of two freeways or
interchanges with one or more very heavy turning movements usually warrant direct ramps,
which have higher speeds of operation and higher capacities, compared to loop ramps. Some
designers do not favor entrance of merging trac in the left lane, which is a characteristic of
most direct-connection bridges. The principal limitations of this type of interchange is higher
cost of construction and requirement relatively large amount of land when compared to the
diamond interchanges and in some cases than cloverleaf interchange. Various combinations of
directional, semi directional and loop ramps may be appropriate for certain conditions. They
are the basic patterns that use the least space, have the fewest or least complex structures,
minimize internal weaving and appropriate for the common terrain and trac conditions.
33.2.3
Design Components
Acceleration Lane
An acceleration lane is dened as extra pavement, of constant or variable width, placed parallel
or nearly so, to a merging maneuver area to encourage merging at low relative speed. The
major dierence in opinion concerning acceleration design stems from lack of information on
driver performance. Field observations have indicated that drivers desire to follow the direct
path even though extra width or tapered section is provided. The length of acceleration lanes
are determined by two factors: (1) Time required for drivers to accelerate to the speed of the
preferential ow from the speed of entry into the acceleration lane and (2) Maneuvering time
required as a supplement to the sight distance which is provided in advance of the acceleration lane. Taper distances are based upon a lateral transition time of about 1/3 sec/ft of
displacement.
33.7
January 31, 2014
PREFERENTIAL FLOW
TAPER
FULL WIDTH LANE
MINOR FLOW
ENTRANCE CURVE
L
END OF SPEED
RESTRICTING CURVE
FORM A DESIGN
PREFERENTIAL FLOW
MINOR FLOW
ENTRANCE CURVE
POINT WHERE MERGING

VEHICLES ENCROACHES
UPON THROUGH TRAFFIC LANE
L
BEGINNING OF TAPER,
END OF SPEED
RESTRICTING CURVE
INLET NOSE
FORM B DESIGN
Figure 33:1: Dierent forms of Acceleration lanes
ENTRANCE
ACCELERATION LANE
Wearing length
Shoulder
Convergence
450.00
300.00
157.11
Figure 33:2: details of length of acceleration lane

Deceleration Lanes
Deceleration lanes are dened as extra pavement of constant or variable width, placed parallel
or nearly so, to a diverging maneuver area to encourage diverging at low relative speed. The
lengths of deceleration lanes are based on the dierence in the speed of trac of the combined
ow (in advance of the collision area) and the speed at which drivers negotiate the critical
diverging channel curve, as well as the deceleration practices of drivers. These deceleration
lane lengths are based on the assumed performance of passenger vehicles only. Extra allowance
must be made for grades and for trucks with dierent deceleration characteristics. In the gure
33.8
January 31, 2014
below, Form A design is more economical when large speed dierentials are to be overcome.
Form B could be advantageous by contrasting pavement colors and Form C design is more
convenient for drivers when small speed dierentials are to be eliminated.
BEGINNING
OF TAPER
TAPER
FULL WIDTH LANE
FORM A
L = FULL WIDTH LANE
BEGINNING OF SPEED
RESTRICTING EXIT
CURVE
BEGINNING OF SPEED
RESTRICTING EXIT
CURVE
FORM B
BEGINNING
OF TAPER
BEGINNING OF SPEED
RESTRICTING EXIT
CURVE
SE
L
POINT WHERE VEHICLE IN DIVERGING
FLOW HAS "CLEARED" THE THROUGH
FORM C
TRAFFIC LANE
EXIT NO
Figure 33:3: Dierent forms of Deceleration lanes
weaving length
Shoulder
Shoulder
270
141.38
Figure 33:4: details of length of deceleration lane
33.3
Grade separated intersections
As we discussed earlier, grade-separated intersections are provided to separate the trac in

the vertical grade. But the trac need not be those pertaining to road only. When a railway
33.9
January 31, 2014
Figure 33:5: Trumpet interchange

line crosses a road, then also grade separators are used. Dierent types of grade-separators are
yovers and interchange. Flyovers itself are subdivided into overpass and underpass. When
two roads cross at a point, if the road having major trac is elevated to a higher grade for
further movement of trac, then such structures are called overpass. Otherwise, if the major
road is depressed to a lower level to cross another by means of an under bridge or tunnel, it is
called under-pass.
Interchange is a system where trac between two or more roadways ows at dierent levels
in the grade separated junctions. Common types of interchange include trumpet interchange,
diamond interchange , and cloverleaf interchange.
1. Trumpet interchange: Trumpet interchange is a popular form of three leg interchange.
If one of the legs of the interchange meets a highway at some angle but does not cross
it, then the interchange is called trumpet interchange. A typical layout of trumpet interchange is shown in gure 33:5.
2. Diamond interchange: Diamond interchange is a popular form of four-leg interchange
found in the urban locations where major and minor roads crosses. The important feature
of this interchange is that it can be designed even if the major road is relatively narrow.
A typical layout of diamond interchange is shown in gure 33:6.
3. Clover leaf interchange: It is also a four leg interchange and is used when two highways
of high volume and speed intersect each other with considerable turning movements. The
main advantage of cloverleaf intersection is that it provides complete separation of trac.
In addition, high speed at intersections can be achieved. However, the disadvantage is
33.10
January 31, 2014
Figure 33:6: Diamond interchange

that large area of land is required. Therefore, cloverleaf interchanges are provided mainly
in rural areas. A typical layout of this type of interchange is shown in gure 33:7.
33.4
Summary
Trac intersections are problem spots on any highway, which contribute to a large share of
accidents. For safe operation, these locations should be kept under some level of control depending upon the trac quantity and behavior. Based on this, intersections and interchanges
are constructed, the dierent types of which were discussed in the chapter.
33.5
References
1. A policy on geometric design of rural highways, 2019.

2. Everett C Carter and Wolfgang S Homburger. Introduction to Transportation Engineering. Reston Publishers, Virginia, 2019.
New Delhi, 1987.
33.11
January 31, 2014
1 11
0 00
1 11
0 00
11
00
11
00
1
0
1
0
1
0
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
1
0
1
10
00
1
01
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1 11
0 00
1 1
0 0
11
00
11
00
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
1
0
1
10
00
1
01
1
0
1
0
1
01
10
00
1
1
0
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11 1 1
00 0 0
1 1
0 0
Figure 33:7: Cloverleaf interchange

33.12
January 31, 2014
34. Design Priciples of Trac Signal
Chapter 34
Design Priciples of Trac Signal
34.1
Overview
Trac signals are one of the most eective and exible active control of trac and is widely
used in several cities world wide. The conicts arising from movements of trac in dierent
directions is addressed by time sharing principle. The advantages of trac signal includes an
orderly movement of trac, an increased capacity of the intersection and requires only simple
geometric design. However, the disadvantages of the signalized intersection are large stopped
delays, and complexity in the design and implementation. Although the overall delay may be
lesser than a rotary for a high volume, a user may experience relatively high stopped delay.
This chapter discuss various design principles of trac signal such as phase design, cycle length
design, and green splitting. The concept of saturation ow, capacity, and lost times are also
presented. First, some denitions and notations are given followed by various steps in design
starting from phase design.
34.2
Denitions and notations
A number of denitions and notations need to be understood in signal design. They are
discussed below:
Cycle: A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided.
Cycle length: Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete one
full cycle of indications. It indicates the time interval between the starting of of green for
one approach till the next time the green starts. It is denoted by C.
Interval: Thus it indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of
intervals - change interval and clearance interval. Change interval is also called the yellow
time indicates the interval between the green and red signal indications for an approach.
34.1
January 31, 2014
Clearance interval is also called all red and is provided after each yellow interval indicating
a period during which all signal faces show red and is used for clearing o the vehicles in
the intersection.
Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set of movements
and is denoted by Gi . This is the actual duration the green light of a trac signal is turned
on.
Red interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of movements and
is denoted by Ri . This is the actual duration the red light of a trac signal is turned on.
Phase: A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that follow
it. Thus, during green interval, non conicting movements are assigned into each phase.
It allows a set of movements to ow and safely halt the ow before the phase of another
set of movements start.
Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not eectively utilized
for any movement. For example, when the signal for an approach turns from red to
green, the driver of the vehicle which is in the front of the queue, will take some time
to perceive the signal (usually called as reaction time) and some time will be lost before
vehicle actually moves and gains speed.
34.3
Phase design
The signal design procedure involves six major steps. They include: (1) phase design, (2) determination of amber time and clearance time, (3) determination of cycle length, (4) apportioning
of green time, (5) pedestrian crossing requirements, and (6) performance evaluation of the design obtained in the previous steps. The objective of phase design is to separate the conicting
movements in an intersection into various phases, so that movements in a phase should have
no conicts. If all the movements are to be separated with no conicts, then a large number
of phases are required. In such a situation, the objective is to design phases with minimum
conicts or with less severe conicts.
There is no precise methodology for the design of phases. This is often guided by the
geometry of the intersection, the ow pattern especially the turning movements, and the relative
magnitudes of ow. Therefore, a trial and error procedure is often adopted. However, phase
design is very important because it aects the further design steps. Further, it is easier to
change the cycle time and green time when ow pattern changes, where as a drastic change in
34.2
January 31, 2014

1
5
8
7
6
Figure 34:1: Four legged intersection

8
2
6
3
4
Phase 1 ( P1)
Phase 1 ( P2)
Figure 34:2: Movements in two phase signal system

the ow pattern may cause considerable confusion to the drivers. To illustrate various phase
plan options, consider a four legged intersection with through trac and right turns. Left turn
is ignored. See Figure 34:1. The rst issue is to decide how many phases are required. It is
possible to have two, three, four or even more number of phases.
34.3.1
Two phase signals
Two phase system is usually adopted if through trac is signicant compared to the turning
movements. For example in Figure 34:2, non-conicting through trac 3 and 4 are grouped
in a single phase and non-conicting through trac 1 and 2 are grouped in the second phase.
However, in the rst phase ow 7 and 8 oer some conicts and are called permitted right turns.
Needless to say that such phasing is possible only if the turning movements are relatively low.
On the other hand, if the turning movements are signicant, then a four phase system is usually
34.3
January 31, 2014

8
P2
P1
7
5
P3
P4
1
Figure 34:3: Movements in four phase signal system: option 1

adopted.
34.3.2
Four phase signals
There are at least three possible phasing options. For example, gure 34:3 shows the most simple
and trivial phase plan. where, ow from each approach is put into a single phase avoiding all
conicts. This type of phase plan is ideally suited in urban areas where the turning movements
are comparable with through movements and when through trac and turning trac need
to share same lane. This phase plan could be very inecient when turning movements are
relatively low.
Figure 34:4 shows a second possible phase plan option where opposing through trac are
put into same phase. The non-conicting right turn ows 7 and 8 are grouped into a third
phase. Similarly ows 5 and 6 are grouped into fourth phase. This type of phasing is very
ecient when the intersection geometry permits to have at least one lane for each movement,
and the through trac volume is signicantly high. Figure 34:5 shows yet another phase plan.
However, this is rarely used in practice.
There are ve phase signals, six phase signals etc. They are normally provided if the
intersection control is adaptive, that is, the signal phases and timing adapt to the real time
trac conditions.
34.4
January 31, 2014
3
4
P2
P1
1
8
P4
P3
7
P1
P2
2 8
P4
P3
7 1
34.5
January 31, 2014
Headway
Figure 34:6: Group of vehicles at a signalized intersection waiting for green signal
e1
h1
e2
e3
h
Vehicles in queue
Figure 34:7: Headways departing signal
34.4
Cycle time
Cycle time is the time taken by a signal to complete one full cycle of iterations. i.e. one
complete rotation through all signal indications. It is denoted by C. The way in which the
vehicles depart from an intersection when the green signal is initiated will be discussed now.
Figure 34:6 illustrates a group of N vehicles at a signalized intersection, waiting for the green
signal. As the signal is initiated, the time interval between two vehicles, referred as headway,
crossing the curb line is noted. The rst headway is the time interval between the initiation of
the green signal and the instant vehicle crossing the curb line. The second headway is the time
interval between the rst and the second vehicle crossing the curb line. Successive headways
are then plotted as in gure 34:7. The rst headway will be relatively longer since it includes
the reaction time of the driver and the time necessary to accelerate. The second headway
will be comparatively lower because the second driver can overlap his/her reaction time with
that of the rst drivers. After few vehicles, the headway will become constant. This constant
headway which characterizes all headways beginning with the fourth or fth vehicle, is dened
34.6
January 31, 2014
as the saturation headway, and is denoted as h. This is the headway that can be achieved by a
stable moving platoon of vehicles passing through a green indication. If every vehicles require
h seconds of green time, and if the signal were always green, then s vehicles per hour would
pass the intersection. Therefore,
3600
s=
(34.1)
h
where s is the saturation ow rate in vehicles per hour of green time per lane, h is the saturation
headway in seconds. As noted earlier, the headway will be more than h particularly for the
rst few vehicles. The dierence between the actual headway and h for the ith vehicle and is
denoted as ei shown in gure 34:7. These dierences for the rst few vehicles can be added to
get start up lost time, l1 which is given by,
n
l1 =
ei
(34.2)
i=1
The green time required to clear N vehicles can be found out as,
T = l1 + h.N
(34.3)
where T is the time required to clear N vehicles through signal, l1 is the start-up lost time, and
h is the saturation headway in seconds.
34.4.1
Eective green time
Eective green time is the actual time available for the vehicles to cross the intersection. It is
the sum of actual green time (Gi ) plus the yellow minus the applicable lost times. This lost
time is the sum of start-up lost time (l1 ) and clearance lost time (l2 ) denoted as tL . Thus
eective green time can be written as,
gi = Gi + Yi tL
34.4.2
(34.4)
Lane capacity
The ratio of eective green time to the cycle length ( gi )is dened as green ratio. We know
C
that saturation ow rate is the number of vehicles that can be moved in one lane in one hour
assuming the signal to be green always. Then the capacity of a lane can be computed as,
ci = si
gi
C
(34.5)
where ci is the capacity of lane in vehicle per hour, si is the saturation ow rate in vehicle per
hour per lane, C is the cycle time in seconds.
34.7
January 31, 2014
Numerical example
Let the cycle time of an intersection is 60 seconds, the green time for a phase is 27 seconds,
and the corresponding yellow time is 4 seconds. If the saturation headway is 2.4 seconds per
vehicle, the start-up lost time is 2 seconds per phase, and the clearance lost time is 1 second
per phase, nd the capacity of the movement per lane?
Solution Total lost time, tL = 2+1 = 3 seconds. From equation 34.4 eective green time, gi
= 27+4-3 = 28 seconds. From equation 34.1 saturation ow rate, si = 3600 = 3600 = 1500 veh
h
2.4
per hr. Capacity of the given phase can be found out from equation 34.5 as Ci = 1500 28 =
60
700 veh per hr per lane.
34.4.3
Critical lane
During any green signal phase, several lanes on one or more approaches are permitted to move.
One of these will have the most intense trac. Thus it requires more time than any other lane
moving at the same time. If sucient time is allocated for this lane, then all other lanes will
also be well accommodated. There will be one and only one critical lane in each signal phase.
The volume of this critical lane is called critical lane volume.
34.5
Determination of cycle length
The cycle length or cycle time is the time taken for complete indication of signals in a cycle.
Fixing the cycle length is one of the crucial steps involved in signal design.
If tLi is the start-up lost time for a phase i, then the total start-up lost time per cycle,
L = N tLi , where N is the number of phases. If start-up lost time is same for all phases,
i=1
then the total start-up lost time is L = NtL . If C is the cycle length in seconds, then the
number of cycles per hour = 3600 . The total lost time per hour is the number of cycles per hour
C
times the lost time per cycle and is = 3600 L. Substituting as L = NtL , total lost time per hour
C
3600 N tl
can be written as =
. The total eective green time Tg available for the movement in
C
a hour will be one hour minus the total lost time in an hour. Therefore,
3600 N tL
C
N tL
= 3600 1
C
Tg = 3600
34.8
January 31, 2014
Let the total number of critical lane volume that can be accommodated per hour is given by Vc ,
then Vc = Tg . Substituting for Tg from equation 34.9 and si from equation 34.1 in the expression
h
for the the maximum sum of critical lane volumes that can be accommodated within the hour
and by rewriting, the expression for C can be obtained as follows:
Tg
,
h
3600
N tL
=
1
,
h
C
N tL
= si 1
,
C
N tL
.
C =
1 Vc
s
Vc =
The above equation is based on the assumption that there will be uniform ow of trac in an
hour. To account for the variation of volume in an hour, a factor called peak hour factor, (PHF)
which is the ratio of hourly volume to the maximum ow rate, is introduced. Another ratio
called v/c ratio indicating the quality of service is also included in the equation. Incorporating
these two factors in the equation for cycle length, the nal expression will be,
C=
N tL
1
(34.6)
Vc
si P HF v
c
Highway capacity manual (HCM) has given an equation for determining the cycle length which
is a slight modication of the above equation. Accordingly, cycle time C is given by,
C=
N L XC
XC
(34.7)
Vci
si
V
where N is the number of phases, L is the lost time per phase, scii is the ratio of critical
volume to saturation ow for phase i, XC is the quality factor called critical v ratio where v is
c
the volume and c is the capacity.
Numerical example
The trac ow in an intersection is shown in the gure 34:8. Given start-up lost time is 3
seconds, saturation head way is 2.3 seconds, compute the cycle length for that intersection.
Assume a two-phase signal.
34.9
January 31, 2014
1150
1300
1800
900
Figure 34:8: Trac ow in the intersection
900
1800
1300
1150
Figure 34:9: One way of providing phases
Solution
1. If we assign two phases as shown below gure 34:9, then the critical volume for the rst
phase which is the maximum of the ows in that phase = 1150 vph. Similarly critical
volume for the second phase = 1800 vph. Therefore, total critical volume for the two
signal phases = 1150+1800 = 2950 vph.
2. Saturation ow rate for the intersection can be found out from the equation as si = 3600
2.3
= 1565.2 vph. This means, that the intersection can handle only 1565.2 vph. However,
the critical volume is 2950 vph . Hence the critical lane volume should be reduced and
one simple option is to split the major trac into two lanes. So the resulting phase plan
is as shown in gure 34:10.
3. Here we are dividing the lanes in East-West direction into two, the critical volume in the
rst phase is 1150 vph and in the second phase it is 900 vph. The total critical volume
for the signal phases is 2050 vph which is again greater than the saturation ow rate and
hence we have to again reduce the critical lane volumes.
34.10
January 31, 2014
1300/2
1300/2
1800/2
1800/2
1150
Figure 34:10: second way of providing phases
1800/3
1800/3
1800/3
1150/2 1150/2
Figure 34:11: Third way of providing phases
4. Assigning three lanes in East-West direction, as shown in gure 34:11, the critical volume
in the rst phase is 575 vph and that of the second phase is 600 vph, so that the total
critical lane volume = 575+600 = 1175 vph which is lesser than 1565.2 vph.
5. Now the cycle time for the signal phases can be computed from equation 34.6 as:
C=
34.6
23
1175 = 24 seconds.
1 1565.2
Green splitting
Green splitting or apportioning of green time is the proportioning of eective green time in
each of the signal phase. The green splitting is given by,
gi =
Vc i
N
i=1
Vc i
tg
(34.8)
where Vci is the critical lane volume and tg is the total eective green time available in a cycle.
This will be cycle time minus the total lost time for all the phases. Therefore,
tg = C N tL
(34.9)
where C is the cycle time in seconds, n is the number of phases, and tL is the lost time per
phase. If lost time is dierent for dierent phases, then eective green time can be computed
34.11
January 31, 2014
500
1000
900
600
Figure 34:12: Phase diagram for an intersection
as follows:
tg = C
(34.10)
tLi
i=1
where tLi is the lost time for phase i, N is the number of phases and C is the cycle time in
seconds. Actual green time can be now found out as,
Gi = gi yi + tLi
(34.11)
where Gi is the actual green time, gi is the eective green time available, yi is the amber time,
and Li is the lost time for phase i.
Numerical example
The phase diagram with ow values of an intersection with two phases is shown in gure 34:12.
The lost time and yellow time for the rst phase is 2.5 and 3 seconds respectively. For the
second phase the lost time and yellow time are 3.5 and 4 seconds respectively. If the cycle time
is 120 seconds, nd the green time allocated for the two phases.
Solution
1. Critical lane volume for the rst phase, VC1 = 1000 vph.
2. Critical lane volume for the second phase, VC2 = 600 vph.
3. Total critical lane volumes, VC = VC1 + VC2 = 1000+600 = 1600 vph.
4. Eective green time can be found out from equation 34.9 as Tg =120-(2.5-3.5)= 114 seconds.
5. Green time for the rst phase, g1 can be found out from equation 34.8 as g1 =
= 71.25 seconds.
34.12
1000
1600
114
January 31, 2014
120
1111111111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111110000
0000000000000000001111
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
71
46
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
11111
00000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111
0000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
11111
00000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111
0000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
11111
00000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111
0000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
11111
00000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111
0000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
11111
00000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111
0000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
11111
00000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111
0000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
11111
00000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111
0000
42
74
Figure 34:13: Timing diagram

6. Green time for the second phase, g2 can be found out from equation 34.8 as g2 =
114= 42.75 seconds.
600
1600
7. Actual green time can be found out from equation 34.11. Thus actual green time for the
rst phase, G1 = 71.25-3+2.5 = 71 seconds (rounded).
8. Actual green time for the second phase, G2 = 42.75-4+3.5 = 42 seconds (rounded).
9. The phase diagram is as shown in gure 34:13.
34.7
Summary
Trac signal is an aid to control trac at intersections where other control measures fail. The
signals operate by providing right of way to a certain set of movements in a cyclic order. The
design procedure discussed in this chapter include phase design, interval design, determination
of cycle time, computation of saturation ow, and green splitting.
34.8
References
34.13
January 31, 2014
35. Signalized Intersection Delay Models
Chapter 35
Signalized Intersection Delay Models
35.1
Introduction
Signalized intersections are the important points or nodes within a system of highways and
streets. To describe some measure of eectiveness to evaluate a signalized intersection or to
describe the quality of operations is a dicult task. There are a number of measures that have
been used in capacity analysis and simulation, all of which quantify some aspect of experience of
a driver traversing a signalized intersection. The most common measures are average delay per
vehicle, average queue length, and number of stops. Delay is a measure that most directly relates
drivers experience and it is measure of excess time consumed in traversing the intersection.
Length of queue at any time is a useful measure, and is critical in determining when a given
intersection will begin to impede the discharge from an adjacent upstream intersection. Number
of stops made is an important input parameter, especially in air quality models. Among these
three, delay is the most frequently used measure of eectiveness for signalized intersections for
it is directly perceived by a driver. The estimation of delay is complex due to random arrival of
vehicles, lost time due to stopping of vehicles, over saturated ow conditions etc. This chapter
looks are some important models to estimate delays.
35.2
Types of delay
The most common measure of operational quality is delay, although queue length is often used
as a secondary measure. While it is possible to measure delay in the eld, it is a dicult
process, and dierent observers may make judgments that could yield dierent results. For
many purposes, it is, therefore, convenient to have a predictive model for the estimate of delay.
Delay, however, can be quantied in many dierent ways. The most frequently used forms of
delay are dened as follows:
Stopped time delay
35.1
January 31, 2014

D1 = Stopped time delay
D2 = Approach delay
D3 = Travel time delay
Desired path
Actual path
Distance
D3
D2
D1
Time
Figure 35:1: Illustration of delay measures

Approach delay
Travel time delay
Time-in-queue delay
Control delay
These delay measures can be quite dierent, depending on conditions at the signalized intersection. Fig 35:1 shows the dierences among stopped time, approach and travel time delay for
single vehicle traversing a signalized intersection. The desired path of the vehicle is shown, as
well as the actual progress of the vehicle, which includes a stop at a red signal. Note that the
desired path is the path when vehicles travel with their preferred speed and the actual path is
the path accounting for decreased speed, stops and acceleration and deceleration.
35.2.1
Stopped Time Delay
Stopped-time delay is dened as the time a vehicle is stopped in queue while waiting to pass
through the intersection. It begins when the vehicle is fully stopped and ends when the vehicle
begins to accelerate. Average stopped-time delay is the average for all vehicles during a specied
time period.
35.2.2
Approach Delay
Approach delay includes stopped-time delay but adds the time loss due to deceleration from
the approach speed to a stop and the time loss due to re-acceleration back to the desired speed.
35.2
January 31, 2014
It is found by extending the velocity slope of the approaching vehicle as if no signal existed.
Approach delay is the horizontal (time) dierence between the hypothetical extension of the
approaching velocity slope and the departure slope after full acceleration is achieved. Average
approach delay is the average for all vehicles during a specied time period.
35.2.3
Travel Time Delay
It is the dierence between the drivers expected travel time through the intersection (or any
roadway segment) and the actual time taken. To nd the desired travel time to traverse an
intersection is very dicult. So this delay concept is is rarely used except in some planning
studies.
35.2.4
Time-in-queue Delay
Time-in-queue delay is the total time from a vehicle joining an intersection queue to its discharge
across the STOP line on departure. Average time-in-queue delay is the average for all vehicles
during a specied time period. Time-in-queue delay cannot be eectively shown using one
vehicle, as it involves joining and departing a queue of several vehicles.
35.2.5
Control Delay
Control delay is the delay caused by a control device, either a trac signal or a STOP-sign. It is
approximately equal to time-in-queue delay plus the acceleration-deceleration delay component.
Delay measures can be stated for a single vehicle, as an average for all vehicles over a specied
time period, or as an aggregate total value for all vehicles over a specied time period. Aggregate
delay is measured in total vehicle-seconds, vehicle-minutes, or vehicle-hours for all vehicles in
the specied time interval. Average individual delay is generally stated in terms of seconds per
vehicle for a specied time interval.
35.3
Components of delay
In analytic models for predicting delay, there are three distinct components of delay, namely,
uniform delay, random delay, and overow delay. Before, explaining these, rst a delay representation diagram is useful for illustrating these components.
35.3
January 31, 2014
Cumulative Vehicles
Qt
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000 Slope =s
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
Slope =v
11111111
00000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111
00000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11
00
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111
00000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11
00
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111
00000000
1111111111111
0000000000000 Aggregate delay
11 111111
00 000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000 (vehsecs)
11
00
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111
00000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
Wi
Vi
t G
Time
Figure 35:2: Illustration of delay, waiting time, and queue length
35.3.1
Delay diagram
All analytic models of delay begin with a plot of cumulative vehicles arriving and departing
vs. time at a given signal location. Fig. 35:2 shows a plot of total vehicle vs time. Two
curves are shown: a plot of arriving vehicles and a plot of departing vehicles. The time axis
is divided into periods of eective green and eective red. Vehicles are assumed to arrive at
a uniform rate of ow (v vehicles per unit time). This is shown by the constant slope of the
arrival curve. Uniform arrivals assume that the inter-vehicle arrival time between vehicles is a
constant. Assuming no preexisting queue, arriving vehicles depart instantaneously when the
signal is green (ie., the departure curve is same as the arrival curve). When the red phase
begins, vehicles begin to queue, as none are being discharged. Thus, the departure curve is
parallel to the x-axis during the red interval. When the next eective green begins, vehicles
queued during the red interval depart from the intersection, at a rate called saturation ow rate
(s vehicle per unit time). For stable operations, depicted here, the departure curve catches up
with the arrival curve before the next red interval begins (i.e., there is no residual queue left at
the end of the eective green). In this simple model:
1. The total time that any vehicle (vi ) spends waiting in the queue (Wi ) is given by the
horizontal time-scale dierence between the time of arrival and the time of departure.
2. The total number of vehicles queued at any time (qt ) is the vertical vehicle-scale dierence
between the number of vehicles that have arrived and the number of vehicles that have
departed
3. The aggregate delay for all vehicles passing through the signal is the area between the
35.4
January 31, 2014
Cummulative vehicles
arrival function
departure function
Time
Figure 35:3: Illustration of uniform delay

arrival and departure curves (vehicles times the time duration)
35.3.2
Uniform Delay
Uniform delay is the delay based on an assumption of uniform arrivals and stable ow with
no individual cycle failures. Fig. 35:3, shows stable ow throughout the period depicted. No
signal cycle fails here, i.e., no vehicles are forced to wait for more than one green phase to
be discharged. During every green phase, the departure function catches up with the arrival
function. Total aggregate delay during this period is the total of all the triangular areas between
the arrival and departure curves. This type of delay is known as Uniform delay.
35.3.3
Random Delay
Random delay is the additional delay, above and beyond uniform delay, because ow is randomly
distributed rather than uniform at isolated intersections. In Fig 35:4some of the signal phases
fail. At the end of the second and third green intervals, some vehicles are not served (i.e., they
must wait for a second green interval to depart the intersection). By the time the entire period
ends, however, the departure function has caught up with the arrival function and there is no
residual queue left unserved. This case represents a situation in which the overall period of
analysis is stable (ie.,total demand does not exceed total capacity). Individual cycle failures
within the period, however, have occurred. For these periods, there is a second component of
delay in addition to uniform delay. It consists of the area between the arrival function and the
dashed line, which represents the capacity of the intersection to discharge vehicles, and has the
slope c. This type of delay is referred to as Random delay.
35.5
January 31, 2014
capacity function
arrival function
departure function
Time
Figure 35:4: Illustration of random delay
capacity function
slope = c
arrival function
slope = v
departure function
slope = s
Time
Figure 35:5: Illustration of overow delay
35.3.4
Overow Delay
Overow delay is the additional delay that occurs when the capacity of an individual phase
or series of phases is less than the demand or arrival ow rate. Fig. 35:5 shows the worst
possible case, every green interval fails for a signicant period of time, and the residual, or
unserved, queue of vehicles continues to grow throughout the analysis period. In this case, the
overow delay component grows over time, quickly dwarng the uniform delay component. The
latter case illustrates an important practical operational characteristic. When demand exceeds
capacity (v/c > 1.0), the delay depends upon the length of time that the condition exists. In
Figure 35:4, the condition exists for only two phases. Thus, the queue and the resulting overow
delay is limited. In Fig. 35:5, the condition exists for a long time, and the delay continues to
grow throughout the over-saturated period. This type of delay is referred to as Overow delay
35.6
January 31, 2014
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
1111111 111111
0000000 000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000 Slope =s
Slope =v
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000 Aggregate delay
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000(vehsecs)
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
R=C[1g/C]
11111111111111111111
00000000000000000000
11111111111
00000000000 tc
Cummulative Vehicles
Time t
Figure 35:6: Illustration of Websters uniform delay model
35.4
Websters Delay Models
35.4.1
Uniform Delay Model
Model is explained based on the assumptions of stable ow and a simple uniform arrival function. As explained in the above section, aggregate delay can be estimated as the area between
the arrival and departure curves. Thus, Websters model for uniform delay is the area of the
triangle formed by the arrival and departure functions. From Fig. 35:6 the area of the aggregate delay triangle is simply one-half the base times the height. Hence, the total uniform delay
(TUD) is given as:
RV
(35.1)
T UD =
2
where, R is the duration of red, V is the number of vehicles arriving during the time interval
R + tc . Length of red phase is given as the proportion of the cycle length which is not green,
or:
g
R=C 1
(35.2)
C
The height of the triangle is found by setting the number of vehicles arriving during the time
(R + tc ) equal to the number of vehicles departing in time tc , or:
V = v(R + tc ) = s tc
35.7
(35.3)
January 31, 2014
Substituting equation 35.2 for R in equation 35.3 and solving for tc and then for V gives,
v C 1
g
+ tc = s tc
C
g
tc (s v) = v C 1
C
V
g
(s v) = v C 1
s
C
g
vs
V = C 1
C
sv
(35.4)
Substituting equation 35.2 and equation 35.4 in equation 35.1 gives:

RV
2
1
g
=
C 1
2
C
T UD =
vs
sv
where TUD is the aggregate delay, in vehicle seconds. To obtain the average delay per vehicle,
the aggregate delay is divided by the number of vehicles processed during the cycle, which is
the arrival rate, v, times the full cycle length, C. Hence,
g
1
C 1
2
C
g 2
C (1 C )
=
2 (1 v )
s
UD =
vs
sv
1
vC
(35.5)
Another form of the equation uses the capacity, c, rather than the saturation ow rate, s. We
know,
c
s= g
(35.6)
C
So, the relation for uniform delay changes to,

g
C (1 C )2
gv
2 (1 Cc )
g
C (1 C )2
=
g
2 (1 C X)
UD =
(35.7)
where, UD is the uniform delay (sec/vehicle) C is the cycle length (sec), c is the capacity, v is
the vehicle arrival rate, s is the saturation ow rate or departing rate of vehicles, X is the v/c
ratio or degree of saturation (ratio of the demand ow rate to saturation ow rate), and g/C
is the eective green ratio for the approach.
35.8
January 31, 2014
Numerical Example
Consider the following situation: An intersection approach has an approach ow rate of 1,000 vph,
a saturation ow rate of 2,800 vph, a cycle length of 90 s, and eective green ratio of 0.44 for
the approach. What average delay per vehicle is expected under these conditions?
Solution: First, the capacity and v/c ratio for the intersection approach must be computed.
Given, s=2800 vphg and g/C=0.55. Hence,
c = s g/C
= 2800 0.55 = 1540 vph
v/c = 1000/1540 = 0.65
Since v/c 1.0 and is a relatively low value, the uniform delay equation 35.5 may be applied
directly. There is hardly any random delay at such a v/c ratio and overow delay need not be
considered.
g
C (1 C )2
UD =
2 (1 v )
s
90 (1 0.55)2
=
2 (1 1000 )
2800
= 14.2.
Therefore, average delay per vehicle is 14.2 sec/veh. Note that this solution assumes that
arrivals at the subject intersection approach are uniform. Random and platooning eects are
not taken into account.
35.4.2
Random Delay Model
The uniform delay model assumes that arrivals are uniform and that no signal phases fail (i.e.,
that arrival ow is less than capacity during every signal cycle of the analysis period). At
isolated intersections, vehicle arrivals are more likely to be random. A number of stochastic
models have been developed for this case, including those by Newell, Miller and Webster. These
models generally assume that arrivals are Poisson distributed, with an underlying average rate
of v vehicles per unit time. The models account for random arrivals and the fact that some
individual cycles within a demand period with v/c < 1.0 could fail due to this randomness.
This additional delay is often referred to as Random delay. The most frequently used model
for random delay is Websters formulation:
RD =
X2
2 v (1 X)
35.9
(35.8)
January 31, 2014
Overflow Delay
slope = v
slope = c
Uniform Delay
slope = s
Time
Figure 35:7: Illustration of overow delay model

where, RD is the average random delay per vehicle, s/veh, and X is the degree of saturation (v/c
ratio). Webster found that the above delay formula overestimate delay and hence he proposed
that total delay is the sum of uniform delay and random delay multiplied by a constant for
agreement with eld observed values. Accordingly, the total delay is given as:
D = 0.90 (UD + RD)
35.4.3
(35.9)
Overow delay model
Model is explained based on the assumption that arrival function is uniform. In this model
a new term called over saturation is used to describe the extended time periods during which
arrival vehicles exceeds the capacity of the intersection approach to the discharged vehicles.
In such cases queue grows and there will be overow delay in addition to the uniform delay.
Fig. 35:7 illustrates a time period for which v/c > 1.0. During the period of over-saturation
delay consists of both uniform delay (in the triangles between the capacity and departure curves)
and overow delay (in the triangle between arrival and capacity curves). As the maximum value
of X is 1.0 for uniform delay, it can be simplied as,
g
C (1 C )2
g
2 (1 C X)
g
C
1
=
2
C
UD =
(35.10)
From Fig. 35:8 total overow delay can be estimated as,

1
T2
T OD = T (vT cT ) =
(v c)
2
2
(35.11)
where, TOD is the total or aggregate overow delay (in veh-secs), and T is the analysis period
in seconds. Average delay is obtained by dividing the aggregate delay by the number of vehicles
35.10
January 31, 2014
Slope = v
vT
Slope = c
cT
Time
Figure 35:8: Derivation of the overow delay model

discharged with in the time T which is cT.
OD =
T
2
v
1
c
(35.12)
The delay includes only the delay accrued by vehicles through time T, and excludes additional
delay that vehicles still stuck in the queue will experience after time T. The above said delay
equation is time dependent i.e., the longer the period of over-saturation exists, the larger delay
becomes. A model for average overow delay during a time period T1 through T2 may be
developed, as illustrated in Fig. 35:9 Note that the delay area formed is a trapezoid, not a
triangle. The resulting model for average delay per vehicle during the time period T1 through
T2 is:
T1 + T2 v
1
(35.13)
OD =
2
c
Formulation predicts the average delay per vehicle that occurs during the specied interval,
T1 through T2 . Thus, delays to vehicles arriving before time T1 but discharging after T1 are
included only to the extent of their delay within the specied times, not any delay they may
have experienced in queue before T1 . Similarly, vehicles discharging after T2 are not included
in the formulation.
Numerical Example
Consider the following situation: An intersection approach has an approach ow rate of 1,900
vph, a saturation ow rate of 2,800 vphg, a cycle length of 90s, and eective green ratio for the
approach 0.55. What average delay per vehicle is expected under these conditions?
35.11
January 31, 2014
Slope = v
vT2
Slope = c
vT1
cT2
cT1
T1
T2
Time
Figure 35:9: Overow delay between time T1 & T2

Solution: To begin, the capacity and v/c ratio for the intersection approach must be computed. This will determine what model(s) are most appropriate for application in this case:
Given, s=2800 vphg, g/C=0.55, and v =1900 vph.
c = s g/C
= 2800 0.55 = 1540 vph
v/c = 1900/1540 = 1.23.
Since v/c is greater than 1.15 for which the overow delay model is good so it can be used to
nd the delay.
D = UD + OD
g
C
1
UD =
2
C
= 0.5 90[1 0.55]
= 20.3
T v
OD =
1
2 c
3600
(1.23 1)
=
2
= 414
D = 20.3 + 414
= 434.3 sec/veh
This is a very large value but represents an average over one full hour period.
35.12
January 31, 2014
Average
Overflow
Delay
Websters
random
delay model
Theoretical
overflow delay
model
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
Ratio
Figure 35:10: Comparison of overow & random delay model
35.4.4
Inconsistencies between Random and Overow delay
As explained earlier random and overow delay is given as, Random delay,
RD =
(X)2
2v(1 X)
(35.14)
Overow delay,
T
(X 1)
(35.15)
2
The inconsistency occurs when the X is in the vicinity of 1.0. When X < 1.0 random delay
model is used. As the Websters random delay contains 1-X term in the denominator, when
X approaches to 1.0 random delay increases asymptotically to innite value. When X > 1.0
overow delay model is used. Overow delay contains 1 X term in the numerator, when
X approaches to 1.0 overow becomes zero and increases uniformly with increasing value of
X. Both models are not accurate in the vicinity of X = 1.0. Delay does not become innite
at X = 1.0. There is no true overow at X = 1.0, although individual cycle failures due to
random arrivals do occur. Similarly, the overow model, with overow delay of zero seconds
per vehicle at X = 1.0 is also unrealistic. The additional delay of individual cycle failures due
to the randomness of arrivals is not reected in this model. Most studies show that uniform
delay model holds well in the range X 0.85. In this range true value of random delay is
minimum and there is no overow delay. Also overow delay model holds well when X 1.15.
The inconsistency occurs in the range 0.85 X 1.15; here both the models are not accurate.
Much of the more recent work in delay modeling involves attempts to bridge this gap, creating
a model that closely follows the uniform delay model at low X ratios, and approaches the
theoretical overow delay model at high X ratios, producing reasonable delay estimates in
between. Fig. 35:10 illustrates this as the dashed line.
OD =
35.13
January 31, 2014
35.5
Other delay models
The most commonly used model for intersection delay is to t models that works well under
all v/c ratios. Few of them will be discussed here.
35.5.1
Akcelik Delay Model
To address the above said problem Akcelik proposed a delay model and is used in the Australian
Road Research Boards signalized intersection. In his delay model, overow component is given
by,
OD =
cT
(X 1) +
4
(X 1)2 +
12(X X0 )
cT
where X X0 , and if X X0 then overow delay is zero, and

X0 = 0.67 +
sg
600
(35.16)
where, T is the analysis period, h, X is the v/c ratio, c is the capacity, veh/hour, s is the
saturation ow rate, veh/sg (vehicles per second of green) and g is the eective green time, sec
Numerical Example
vph, a saturation ow rate of 2,800 vphg, a cycle length of 90s, and a g/C ratio of 0.55. What
average delay per vehicle is expected under these conditions?
Solution: To begin, the capacity and v/c ratio for the intersection approach must be computed. This will determine what model(s) are most appropriate for application in this case:
Given, s =2800 vphg; g/C=0.55; v =1600 vph
c = s g/C
= 2800 0.55 = 1540 vph
v/c = 1600/1540 = 1.039
In this case, the v/c ratio now changes to 1600/1540 = 1.039. This is in the dicult range of
0.85-1.15 for which neither the simple random ow model nor the simple overow delay model
are accurate. The Akcelik model of Equation will be used. Total delay, however, includes both
35.14
January 31, 2014
uniform delay and overow delay. The uniform delay component when v/c > 1.0 is given by
equation 35.10
C
g
(1 )
2
C
= 0.5 90[1 0.55]
UD =
= 20.3 sec/veh
Use of Akceliks overow delay model requires that the analysis period be selected or arbitrarily
set. If a one-hour
OD =
cT
(X 1) +
4
(X 1)2 +
12(X X0 )
cT
g = 0.55 90 = 49.5 s
s = 2800/3600 = 0.778 v/sg
0.778 49.5
X0 = 0.67 +
= 0.734
600
1540
12(1.039 0.734)
OD =
(1.039 1) + (1.039 1)2 +
4
1540
= 39.1 s/veh
The total expected delay in this situation is the sum of the uniform and overow delay terms
and is computed as: d=20.3+39.1=59.4 s/veh. As v/c > 1.0 in the same problem, what will
happen if we use Websters overow delay model. Uniform delay will be the same, but we have
to nd the overow delay.
T v
( 1)
2 c
3600
(1.039 1)
=
2
= 70.2 sec/veh
OD =
As per Akcelik model, overow delay obtained is 39.1 sec/veh which is very much lesser compared to overow delay obtained by Websters overow delay model. This is because of the
inconsistency of overow delay model in the range 0.85-1.15.
35.5.2
HCM 2000 delay models
The delay model incorporated into the HCM 2000 includes the uniform delay model, a version
of Akceliks overow delay model, and a term covering delay from an existing or residual queue
35.15
January 31, 2014
at the beginning of the analysis period. The delay is given as,

d = d1 P F + d2 + d3
(1 g )2
c
c
d1 =
2 1 [min(1, X)( g )]
c
d2 = 900T [(X 1) +
(X 1)2 +
8klX
]
cT
(1P )
P F = ( (1(g/c) ) fp additional explanation for PF Where, d = control delay, s/veh, d1 =
uniform delay component, s/veh, PF = progression adjustment factor, d2 = overow delay
component, s/veh, d3 = delay due to pre-existing queue, s/veh, T = analysis period, h, X =
v/c ratio, C = cycle length, s, k = incremental delay factor for actuated controller settings;
0.50 for all pre-timed controllers, l = upstream ltering/metering adjustment factor; 1.0 for
all individual intersection analyses, c = capacity, veh/h, P = proportion of vehicles arriving
during the green interval and fp = supplemental adjustment factor for platoon arriving during
the green
Numerical problems
vph, a saturation ow rate of 2,650 vphg, a cycle length of 102 s, and eective green ratio for
the approach 0.55. Assume Progression Adjustment Factor 1.25 and delay due to pre-existing
queue, 12 sec/veh. What control delay sec per vehicle is expected under these conditions?
Solution: Saturation ow rate =2650 vphg , g/C=0.55, Approach ow rate v=1700 vph, Cycle length C=102 sec, delay due to pre-existing queue =12 sec/veh and Progression Adjustment
Factor PF=1.25. The capacity is given as:
g
C
= 2650 0.55
c = s
= 1458 vphv/c
Degree of saturation X= v/c= 1700/1458 =1.16. So the uniform delay is given as:
g
(1 C )2
C
2 [1 min(X, 1)( g )]
c
(1 1.16)2
102
= 22.95
=
2 [1 min(1.16, 1)(.55)]
d1 =
35.16
January 31, 2014
Uniform delay =22.95 and the over ow delay is given as:

C
8klX
(X 1) + (X 1)2 +
2
cT
(8 5 1 1.16)
102
(1.16 1) + (1.16 1)2 +
= 16.81
=
2
1458
d2 =
Overow delay, d2=16.81. Hence, the total dealy is

d = d1 P F + d2 + d3
= 22.95 1.25 + 16.81 + 8 = 53.5 sec/veh.
Therefore, control delay per vehicle is 53.5 sec.
35.6
Conclusion
In this chapter measure of eectiveness at signalized intersection are explained in terms of

delay. Dierent forms of delay like stopped time delay, approach delay, travel delay, timein-queue delay and control delay are explained. Types of delay like uniform delay, random
delay and overow delay are explained and corresponding delay models are also explained
above. Inconsistency between delay models at v/c=1.0 is explained in the above section and
the solution to the inconsistency, delay model proposed by Akcelik is explained. At last HCM
2000 delay model is also explained in this section. From the study, various form of delay
occurring at the intersection is explained through dierent models, but the delay calculated
using such models may not be accurate as the models are explained on the theoretical basis
only.
35.7
References
1. R Akcelik. The hcm delay formulas for signalized intersection-ite journal, 1991.
3. R W McShane and R P Roess. Highway Engineering. McGraw Hill Company, 1984.
35.17
January 31, 2014
36. Special Requirement in Trac Signal
Chapter 36
Special Requirement in Trac Signal
36.1
Overview
Trac signals are designed to ensure safe and orderly ow of trac, Protect pedestrians and
vehicles at busy intersections and reduce the severity and frequency of accidents between vehicles entering intersections. Previous chapters discussed some imporant design priciples such as:
(i) Phase Design (ii) Cycle Time Determination (iii) Green Splitting (iv) Performance Evaluation This chapter we will discuss some special requirements in the signa design such as: (i)
Pedestrian crossing requirement (ii) Interval design, (iii) Eect of tuning vehicles, and (iv) Lane
utilization.
36.2
Pedestrian crossing
Pedestrian crossing requirements can be taken care by two ways; by suitable phase design
or by providing an exclusive pedestrian phase. It is possible in some cases to allocate time
for the pedestrians without providing an exclusive phase for them. For example, consider an
intersection in which the trac moves from north to south and also from east to west. If we
are providing a phase which allows the trac to ow only in north-south direction, then the
pedestrians can cross in east-west direction and vice-versa. However in some cases, it may
be necessary to provide an exclusive pedestrian phase. In such cases, the procedure involves
computation of time duration of allocation of pedestrian phase. Green time for pedestrian
crossing Gp can be found out by,
dx
Gp = ts +
uP
where Gp is the minimum safe time required for the pedestrians to cross, often referred to as
the pedestrian green time, ts is the start-up lost time, dx is the crossing distance in metres, and
up is the walking speed of pedestrians which is about 15th percentile speed. The start-up lost
time ts can be assumed as 4.7 seconds and the walking speed can be assumed to be 1.2 m/s.
36.1
January 31, 2014

2
3
4
P2
P1
Pedestrian crossing
36.3
Interval design
There are two intervals, namely the change interval and clearance interval, normally provided
in a trac signal.
36.3.1
Change interval
The change interval or yellow time is provided after green time for movement. The purpose is
to warn a driver approaching the intersection during the end of a green time about the coming
of a red signal. They normally have a value of 3 to 6 seconds. The design consideration is that
a driver approaching the intersection with design speed should be able to stop at the stop line
of the intersection before the start of red time. Institute of transportation engineers (ITE) has
recommended a methodology for computing the appropriate length of change interval which is
as follows:
v
(36.1)
Y =t+
2(gn + a))
where t is the reaction time (about 1.0 sec), v is the velocity of the approaching vehicles, g is
the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/sec2), n is the grade of the approach in decimels and a is
the deceleration of Change interval can also be approximately computed as y = SSD/v, where
SSD is the stopping sight distance and v is the speed of the vehicle. The clearance interval is
provided after yellow interval and as mentioned earlier, it is used to clear o the vehicles in the
intersection. Clearance interval is optional in a signal design. It depends on the geometry of
the intersection. If the intersection is small, then there is no need of clearance interval whereas
for very large intersections, it may be provided.
36.2
January 31, 2014
36.3.2
Clearence interval
The clearence interval or all-red will facilitate a vehicle just crossed the stop line at the turn
of red to clear the intersection without being collided by a vehicle from the next phase. ITE
recommends the following policy for the design of all read time, given as
w+L
if no pedestrians
v
w+L P
(36.2)
RAR ==
,v
if pedestrain corossing
max
v
P +L
if protected
v
where w is the width of the intersection from stop line to the farthest conicting trac, L is
the length of the vehicle (about 6 m), v is the speed of the vehicle, and P is the width of the
intersection from STOP line to the farthest coniting pedestrain cross-walk.
36.4
Eect of turning vehicles
36.4.1
Right turning vehicles
Right-turn signal phases facilitate right-turning trac and may improve the safety of the intersection for right-turning vehicles. However, this is done at the expense of the amount of
green time available for through trac and will usually reduce the capacity of the intersection.
Right-turn arrows also result in longer cycle lengths, which in turn have a detrimental eect by
increasing stops and delays. While phases for protected right-turning vehicles are popular and
commonly requested, other methods of handling right-turn conicts also need to be considered.
Potential solutions may include prohibiting right-turns and geometric improvements. The three
criteria for right -turn phase is presented below:
1. Trac Volumes
2. Delay: Separate right -turn phasing may be considered if the average delay for all rightturning vehicles on the approach is at least 35 seconds during that same peak hour.
3. Collision Experience: Separate right -turn phasing may be considered if the critical number of reportable right -turn collisions has occurred. These are: (i) For one approach to
the intersection, the critical number is ve l right -turn collisions in one year, or seven in
two years. (ii) For both approaches to an intersection, the critical number is seven right
-turn collisions in one year, or eleven in two years.
So the right turning vehicles aected saturation ow based on adjusted saturation headway.
Finally actual values of right turning are calculated from right turn adjustment factor. The
36.3
January 31, 2014
adjustments factor is calculated by following equations. Adjusted saturation headway,

hadj = hideal (PRT eRT + (1 PRT ) 1)
Adjusted saturation ow,
Sadj =
3600
hadj
Multiplicative right turn adjustment factor,

fRT =
1
1 + PRT (eRT 1)
Sadj = Sideal fRT

Numerical example
If there is 15 percent right turning movement, eRT (through-car equivalent for permitted left
turns) is 3, saturation headway is 2 sec; Find the value of Adjusted Saturation ow.
Solution: Given hideal = 2 sec, PRT = 15%(0.15), Sideal = 1800, eRT = 3
Case 1: Find adjusted saturation headway as:
hadj = hideal (PRT eRT + (1 PRT ) 1)
= 2 (0.15 3 + (1 0.15) 1)
= 2.6sec/veh
Now, nd adjusted saturation ow as: Sadj = 3600 = 3600 = 1385. The adjusted saturation ow
hadj
2.6
is 1385 vph.
Case 2 Find the adjustment factor to calculate adjusted saturation ow based on ideal
saturation ow (1800)
1
1 + PRT (eRT 1)
1
= 0.77
=
1 + 0.15(3 1)
= Sideal fRT = 1800 0.77 = 1386
fRT =
sadj
The adjusted saturation ow is 1386 vph. The result is same from both cases.
36.4
January 31, 2014
36.4.2
Left turning vehicles
Lft turn adjustment factor for saturation ow rate is as follows: For exclusive lane fLT is 0.85
and for shared lane fLT = 1.0 0.15 PLT , where pLT is the proportions of left turns in lane
group. Normally in left turn, separate signal phase are not provided at intersection as per
Indian standard.
36.4.3
Eect of Lane Distribution
Congestion and Delay at intersection particularly formed by to too many vehicles are moving
same lane. So reduce that problem, we need to provide lane distribution. The lane distribution
at intersection normally followed two categories.
First one is the total volume of given approach are distributed by providing separate lane
for left, right and through movement. For that individual movement, we need to x some
percentage of total ow at that particular approach. This type clearly dened in Figure 5 and
following example.
In second type, the given approach total volumes are separated by individual lane for left,
right and straight. And straight moving vehicles also distributed into left and right turn lanes
for unavoidable condition. If through movement vehicles are high, we need to follow second
type distribution. Second type is explained in Figure 6 and example. Normally high straight
cases we followed second method. In that second type divided into two distribution methods.
First one is, through movement distributed into left, right and straight lanes. Second is, extra
separate lane provide for through movement. So each cases some lane distribution factors are
followed. That importance points are shown in following examples.
Numerical example
Find Critical Volume (Vi) for a Given 4 arm Intersection. Trac ow Proportion of Left
and Right turn are 10% and 20% respectively (For all approach). Left and Right turn Lane
utilization factors are 0.2 and 0.3 respectively. Use following Phase Plan:
Solution: From West to East,
Left turn Trac movement from total directional movement = 10%
Right turn Trac from total directional movement = 20%
Through Trac from total directional movement = 70%
36.5
January 31, 2014

1453
2300
1985
1245
P1
P3
P2
P4
Left turning Vehicles = 2300 0.1 = 230 veh/hr

Right turning Vehicles = 2300 0.2 = 460 veh/hr
Through Movement Vehicles = 2300 0.7 = 1610 veh/hr
Lane Distribution
Left turn utilisation factor = 0.2
Right turn utilisation factor = 0.3
Through trac in Left turn Lane = (2300 0.7) 0.2 = 322 veh/hr
Through trac in Right turn Lane = (2300 0.7) 0.3 = 483 veh/hr
Through trac in Median Lane = (2300 0.7) 0.5 = 805 veh/hr
From East to west,
36.6
January 31, 2014

Through Movement Vehicles = 1985 0.7 = 1390 veh/hr
Lane Distribution
Left turn utilisation factor = 0.2
Right turn utilisation factor = 0.3
Through trac in Left turn Lane = (1985 0.7) 0.2 = 278 veh/hr
Through trac in Right turn Lane = (1985 0.7) 0.3 = 417 veh/hr
Through trac in Median Lane = (1985 0.7) 0.5 = 695 veh/hr
From North to south,
Through Movement Vehicles =1453 0.7 = 1017 veh/hr
From south to North,
Left turning Vehicles =1245 0.1 = 124 veh/hr
Right turning Vehicles =1245 0.2 = 250 veh/hr
Through Movement Vehicles =1245 0.7 = 871 veh/hr
Vi = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 804 + 695 + 871 + 1071 = 3442 veh/hr
36.7
January 31, 2014
196
140
1111
0000
400
215
367
170
187
433
1111
0000
220
120 417 233
Figure 36:1: Trac ow for a typical four-legged intersection

P2
417
P1
P4
P3
187
400
233
433
196
367
215
Figure 36:2: Phase plan

Numerical example
The trac ow for a four-legged intersection is as shown in gure 36:1. Given that the lost
time per phase is 2.4 seconds, saturation headway is 2.2 seconds, amber time is 3 seconds per
phase, nd the cycle length, green time and performance measure(delay per cycle). Assume
critical v/c ratio as 0.9.
Solution
1. The phase plan is as shown in gure 36:2. Sum of critical lane volumes is the sum of
maximum lane volumes in each phase, VCi = 433+417+233+215 = 1298 vph.
2. Saturation ow rate, Si from equation= 3600 = 1637 vph.
2.2
0.793.
Vc
Si
433
1637
417
233
+ 1637 + 1637 + 1298 =
1637
3. Cycle length can be found out from the equation C= 42.40.9 = 80.68 seconds 80
1298
0.9 1637
seconds.
36.8
January 31, 2014

Phase 1
23
78.5
Phase 2
26
23
52.5
Phase 3
52
13
36.5
Phase 4
68
12 3
21.5
Pedestrian phase
83
17.5
104.5
Figure 36:3: Timing diagram

4. The eective green time can be found out as Gi = VCi (C L) = 80-(42.4)= 70.4
VC
seconds, where L is the lost time for that phase = 4 2.4.
483
5. Green splitting for the phase 1 can be found out ?? as g1 = 70.4 [ 1298 ] = 22.88 seconds.
417
6. Similarly green splitting for the phase 2,g2 = 70.4 [ 1298 ] = 22.02 seconds.
233
215
9. The actual green time for phase 1 from equationG1 = 22.88-3+2.4 23 seconds.
10. Similarly actual green time for phase 2, G2 = 22.02-3+2.4 23 seconds.
13. Pedestrian time can be found out from as Gp = 4 + 63.5 = 21.5 seconds. The phase
1.2
diagram is shown in gure 36:3. The actual cycle time will be the sum of actual green
time plus amber time plus actual red time for any phase. Therefore, for phase 1, actual
cycle time = 23+3+78.5 = 104.5 seconds.
14. Delay at the intersection in the east-west direction can be found out from equationas
dEW =
104.5
[1
2
232.4+3 ]2
104.5
= 42.57sec/cycle.
433
1 1637
36.9
January 31, 2014
15. Delay at the intersection in the west-east direction can be found out from equation,as
dW E =
232.4+3 ]2
104.5
= 41.44sec/cycle.
400
1 1637
104.5
[1
2
(36.3)
16. Delay at the intersection in the north-south direction can be found out from equation,
dN S =
232.4+3 ]2
104.5
= 40.36sec/cycle.
367
1 1637
104.5
[1
2
(36.4)
17. Delay at the intersection in the south-north direction can be found out from equation,
dSN =
104.5
[1
2
232.4+3 ]2
104.5
= 42.018sec/cycle.
417
1 1637
(36.5)
18. Delay at the intersection in the south-east direction can be found out from equation,
dSE =
132.4+3 ]2
104.5
= 46.096sec/cycle.
233
1 1637
104.5
[1
2
(36.6)
19. Delay at the intersection in the north-west direction can be found out from equation,
dN W =
132.4+3 ]2
104.5
= 44.912sec/cycle.
196
1 1637
104.5
[1
2
(36.7)
20. Delay at the intersection in the west-south direction can be found out from equation,
dW S =
104.5
[1
2
122.4+3 ]2
104.5
= 46.52sec/cycle.
215
1 1637
(36.8)
21. Delay at the intersection in the east-north direction can be found out from equation,
dEN =
36.5
104.5
[1
2
122.4+3 ]2
104.5
= 45.62sec/cycle.
187
1 1637
(36.9)
Summary
Green splitting is done by proportioning the green time among various phases according to the
critical volume of the phase. Pedestrian phases are provided by considering the walking speed
and start-up lost time. Like other facilities, signals are also assessed for performance, delay
being th e important parameter used.
36.10
January 31, 2014
36.6
References

New Delhi, 1987.
36.11
January 31, 2014
37. Capacity and LOS Analysis of a Signalized I/S
Chapter 37
Capacity and LOS Analysis of a
Signalized I/S
37.1
Overview
The Highway Capacity Manual denes the capacity as the maximum howdy rate at which
persons or vehicle can be reasonably expected to traverse a point or a uniform segment of
a lane or roadway during a given time period, under prevailing roadway, trac and control
conditions. Level-of-Service is introduced by HCM to denote the level of quality one can derive
from a local under dierent operation characteristics and trac volume.
37.2
Methodology
37.2.1
Scope
This chapter contains a methodology for analyzing the capacity and level of service (LOS) of
signalized intersections. The analysis must consider a wide variety of prevailing conditions,
including the amount and distribution of trac movements, trac composition, geometric
characteristics, and details of intersection signalization. The methodology focuses on the determination of LOS for known or projected conditions. The capacity analysis methodology for
signalized intersections is based on known or projected signalization plans.
37.2.2
Limitation
The methodology does not take into account the potential impact of downstream congestion
on intersection operation. Nor does the methodology detect and adjust for the impacts of
turn-pocket overows on through trac and intersection operation.
37.1
January 31, 2014
37.2.3
Objective
This method uses wide range of operational conguration along with various phase plans, lane
utilization, and left-turn treatment alternatives.
Geometric condition
Trac condition
Signalization condition
The primary output of the method is level of service (LOS). This methodology covers a wide
range of operational congurations, including combinations of phase plans, lane utilization, and
left-turn treatment alternatives. The below gure shows the signalized intersection methodology.
Input parameters
Geometric
Traffic
Signal
Saturation flow rate

Basic equation
Adjustment factor
Lane grouping and demand Flow rate

Lane grouping
PHF
RTOR
Capacity and v/c

Capacity
v/c
Performance measures
Delay
Progression adjustment
LOS
back of queue
Figure 37:1: signalized intersection methodology
37.3
Input parameters
To conduct operational analysis oor signalized intersection, no. of input parameters are required. The data needed are detailed and varied and fall into three main categories: geometric,
trac, and signalization.
37.3.1
Geometric condition
Intersection geometry is generally presented in diagrammatic form and must include all of the
relevant information, including approach grades, the number and width of lanes, and parking
conditions.
37.2
January 31, 2014
Table 37:1: Input data needs for each analysis of lane group
Condition Parameter
Geometric Area type
Number of lanes, N
Average lane width, W (m)
Grade, G (%)
Existence of exclusive LT or RT lanes
Length of storage bay, LT or RT lane, L s (m)
Parking
Trac
Demand volume by movement, V (veh/h)
Base saturation ow rate, s o (pc/h/ln)
Peak-hour factor, PHF
Percent heavy vehicles, HV (%)
Approach pedestrian ow rate, vped (p/h)
Local buses stopping at intersection, NB (buses/h)
Parking activity, Nm (maneuvers/h)
Arrival type, AT
Proportion of vehicles arriving on green, P
Approach speed, S A (km/h)
Control
Cycle length, C (s)
Green time, G (s)
Yellow-plus-all-red change-and-clearance interval
(intergreen), Y (s)
Actuated or pretimed operation
Pedestrian push-button
Minimum pedestrian green, Gp (s)
Phase plan
Analysis period, T (h)
37.3
January 31, 2014

AT
1
2
3
4
5
6
37.3.2
Description
Dense platoon- 80% arrived at start of red
Moderately dense- 40-80% arrived during red
Less than 40% (highly dispersed platoon)
Moderately dense, 40-80% arrived iduring green
Dense to moderately dense- 80% arrive at start of green
Very dense platoons progressing over a no. of closed space I/S
Trac condition
Trac volumes (for oversaturated conditions, demand must be used) for the intersection must
be specied for each movement on each approach. In situations where the v/c is greater than
about 0.9, control delay is signicantly aected by the length of the analysis period.
If v/c exceeds 1.0 during the analysis period, the length of the analysis period should be
extended to cover the period of oversaturation in the same fashion, as long as the average
ow during that period is relatively constant.
An important trac characteristic that must be quantied to complete an operational
analysis of a signalized intersection is the quality of the progression. The parameter that
describes this characteristic is the arrival type, AT, for each lane group. The arrival type
should be determined as accurately as possible because it will have a signicant impact
on delay estimates and LOS determination. It can be computed as
Rp = P/(gi /C)
(37.1)
where, Rp = platoon ratio, P = proportion of all vehicles in movement arriving during

green phase, C = cycle length (s) and gi = eective green time for movement or lane
group (s).
37.3.3
Signalization condition :
Complete information regarding signalization is needed to perform an analysis. This information includes a phase diagram illustrating the phase plan, cycle length, green times, and
change-and-clearance intervals. If pedestrian timing requirements exist, the minimum green
time for the phase is indicated and provided for in the signal timing. The minimum green time
37.4
January 31, 2014
for a phase is estimated as,

GP = 3.2 + L/Sp + 0.81(Nped/WE ) f or WE > 3.0m
(37.2)
GP = 3.2 + L/Sp + 0.27Nped f or WE 3.0m
(37.3)
where, Gp = minimum green time (s), L = crosswalk length (m), Sp = average speed of
pedestrians (m/s), WE = eective crosswalk width (m), 3.2 = pedestrian start-up time (s), and
Nped = number of pedestrians crossing during an interval (p).
37.4
Determining ow rate
The methodology for signalized intersections is disaggregate; that is, it is designed to consider
individual intersection approaches and individual lane groups within approaches. Segmenting
the intersection into lane groups is a relatively simple process that considers both the geometry
of the intersection and the distribution of trac movements. Demand volumes are best provided
as average ow rates (in vehicles per hour) for the analysis period. However, demand volumes
may also be stated for more than one analysis period, such as an hourly volume. In such cases,
peaking factors must be provided that convert these to demand ow rates for each particular
analysis period. In that case,
VP = V /P HF
(37.4)
37.5
Determining saturation ow rate
A saturation ow rate for each lane group is computed according to above equation. The
saturation ow rate is the ow in vehicles per hour that can be accommodated by the lane
group assuming that the green phase were displayed 100 percent of the time (i.e., g/C = 1.0).
S = SO Nfw fHV fg fp fbb fa fLU fLT fRT fLpb fRpb
(37.5)
where, S = saturation ow rate for subject lane group, expressed as a total for all lanes in lane
group (veh/h); SO = base saturation ow rate per lane (pc/h/ln); N = number of lanes in lane
group; fw = adjustment factor for lane width; fHV = adjustment factor for heavy vehicles in
trac stream; fg = adjustment factor for approach grade; fp = adjustment factor for existence
of a parking lane and parking activity adjacent to lane group; fbb = adjustment factor for
blocking eect of local buses that stop within intersection area; fa = adjustment factor for area
type; fLU = adjustment factor for lane utilization; fLT = adjustment factor for left turns in lane
group; fRT = adjustment factor for right turns in lane group; fLpb = pedestrian adjustment
37.5
January 31, 2014
factor for left-turn movements; and fRpb = pedestrian-bicycle adjustment factor for right-turn
movements.
37.5.1
Base saturation ow rate :
For the analysis of saturation ow rate, a xed volume is taken as a base called base saturation
ow rate, usually 1,900 passenger cars per hour per lane (pc/h/ln). This value is adjusted for
a variety of conditions. The adjustment factors are given below.
37.5.2
Adjustment for lane width:
The lane width adjustment factor fw accounts for the negative impact of narrow lanes on
saturation ow rate and allows for an increased ow rate on wide lanes. The lane width factor
can be calculated for lane width greater than 4.8m. The use of two narrow lanes will always
result in higher saturation capacity than one single wide lane.
fw = 1 + (w 3.6)/9
(37.6)
where, w = width of lane
37.5.3
Adjustment for Heavy Vehicles and Grade :
passenger cars are aected by approach grades, as are heavy vehicles. The heavy-vehicle factor
accounts for the additional space occupied by these vehicles and for the dierence in operating
capabilities of heavy vehicles compared with passenger cars. The passenger-car equivalent (ET)
used for each heavy vehicle is 2.0 passenger-car units and is reected in the formula. The grade
factor accounts for the eect of grades on the operation of all vehicles.
fHV
= 100/[100 + %HV (ET 1)]
fg = 1 %G/200
(37.7)
(37.8)
where, % HV = % heavy vehicles for lane group volume, ET = 2.0, % G = % grade on a lane
group approach
37.5.4
Adjustment for Parking
Parking maneuver assumed to block trac for 18 s. Use practical limit of 180 maneuvers/h.
The parking adjustment factor, fp , accounts for the frictional eect of a parking lane on ow
in an adjacent lane group as well as for the occasional blocking of an adjacent lane by vehicles
37.6
January 31, 2014
moving into and out of parking spaces. Each maneuver (either in or out) is assumed to block
trac in the lane next to the parking maneuver for an average of 18 s.
fP = [N 0.1 (18Nm /3600)]/N
(37.9)
where, Nm = number of parking maneuvers/h, N = no. of lanes
37.5.5
Adjustment for Bus Blockage
The bus blockage adjustment factor, fbb , accounts for the impacts of local transit buses that
stop to discharge or pick up passengers at a near-side or far-side bus stop within 75 m of the
stop line (u/s or d/s). If more than 250 buses per hour exist, a practical limit of 250 should be
used. The adjustment factor can be written as,
fbb = [N (14.4NB /3600)]/N
(37.10)
where, NB = no. of buses stopping per hour
37.5.6
Adjustment for Area Type
The area type adjustment factor, fa, accounts for the relative ineciency of intersections in
business districts in comparison with those in other locations. Application of this adjustment
factor is typically appropriate in areas that exhibit central business district (CBD) characteristics. It can be represented as, fa = 0.9 in CBD (central business district) and = 1.0 in all
others
37.5.7
Adjustment for Lane Utilization
The lane utilization adjustment factor, fLU, accounts for the unequal distribution of trac
among the lanes in a lane group with more than one lane. The factor provides an adjustment
to the base saturation ow rate. The adjustment factor is based on the ow in the lane with
the highest volume and is calculated by Equation 10.
fLU = Vg /(Vg1 N)
(37.11)
where, Vg = unadjusted demand ow rate for lane group (veh/ h), Vg1 = unadjusted demand
ow rate on single lane with highest volume in the lane group and N = no. of lanes in the
group.
37.7
January 31, 2014
37.6
Determining capacity and v/c ratio:
Capacity at signalized intersections is based on the concept of saturation ow and dened

saturation ow rate. The ow ratio for a given lane group is dened as the ratio of the actual
or projected demand ow rate for the lane group (vi ) and the saturation ow rate(si ). The
ow ratio is given the symbol (v/s)i for lane group i. Capacity at signalized I/S is based on the
saturation ow and saturation ow rate.
Ci = si (gi/c)
(37.12)
where ci = capacity of lane group i (veh/h), si = saturation ow rate for lane group i (veh/h)
and gi/C = eective green ratio for lane group i.
37.6.1
v/c ratio:
The ratio of ow rate to capacity (v/c), often called the volume to capacity ratio, is given the
symbol X in intersection analysis
vi
vi c
v
(37.13)
Xi = ( ) i =
gi =
c
si ( C )
si g i
where, Xi = (v/c)i = ratio for lane group i, vi = actual or projected demand ow rate for lane
group i (veh/h), si = saturation ow rate for lane group i (veh/h), gi = eective green time for
lane group i (s) and C = cycle length (s)
37.6.2
Critical lane group:
Another concept used for analyzing signalized intersections is the critical v/c ratio, Xc . This
is the v/c ratio for the intersection as a whole, considering only the lane groups that have
the highest ow ratio (v/s) for a given signal phase. For example, with a two-phase signal,
opposing lane groups move during the same green time. Generally, one of these two lane
groups will require more green time than the other (i.e., it will have a higher ow ratio). This
would be the critical lane group for that signal phase. The critical v/c ratio for the intersection
is determined by using Equation,
Xc =
C
v
(
)
S C L
(37.14)
where, Xc = critical v/c ratio for intersection; The above eqn. is useful in evaluating the overall
i/s w.r.t the geometrics and toal cycle length. A critical v/c ratio less than 1.0, however, does
indicate that all movements in the intersection can be accommodated within the dened cycle
length.
37.8
January 31, 2014
Table 37:2: Relation between arrival type (AT) and platoon ratio
AT Ration Default Rp Progression quality
1
0.50
0.333
very poor
2 0.50-0.85
0.667
Unfavourable
3 0.85-1.15
1.000
Random arrivals
4 1.15-1.50
1.333
Favourable
5 1.50-2.00
1.667
Highly favourable
6
2.00
2.000
Exceptional
37.7
Determining delay
The values derived from the delay calculations represent the average control delay experienced
by all vehicles that arrive in the analysis period, including delays incurred beyond the analysis
period when the lane group is oversaturated. The average control delay per vehicle for a given
lane group is given by Equation,
d = d1 (P F ) + d2 + d3
where, d = control delay per vehicle (s/veh); d1 = uniform control delay assuming uniform
arrivals (s/veh); PF = uniform delay progression adjustment factor, d2 = incremental delay to
account for eect of random arrivals and d3 = initial queue delay, which accounts for delay to
all vehicles in analysis period
37.7.1
Progression adjustment factor
Good signal progression will result in a high proportion of vehicles arriving on the uniform
delay Green and vice-versa. Progression primarily aects uniform delay, and for this reason,
the adjustment is applied only to d1. The value of PF may be determined using Equation,
PF =
(1 P )fP A
g
1 (C )
(37.15)
where, PF = progression adjustment factor, P = proportion of vehicles arriving on green, g/C =

proportion of green time available, fP A = supplemental adjustment factor for platoon arriving
during green. The approximate ranges of RP are related to arrival type as shown below. PF
may be calculated from measured values of P using the given values of fP A or the following
table can be used to determine PF as a function of the arrival type.
37.9
January 31, 2014
Table 37:3: Progression adjustment factor for uniform delay calculation

Green Ratio
Arrival Type (AT)
(g/C)
AT1 AT2 AT3 AT4 AT5 AT6
0.2
1.167 1.007
1
1
0.833 0.75
0.3
1.286 1.063
1
0.986 0.714 0.571
0.4
1.445 1.136
1
0.895 0.555 0.333
0.5
1.667 1.24
1
0.767 0.333
0
0.6
2.001 1.395
1
0.576
0
0
0.7
2.556 1.653
1
0.256
0
0
fP A
1
0.93
1
1.15
1
1
Default, Rp 0.333 0.667
1
1.333 1.667
2
37.7.2
Uniform delay
It is based on assuming uniform arrival, uniform ow rate & no initial queue. The formula for
uniform delay is,
g
0.5C(1 C )2
d1 =
(37.16)
g
1 [min(1, X) C ]
where, d1 = uniform control delay assuming uniform arrivals (s/veh), C = cycle length (s);
cycle length used in pretimed signal control, g = eective green time for lane group, X = v/c
ratio or degree of saturation for lane group.
37.7.3
Incremental delay
The equation below is used to estimate the incremental delay due to nonuniform arrivals and
temporary cycle failures (random delay. The equation assumes that there is no unmet demand
that causes initial queues at the start of the analysis period (T).
d2 = 900 T (X 1) +
(X 1)2 +
8klX
cT
(37.17)
where, d2 = incremental delay queues, T = duration of analysis period (h); k = incremental

delay factor that is dependent on controller settings, I = upstream ltering/metering adjustment
factor; c = lane group capacity (veh/h), X = lane group v/c ratio or degree of saturation, and
K can be found out from the following table.
37.10
January 31, 2014
Table 37:4: k-values to account for controller type

Unit
Degree of Saturation (X)
Extension (s) 0.50 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
2.0
0.04
0.13 0.22 0.32 0.41
0.5
2.5
0.08
0.16 0.25 0.33 0.42
0.5
3
0.11
0.19 0.27 0.34 0.42
0.5
3.5
0.13
0.2 0.28 0.35 0.43
0.5
4
0.15
0.22 0.29 0.36 0.43
0.5
4.5
0.19
0.25 0.31 0.38 0.44
0.5
a
5.0
0.23
0.28 0.34 0.39 0.45
0.5
Pretimed
0.5
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0.5
37.7.4
Agreegated delay estimates
The delay obtained has to be aggrregated, rst for each approach and then for the intersection
The weighted average of control delay is given as:
dA =
di vi /
vi
where, di = delay per vehicle for each movement (s/veh), dA = delay for Approach A (s/veh),
and vA = adjusted ow for Approach A (veh/h).
d1 =
37.7.5
dA vA /
vA
Determination of LOS
Intersection LOS is directly related to the average control delay per vehicle. Any v/c ratio
greater than 1.0 is an indication of actual or potential breakdown. In such cases, multiperiod
analyses are advised. These analyses encompass all periods in which queue carryover due to
oversaturation occurs. A critical v/c ratio greater than 1.0 indicates that the overall signal and
geometric design provides inadequate capacity for the given ows. In some cases, delay will be
high even when v/c ratios are low.
37.7.6
Sensitivity of results to input variables
The predicted delay is highly sensitive to signal control characteristics and the quality of progression. The predicted delay is sensitive to the estimated saturation ow only whendemand
37.11
January 31, 2014
Table 37:5: LOS criteria for signalized intersection in term of control delay per vehicle (s/veh)
LOS Delay
A
10
B
10-20
C
20-35
D
35-55
E
55-80
F
>80
approaches or exceeds 90 percent of the capacity for a lane group or an intersection approach.
The following graph shows the sensitivity of the predicted control delay per vehicle to demand
to capacity ratio, g/c, cylace legth and leght of analysis period. Assumptions are : Cycle length
800
700
Delay (s/veh)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Demand/Capacity Ratio
1.2
1.4
Figure 37:2: sensitivity of delay to demand to capacity ratio

= 100s, g/c = 0.5, T =1h, k = 0.5, l= 1, s = 1800 veh/hr
37.8
Conclusion
HCM model is very useful for the analysis of signalized intersection as it considers all the
adjustment factors which are to be taken into account while designing for a signalized I/S.
Though,the procedure is lengthy but it is simple in approach and easy to follow.
37.12
January 31, 2014
1400
Delay (s/veh)
v/c=1.7
1200
1000
800
600
400
v/c=1.0
200
0
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.55
0.5
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
g/C
Delay
Figure 37:3: sensitivity of delay Vs g/c ratio
Too Short
Optimum
Too Long
Cycle Length
Figure 37:4: sensitivity of delay Vs cycle length
37.9
References

New Delhi, 1987.
37.13
January 31, 2014
38. Coordinated Trac Signal
Chapter 38
Coordinated Trac Signal
38.1
Overview
This chapter covers basic aspects of trac signal coordination. Signal coordination is done
when they are closely space to enable vehicle in one predominent direction to get continous
green. This will reduce the delay and travel time in one direction and increases throughput.
The design priciples of signal coordination will be presented in this chapter.
38.2
Concepts of signal coordination
For signals that are closely spaced, it is necessary to coordinate the green time so that vehicles
may move eciently through the set of signals. In some cases, two signals are so closely spaced
that they should be considered to be one signal. In other cases, the signals are so far apart that
they may be considered independently. Vehicles released from a signal often maintain their
grouping for well over 335m.
38.2.1
Factors aecting coordination
There are four major areas of consideration for signal coordination:

1. Benets
2. Purpose of signal system
3. Factors lessening benets
4. Exceptions to the coordinated scheme
The most complex signal plans require that all signals have the same cycle length. Fig. 38:1
illustrates path (trajectory) that a vehicle takes as time passes. At t = t1 , the rst signal turns
38.1
January 31, 2014
second signal
Signal offset
t= $t_{2}$
signal green
yellow
red
First signal
$t_{1}$
Time
Figure 38:1: Vehicle trajectory

green. After some lag, the vehicle starts and moves down the street. It reaches the second
signal at some time t = t2 . Depending on the indication of that signal, it either continues or
stops. The dierence between the two green initiation times is referred to as the signal oset, or
simply as the oset. In general, the oset is dened as the dierence between green initiation
times, measured in terms of the downstream green initiation relative to the upstream green
initiation.
38.2.2
Benets
It is common to consider the benet of a coordination plan in terms of a cost or penalty function;
a weighted combination of stops and delay, and other terms as given here:
cost = A (total stops) + B (total delay) + (other terms)
(38.1)
The object is to make this disbenet as small as possible. The weights A and B are coecients
to be specied by the engineer or analyst. The values of A and B may be selected so as to reect
the estimated economic cost of each stop and delay. The amounts by which various timing plans
reduce the cost, can then be used in a cost-benet analysis to evaluate alternative plans. The
conservation of energy and the preservation of the environment have grown in importance over
the years. Given that the vehicles must travel, fuel conservation and minimum air pollution
are achieved by keeping vehicles moving as smoothly as possible at ecient speeds. This can
be achieved by a good signal-coordination timing plan. Other benets of signal coordination
include, maintenance of a preferred speed, possibility of sending vehicles through successive
intersections in moving platoons and avoiding stoppage of large number of vehicles.
38.2.3
Purpose of the signal system
The physical layout of the street system and the major trac ows determine the purpose of
the signal system. It is necessary to consider the type of system, whether one-way arterial,
two-way arterial, one-way,two-way, or mixed network. the capacitites in both directions on
some streets, the movements to be progressed, determination of preferential paths
38.2
January 31, 2014

$N$
Distance
(m)
Northbound
vehicle
600
400
200
60
120
Time (sec)
Figure 38:2: Time space diagram
38.2.4
Factors lessening benets
Among the factors limiting benets of signal coordination are the following:
inadequate roadway capacity
existence of substantial side frictions, including parking, loading, double parking, and
multiple driveways
wide variability in trac speeds
very short signal spacing
heavy turn volumes, either into or out of the street
38.2.5
Exceptions of the coordinated scheme
All signals cannot be easily coordinated. When an intersection creating problems lies directly in
the way of the plan that has to be designed for signal coordination, then two separate systems,
one on each side of this troublesome intersection, can be considered. A critical intersection is
one that cannot handle the volumes delivered to it at any cycle length.
38.2.6
Time-space diagram and ideal osets
The time-space diagram is simply the plot of signal indications as a function of time for two or
more signals. The diagram is scaled with respect to distance, so that one may easily plot vehicel
positions as a position of time. Fig. 38:2 is a time-space diagram for two intersections. The
standard conventions are used in Fig. 38:2: a green signal indication is shown by a blank or thin
line, amber by a shaded line and red by a solid line. For purpose of illustration of trajectory
in the time space diagram for intersections, a northbound vehicle going at a constnat speed of
40fps is shown. The ideal oset is dened as the oset that will cause the specied objective to
38.3
January 31, 2014

$N$
Distance
(m)
Northbound
vehicle
600
400
200
60
120
Time (sec)
Figure 38:3: Case study:progression on a one way street

be best satised. For the objective of minimum delay, it is the oset that will cause minimum
delay. In Fig. 38:2, the ideal oset is 25 sec for that case and that objective. If it is assumed
that the platoon was moving as it went through the upstream intersection then the ideal oset
is given by
L
(38.2)
t(ideal) =
S
where: t(ideal) = ideal oset,sec, L = block length, m, S = vehicle speed, mps.
38.3
Signal progression on one-way streets
38.3.1
Determining ideal osets
In Fig. 38:3 a one-way arterial is shown with the link lengths indicated. Assuming no vehicles
are queued at the signals, the ideal osets can be determined if the platoon speed is known. For
the purpose of illustration, a platoon speed of 60 fps is assumed. The osets are determined
according to Eqn. 38.2. Next the time-space diagram is constructed according to the following
rules:
1. The vertical should be scaled so as to accomodate the dimensions of the arterial, and the
horizontal so as to accomodate atleast three to four cycle lengths.
2. The beginning intersection should be scaled rst, usually with main street green initiation
at t=0, followed by periods of green and red.
3. The main street green of the next downstream signal should be located next, relative to
t=0 and at the proper distance fromt he rst intersection. With this point located, the
periods of green, yellow and red for this signal are lled in.
4. This procedure is repeated for all other intersections working one at a time.
38.4
January 31, 2014
Distance (m)

6
2000
5
4
1600
1200
800
2
1
Point 2
400
0
Point 1 60
point 3
120
180
240
Time (sec)
Distance (m)
Figure 38:4: Time space diagram for case study

6 2000
5 1600
4 1200
3 800
2 400
1 0
60
120
180
240
Time (sec)
Figure 38:5: Vehicle trajectory and green wave in a progressed movement

Fig. 38:4 shows the time-space diagram for the illustration mentioned previously. Fig. 38:5
explores some features of the time-space diagram.
38.3.2
Eect of vehicles queued at signals
It sometimes happens that there are vehicles stored in block waiting for a green light. These
may be stragglers from the last platoon, vehicles that turned into the block, or vehicles that
came out of parking lots or spots. The ideal oset must be adjusted to allow for these vehicles,
so as to avoid unnecessary stops. The ideal oset can then be given as:
tideal =
L
(Qh + Loss1 )
S
(38.3)
where, Q = number of vehicles queued per lane, veh, h= discharge headway of queued vehicle, sec/veh, and Loss1 = loss time associated with vehicles starting from rest at the rst
downstream signal.
38.3.3
A note on queue estimation
If it is known that there exists a queue and its size is known approximately, then the link oset
can be set better than by pretending that no queue exists. There can be great cycle-to-cycle
variation in the actual queue size, although its average size may be estimated. Even then,
queue estimation is a dicult and expensive task and should be viewed with caution.
38.5
January 31, 2014
Distance (m)

6 2000
5 1600
4 1200
3
800
2 400
1
0
60
120
180
240
Time (sec)
Figure 38:6: Moving southbound
$t_{NB}$
$t_{NB} + t_{SB} = C$
$L$
$C$
$2C$
$t_{SB}$
Figure 38:7: Osets on 2 way arterials are not independent- One cycle length
38.4
Signal Progression on two-way streets
Consider that the arterial shown in Fig. 38:3 is not a one-way but rather a two-way street.
Fig. 38:6 shows the trajectory of a southbound vehicle on this arterial.
38.4.1
Oset determination on a two-way street
If any oset were changed in Fig. 38:6 to accomodate the southbound vehicle(s), then the
northbound vehicle or platoon would suer. The fact that osets are interrelated presents one
of the most fundamental problems of signal optimization. The inspection of a typical cycle (as
in Fig. 38:7) yields the conclusion that the osets in two directions add to one cycle length.
For longer lengths (as in Fig. 38:8) the osets might add to two cycle lengths. When queue
clearances are taken into account, the osets might add to zero lengths. The general expression
Distance $2C$
$t_{NB}$
$L$
$t_{SB}$
$C$
$2C$
Figure 38:8: Osets on 2 way arterials are not independent- Two cycle length
38.6
January 31, 2014

3
$B$
$A$
$C$
$N$
$D$
1
$N$
One way Progressions

Streets with implied offsets
Figure 38:9: Closure eect in grid

for the two osets in a link on a two-way street can be written as
tNB,i + tSB,i = nC
(38.4)
where the osets are actual osets, n is an integer and C is the cycle length. Any actual oset
can be expressed as the desired ideal oset, plus an error or discrepancy term:
tactual(j,i) = tideal(j,i) + e(j,i)
(38.5)
where j represents the direction and i represents the link.
38.4.2
Oset determination in a grid
A one-way street system has a number of advantages, not the least of which is trac elimination
of left turns against opposing trac. The total elimination of constraints imposed by the closure
of loops within the network or grid is not possible. Fig. 38:9 highlights the fact that if the cycle
length, splits, and three osets are specied, the oset in the fourth link is determined and
cannot be independently specied. Fig. 38:9 extends this to a grid of one-way streets, in which
all of the north-south streets are independently specied. The specication of one east-west
street then locks in all other east-west osets. The key feature is that an open tree of one-way
links can be completely independently set, and that it is the closing or closure of the open tree
which presents constraints on some links.
38.5
Bandwidth concept
The bandwidth concept is very popular in trac engineering practice, because

1. the windows of green (through which platoons of vehicles can move) are easy visual images
for both working profeesionals and public presentations
2. good solutions can often be obtained manually, by trial and error.
38.7
January 31, 2014

Distance (m)
600
400
Northbound
vehicle
200
1
0
60
120
Time (sec)
Figure 38:10: Bandwidths on a time space diagram
38.5.1
Bandwidth and eciency of a progression
The eciency of a bandwidth (measured in seconds) is dened as the ratio of the bandwidth
to the cycle length, expressed as a percentage:
eciency =
bandwidth
100%
cycle length
(38.6)
An eciency of 40% to 50% is considered good. The bandwidth is limited by the minimum
green in the direction of interest. Fig. 38:10 illustrates the bandwidths for one signal-timing
plan. The northbound eciency can be estimated as (17/60)100% = 28.4%. There is no
bandwidth through the south-bound. The system is badly in need of retiming atleast on the
basis of the bandwidth objective. In terms of vehicles that can be put through this system
without stopping, note that the northbound bandwidth can carry 17/2.0 = 8.5 vehicles per
lane per cycle in a nonstop path through the dened system. The northbound direction can
handle
cycle
3600sec
8.5veh
= 510vph per lane

cycle
60sec
hr
very eciently if they are organized into 8-vehicle platoons when they arrive at this system.
If the per lane demand volume is less than 510vphpl and if the ows are so organized, the
system will operate well in the northbound direction, even though better timing plans might
be obtained. The computation can be formalized into an equation as follows:
nonstop volume =
3600(BW )(L)
vph
(h)(C)
(38.7)
where: BW = measured or computed bandwidth, sec, L= number of through lanes in indicated

direction, h = headway in moving platoon, sec/veh,and C =cycle length.
38.5.2
Trial-and-error approach to nd bandwidth
The engineer ususally wishes to design for maximum bandwidth in one direction, subject to
some relation between the bandwidths in the two directions. There are both trial-and-error
38.8
January 31, 2014
600m
1500 vpl
Distance
(m)
1
2 lanes/directions
600m
2
V = 20m/s
600m
4
1500 vph
60
120
180
Time (sec)
Figure 38:11: Case study:Four intersections with good progressions

Distance (m)
Intersection
1
New
3
4
60
120
180
Time (sec)
Figure 38:12: Eect of inserting a new signal into system

and somewhat elaborate manual techniques for establishing maximum bandwidths. Refer to
Fig. 38:11, which shows four signals and decent progressions in both the directions. For purpose
of illustration, assume it is given that a signal with 50:50 split may be located midway between
Intersections 2 and 3. The possible eect as it appears in Fig. 38:12 is that there is no way to
include this signal without destroying one or the other through band, or cutting both in half.
The osets must be moved around until a more satisfactory timing plan develops. A change in
cycle length may even be required. The changes in oset may be explored by:
copying the time-space diagram of Fig. 38:12
cutting the copy horizontally into strips, one strip per intersection
placing a guideline over the strips, so as to indicate the speed of the platoon(s) by the
slope of the guideline
sliding the strips relative to each other, until some improved oset pattern is identied
There is no need to produce new strips for each cycle length considered: all times can be made
relative to an arbitrary cycle length C. The only change necessary is to change the slope(s) of
the guidelines representing the vehicle speeds. The northbound vehicle takes 3600/60 = 60sec
to travel from intersection 4 to intersection 2. If the cycle length C = 120sec, the vehicle would
38.9
January 31, 2014
have arrived at intersection 2 at C/2, or one half of the cycle length. To obtain a good solution
through trial-and-error attempt, the following should be kept in consideration:
If the green initiation at Intersection 1 comes earlier, the southbound platoon is released
sooner and gets stopped or disrupted at intersection 2.
Likewise, intersection 2 cannot be northbound without harming the southbound.
Nor can intersection 3 help the southbound without harming the northbound.
38.5.3
A historical perspective on the use of bandwidth
An elegant mathematical formulation requiring two hours of computation on a supercomputer

is some-what irrelevant in most engineering oces. The determination of good progressions on
an arterial must be viewed in this context:only 25 years ago, hand held calculators did not exist;
20 years ago, calculators had only the most basic functions. 15 years ago, personal computers
were at best a new concept. Previously, engineers used slide rules. Optimization of progressions
could not depend on mathematical formulations simply because even one set of computations
could take days witht he tools available. Accordingly,graphical methods were developed. The
rst optimization programs that took queues and other detaisl into account began to appear,
leading to later developments that produced the signal-optimization programs in common use
in late 1980s. As computers became more accessible and less expensive, the move to computer
solutions accelerated in the 1970s. New work on the maximum-bandwidth solution followed
with greater computational power encouraging the new formulations.
38.6
Forward and reverse progressions
Simple progression is the name given to the progression in which all the signals are set so that
a vehicle released from the rst intersection will arrive at the downstream intersections just as
the signals at those intersections initiate green. As the simple progression results in a green
wave that advances with the vehicles, it is often called a forward progression. It may happen
that the simple progression is revised two or more times in a day, so as to conform to the
direction of the major ow, or to the ow level. In this case, the scheme may be referred to as
a exible progression. Under certain circumstances, the internal queues are suciently large
that the ideal oset is negative. The downstream signal must turn green before the upstream
signal, to allow sucient time for the queue to start moving before the arrival of the platoon.
The visual image of such a pattern is of the green marching upstream, toward the drivers in
the platoon. This is referred to as reverse progression.
38.10
January 31, 2014
38.6.1
Eective progression on two-way streets
In certain geometries it is possible to obtain very eective progressions in both directions on

two-way streets. The existence of these patterns presents the facts that:
The system cycle length should be specied based primarily on the geometry and platoon
speed whenever possible, to enhance progressions.
The task of good progression in both directions becomes easy if an appropriate combination of cycle length, block length and platoon speed exist.
Whenever possible the value of these appropriate combinations should be considered
explicitly for they can greatly determine the qualityof ow for decades.
In considering the installations of new signals on existing arterials, the same care should
be taken to preserve the appropriate combinations and/or to introduce them.
38.6.2
Importance of signal phasing and cycle length
The trac engineer may well be faced with a situation that looks intimidating, but for which
the community seek to have smooth ow of trac along an arterial or in a system. The orderly
approach begins with rst, appreciating the magnitude of the problem. The splits, osets, and
cycle length might be totally out of date for the existing trac demand. Even if the plan is
not out of date, the settings in the eld might be totally out of date, the settings in the eld
might be totally dierent than those originally intended and/or set. Thus, a logical rst step
is simply to ride the system and inspect it. Second, it would be very useful to sketch out how
much of the system can be thought of as an open tree of one way links. A distinction should
be made among
streets that are one way
streets that can be treated as one-way, due to the actual or desired ow patterns
streets that must be treated as two-ways
larger grids in which streets interact because they form unavoidable closed trees and are
each important in that they cannot be ignored for the sake of establishing a master grid
which is an open tree
smaller grids in which the issue is not coordination but local land access and circulation
38.11
January 31, 2014
Downtown grids might well fall into the last category, at least in some cases. Third, attention
should focus on the combination of cycle length, block length and platoon speed and their
interaction. Fourth, if the geometry is not suitable, one can adapt and x up the situation
to a certain extent. Another issue to address, ofcourse, is whether the objective of progressed
movement of trac should be maintained.
38.6.3
Oversaturated trac
The problem of oversaturation is not just one of degree but of kind - extreme congestion is
marked by a new phenomenon: intersection blockage. The overall approach can be stated in a
logical set of steps:
Address the root causes of congestion
Update the signalization, for poor signalization is frequently the cause of what looks like
an incurable problem
If the problem persists, use novel signalization to minimize the impact and spatial extent
of the extreme congestion.
Provide more space by use of turn bays and parking congestions.
Develop site specic evaluations where there are conicting goals.
38.6.4
Signal remedies
Signalization can be improved through measures like, reasonably short cycle lengths, proper
osets and proper splits. Sometimes when there is too much trac then options such as equity
osets(to aid cross ows) and dierent splits may be called upon. A metering plan involving
the three types - internal, external and release - may be applied. Internal metering refers to
the use of control strategies within a congested network so as to inuence the distribution of
vehicles arriving at or departing froma critical location. External metering refers to the control
of the major access points to the dened system, so that inow rates into the system are limited
if the system if the system is already too congested. Release metering refers to the cases in
which vehicles are stored in such locations as parking garages and lots, from which their release
can be in principle controlled.
38.12
January 31, 2014
38.7
Summary
The concept of signal coordination is presented in this chapter. Coordination in one way is
simple and eective and reuslts in better progression. Two-way coordination is complex and
less eective. Bandwidth is an important paramter in evaluating the eciency of coordination.
Further, the concpets of forward and reverse progression are introduced.
38.8
References
38.13
January 31, 2014
39. Vehicle Actuated Signals
Chapter 39
Vehicle Actuated Signals
39.1
Introduction
Now-a-days, controlling trac congestion relies on having an ecient and well-managed trac
signal control policy. Trac signals operate in either pre-timed or actuated mode or some combination of the two. Pre-timed control consists of a series of intervals that are xed in duration.
They repeat a preset constant cycle. In contrast to pre-timed signals, actuated signals have
the capability to respond to the presence of vehicles or pedestrians at the intersection. Actuated control consists of intervals that are called and extended in response to vehicle detectors.
The controllers are capable of not only varying the cycle length & green times in response to
detector actuations, but of altering the order and sequence of phases. Adaptive or area trafc control systems (ATCS) belong to the latest generation of signalized intersection control.
ATCS continuously detect vehicular trac volume, compute optimal signal timings based on
this detected volume and simultaneously implement them. Reacting to these volume variations
generally results in reduced delays, shorter queues and decreased travel times. Coordinating
trac signals along a single route so that vehicles get progressive green signal at each junction
is another important aspect of ATCS. In the subsequent pages, the operating principles and
features of Vehicle-Actuated Signals & Area Trac Control Systems will be briey discussed.
39.2
Vehicle-Actuated Signals
39.2.1
Basic Principles
As stated earlier, Vehicle-Actuated Signals require actuation by a vehicle on one or more

approaches in order for certain phases or trac movements to be serviced. They are equipped
with detectors and the necessary control logic to respond to the demands placed on them.
Vehicle-actuated control uses information on current demands and operations, obtained from
detectors within the intersection, to alter one or more aspects of the signal timing on a cycleDr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay
39.1
January 31, 2014
by-cycle basis. Timing of the signals is controlled by trac demand. Actuated controllers may
be programmed to accommodate:
Variable phase sequences (e.g., optional protected LT phases)
Variable green times for each phase
Variable cycle length, caused by variable green times
Such variability allows the signal to allocate green time based on current demands and operations. A proper clearance interval between the green & the red phases is also ensured.
39.2.2
Advantages of Actuated Signals
The various advantages of actuated signals are stated below:

They can reduce delay (if properly timed).
They are adaptable to short-term uctuations in trac ow.
Usually increase capacity (by continually reapportioning green time).
Provide continuous operation under low volume conditions.
Especially eective at multiple phase intersections.
39.2.3
Disadvantages of Actuated Signals
The main disadvantages are as following :

If trac demand pattern is very regular, the extra benet of adding local actuation is
minimal, perhaps non-existent.
Installation cost is two to three times the cost of a pretimed signal installation.
Actuated controllers are much more complicated than pretimed controllers, increasing
maintenance costs.
They require careful inspection & maintenance to ensure proper operation.
39.2
January 31, 2014
39.2.4
Types of Actuated Control
There are three basic types of actuated control, each using signal controllers that are somewhat
dierent in their design:
1. Semi-Actuated Control
2. Full-Actuated Control
3. Volume-Density Control
Semi-Actuated Control
This type of controller is used at intersections where a major street having relatively uniform
ow is crossed by a minor street with low volumes. Detectors are placed only on the minor
street. The green is on the major street at all times unless a call on the side street is noted. The
number and duration of side-street green is limited by the signal timing and can be restricted
to times that do not interfere with progressive signal-timing patterns along the major street.
Full-Actuated Control
This type of controller is used at the intersections of streets or roads with relatively equal
volumes, but where the trac distribution is varying. In full actuated operation, all lanes of
all approaches are monitored by detectors. The phase sequence, green allocations, and cycle
length are all subjected to variation. This form of control is eective for both two-phase and
multiphase operations and can accommodate optional phases.
Volume-Density Control
Volume-density control is basically the same as full actuated control with additional demandresponsive features. It is designed for intersections of major trac ows having considerable
unpredictable uctuations.
39.2.5
Detection for Actuated Signalization
The various types of detectors used for detection of vehicles are as following:
Inductive loop detectors
Magnetometer detectors
39.3
January 31, 2014
Magnetic detectors
Pressure-sensitive detectors
Radar detectors
Sonic detectors
Microloop detectors etc.
The vast majority of actuated signal installations use inductive loops for detection purpose.
Now, the type of detection is of greater importance than the specic detection device(s) used.
There are two types of detection that inuence the design and timing of actuated controllers:
1. Passage or Point Detection:- In this type of detection, only the fact that the detector
has been disturbed is noted. The detector is installed at a point even though the detector
unit itself may involve a short length. It is the most common form of detection.
2. Presence or Area Detection:- In this type of detection, a signicant length (or area)
of an approach lane is included in the detection zone. Entries and exits of vehicles into
and out of the detection zone are remembered. Thus, the number of vehicles stored in
the detection zone is known. It is provided by using a long induction loop, or a series of
point detectors. These are generally used in conjunction with volume-density controllers.
39.2.6
Actuated Control Features
Regardless of the controller type, virtually all actuated controllers oer the same basic functions,
although the methodology for implementing them may vary by type and manufacturer. For
each actuated phase, the following basic features must be set on the controller:
Minimum Green Time
Each actuated phase has a minimum green time, which serves as the smallest amount of green
time that may be allocated to a phase when it is initiated. Minimum green times must be set for
each phase in an actuated signalization, including the non-actuated phase of a semi-actuated
controller. The minimum green timing on an actuated phase is based on the type and location
of detectors.
In case of Point Detectors,
Gmin = tL + [h Integer(d/x)]
39.4
(39.1)
January 31, 2014
where, Gmin = minimum green time in second, tL = assumed start-up lost time = 4 sec,
h = assumed saturation headway = 2 sec, d = distance between detector & stop line in
m and x = assumed distance between stored vehicles = 6 m.
In case of Area Detectors,
Gmin = tL + 2n
(39.2)
where, tL = start-up lost time (sec) and n = number of vehicles stored in the detection
area.
Unit Extension
This time actually serves three dierent purposes:
1. It represents the maximum gap between actuations at a single detector required to retain
the green.
2. It is the amount of time added to the green phase when an additional actuation is received
within the unit extension, U.
3. It must be of sucient length to allow a vehicle to travel from the detector to the STOP
line.
In terms of signal operation, it serves as both the minimum allowable gap to retain a green
signal and as the amount of green time added when an additional actuation is detected within
the minimum allowable gap. The unit extension is selected with two criteria in mind:
The unit extension should be long enough such that a subsequent vehicle operating in
dense trac at a safe headway will be able to retain a green signal (assuming the maximum
green has not yet been reached).
The unit extension should not be so long that straggling vehicles may retain the green or
that excessive time is added to the green (beyond what one vehicle reasonably requires
to cross the STOP line on green).
The Trac Detector Handbook recommends that a unit extension of 3.0 s be used where
approach speeds are equal to or less than 30 mile per hour, and that 3.5 s be used at higher
approach speeds. For all types of controllers, however, the unit extension must be equal to or
more than the passage time.
39.5
January 31, 2014
Passage Time Interval

It allows a vehicle to travel from the detector to the stop line. It is analogous with Unit
Extension.
P = (d/S)
(39.3)
where, P = passage time, sec, d = distance from detector to stop line, metre and S = approach
speed of vehicles, m/s.
Maximum Green Time
Each phase has a maximum green time that limits the length of a green phase, even if there are
continued actuations that would normally retain the green. The maximum green time begins
when there is a call (or detector actuation) on a competing phase. The estimation can be done
by any of the following methods:
By trial signal timing as if the signals were pretimed
Ci =
L
[1 V C/(1615(P HF )(v/c))]
(39.4)
where, Ci = Initial cycle length, sec, L = Total lost time, sec and VC = Sum of critical
lane volumes, veh/hr. Knowing the initial cycle length, green times are then determined
as:
VCi
(39.5)
gi = (Ci L)
VC
where gi = eective green time for Phase i, sec and VCi = critical lane volume for Phase
i, veh/hr. The eective green times thus obtained are then multiplied by 1.25 or 1.50 to
determine the maximum green time.
By Green-Time Estimation (HCM) Model: Trac-actuated controllers do not recognize
specied cycle lengths. Instead they determine, by a mechanical analogy, the required
green time given the length of the previous red period and the arrival rate. They accomplish this by holding the right-of-way until the accumulated queue has been served.
The basic principle underlying all signal timing analysis is the queue accumulation polygon
(QAP), which plots the number of vehicles queued at the stop line over the duration of the
cycle. The QAP for a simple protected movement is illustrated in the Fig. 39:1. From Fig. 39:1,
its clear that queue accumulation takes place on the left side of the triangle (i.e., eective red)
and the discharge takes place on the right side of the triangle (i.e., eective green).
39.6
January 31, 2014
Number of Vehicles in queue

8

Green time based on
phase time extension
Green time based on
target v/c ratio
Green
Red
0
Time (s)
Green extension time
Figure 39:1: Queue accumulation polygon illustrating two methods of green time computation
There are two methods of determining the required green time given the length of the
previous red time. The rst employs a target v/c approach. Under this approach, the greentime requirement is determined by the slope of the line representing the target v/c of 0.9. If
the phase ends when the queue has dissipated under these conditions, the target v/c will be
achieved. The second method recognizes the way a trac-actuated controller really works.
It does not deal explicitly with v/c ratios; in fact, it has no way of determining the v/c
ratio. Instead it terminates each phase when a gap of a particular length is encountered at the
detector. Good practice dictates that the gap threshold must be longer than the gap that would
be encountered when the queue is being served. Assuming that gaps large enough to terminate
the phase can only occur after the queue service interval (based on v/c = 1.0), the average
green time may be estimated as the sum of the queue service time and the phase extension
time. Therefore, average green time = Queue Service Time + Phase Extension Time. Now,
Queue Service Time(gS ) =
fq qr r
(s qg )
(39.6)
where, qr = red arrival rate (veh/s), qg = green arrival rate (veh/s), r = eective red time (s), s =
saturation ow rate (veh/s) and fq = calibration factor = 1.08 - 0.1(actual green time/maximum green tim
Green extension time(ge ) = [exp((u + t ))/q] (1/)
(39.7)
where, q = vehicle arrival rate throughout cycle (veh/s), u = unit extension time setting (s),
t = time during which detector is occupied by a passing vehicle(s) = [3.6(Ld + Lv )]/SA , Lv
= Vehicle length, assumed to be 5.5 m, Ld = Detector length (m), SA = Vehicle approach
speed (kmph), = minimum arrival (intra-bunch) headway (s), = a parameter (veh/s) =
q/(1 q), = proportion of free (unbunched) vehicles in trac stream = exp(bq) and
b = bunching factor.
39.7
January 31, 2014
Table 39:1: Recommended Parameter Values

Case
(s) b
Single Lane 1.5 0.6
Multilane
2 lanes
0.5 0.5
3 lanes
0.5 0.8
This green-time estimation model is not dicult to implement, but it does not lead directly
to the determination of an average cycle length or green time because the green time required
for each phase is dependent on the green time required by the other phases. Thus, a circular
dependency is established that requires an iterative process to solve. With each iteration, the
green time required by each phase, given the green times required by the other phases, can be
determined. The logical starting point for the iterative process involves the minimum times
specied for each phase. If these times turn out to be adequate for all phases, the cycle length
will simply be the sum of the minimum phase times for the critical phases. If a particular
phase demands more than its minimum time, more time should be given to that phase. Thus,
a longer red time must be imposed on all of the other phases. This, in turn, will increase the
green time required for the subject phase.
Recall Switch
Each actuated phase has a recall switch. The recall switches determine what happens to the
signal when there is no demand. Normally, one recall switch is placed in the on position, while
all others are turned o. In this case, when there is no demand present, the green returns to
the phase with its recall switch on. If no recall switch is in the on position, the green remains
on the phase that had the last call.demand exists, one phase continues to move to the next
at the expiration of the minimum green.
Change and Clearance Intervals
Yellow and all-red intervals provide for safe transition from green to red. They are xed times
and are not subject to variation, even in an actuated controller. They are found in the same
manner as for pretimed signals.
y = t + [S85 /(2a + 19.6g)]
(39.8)
ar = (w + l)/S15
(39.9)
39.8
January 31, 2014

minimum
green

maximum green
extensible portion
1111111111 111
0000000000 000
1111111111 111 11
0000000000 000 00
111 11
000 00
111
000
11 111
00 000
111
000
111111
000000
111
000
11 111
00 000
11 111111
00 000000
111111 11
000000 00
111 11
000 00
11
00
Figure 39:2: Operation of an Actuated Phase

where, y = yellow time, sec, ar = all red interval, sec, S85 = 85th percentile speed, m/s, S15 =
15th percentile speed, m/s, t = reaction time of the driver = 1 sec (standard), a = deceleration
rate = 3 m/s2 (standard), g = grade of approach in decimal, w = width of street being crossed,
m and l = length of a vehicle, m.
39.2.7
Operating Principle
The Fig. 39:2 illustrates the operation of an actuated phase based on the three critical settings:
minimum green, maximum green, and unit or vehicle extension. When the green is initiated
for a phase, it will be at least as long as the minimum green period. The controller divides
the minimum green into an initial portion and a portion equal to one unit extension. If an
additional call is received during the initial portion of the minimum green, no time is added to
the phase, as there is sucient time within the minimum green to cross the STOP line (yellow
and all-red intervals take care of clearing the intersection). If a call is received during the last
U seconds (Unit Extension) of the minimum green, U seconds of green are added to the phase.
Thereafter, every time an additional call is received during a unit extension of U seconds, an
additional period of U seconds is added to the green. Note that the additional periods of U
seconds are added from the time of the actuation or call. They are not added to the end of
the previous unit extension, as this would accumulate unused green times within each unit
extension and include them in the total green period. The green is terminated in one of two
ways:
1. a unit extension of U seconds expires without an additional actuation,
2. the maximum green is reached.
39.9
January 31, 2014
Table 39:2: Recommended Detector Locations & Timing Parameters

Approach Detector Set-Back Mimimum
Passage
Speed
(To front of loop)
Green
Time
(kmph)
(m)
(sec)
(sec)
24
12
8.0
3.0
32
18
10.0
3.0
40
24
12.0
3.0
48
30
14.0
3.5
56
41
18.0
3.5
64
52
22.0
3.5
72+
Volume density or multiple detectors recommended
The maximum green begins timing out when a call on a competing phase is noted. During the
most congested periods of ow, however, it may be assumed that demand exists more or less
continuously on all phases. The maximum green, therefore, begins timing out at the beginning
of the green period in such a situation. Now-a-days, in India, detectors are placed mostly at
stop lines. In that case, the green times for phases are primarily determined by arrival headway.
The green time is extended until the gap between two vehicles becomes equal to or greater than
the pre-determined threshold value. Generally threshold of 4 seconds is considered.
39.2.8
Concept of Semi-Actuated Controller
Principles
Detectors on minor approaches only.
Major phase receives a minimum green interval.
The green remains on the main street until a call for service on the side street is registered.
If the main street has had enough green, the side street is given the green for just enough
time to guarantee that its vehicles are processed.
Usually Point Detectors are used.
Detectors can be placed at either stop line or upstream location.
39.10
January 31, 2014
Side
Street
Main Street
Detector
Stop line
Figure 39:3: Semi-Actuated Control

Advantages
It can be used eectively in a coordinated signal system.
Relative to pre-timed control, it reduces the delay incurred by the major-road through
movements during periods of light trac.
It does not require detectors for the major-road through movement phases and hence, its
operation is not compromised by the failure of these detectors.
Generally the main street indeed has the green whenever possible.
Disadvantages
Continuous demand on the phases associated with one or more minor movements can
cause excessive delay to the major road through movements if the maximum green and
passage time parameters are not appropriately set.
Detectors must be used on the minor approaches, thus requiring installation and ongoing
maintenance.
It also requires more training than that needed for pre-timed control.
39.11
January 31, 2014
Detector
Figure 39:4: Full-Actuated Control
39.2.9
Concept of Full-Actuated Controller
Principles
Detectors on all approaches.
Each phase has a preset initial interval.
Phases are sequenced according to calls for service on all approaches.
Green interval is extended by a preset unit extension for each actuation after the initial
interval provided a gap greater than the unit extension does not occur.
Green extension is limited by preset maximum limit.
Generally Point Detectors are used.
Detectors can be placed at either stop line or upstream location.
Advantages
Reduces delay relative to pre-timed control by being highly responsive to trac demand
and to changes in trac pattern.
39.12
January 31, 2014
Detection information allows the cycle time to be eciently allocated on a cycle-by-cycle

basis.
Allows phases to be skipped if there is no call for service, thereby allowing the controller
to reallocate the unused time to a subsequent phase.
Disadvantages
Initial and maintenance cost is higher than that of other control types due to the amount
of detection required.
It may also result in higher percentage of vehicles stopping because green time is not held
for upstream platoons.
39.2.10
Concept of Volume-Density Controller
Volume-Density Controllers are designed for intersections of major trac ows having considerable unpredictable uctuations. They are generally used at intersections with high approach
speeds ( 45 mi/hr). Here, detectors are placed on all approaches. Generally this type of
controller is used with Area Detectors. To operate eciently, this type of control needs to
receive trac information early enough to react to existing conditions. So, it is essential that
detectors be placed far in advance of the intersection.
39.2.11
Numerical example
An isolated suburban intersection of two major arterials is to be signalized using a full actuated
controller. Area detection is to be used, and there are no driveways or other potential entry
points for vehicles within 90 m of the STOP line on all approaches. The intersection is shown
in the gure and all volumes have already been converted to tvus for convenience. Left-turn
slots of 75 m in length are provided for each approach. The tvu conversions assume that a
protected left-turn phase will be provided for all approaches.
Solution: Step 1: Phasing: The problem statement indicates that protected leftturn phasing will be implemented on all approaches. Note that Kennedy Avenue
has double left-turn lanes in each direction and that Monroe Street has a single
left-turn lane in each direction. At a heavily utilized intersection such as this,
quad-eight phasing would be desirable. Each street would have an exclusive LT
phase followed by a leading green in the direction of heavier LT ow and a TH/RT
39.13
January 31, 2014

Monroe Street
LT
700
100
Kennedy Avenue
1500
300
36 m
400
1600
110
650
Approach speeds: 64 kmph
(all approaches)
PHF = 0.96
Target v/c = 0.98
No peds (overpasses provided)
Level terrain
LT
t = 1.0 s
l1 = e = 2.0s
a = 3 $m/s^2$
16 m
Figure 39:5: Intersection for the Example

phase. Such phasing provides much exibility in that LT phasing is always optional
and can be skipped in any cycle in which no LT demand is noted. The resulting
signalization has a maximum of four phases in any given cycle and a minimum of
two. It is treated as a four-phase signal, as this option leads to the maximum lost
times. Quad-eight phasing involves overlaps that would be taken into account if
this were a pretimed signal. As an actuated signal, the worst-case cycle, however,
would occur when there are no overlap periods. This would occur when the LT ow
in opposing directions are equal. Thus, the signal timing will be considered as if
this were a simple four-phase operation without overlaps. The controller, however,
will allow one protected LT to be terminated before the opposing protected LT,
creating a leading green phase. The four phases are:
Phase I-Protected LT for Kennedy Avenue
Phase 2-TH/RT for Kennedy Avenue
Phase 3-Protected LT for Monroe Street
Phase 4-TH/RT for Monroe Street
Step 2: Unit Extension: For approach speeds of 64 kmph, the recommended
unit extension (from Table) is 3.5 s.
Step 3: Minimum Green Times and Detector Placement: The problem species that area detection shall be employed. For area detection, the far end of the
detection zone is placed such that the passage time is equal to unit extension. Since
39.14
January 31, 2014
all approaches (including LT approaches) have a 64 kmph approach speed, the far
end of detectors should be located as follows:
U = 3.5 = P = d/(64/3.6)
d = 3.5 (64/3.6) = 62.22 62m
The near end of the detection zone would be placed within 0.3 m of the STOP
line. The minimum green time for area detection is variable, based on the number
of vehicles sensed within the detection area when the green is initiated. The
value can vary from the time needed to service one waiting vehicle to the time
needed to service Int(62/6) = 11 vehicles. The range of minimum green times
can be established for each approach. In this case, all values will be equal, as
the approach speeds are the same for all approaches and the detector location is
common to every approach, including the LT lanes, all of which are long enough
to accommodate a 62 m setback.
Gmin/low = 2.0 + (2 1) = 4.0 sec
Gmin/high = 2.0 + (2 11) = 24.0 sec
Step 4: Critical-Lane Volumes: As the volumes given have already been converted to tvus, critical-lane volumes for each phase are easily identied:
Phase 1 (Kennedy Ave, LT) - 400/2 = 200 tvu/h
Phase 2 (Kennedy Ave, TH/RT) - 1,600/4 = 400 tvu/h
Phase 3 (Monroe St, LT) - 110/1 = 110 tvu/h
Phase 4 (Monroe St, TH/RT) - 700/2 = 350 tvu/h
Therefore, VC = (200+400+110+700) = 1,060 tvu/h.
Step 5: Yellow & All-Red times With a 64 kmph average approach speed for all
movements, the S85 may be estimated as (64 + 8) = 72 kmph, and the S15 may be
estimated as (64 - 8) = 56 kmph. Then:
yall = 1.0 + (72/3.6)/(2 3) + 19.6(0.01 0) = 4.3sec
ar1,2 = (16 + 6)/(56/3.6) = 1.5sec
ar3,4 = (36 + 6)/(56/3.6) = 2.7sec
Y1,2 = (4.3 + 1.5) = 5.8sec
Y3,4 = (4.3 + 2.7) = 7.0sec
39.15
January 31, 2014
There are four phases in the worst-case cycle. The total lost time is equal to the
sum of the yellow and all-red intervals in the cycle: L = 2*5.8 + 2*7.0 = 25.6 sec.
Step 6: Maximum Green Times and the Critical Cycle: The initial cycle length
for determining maximum green time is: Ci = 25.6/[1-1060/(1615*0.96*0.98)] =
84.8 sec. Green times are found as:
G1 = (84.8 25.6)(200/1060) = 11.2sec
G2 = (84.8 25.6)(400/1060) = 22.3sec
G3 = (84.8 25.6)(110/1060) = 6.1sec
G4 = (84.8 25.6)(350/1060) = 19.5sec
Gmax1 = (1.5 11.2) = 16.8sec
Gmax2 = (1.5 22.3) = 33.5sec
Gmax3 = (1.5 6.1) = 9.2sec
Gmax4 = (1.5 19.5) = 29.3sec
With area detection, the minimum green for all lane groups, including LT lanes,
can be as high as 24.0 s. This is inconsistent with Gmax values for the LT Phases
1 and 3. Increasing the maximum greens beyond the computed values, however,
will lead to an excessively long critical cycle length. Thus, it is recommended that
the LT lanes use point detectors, placed so that the Gmin for Phases 1 and 3 is a
constant 4.0 s. The above Gmax results will work in this scenario. The Gmax results
for Phases 2 and 4 (through phases) are close to the high value of Gmin for these
phases, but would provide some exibility even in peak periods. It is, therefore,
not recommended that any of these times be arbitrarily increased. The critical
cycle length becomes: CC = 16.8 + 5.8 + 33.5 + 5.8 + 9.2 + 7.0 + 29.3 + 7.0 =
114.4 sec
39.2.12
Numerical example
Consider an intersection of two streets with a single lane in each direction. Each
approach has identical characteristics and carries 675 veh/h with no left or right
turns. The average headway is 2.0 s per vehicle and the lost time per phase is
3.0 s. Detectors are 9.1 m long with no setback from the stop line. The actuated
controller settings are as follows: Determine the phase time for this intersection
with actuated controller for approach speed 50 kmph.
39.16
January 31, 2014
Setting
Initial interval
Unit extension
Maximum green
Intergreen
Time (s)
10
3
46
4
Solution: The maximum phase time for each phase will be (46 + 4) = 50 s. The
minimum phase time will be 10 + 3 + 4 = 17 s. The rst iteration will be used
with a 34-s cycle with 17 s of green time on each approach. The eective green time
will be 14 s, and the eective red time will be 20 s for each phase. For purposes
of trac-actuated timing estimation It is recommended (HCM 2000) that, for a
specied lost time of n seconds, 1 s be assigned to the end of the phase and (n - 1)
s be assigned to the beginning. Here, start-up lost time = 2.0 secs. The following
are the steps to calculate the phase time required:
Step 1. Compute the arrival rate throughout the cycle, q: q = 675/3600 =
0.188 veh/s
Step 2. Compute the net departure rate (saturation ow rate - arrival rate): (s
- q) =1800/3600- 0.188 = 0.312 veh/s
Step 3.Compute the queue at the end of 20 s of eective red time: qr r = 20
(0.188) = 3.760veh
Step 4. Compute the queue calibration factor,fq : fq = 1.08 0.1(13/46)2 = 1.072
Step 5. Compute the time required to serve the queue, gs : gs = 1.072(3.760/0.312) =
12.919s
Step 6. Determine : = 1.5 and b = 0.6 (for single lane from table in HCM)
= ebq
= e(0.61.50.188) = 0.844
= q/(1 q)
= (0.844)(0.188)/1 (1.5)(0.188)
= 0.221
Step 7. Determine the occupancy time of the detector: t0 = 3.6(9.1+ 5.5)/50,
vehicle length=5.5m, detector = 1.051 s length=9.1 m, approach speed=50 kmph
Step 8. The expected green extension time, ge :
39.17
January 31, 2014
Step 9. Compute the total phase time:

G = l1 + gs + ge + Y
G = 2.0 + 12.919 + 6.550 + 4.0 = 25.469s
Step 10. Compute the phase time deciency as the dierence between the trial
phase time and the computed phase time: or 25.469 - 17.0 = 8.469 s. For next
iteration: Trial green time = 25.469 s. Cycle length = 50.968 s. This process is
continued through successive iterations until the solutions converge or the phase
deciency i.e. the error is negligible practically. The following gure shows the
results of successive iterations for this problem and the nal convergence. The
Phase time deficiency
Computed phase time
0.547
40
0.289 0.157 0.0590.012 0.007
0.992
1.771
3.089
5.230
30
Phase Time (s)
8.469
20
Minimum = 17 s
10
10
11
Iteration Number
Figure 39:6: Calculation of phase time through iterations (HCM)

nal phase time is 37.710 s giving a cycle length of 75.420 s. The convergence was
considered for threshold of 0.1 dierence in successive cycle times.
39.3
Conclusion
Modern actuated controllers give the trac engineers a great deal of exibility in
dealing with variations in demand. Area trac control system along with Vehicle
actuated signals can reduce trac delays substantially. These are highly complex
subject. Timing of VA signals is almost as much an art as a science, and more then
one solution is possible. Regarding ATC systems, SCOOT and SCAT are popular in
advance countries but such systems cannot cope up with Indian situations without
adaptation to Indian trac scenario. Presently, an advance ATC system known as
CoSiCoSt has been developed considering the Indian Trac scenario.
39.18
January 31, 2014
39.4
References
1. Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board. National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2000.
2. L. R Kadiyali. Trac Engineering and Transportation Planning. Khanna
Publishers, New Delhi, 1987.
3. C. S Papacostas. Fundamentals of Transportation Engineering. PrenticeHall, New Delhi, 1987.
4. D I Robertson and R D Bretherton. Optimizing Networks of Trac Signals in Real Time - The SCOOT Method. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular
Technology, 1991.
5. R J Salter. Highway Trac Analysis And Design. McGraw-Hill, 1990.
6. S H Shinde. Evaluation of Area trac Control system.
Transportation engineering, IIT Bombay, 2007.
39.19
Department of
January 31, 2014
40. Area Trac Control
Chapter 40
Area Trac Control
40.1
Introduction
ATC systems are intelligent real-time dynamic trac control systems which are designed to
eectively respond to rapid variations in dynamic trac conditions. It is an advanced process
to control the trac. It is a trac responsive system that use data from vehicle detectors
and optimize trac signal time in real time. The timing plan of trac controllers changed
automatically. The technique employs digital computers for achieving the desired objective.
40.2
Basic principles
The basic system Originally, it was assumed that the power of the digital computer could
be used to control many trac signals from one location, allowing the development of control
plans. The basic concept can be summarized thus: the computer sends out signals along one
or more arterials. There is no feedback of information from detectors in the eld, and the
trac-signal plans are not responsive to actual trac conditions. Earlier,the plans for such a
system are developed based on the engineers usage of data from eld studies to generate plans
either by hand, or by computer,using packages available at the time. The computer solutions
were then run on another machine, or in o hours on the control computer when it was not
being used for control of the trac signals. Though this o-line system of control plans gives
an image of a decient system, there are many advantages of this limited system. These
include:
1. Ability to update signals from a Central Location: The ability to retime signals from
a central location without having to send people along an entire arterial to retime the
signals individually at each intersection saves lot of time.
2. Ability to have multiple plans and special plans: In many localities a three-dial controller
is quite sucient: if trac is generally regular, three basic plans (A.M. peak, P.M. peak,
40.1
January 31, 2014

Library
of plans
2
3
Pattern Plan
X1
P1
X2
P2
Xn
Detector
Controller
confirm signal
Pn
computer pattern
y
4 1
Traffic data
Operator
Figure 40:1: Computer control system with detector information used

o-peak) can meet the needs. The computer opens the possiblity to have an N-dial
controller, with special plans stored for certain days. With appropriate plans stored for
each such event, the plans can be called up by time of day, or by operator intervention.
3. Information on equipment failures: The early systems simply took control of electromechanical controllers, driving the cam-shaft from the central computer and receiving a
conrmation signal. Failure to receive this signal meant trouble. The information provided by the control computer allowed such failures to be detected and repair crews
dispatched.
4. Performance data on contractor or service personnel: With a failure detected and notication made, the system can log the arrival of the crew and/or the time at which the
intersection is returned to active service.
Collection of trac data The ability of a computer to receive great amount of data and
process it is made use of by detectors in the eld for sending information back to the central
location. If the information is not being used in an online setting and hence still does not
inuence the current plan selection. Typically, the computer is being used as the tool for the
collection of permanent or long-term count data.
Trac data used for plan selection Fig. 40:1 shows a computer control system that
actually uses the trac data to aid in plan selection. This can be done in one of three principal
ways:
1. Use library - Monitor deviations from expected pattern: This concept uses a time-of-day
approach, looking up in a library both the expected trac pattern and the preselected plan
matched to the pattern. The actual trac pattern can be compared to the expected, and if a
deviation occurs, the computer can then look through its library for a closer match and use the
appropriate plan.
2. Use library - Match plan to pattern: This is a variation on the rst concept, with the observed
40.2
January 31, 2014
pattern being matched to the most appropriate prestored pattern and the coresponding plan
veing used.
3. Develop plan on-line: This concept depends on the ability to do the necessary computations
within a deadline either as a background task or on a companion computer dedicated to such
a computations. This approach presumes an advantage to tailoring the control plan to specic
trac data.
It is necessary to note that the time between plan updates is constrained by the speed with
which the on-line plan computations can be done. The desire to have more frequent updates
implicitly assumes that the real trac situation can be known precisely enough to dierentiate
between consecutive update periods.
40.2.1
Advantages
The various Advantages of an area trac control system are

Minimizing journey time for vehicles- Are trac control system minimize the overall
journey time by reducing the no of stop delays, increasing the average travel speed etc.
Reducing accidents- Are trac control system reduces the no of accident by reducing
the congestion as congestion is less the trac ow will be smooth so accident also will be
less.
Increasing average saving in fuel- As we discussed above that it will minimize the
journey time, accident, congestion, stop delays so we can easily say that average saving
in fuel will increase and trac ow also will be safe and smooth.
40.2.2
Disadvantages
The various disadvantages of an area trac control system are

Very costly- Area trac control is a very advanced trac control strategy it involve
very advanced technology and highly skilled persons to operate the system to control the
trac which makes it very costly.
Very complex- Area trac control system is a very big system which includes many
unites in it like Vehicle Detectors, Intersection Controller, Communication Network, Application Software, Central (Regional) Control System. These unit is use to perform
dierent-dierent task for the system. These unit and task make it very complex.
40.3
January 31, 2014
Suitable only for lane following trac- In area trac control system we use vehicle
detector to collect the data to nd the actual ow and to get signal timing according to
the present condition of trac. These vehicle detectors detect the vehicle on the basis of
lane. For example we are collecting data for tow lane road then the detectors will able
to detect the vehicle which will come from their respective lane and the vehicle which is
using space other than these two lanes cannot be detected. So data will not be accurate.
So we can say that it will give best result only for lane following trac.
40.3
Major Building Blocks of ATC
Major Building blocks of the Area Trac Control Systems are: Vehicle Detectors, Intersection
Controller, Communication Network, Application Software and Central (Regional) Control
System which are described below:
40.3.1
Vehicle Detectors (VD)
Vehicle Detectors is used to detect the presence of vehicles, to collect data to nd average speed,
vehicle ow, vehicle density, queue length measurement. VD acts as a nodal point between
vehicle and intersection controller. Detector could be of various types example-ultrasonic,
microwave radar, infrared laser radar, non-imaging passive infrared, video imaging, acoustic
array, magnetic loop Inductive loop vehicle detector is commonly used. Fig. 40:2 is showing
example of Vehicle Detectors. In Fig. 40:2 two detectors are shown, 1 is for straight going
trac which will detect the vehicle which will go straight and 2 is right turning trac which
will detect the vehicle which will take right turn from there.
40.3.2
Intersection Controller
It is the micro-macro computer. It placed at intersection for temporary storage of data. It

collects the data from vehicle detector and sends it to the central control. Central control
processed the data and sends it back to the intersection controller which then implements the
signal timings as instructed at the intersection. Intersection controller for each set of trac
signals receives the signal states from the control system.
40.3.3
Communication Network
The communication network transfers data from the signal controller, to the central control
station where optimized signal timings and phases are determined and it again transfers inDr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay
40.4
January 31, 2014
Exit loop for Right turning

traffic
Stop line loop for Straight

going traffic
Figure 40:2: Example of Vehicle Detectors (Source Muralidharan, 2006)

formation to the signal controller as per the data processed. It transfers the data obtained
from detectors to central control which then implements the signal timings as instructed at the
intersection. Fig. 40:3 is showing the communication network.
40.3.4
Application Software
Application software is the software used behind the whole ATC system which performs the
entire task. It is a large and complex program involving multiple systems, various procedures
for implementation. Functions of Application software are: It denes the architecture ows,
activities and functions and user services that planners want to deliver.
Central
Controller
Decision
Data
Intersection
Controller
Signal
Hardware
Vehicle
Detector
Decision
Data
Figure 40:3: Communication Network (Source: Muralidharan, 2006)

40.5
January 31, 2014

Historical/Infrastructure Data
Current Capacities, Travel Times,

Network Disruptions
Network Load
Network Load
Control
(minutes/hours/days) Estimator/Predictor
Network
Loads
Network Flow Platoon Flow Prediction
Network Flow
Control
Estimator/Predictor
(minutes)
Target
Actual
Timings
Timings
Vehicle Flow Prediction Intersection Flow
Intersection
Control
Estimator/Predictor
(seconds)
Control
Signal
Traffic Signal
Activation
ATIS
Actual Travel
Behavior and Traffic
y(t)
Detectors and
Surveillance
Measurements
Figure 40:4: Area trac control architecture (Source:

Head,1998)
40.3.5
Pitu B. Mirchandani, K. Larry
Central Control System
It is the main unit of ATC. In this unit collected trac data is processed to optimize various
trac parameters like-signal timing, phase change, delay Important and major task of ATC
system is performed by this unit. It supervises all the units of ATC.
40.4
Architecture of (ATC)
Fig. 40:4 is showing the arrangement of whole area trac control system with all units of
the system. These unites will be use for dierent-dierent task in the system. It could we
described in three stages. At rst stage estimation of is done, it is done based on the slowvarying characteristics of the network trac load in terms of vehicle per hour than according
to this estimated ATCS allow to allocate green time for each dierent demand for each phase.
At the middle stage trac characteristic are measured in terms of platoons of vehicle and
their speeds and at last stage intersection controller select the suitable phase change based on
observed and predicted arrivals of individual vehicle at each intersection.
40.5
Operational models
An operating model is the abstract representation of how an System operates across process.
Any system is a complex system consisting of several dierent interlinked logical components.
An operating model breaks this complexity into its logical components in order to deliver better
40.6
January 31, 2014
value. Some examples of operational models are SCOOT, SCAT and OPAC which are described
below.
40.5.1
SCOOT (Split Cycle Oset Optimization Technique)
The Split Cycle Oset Optimization Technique (SCOOT) is an urban trac control system
developed by the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) in collaboration with the UK trac
systems industry. It is an adaptive system which responds automatically to trac uctuations.
Prime objective of this is to minimize the sum of the average queues in the area. It is an
elastic coordination plan that can be stretched or shrunk to match the latest trac situation.
Continuously measures trac volumes on all approaches of intersections in the network and
changes the signal timings to minimize a Performance Index (PI) which is a composite measure
of delay, queue length and stops in the network. Each SCOOT cell is able to control up to 60
junctions. Handling input data up to 256 vehicle counting detectors on street. Detectors are
usually positioned 14 m behind the stop line.
Principles of SCOOT
1. Cycle Flow Proles (CFP) measure in real time
2. Update an on-line model of queues continuously
3. Incremental optimization of signal settings
1. Cyclic Flow Proles (CFP)
CFP is a measure of the average one-way ow of vehicles passed at any point on the road
during each part of the cycle time of the upstream signal. It records the platoon of vehicles
successively within a cycle time during peak ow. It updated in every 4 seconds. CFPs
can be measured easily by hand. Shape of the CFP has to be calculated for each one-way
ow along all streets in the area. Accuracy of calculation depends on the accuracy of the
data on average Flows, saturation ows, and cruise times.
2. Queue Estimation
It is necessary to predict new signal timing due to the queues after alteration according
to the situation after knowing CFP, the computer can be programmed to estimate no
of vehicles which will reach the downstream signals during red phase. So size of the
queue and duration to clear the queue can be calculated. In this calculation it is assumed
that the trac platoons travel at a known cruising speed with some dispersion. Queues
40.7
January 31, 2014
discharge during the green time at a saturation ow rate that is known and constant for
each signal stop line.
3. Incremental Optimization
Incremental Optimization is done to measure the coordination plan that it is able to
respond to new trac situations in a series of frequent, but small, increments. It is
necessary because research shows that prediction of trac ow is very dicult for next
few minutes. SCOOT split optimizer calculates whether it is good to advance or retard
the scheduled change by up to 4 s, or to leave it unaltered. It is achieved by split
optimization, oset optimization, cycle time.
(a) Split Optimizer
Works at every change of stage by analyzing the current red and green timings to
determine whether the stage change time should be advanced, retarded or remain
the same. Works in increments of 1 to 4 seconds.
(b) Cycle Time Optimizer
It operates on a region basis once every ve minutes, or every two and a half minutes.
Identies the critical node within the region and will attempt to adjust the cycle
time to maintain this node with 90% link saturation on each stage. It can increase
or decrease the cycle time in 4, 8 or 16 second increments according to the current
requirement of the trac ow.
(c) Oset Optimizer
It works once per cycle for each node. It operates by analyzing the current situation
at each node using the cyclic ow proles predicted for each of the links with upstream or downstream nodes. It assesses whether the existing action time should be
advanced, retarded or remains the same in 4 second increments. Fig. 40:5 is showing
the key elements of the SCOOT ATC system which we described in above points.
Working Principle of SCOOT
Scoot system consists of a number of SCOOT cells or computers, each cell can control up
to 60 junctions and handling input data from up to 256 vehicle counting detectors on street.
SCOOT detectors are placed at 14 m from the stop-line, from the approach to the junction as
possible. Fig. 40:6 clearly shows the working principle of SCOOT where the detectors placed
upstream sense the occupancy and the information is transmitted to the central computer.
SCOOT trac model and optimizers use this information to calculate signal timings to achieve
the best overall compromise for coordination along all links in the SCOOT area. The main aim
40.8
January 31, 2014

11
00
11
00
11
00

Flow
Time in
cycle
11
00
11
00
Cyclic
flow
profile
On line
traffic
model
Queue
Stopline
Signal
optimiser
Red
Split
cycle
offset
Peak period
Successive
cycles
Figure 40:5: Key elements of the SCOOT ATC system (Source: Dennis I. Robertson and R.
David Bretherton 1991)
Vehicle detector
1
0
Data network
1
0
1
0
1
0
11
00
1
0
11
00
11
00
11
00
Signal
Queue
Optimiser estimater
Operator I/O
Online Computer
Figure 40:6: Working Principle of SCOOT (Source: www.scoot-utc.com)

of the SCOOT trac signal control system is to react to changes in observed average trac
demands by making frequent, but small, adjustments to the signal cycle time, green allocation,
and oset of every controlled intersection. For each coordinated area, the system evaluates
every 5 minutes, or 2.5 minutes if appropriate, whether the common cycle time in operation at
all intersections within the area should be changed to keep the degree of saturation of the most
heavily loaded intersection at or below 90%. In normal operation SCOOT estimates whether
any advantage is to be gained by altering the timings. Fig. 40:6 is showing the working principle
of SCOOT. From above g we can have an idea that vehicle will be detected with the help of
vehicle detector. The collected data will be send to intersection controller after that it will be
send to the central controller with the help of communication network. There it will be use to
estimate the signal timing according to the actual trac ow needs. Then the central controller
40.9
January 31, 2014
will send the signal timing to the intersection controller to implement.

Features of SCOOT
1. Variable Message Signs
Scoot display message signs to convey the guidance to the driver which is very helpful for
the drive.
2. Diversions
This feature is provided to deal with any emergency situation for example if any problem
is found out in any lane which is found out with the help of Fault Identication &
Management unit then trac will be diverted from that lane to another lane.
3. Emergency Green Wave Routes
This feature is provided to deal with any hazardous situation.
4. Fixed Time Plan
This plan is applied when any unit of ATCS stopped working so till the time that unit
starts functioning.
Limitations
1. Inability to handle closely spaced signals due to its particular detection conguration
requirements, its require some time to detect vehicle.
2. Interface is dicult to handle, as this is highly technical so dicult to understand and
handle.
3. Trac terminologies are dierent from those used in India.
4. Primarily designed to react to long-term, slow variations in trac demand, and not to
short-term random uctuations.
40.5.2
SCAT (Sydney Coordinated Adaptive Trac)
SCAT (Sydney Co-ordinated Adaptive Trac Control) System was developed by the Roads
and Trac Authority (RTA) of New South Wales, Australia in the late 1970s. It is automated,
real time, trac responsive signal control strategy. Timing of signals is governed by computerbased control logic. It has ability to modify signal timings on a cycle-by-cycle basis using trac
ow information collected at the intersection approach stop lines. It is not model based but
40.10
January 31, 2014

Management
Functions
Strategic
Traffic
control
Regional
Computer

Central
Management
System
Regional
Computer
Regional
Computer
Regional
Computer
Regional
Computer
132
upto 250 per

regional computer
Traffic controllers
tactical traffic control
Figure 40:7: Shows the SCAT Computer Hierarchy (Source: Lowrie, 1982)
has a library of plans that it selects from and therefore banks extensively on available trac
data.
Working Principle
The system is very exible, powerful, expandable, and yields unprecedented monitoring and
management possibilities. The total system is divided into intersection, regional and a central
system management. Distribution of the regional computers is determined by the economics
of communication. Each regional computer maintains autonomous control of its region. Input
data is collected by a system of trac sensors. Sensors may be inductive loop detectors embedded in the pavement or video image devices mounted overhead on the signal strain poles.
The system is designed to auto calibrate itself according to the data received, to minimize the
need for manual calibration and adjustment. Fig. 40:7 shows the SCAT Computer Hierarchy.
It supports four modes of operations
1. Normal Mode- Provide integrated trac responsive operation
2. Fall-Back Mode- Implement the time plans when computer or communication failure
occurs
3. Isolated Control Mode- vehicle actuation with isolated control works
4. Fourth mode- signal display ashing yellow or red at all approaches
Benets of SCAT
1. Travel time and accident reduction, saving in fuel consumption, and reduces air pollution.
40.11
January 31, 2014
2. It replaces the manual collection of data which are required for road Planning.
3. It provides a greater volume of original data with good accuracy level.
Limitations
1. Lacks user-friendly interface features to support day-to-day operations & programming
tasks.
2. The error messages are not easy to read & do not provide the opportunity for corrective
actions by system operators.
3. It is expensive because it includes advanced technology which is expensive and to understand and operate this type of technology person should have very good knowledge.
40.5.3
OPAC (Optimized Policies for Adaptive Control)
It is developed by Parsons Brinkerho Farradyne Inc. and the University of Massachusetts at

Lowell jointly. It is a distributed trac signal control strategy. The network is divided into
sub-networks, which are considered independently for optimization purpose. OPAC breaks
between two models: one for congested networks and the other for uncongested networks.
Feature of OPAC
1. Signal timing is calculated by dynamic optimization algorithm to minimize total intersection delay and stop.
2. Algorithm uses measured and modeled demand to determine phase distribution at each
signal that are constrained by minimum and maximum green time.
Principles behind development of OPAC strategy
1. It must provide better performance than o line methods
2. It should be totally demand responsive. It means to adapt to actual uctuating trac
condition
3. It must not be restricted to any xed control period (e.g. 10 min)
40.12
January 31, 2014
Limitation
1. It is based on the pseudo dynamic programming technique, so it nds result near to
optimal but not exactly optimal.
2. Its performance varies with trac saturation condition. Better in under saturated trac
conditions.
3. It is expensive because it includes advanced technology which is expensive and to understand and operate this type of technology person should have very good knowledge.
40.6
Conclusion
Area trac control system can reduce trac delays, fuel consumption, accident, congestions,
travel time, environmental pollutions substantially and can increase average ow speed. Regarding ATC systems, SCOOT, SCAT and OPAC are popular in advanced countries but such
systems cannot cope up with Indian situations because in India trac is not lane following,
highly mixed trac, uncontrolled side road and on-street parking, Data loss due to power failure
and Availability of funds.
40.7
References
1. Christina M Andrews, S Manzur Elahi, and James E Clark. Evaluation of New Jersey Route 18 OPAC/MIST Trac-Control System. TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH
RECORD 1603, 2019.
2. Pitu B Mirchandani K Larry Head. A real-time trac signal control system: architecture,
algorithms, and analysis. 1998.
4. D I Robertson and R D Bretherton. Optimizing Networks of Trac Signals in Real Time
- The SCOOT Method. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 1991.
5. A G Sims and K W Dobinson. The sydney coordinated adaptive trac (scat) system
philosophy and benets, 1980.
40.13
January 31, 2014
41. Parking Studies
Chapter 41
Parking Studies
41.1
Overview
Parking is one of the major problems that is created by the increasing road trac. It is an
impact of transport development. The availability of less space in urban areas has increased
the demand for parking space especially in areas like Central business district. This aects the
mode choice also. This has a great economical impact.
41.2
Parking system
41.2.1
On street parking
On street parking means the vehicles are parked on the sides of the street itself. This will be
usually controlled by government agencies itself. Common types of on-street parking are as
listed below. This classication is based on the angle in which the vehicles are parked with
respect to the road alignment. As per IRC the standard dimensions of a car is taken as 5 2.5
metres and that for a truck is 3.75 7.5 metres.
1. Parallel parking: The vehicles are parked along the length of the road. Here there is
no backward movement involved while parking or unparking the vehicle. Hence, it is the
most safest parking from the accident perspective. However, it consumes the maximum
curb length and therefore only a minimum number of vehicles can be parked for a given
kerb length. This method of parking produces least obstruction to the on-going trac on
the road since least road width is used. Parallel parking of cars is shown in gure 41:1.
N
The length available to park N number of vehicles, L = 5.9
2. 30 parking: In thirty degree parking, the vehicles are parked at 30 with respect to the
road alignment. In this case, more vehicles can be parked compared to parallel parking.
41.1
January 31, 2014
41. Parking Studies

L
5.9
2.5
5.0
Figure 41:1: Illustration of parallel parking

1.25 4.33
1.25 m
A B
....
4.66 m
5m
2.
5
CD
30
1Q
2
P
Figure 41:2: Illustration of 30 parking

Also there is better maneuverability. Delay caused to the trac is also minimum in this
type of parking. An example is shown in gure 41:2. From the gure,
AB
= OBsin30 =
1.25,
BC
= OP cos30 =
4.33,
BD
= DQcos60 =
5,
CD = BD BC = 5 4.33 = 0.67,
AB + BC
= 1.25 + 4.33 =
5.58
For N vehicles, L = AC + (N-1)CE =5.58+(N-1)5 =0.58+5N

3. 45 parking: As the angle of parking increases, more number of vehicles can be parked.
Hence compared to parallel parking and thirty degree parking, more number of vehicles
can be accommodated in this type of parking. From gure 41:3, length of parking space
available for parking N number of vehicles in a given kerb is L = 3.54 N+1.77
4. 60 parking: The vehicles are parked at 60 to the direction of road. More number of
vehicles can be accommodated in this parking type. From the gure 41:4, length available
for parking N vehicles =2.89N+2.16.
5. Right angle parking: In right angle parking or 90 parking, the vehicles are parked
perpendicular to the direction of the road. Although it consumes maximum width kerb
41.2
January 31, 2014
41. Parking Studies

1.77
45
5.31 m
5.
5
2.
L
60
2.5m

length required is very little. In this type of parking, the vehicles need complex maneuvering and this may cause severe accidents. This arrangement causes obstruction to the
road trac particularly if the road width is less. However, it can accommodate maximum
number of vehicles for a given kerb length. An example is shown in gure 41:5. Length
available for parking N number of vehicles is L = 2.5N.
41.2.2
O street parking
In many urban centres, some areas are exclusively allotted for parking which will be at some
distance away from the main stream of trac. Such a parking is referred to as o-street
2.5
41.3
January 31, 2014
41. Parking Studies

111
000
111 11111
000 00000
111
000
111 11111
000 00000
111
000
111 11111
000 00000
111
000
111 11111
000 00000
111
000
111 11111
000 00000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
ENTRY
EXIT
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
111 111
000 000
111 111
000 000
111 111
000 000
111 111
000 000
111 111
000 000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
Figure 41:6: Illustration of o-street parking

parking. They may be operated by either public agencies or private rms. A typical layout of
an o-street parking is shown in gure 41:6.
41.2.3
Parking requirements
There are some minimum parking requirements for dierent types of building. For residential
plot area less than 300 sq.m require only community parking space. For residential plot area
from 500 to 1000 sq.m, minimum one-fourth of the open area should be reserved for parking.
Oces may require atleast one space for every 70 sq.m as parking area. One parking space
is enough for 10 seats in a restaurant where as theatres and cinema halls need to keep only 1
parking space for 20 seats. Thus, the parking requirements are dierent for dierent land use
zones.
41.2.4
Ill eects of parking
Parking has some ill-eects like congestion, accidents, pollution, obstruction to re-ghting
operations etc.
1. Congestion: Parking takes considerable street space leading to the lowering of the road
capacity. Hence, speed will be reduced, journey time and delay will also subsequently
increase. The operational cost of the vehicle increases leading to great economical loss to
the community.
2. Accidents: Careless maneuvering of parking and unparking leads to accidents which are
referred to as parking accidents. Common type of parking accidents occur while driving
out a car from the parking area, careless opening of the doors of parked cars, and while
bringing in the vehicle to the parking lot for parking.
41.4
January 31, 2014
41. Parking Studies
3. Environmental pollution: They also cause pollution to the environment because stopping and starting of vehicles while parking and unparking results in noise and fumes. They
also aect the aesthetic beauty of the buildings because cars parked at every available
space creates a feeling that building rises from a plinth of cars.
4. Obstruction to re ghting operations: Parked vehicles may obstruct the movement
of reghting vehicles. Sometimes they block access to hydrants and access to buildings.
41.3
Parking statistics
Before taking any measures for the betterment of conditions, data regarding availability of
parking space, extent of its usage and parking demand is essential. It is also required to
estimate the parking fares also. Parking surveys are intended to provide all these information.
Since the duration of parking varies with dierent vehicles, several statistics are used to access
the parking need. The following parking statistics are normally important.
1. Parking accumulation:
It is dened as the number of vehicles parked at a given
instant of time. Normally this is expressed by accumulation curve. Accumulation curve
is the graph obtained by plotting the number of bays occupied with respect to time.
2. Parking volume: Parking volume is the total number of vehicles parked at a given
duration of time. This does not account for repetition of vehicles. The actual volume of
vehicles entered in the area is recorded.
3. Parking load : Parking load gives the area under the accumulation curve. It can also
be obtained by simply multiplying the number of vehicles occupying the parking area at
each time interval with the time interval. It is expressed as vehicle hours.
4. Average parking duration:
vehicles parked.
It is the ratio of total vehicle hours to the number of
parking duration =
parking load
parking volume
(41.1)
5. Parking turnover: It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a duration to the

number of parking bays available. This can be expressed as number of vehicles per bay
per time duration.
parking volume
parking turnover =
(41.2)
no. of bays available
41.5
January 31, 2014
41. Parking Studies
6. Parking index: Parking index is also called occupancy or eciency. It is dened as the
ratio of number of bays occupied in a time duration to the total space available. It gives
an aggregate measure of how eectively the parking space is utilized. Parking index can
be found out as follows
parking index =
parking load
100
parking capacity
(41.3)
Numerical Example
To illustrate the various measures, consider a small example in gure 41:7, which shows the
duration for which each of the bays are occupied(shaded portion). Now the accumulation graph
can be plotted by simply noting the number of bays occupied at time interval of 15, 30, 45 etc.
minutes ias shown in the gure. The various measures are calculated as shown below: Parking
1
2
3
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111111
00000000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111
00000
111111
000000
11111
00000
111111
000000
No. of vehicles
Bays and occupancy
3
2
1
0
15
30
45 60
75
90
105 110
Time
Parking accumulation curve
Figure 41:7: Parking bays and accumulation curve

volume is given as 5 vehicles. Parking load is given as (1+2+1+0+1+2+3+1) 15 = 1115 = 2.75
60
60
2.75 veh hours
= 33 minutes. Parking turnover
veh hour. Average parking duration is computed as
5veh
5 veh/2 hours
2.75 veh hour
= 0.83 veh/hr/bay. Parking index is calculated as 32 veh hours 100=
is obtained as
3bays
45.83%
41.4
Parking surveys
Parking surveys are conducted to collect the above said parking statistics. The most common
parking surveys conducted are in-out survey, xed period sampling and license plate method
of survey.
41.6
January 31, 2014
41.4.1
41. Parking Studies
In-out survey
In this survey, the occupancy count in the selected parking lot is taken at the beginning. Then
the number of vehicles that enter the parking lot for a particular time interval is counted. The
number of vehicles that leave the parking lot is also taken. The nal occupancy in the parking
lot is also taken. Here the labor required is very less. Only one person may be enough. But we
wont get any data regarding the time duration for which a particular vehicle used that parking
lot. Parking duration and turn over is not obtained. Hence we cannot estimate the parking
fare from this survey. For quick survey purposes, a xed period sampling can also be done.
This is almost similar to in-out survey. All vehicles are counted at the beginning of the survey.
Then after a xed time interval that may vary between 15 minutes to i hour, the count is again
taken. Here there are chances of missing the number of vehicles that were parked for a short
duration.
Numerical Example
From an in-out survey conducted for a parking area consisting of 40 bays, the initial count was
found to be 25. Table gives the result of the survey. The number of vehicles coming in and
out of the parking lot for a time interval of 5 minutes is as shown in the table 41:1. Find the
accumulation, total parking load, average occupancy and eciency of the parking lot.
Table 41:1: In-out survey data
Time In Out
5
3
2
10
2
4
15
4
2
20
5
4
25
7
3
30
8
2
35
2
7
40
4
2
45
6
4
50
4
1
55
3
3
60
2
5
41.7
January 31, 2014
41. Parking Studies
Solution The solution is shown in table 41:2
Time
(1)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Table 41:2: In-out parking survey solution

In Out Accumulation Occupancy Parking load
(2) (3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
3
2
26
65
130
2
4
24
60
120
4
2
26
65
130
5
4
27
67.5
135
7
3
31
77.5
155
8
2
37
92.5
185
2
7
32
80
160
4
2
34
85
170
6
4
36
90
180
4
1
39
97.5
195
3
3
39
97.5
195
2
5
36
90
180
Total
1735
Accumulation can be found out as initial count plus number of vehicles that entered the
parking lot till that time minus the number of vehicles that just exited for that particular
time interval. For the rst time interval of 5 minutes, accumulation can be found out as
25+3-2 = 26. It is being tabulated in column 4.
Occupancy or parking index is given by equation For the rst time interval of ve min26
utes, P arking index = 40 100 = 65%. The occupancy for the remaining time slot is
similarly calculated and is tabulated in column 5. Average occupancy is the average of
the occupancy values for each time interval. Thus it is the average of all values given in
column 5 and the value is 80.63%.
Parking load is tabulated in column 6. It is obtained by multiplying accumulation with
the time interval. For the rst time interval, parking load = 26 5 = 130 vehicle minutes.
Total parking load is the summation of all the values in column 5 which is equal to 1935
vehicle minutes or 32.25 vehicle hours
41.8
January 31, 2014
41.4.2
41. Parking Studies
License plate method of survey
This results in the most accurate and realistic data. In this case of survey, every parking stall
is monitored at a continuous interval of 15 minutes or so and the license plate number is noted
down. This will give the data regarding the duration for which a particular vehicle was using
the parking bay. This will help in calculating the fare because fare is estimated based on the
duration for which the vehicle was parked. If the time interval is shorter, then there are less
chances of missing short-term parkers. But this method is very labor intensive.
Numerical Example
The parking survey data collected from a parking lot by license plate method is s shown in
the table 41:3 below. Find the average occupancy, average turn over, parking load, parking
capacity and eciency of the parking lot.
Table 41:3: Licence plate parking
Bay
Time
0-15 15-30 30-45
1
1456 9813
2
1945 1945 1945
3
3473 5463 5463
4
3741 3741 9758
5
1884 1884
6
7357
7
4895 4895
8
8932 8932 8932
9
7653 7653 8998
10 7321
2789
11 1213 1213 3212
12 5678 6678 7778
survey data
45-60
5678
1945
5463
4825
7594
7893
4895
4821
2789
4778
8888
Solution See the following table for solution 41:4. Columns 1 to 5 is the input data. The
parking status in every bay is coded rst. If a vehicle occupies that bay for that time interval,
then it has a code 1. This is shown in columns 6, 7, 8 and 9 of the table corresponding to the
time intervals 15, 30, 45 and 60 seconds.
41.9
January 31, 2014
Table 41:4: Licence

Bay
Time
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
15
30
45
1
1456
9813
2
1945
1945 1945
3
3473
5463 5463
4
3741
3741 9758
5
1884
1884
6
7357
7
4895 4895
8
8932
8932 8932
9
7653
7653 8998
10
7321
2789
11
1213
1213 3212
12
5678
6678 7778
Accumulation
Occupancy
41. Parking Studies
plate parking survey solution

Time
(5)
(6) (7) (8) (9)
(10)
60
15
30
45
60 Turn over
5678
1
1
0
1
3
1945
1
1
1
1
1
5463
1
1
1
1
2
4825
1
1
1
1
3
7594
1
1
0
1
2
7893
0
1
0
1
2
4895
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
4821
1
1
1
1
3
2789
1
0
1
1
2
4778
1
1
1
1
3
8888
1
1
1
1
4
10
11
9
11
0.83 0.92 0.75 0.92
2.25
41.10
January 31, 2014
41. Parking Studies
Turn over is computed as the number of vehicles present in that bay for that particular
hour. For the rst bay, it is counted as 3. Similarly, for the second bay, one vehicle is
present throughout that hour and hence turnout is 1 itself. This is being tabulated in
Sum of turnover
column 10 of the table. Average turn over = Total number of bays = 2.25
Accumulation for a time interval is the total of number of vehicles in the bays 1 to 12 for
that time interval. Accumulation for rst time interval of 15 minutes = 1+1+1+1+1+0+0+1+1+1+1
= 10
Parking volume = Sum of the turn over in all the bays = 27 vehicles
Average duration is the average time for which the parking lot was used by the vehicles.
It can be calculated as sum of the accumulation for each time interval time interval
divided by the parking volume = (10+11+9+11)15 = 22.78 minutes/vehicle.
27
Occupancy for that time interval is accumulation in that particular interval divided by
total number of bays. For rst time interval of 15 minutes, occupancy = (10100)/12 =
83% Average occupancy is found out as the average of total number of vehicles occupying
the bay for each time interval. It is expressed in percentage. Average occupancy =
0.83+0.92+0.75+0.92
100 = 85.42%.
4
Parking capacity = number of bays number of hours = 12 1 = 12 vehicle hours
Parking load = total number of vehicles accumulated at the end of each time interval
time = (10+11+9+11)15 = 10.25 vehicle hours
60
Eciency =
41.5
Parking load
Total number of bays
10.25
12
= 85.42%.
Summary
Providing suitable parking spaces is a challenge for trac engineers and planners in the scenario
of ever increasing vehicle population. It is essential to conduct trac surveys in order to design
the facilities or plan the fares. Dierent types of parking layout, surveys and statistics were
discussed in this chapter.
41.6
References

New Delhi, 1987.
41.11
January 31, 2014
42. Accident Studies
Chapter 42
Accident Studies
42.1
Overview
This lecture covers one of the most important negative impact of transportation system, namely
the accidents. This lecture rst presents some introductory stu including some salient accident
statistics, causes of accidents, accident data collection, accident reconstruction, safety measures
and safety audit.
42.2
Introduction
The problem of accident is a very acute in highway transportation due to complex ow pattern
of vehicular trac, presence of mixed trac along with pedestrians. Trac accident leads to
loss of life and property. Thus the trac engineers have to undertake a big responsibility of
providing safe trac movements to the road users and ensure their safety. Road accidents
cannot be totally prevented but by suitable trac engineering and management the accident
rate can be reduced to a certain extent. For this reason systematic study of trac accidents are
required to be carried out. Proper investigation of the cause of accident will help to propose
preventive measures in terms of design and control.
42.2.1
Objectives of accident studies
Some objectives of accident studies are listed below:

1. To study the causes of accidents and suggest corrective measures at potential location
2. To evaluate existing design
3. To compute the nancial losses incurred
42.1
January 31, 2014
4. To support the proposed design and provide economic justication to the improvement
suggested by the trac engineer
5. To carry out before and after studies and to demonstrate the improvement in the problem.
42.2.2
Causes of road accidents
The various causes of road accidents are:

1. Road Users - Excessive speed and rash driving, violation of trac rules, failure to perceive trac situation or sign or signal in adequate time, carelessness, fatigue, alcohol,sleep
etc.
2. Vehicle - Defects such as failure of brakes, steering system, tyre burst,lighting system .
3. Road Condition - Skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts.
4. Road design - Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance, inadequate
width of shoulders, improper curve design, improper trac control devices and improper
lighting,.
5. Environmental factors -unfavourable weather conditions like mist, snow, smoke and
heavy rainfall which restrict normal visibility and and makes driving unsafe.
6. Other causes -improper location of advertisement boards, gate of level crossing not
closed when required etc..
42.2.3
Accident statistics
The statistical analysis of accident is carried out periodically at critical locations or road
stretches which will help to arrive at suitable measures to eectively decrease accident rates. It
is the measure (or estimates) of the number and severity of accident. These statistics reports
are to be maintained zone-wise. Accident prone stretches of dierent roads may be assessed by
nding the accident density per length of the road. The places of accidents are marked on the
map and the points of their clustering (BLACK SPOT) are determined. By statistical study
of accident occurrence at a particular road or location or zone of study for a long period of
time it is possible to predict with reasonable accuracy the probability of accident occurrence
per day or relative safety of dierent classes of road user in that location. The interpretation of
the statistical data is very important to provide insight to the problem. The position of India
in the year 2009 in country-wise number of person killed per 100000 populations as shown in
42.2
January 31, 2014
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Philippines 1.21
Niger 1.68
Japan
4.04
U.K.
4.13
Germany
5.45
China
5.55
France
6.86
7.39
Denmark
Australia
7.48
Italy
7.91
Canada
8.27
Indonesia
8.88
India
10.83
12.08
Korea, Republic of
U.S.A.
12.25
Jordan
12.53
Kuwait
16.26
Qatar
17.49
Brazil
18.57
Russian Federation
21.06
Malaysia
24.16
South Africa
31.18
Anguilla
31.25
Figure 42:1: Country-wise number of person killed per 100000 populations (Ref. Ministry of
Road Transport and Highways Transport Research Wing)
the Figure 42:1 and the increase in rate of accident from year 2005 to year 2009 is shown in
the table. 42:1. In 2009, 14 accidents occurred per hour.
Figure 42:2 and 42:3 gives the
percent of accident occurring from a specic vehicle class and the causes of accident in the form
of pie-chart. Since the data collection of accident is mostly done by the trac police its the
users who are put to blame in majority of cases. Thus such statistical records are not much
useful for the trac engineer.
42.3
Accident Analysis
42.3.1
Accident data collection
The accident data collection is the rst step in the accident study. The data collection of
the accidents is primarily done by the police. Motorist accident reports are secondary data
which are led by motorists themselves. The data to be collected should comprise all of these
parameters:
1. General - Date, time, person involved in accident, classication of accident like fatal,
serious, minor
2. Location - Description and detail of location of accident
42.3
January 31, 2014
Table 42:1: Number of Accidents and Number of Persons Involved : 2001 to 2009(Ref. Ministry
of Road Transport and Highways Transport Research Wing)
No. of Accidents No. of persons aected
Accident severity
Year
Total
Fatal
Killed
Injured
(No. of persons killed
per 100 accidents)
2005 4,39,255 83,491
94,968
4,65,282
22
2006 4,60,920 93,917 1,05,749
4,96,481
23
2007 4,79,216 1,01,161 1,14,444
5,13,340
24
2008 4,84,704 1,06,591 1,19,860
5,23,193
25
2009 4,86,384 1,10,993 1,25,660
5,15,458
25.8
7.9
10.9
22.4
22.6
6.9
8.7
20.6
Auto Rickshaws
Car, Jeeps, Taxis
Others
Trucks, Tempos, MAVs, Tractors
Figure 42:2: Percent share in total road accident by type of motor vehicle involved (Primary
responsible) in year 2009 (Ref. Ministry of Road Transport and Highways Transport Research
Wing)
42.4
January 31, 2014

0.8
1.3
1.8
2.2
1.2
14.2
78.5
Fault of driver
Fault of Pedestrian
All Other Causes
Fault of cyclist
Defect in condition of Motor Vehicle
Weather Condition
Figure 42:3: Causes of road accident in year 2009 (Ref. Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways Transport Research Wing)
3. Details of vehicle involved - Registration number, description of vehicle, loading detail,
vehicular defects
4. Nature of accident - Details of collision, damages, injury and casualty
5. Road and trac condition - Details of road geometry, surface characteristics,type of
trac, trac density etc..
6. Primary causes of accident - Details of various possible cases (already mentioned)
which are the main causes of accident.
7. Accident cost - Financial losses incurred due to property damage, personal injury and
casualty
These data collected need proper storing and retrieving for the following purpose. The purposes
are as follows:
1. Identication of location of points at which unusually high number of accident occur.
2. Detailed functional evaluation of critical accident location to identify the causes of accidents.
3. Development of procedure that allows identication of hazards before large number of
accidents occurs.
4. Development of dierent statistical measures of various accident related factors to give
insight into general trends, common casual factors, driver proles, etc.
42.5
January 31, 2014
42.3.2
Accident investigation
The accident data collection involves extensive investigation which involves the following procedure:
1. Reporting: It involves basic data collection in form of two methods:
(a) Motorist accident report - It is led by the involved motorist involved in all
accidents fatal or injurious.
(b) Police accident report - It is led by the attendant police ocer for all accidents
at which an ocer is present. This generally includes fatal accidents or mostly
accidents involving serious injury required emergency or hospital treatment or which
have incurred heavy property damage.
2. At Scene-Investigation: It involves obtaining information at scene such as measurement of skid marks, examination of damage of vehicles, photograph of nal position of
vehicles, examination of condition and functioning of trac control devices and other
road equipments.
3. Technical Preparation: This data collection step is needed for organization and interpretation of the study made. In this step measurement of grades, sight distance, preparing
drawing of after accident situation, determination of critical and design speed for curves
is done.
4. Professional Reconstruction: In this step eort is made to determine from whatever
data is available how the accident occurs from the available data. This involves accident
reconstruction which has been discussed under Section No.7 in details. It is professionally
referred as determining behavioral or mediate causes ofaccident.
5. Cause Analysis: It is the eort made to determine why the accident occurred from the
data available and the analysis of accident reconstruction studies..
42.3.3
Accident data analysis
The purpose is to nd the possible causes of accident related to driver, vehicle, and roadway.
Accident analyses are made to develop information such as:
1. Driver and Pedestrian - Accident occurrence by age groups and relationships of accidents
to physical capacities and to psychological test results.
42.6
January 31, 2014
2. Vehicle - Accident occurrence related to characteristic of vehicle, severity, location and

extent of damage related to vehicles.
3. Roadway conditions - Relationships of accident occurrence and severity to characteristics
of the roadway and roadway condition and relative values of changes related to roadways.
It is important to compute accident rate which reect accident involvement by type of highway.
These rates provide a means of comparing the relative safety of dierent highway and street
system and trac controls. Another is accident involvement by the type of drivers and vehicles
associated with accidents.
1. Accident Rate per Kilometre :
On this basis the total accident hazard is expressed as the number of accidents of all types
per km of each highway and street classication.
R=
A
L
(42.1)
where, R = total accident rate per km for one year, A = total number of accident occurring in one year, L = length of control section in kms
2. Accident involvement Rate :

It is expressed as numbers of drivers of vehicles with certain characteristics who were
involved in accidents per 100 million vehicle-kms of travel.
R=
N 100000000
V
(42.2)
where,R = accident involvement per 100 million vehicle-kms of travel, N = total number
of drivers of vehicles involved in accidents during the period of investigation and V =
vehicle-kms of travel on road section during the period of investigation
3. Death rate based on population :

The trac hazard to life in a community is expressed as the number of trac fatalities
per 100,000 populations. This rate reects the accident exposure for entire area.
R=
B 100000
P
(42.3)
where, R = death rate per 100,000 population, B = total number of trac death in one
year and P = population of area
42.7
January 31, 2014
4. Death rate based on registration :

The trac hazard to life in a community can also be expressed as the number of trac
fatalities per 10,000 vehicles registered. This rate reects the accident exposure for entire
area and is similar to death rate based on population.
R=
B 10000
M
(42.4)
where, R = death rate per 10,000 vehicles registered, B = total number of trac death
in one year and M = number of motor vehicles registered in the area
5. Accident Rate based on vehicle-kms of travel :

The accident hazard is expressed as the number of accidents per 100 million vehicle km
of travel. The true exposure to accident is nearly approximated by the miles of travel of
the motor vehicle than the population or registration.
R=
C 100000000
V
(42.5)
where, R = accident rate per 100 million vehicle kms of travel, C = number of total
accidents in one year and V = vehicle kms of travel in one year
Numerical Example
The Motor vehicle consumption in a city is 5.082 million liters, there were 3114 motor vehicle
fatalities, 355,799 motor vehicle injuries, 6,721,049 motor vehicle registrations and an estimated
population of 18,190,238. Kilometer of travel per liter of fuel is 12.42 km/liter. Calculate
registration death rate, population death rate and accident rate per vehicle km.
Solution Approximate vehicle kms of travel = Total consumption o fuel kilometer of travel
per liter of fuel =5.08 109 12.42 = 63.1 109 km.
1. Registration death rate can be obtained from the equation
R=
B 10, 000
M
Here, R is the death rate per 10,000 vehicles registered, B (Motor vehicle fatalities) is
3114, M (Motor vehicle registered) is 6.72 106 . Hence,
R=
3114 10000
= 4.63
6.72 106
42.8
January 31, 2014
2. Population Death Rate can be obtained from the equation.

R=
B 100, 000
P
Here, R is the death rate per 100,000 population, B (Motor vehicle fatalities) is 3114, P
(Estimated population) is= 18.2 106 .
R=
3114 100000
= 17.1
18.2 106
3. Accident rate per vehicle kms of travel can be obtained from the equation below as:
R=
C 100, 000, 000

V
Here, R is the accident rate per 100 million vehicle kms of travel, C (total accident same
as vehicle fatalities) is 3114, V (vehicle kms of travel) is 63.1 109 .
R=
42.4
3114 100 106

= 4.93
63.1 109
Accident reconstruction
Accident reconstruction deals with representing the accidents occurred in schematic diagram to
determine the pre-collision speed which helps in regulating or enforcing rules to control or check
movement of vehicles on road at high speed. The following data are required to determine the
pre-collision speed:
1. Mass of the vehicle
2. Velocities after collision
3. Path of each vehicle as it approaches collision point
Below in Figure 42:4 a schematic diagram of collision of two vehicles is shown that occur
during turning movements. This diagram is also known as collision diagram. Each collision is
represented by a set of arrows to show the direction of before and after movement. The collision
diagram provides a powerful visual record of accident occurrence over a signicant period of
time. The collision may be of two types collinear impact or angular collision. Below each of
them are described in detail. Collinear impact can be again divided into two types :
1. Rear end collision
42.9
January 31, 2014
Figure 42:4: Collision diagram of two vehicles

a)
v1
v2
Car 1
Car 2
b)
Car 1
c)
Car 2
u1
Car 1
u2
Car 2
Figure 42:5: Compression Phase

2. Head-on collision.
It can be determined by two theories:
1. Poisson Impact Theory
2. Energy Theory
42.4.1
Poisson impact theory
Poisson impact theory, divides the impact in two parts - compression and restitution. The
Figure 42:5 shows two vehicles travelling at an initial speed of v1 and v2 collide and obtain a
uniform speed say u at the compression stage. And after the compression stage is over the nal
speed is u1 and u2 . The compression phase is cited by the deformation of the cars. From the
Newtons law F = ma,
dv1
dv2
m1
= F and m2
=F
(42.6)
dt
dt
where, m1 and m2 are the masses of the cars and F is the contact force. We know that every
reaction has equal and opposite action. So as the rear vehicle pushes the vehicle ahead with
42.10
January 31, 2014
Car 1
Car 2
Figure 42:6: Force applied on each vehicle

force F . The vehicle ahead will also push the rear vehicle with same magnitude of force but
has dierent direction. The action force is represented by F , whereas the reaction force is
represented by F as shown in Figure 42:6. In the compression phase cars are deformed. The
compression phase terminates when the cars have equal velocity. Thus the cars obtain equal
velocity which generates the following equation:
m1 (u v1 ) = Pc m2 (u v2 ) = Pc
(42.7)
where, Pc 0 c F dt which is the compression impulse and c is the compression time. Thus,
the velocity after collision is obtained as:
m1 v1 + m2 v2
m1 + m2
(42.8)
m1 m2
(v1 v2 )
m1 + m2
(42.9)
u=
The compression impulse is given by:
Pc =
In the restitution phase the elastic part of internal energy is released

m1 (u1 u) = Pr
(42.10)
m2 (u2 u) = Pr
(42.11)
where, Pr 0 r F dt is the restitution impulse and r is the restitution time. According to

Poissons hypothesis restitution impulse is proportional to compression impulse
Pr = e Pc
Restitution impulse e is given by:
e=
u2 u1
v1 v2
(42.12)
(42.13)
The total impulse is P = Pc + Pr

P = (1 + e)
m1 m2
v
m1 + m2
42.11
(42.14)
January 31, 2014
The post impact velocities are given by:

(1 + e)m2
v
m1 + m2
(1 + e)m1
v
= u + e m1m1 2 v = v2 +
+m
m1 + m2
u1 = u e m1m2 2 v = v1
+m
(42.15)
u2
(42.16)
where v = v1 v2 . But we are required to determine the pre-collision speed according to

which the safety on the road can be designed. So we will determine v1 and v2 from the given
value of u1 and u2 .
Numerical Example
Two vehicles travelling in the same lane have masses 3000 kg and 2500 kg. The velocity of
rear vehicles after striking the leader vehicle is 25 kmph and the velocity of leader vehicle is 56
kmph. The coecient of restitution of the two vehicle system is assumed to be 0.6. Determine
the pre-collision speed of the two vehicles.
Solution Given that the: mass of the rst vehicle (m1 ) = 3000 kg, mass of the second vehicle
(m2 ) = 2500 kg, minal speed of the rear vehicle (u1 ) = 25 kmph, and minal speed of the leader
vehicle (u2 ) = 56 kmph. Let initial speed of the rear vehicle be v1 , and let initial speed of the
leader vehicle be v2 .
Step 1: From equation. 42.15,
(1.6)2.5(v1 v2 )
(3 + 2.5)
= 137.5
25 = v1
5.5v1 4v1 + 4v2
4v2 1.5v1 = 137.5
(42.17)
Step 2: From equation. 42.16,

56 = v2 +
(1.6)3(v1 v2 )
(3 + 2.5)
5.5 v2 + 4.8 v1 4.8v2 = 308

4.8 v1 0.7 v2 = 308
(42.18)
Step 3: Solving equations. 42.17 and 42.18, We get the pre collision speed of two vehicles
as: v1 = 73 kmph, and v2 = 62 kmph.
Step 4: Initial speed of the rear vehicle, v1 = 73 kmph, and the initial speed of leader
vehicle, v2 = 62 kmph. Thus from the result we can infer that the follower vehicle was travelling
at quite high speed which may have resulted in the collision. The solution to the problem may
be speed restriction in that particular stretch of road where accident occurred.
42.12
January 31, 2014
42.4.2
Energy theory
Applying principle of conservation of energy or conservation of momentum also the initial speed
of the vehicle can be computed if the skid marks are known. It is based on the concept that
there is reduction in kinetic energy with the work done against the skid resistance. So if the
vehicle of weight W slow down from speed v1 to v2 , then the loss in kinetic energy will be equal
to the work done against skid resistance, where work done is weight of the vehicle multiplied
by the skid distance and the skid resistance coecient.
2
2
W (v1 v2 )
= W.f.S
2g
(42.19)
where, f is the skid resistance coecient and S is the skid distance. It also follows the law
of conservation of momentum (m1 , v1 are the mass and velocity of rst vehicle colliding with
another vehicle of mass and velocity m2 , v2 respectively)
m1 v1 = m2 v2
(42.20)
Numerical example
A vehicle of 2000 kg skids a distance of 36 m before colliding with a stationary vehicle of 1500
kg weight. After collision both vehicle skid a distance of 14 m. Assuming coecient of friction
0.5, determine the initial speed of the vehicle.
Solution: Let the weight of the moving vehicle is WA , let the weight of the stationary
vehicle is WB , skid distance before and after collision is s1 and s2 respectively, initial speed is
v1 , speed after applying brakes before collision is v2 and the speed of both the vehicles A and
B after collision is v3 , and the nal speed v4 is 0. Then:
1. After collision: Loss in kinetic energy of both cars = Work done against skid resistance
(can be obtained from equation mentioned below). Substituting the values we obtain v3 .
2
2
(WA + WB ) (v3 v4 )
= (WA + WB ).f.s2
2g
(v3 )2
= 0.5 14 = 7
2g
v3 = 11.71m/s
42.13
January 31, 2014
2. At collision: Momentum before impact = momentum after impact (can be obtained from
equation. 42.20)
WA .v2
(WA + WB )v3
=
g
g
(WA + WB )v3
v2 =
WA
v2 = 20.5m/s
3. Before collision (can be obtained from equation. 42.19): Loss in kinetic energy of moving
vehicle = work done against braking force in reducing the speed
2
2
(WA ) (v1 v2 )
= WA .f.s1
2g
2
2
(v1 v2 )
= 0.5 36
2g
v1 = 27.8 m/s = 100 kmph
Ans: The pre-collision speed of the moving vehicle is 100 kmph.
42.4.3
Angular collision
Angular collision occurs when two vehicles coming at right angles collies with each other and
bifurcates in dierent direction. The direction of the vehicles after collision in this case depends
on the initial speeds of the two vehicles and their weights. One general case is that two vehicles
coming from south and west direction after colliding move in its resultant direction as shown
in Figure 42:7.
The mass of the car 1 is m1 kg and the car 2 is m2 kg and the initial velocity is v1 m/s and v2
m/s respectively. So as the momentum is the product of mass and velocity. The momentum of
the car 1 and car 2 is m1 v1 kgm/s and m2 v2 kgm/s respectively. By the law of conservation of
momentum the nal momentum should be equal to the initial momentum. But as the car are
approaching each other at an angle the nal momentum should not be just mere summation of
both the momentum but the resultant of the two, Resultant momentum = (m1 v1 )2 + (m2 v2 )2
kg m/s. The angle at which they are bifurcated after collision is given by tan1 (h/b) where
h is the hypotenuse and b is the base. Therefore, the cars are inclined at an angle. Inclined
at an angle = tan1 (m2 v2 /m1 v1 ). Now, since the mass of the two vehicles are same the nal
velocity will proportionally be changed. The general schematic diagrams of collision are shown
in Figs. 42:8 to 42:10.
42.14
January 31, 2014
Car 1
Car 2
Car 1
Car 2
Figure 42:7: Angular collision of two vehicles resulting in movement in resultant direction
Figure 42:8: After collision movement of car 1 north of west and car 2 in east of north
42.15
January 31, 2014
1
2
Figure 42:9: After collision movement of car 1 and car 2 in north of east
2
2
Figure 42:10: After collision movement of car 1 north of east and car 2 in south of east
42.16
January 31, 2014
Numerical example
Vehicle A is approaching from west and vehicle B from south. After collision A skids 600 north
of east and B skids 300 south of east as shown in Figure 42:10. Skid distance before collision
for A is 18 m and B is 26 m. The skid distances after collision are 30m and 15 m respectively.
Weight of A and B are 4500 and 6000 respectively. Skid resistance of pavement is 0.55 m.
Determine the pre-collision speed.
Solution Let: initial speed is vA1 and vB1 , speed after skidding before collision is vA2 and
vB2 , speed of both the vehicles A and B after collision is vA3 and vB3 , nal speed is vA4 and
vB4 is 0, initial skid distance for A and B is sA1 and sB1 , nal skid distance for A and B is sA2
and sB2 , and weight of vehicle A is WA and Weight of vehicle B is WB .
1. After collision: Loss in kinetic energy of each cars= Work done against skid resistance
(can be obtained from equation. 42.19)
2
WA vA3
= WA f sA2
2g
As vA4 = 0, it is not considered in the above equation

vA3 =
2gf sA2
vA3 = 18 m/s
Similarly, we calculate vB3 using the similar formula and using sB2
vB3 = 12.7 m/s
2. At collision: Momentum before impact is momentum after impact (resolving along westeast direction and using equation. 42.20)
WA
WB
WA
vA2 + 0 =
cos BvB3 +
cos AvA3
g
g
g
WB
cos BvB3 + cos AvA3
vA2 =
WA
6
=
cos 30 12.7 + cos 60 18
4.5
vA2 = 23.66 m/s.
42.17
January 31, 2014
Resolving the moments along south- north direction

WB
WA
WB
vB2 + 0 =
sin AvA3
sin BvB3
g
g
g
WA
vB2 =
sin AvA3 sin BvB3
WB
4.5
sin 60 12.7 sin 30 18
=
6
vB2 = 5.34 m/s
3. Before collision: Loss in kinetic energy of each cars= Work done against skid resistance
(can be obtained from equation. 42.19)
2
2
WA (vA1 vA2 )
= WA .f.sA2
2g
vA1 =
2
2gf sA1 + vA2
= 27.45m/s = 99 km/hr
Similarly, using the same equation and using sB2
vB1 =
2
2gf sB1 + vB2
= 17.57m/s = 63.26 km/hr

Answer: The pre-collision speed of the vehicle A (approaching from west) is vA1 = 99
km/hr and vehicle B (approaching from south) is vB1 = 63.26 km/hr.
42.5
Safety measures
The ultimate goal is to develop certain improvement measures to mitigate the circumstances
leading to the accidents. The measures to decrease the accident rates are generally divided
into three groups engineering, enforcement and education. Some safety measures are described
below:
42.5.1
Safety measures related to engineering
The various measures of engineering that may be useful to prevent accidents are enumerated
below
42.18
January 31, 2014
Visual guidance to driver

There is consecutive change of picture in drivers mind while he is in motion. The number of
factors that the driver can distinguish and clearly x in his mind is limited. On an average the
perception time for vision is 1/16th , for hearing is 1/20th and for muscular reaction is 1/20th .
The number of factors that can be taken into account by organs of sense of a driver in one
second is given by the formula below.
E = MV /L
(42.21)
where, M = No. of factors that can be taken into account by the organ of sense of driver for L
m long, V = speed of vehicle in m/sec. Factors aecting drivers attention when he is on road
can be divided into three groups:
1. Factors relating to the road elements of road that directly aect the driving of a vehicle
are trac signs, changes in direction of road, three legged intersection and various other
things.
2. Factors connected with trac Other vehicles, cycles, pedestrians.
3. Factors related indirectly to the vehicle motion Building and structures that strike the
eye, vegetation, landscape, etc.
So using the laws of visual perception certain measures have been suggested:
1. Contrast in visibility of the road should be achieved by provision of elements that dier
from its surrounding by colours, pattern such as shoulder strips, shoulder covered with
grass, edge markings.
2. Providing road side vegetation is an eective means.
3. The visibility of crown of trees from a distant location is also very useful in visual guiding.
4. The provision of guard rails of dierent contrasting colours also takes drivers attention
and prevent from monotonous driving.
Figure 42:11 and 42:12 is a visual guidance measure. Planting trees along side of roadway
which has a turning angle attracts attention of the driver and signals that a turn is present
ahead. The gure below is another example, when the direction of road has a hazardous atgrade intersection trees are planted in such a way that it seems that there is dense forest ahead
and driver automatically tends to stop or reduce the speed of the vehicle so that no conicts
occur at that point. Driver tends to extrapolate the further direction of the road. So it is the
responsibility of the trac engineer to make the driver psychologically condent while driving
that reduces the probability of error and prevent mental strain.
42.19
January 31, 2014
Local Road
Highway
Figure 42:11: Bifurcation of the highway
Figure 42:12: Road seemed to be stopped by a dense forest
42.20
January 31, 2014
Before
After
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
N
111
000
111
000
1
0
1
0
1
0
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
1
0
1
0
1
0
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
Figure 42:13: Diagram of accidents before and after reconstruction

Road reconstruction
The number of vehicles on the road increases from year to year, which introduces complications
into organization of trac, sharply reduces the operation and transportation characteristic of
roads and lead to the growth of accident rate. This leads to the need of re constructing road.
The places of accidents need to be properly marked so that the reconstruction can be planned
accordingly. The Figure 42:13 shows that there were too many conict points before which
reduced to a few number after construction of islands at proper places. Reconstruction process
may also include construction of a new road next to the existing road, renewal of pavement
without changing the horizontal alignment or prole of the road, reconstruction a particular
section of road. Few more examples of reconstruction of selected road section to improve
trac safety are shown in Figure 42:14. The Figure 42:14 (a) shows separation of direction
of main stream of trac from the secondary ones by shifting place of three-leg intersection,
Figure 42:14(b) shows separation of roads with construction of connection between them and
Figure 42:14(c) shows the construction of additional lane for turning vehicles. The plus sign
indicates the conict points before the road reconstruction has been carried out. The after
reconstruction gure shows that just by little alteration of a section of road how the conict
points have been resolved and smooth ow of the vehicles in an organized manner have been
obtained.
Channelization
The channelization of trac at intersection separates the trac stream travelling in dierent
direction, providing them a separate lane that corresponds to their convenient path and spreading as far as possible the points of conict between crossing trac streams. The trac lanes
42.21
January 31, 2014

(a)

L
L
B
M
B
M
(b)
+
+
+
++
+
(c)
++ +
Before
After
Figure 42:14: Road reconstruction technique

are separated by marking relevant lines or by constructing slightly elevated islands as shown
in Figure 42:15. Proper channelization reduces confusion. The number of decision required to
be made by the driver at any time is reduced allowing the driver time to make next decision.
The principles of proper channelized intersection are:1. The layout of intersection should be visibly clear, simple and understandable by driver.
2. Should ensure superiority to the vehicles using road of higher class.
3. Layout of intersection makes it necessary for a driver running through it to choose at each
moment of time one of not more than two possible direction of travel. This is achieved
by visual guidance, islands and markings.
4. The island provided should separate high speed, through and turning trac ows.
5. The width of trac lane should ensure unhampered turning to the big vehicles. Width of
straight section without kerb should be 3.5 m and that of trac lane near island is 4.5-5
m at entry and 6 m at exit.
6. Pedestrian crossing should be provided
42.22
January 31, 2014
(a)
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111 11111111111
00000 00000000000
1111111111
0000000000
11111
00000
1111111111
0000000000
11111 11111111111
00000 00000000000
1111
0000
1111111111
0000000000
11111111111
00000000000
1111
0000
1111111111
0000000000
11111111111
00000000000
1111111111
0000000000
11111111111
00000000000
1111111111
0000000000
(b)
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111
000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111
000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111
000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111
000000
11111111 111111111111111
00000000 000000000000000
1111111
0000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111
000000
11111111 111111111111111
00000000 000000000000000
1111111
0000000
111111
000000
11111111
00000000 111111111111111
1111111
0000000
1111111 11
0000000 00 111111111111111
111111
000000
11111111 000000000000000
00000000 000000000000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
11111111 111111111111111
00000000 000000000000000
1111111
0000000
11111111
00000000 111111111111111
1111111
0000000
11111111 000000000000000
00000000 000000000000000
111111111111111
1111111
0000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
1111111
0000000
a) Partially channelized intersection

b) Fully channelized intersection
Figure 42:15: Channelized Intersection ensuring safety

Road signs
Road signs are integral part of safety as they ensure safety of the driver himself (warning signs)
and safety of the other vehicles and pedestrians on road (regulatory signs). Driver should be
able to read the sign from a distance so that he has enough time to understand and respond. It is
essential that they are installed and have correct shape, colour, size and location. It is required
to maintain them as well, without maintenance in sound condition just their installment would
not be benecial. According to British investigation height of text in road sign should be
H =
(N + 6)v 3
+ L
64
4
Where, N = No. of words on the sign, v = speed of vehicle (kmph), L = distance from which
inscription should be discernable (m)
Other methods
Various other methods of trac accident mitigation are described below:
1. Street lighting
Street lightning of appropriate standard contributes to safety in urban area during night
time due to poor visibility. Installation of good lighting results in 21% reduction in all
accidents, 29% reduction in all casualty accidents, 21% reduction in non pedestrian
casualty accidents, and 57% reduction in pedestrian casualty accidents.
42.23
January 31, 2014
2. Improvement in skid resistance

If road is very smooth then skidding of the vehicles may occur or if the pavement is wet
then wet weather crashes occur which account about 20-30%. Thus it is important to
improve the skid resistance of the road. Various ways of increasing the skid resistance of
road are by constructing high-friction overlay or cutting of grooves into the pavement.
3. Road markings
Road markings ensure proper guidance and control to the trac on a highway. They serve
as supplementary function of road sign. They serve as psychological barrier and delineation of trac path and its lateral clearance from trac hazards for the safe movement
of trac. Thus their purpose is to provide smooth and safe trac ow.
4. Guide posts with or without reector
They are provided at the edge of the roadway to prevent the vehicles from being o
tracked from the roadway. Their provision is very essential in hilly road to prevent the
vehicle from sliding from top. Guide posts with reector guide the movement of vehicle
during night.
5. Guard rail
Guard rail have similar function as of guide post. On high embankments, hilly roads,
road running parallel to the bank of river, shores of lake, near rock protrusion, trees,
bridge, abutments a collision with which is a great hazard for a vehicle. It is required to
retain the vehicle on the roadway which has accidentally left the road because of fault or
improper operation on the part of the driver. Driver who has lost control create a major
problem which can be curbed by this measure.
6. Driver reviver stop
Driver reviver stop are generally in use in countries like U.S.A where driver can stop and
refresh himself with food, recreation and rest. They play a very important part in trac
safety as they relieve the driver from the mental tension of constant driving. These stops
are required to be provided after every 2 hour travel time.
7. Constructing yovers and bypass
In areas where local trac is high bypasses are required to separate through trac from
local trac to decrease the accident rate. To minimise conicts at major intersections
yovers are required for better safety and less accident rate
8. Regular accident studies
Based on the previous records of accidents the preventive measures are taken and after
42.24
January 31, 2014
that the data related to accidents are again collected to check the eciency of the measures
and for future implementation of further preventive measures.
42.5.2
Safety measures related to enforcement
The various measures of enforcement that may be useful to prevent accidents at spots prone
to accidents are enumerated below. These rules are revised from time to time to make them
more comprehensive.
Speed control
Checks on spot speed of all vehicles should be done at dierent locations and timings and legal
actions on those who violate the speed limit should be taken
Training and supervision
The transport authorities should be strict while issuing licence to drivers of public service
vehicles and taxis. Driving licence of the driver may be renewed after specied period, only
after conducting some tests to check whether the driver is t
Medical check
The drivers should be tested for vision and reaction time at prescribed intervals of time
42.5.3
Safety measures related to education
The various measures of education that may be useful to prevent accidents are enumerated
below.
Education of road users
The passengers and pedestrians should be taught the rules of the road, correct manner of
crossing etc. by introducing necessary instruction in the schools for the children and by the
help of posters exhibiting the serious results due to carelessness of road users.
Safety drive
Imposing trac safety week when the road users are properly directed by the help of trac
police as a means of training the public. Training courses and workshops should be organised
for drivers in dierent parts of the country.
42.25
January 31, 2014
42.5.4
Safety audit
It is the procedure of assessment of the safety measures employed for the road. It has the
advantages like proper planning and decision from beforehand ensures minimization of future
accidents, the long term cost associated with planning is also reduced and enables all kinds of
users to perceive clearly how to use it safely. Safety audit takes place in ve stages as suggested
by Wrisberg and Nilsson, 1996. Five Stages of Safety Audit are:
1. Feasibility Stage - The starting point for the design is determined such as number and
type of intersection, relationship of the new scheme to the existing road, the relevant
design standards.
2. Draft Stage - In this stage horizontal and vertical alignment, junction layout are determined. After the completion of this stage decision about land acquisition is taken.
3. Detailed design stage - Signing, marking, lighting, other roadside equipment and landscaping are determined.
4. Pre-opening stage - Before opening a new or modied road should be driven, walked
or cycled. It should be done at dierent condition like bad weather, darkness.
5. Monitoring of the road in use - Assessment is done at the nal stage after the road
has been in operation for few months to determine whether the utilization is obtained as
intended and whether any adjustment to the design are required in the light of the actual
behavior of road users.
An example of safety audit is discussed below.
Road reconstruction safety audit
To estimate the eectiveness of improvement of dangerous section the number of accidents
before and after is compared. To do this Chi Square test is used to check whether the experimental data meet the allowable deviation from the theoretical analysis. In the simplest case
one group of data before and after road reconstruction is considered.
X2 =
(n1 t2 n2 t1 )2
2
Xnorm
t1 t2 (n1 + n2 )
(42.22)
where, t1 and t2 = period of time before and after reconstruction of a stretch of road for
which statistical data of accident is available, n1 and n2 = corresponding numbers of accident,
2
Xnorm = minimum values of Chi Square at which probability of deviation of laws of accident
42.26
January 31, 2014
2
Table 42:2: Relationship between P and Xnorm
P
10 8 5
3
2
1
0.1
2
Xnorm 1.71 2 2.7 3.6 4.25 5.41 9.6
occurrence after reconstruction P from the laws existing before reconstruction does not exceed
2
permissible values (usually 5%) The relationship between P and Xnorm is shown in Table. 42:2.
Numerical example
Before reconstruction of an at-grade intersection, there were 20 accidents during 5 years. After reconstruction there were 4 accidents during 2 years. Determine the eectiveness of the
reconstruction.
Solution: Using Chi square test, we have (with P = 5 %)
X2 =
(20 2 4 5)2
= 1.67 < 2.7
5 2(20 + 4)
Thus the statistical data available are not yet sucient for considering with probability of
95 % that the relative reduction in number of accident is due to intersection reconstruction.
Assuming one more accident occurs next year.
X2 =
(20 3 5 5)2
= 3.267 > 2.7
5 3(20 + 5)
Therefore additional analysis conrms that the reduction in accident is due to road reconstruction.
42.6
Conclusion
This chapter provides an important subject of highway safety and accident studies. Everything
a trac engineer does, from eld studies, planning and design; to control operation is related
to the provision of the safety system for vehicular travel. This chapter gives an insight of how
the analysis of trac accident can be done from the viewpoint to reduce it by designing proper
safety measure.
42.27
January 31, 2014
42.7
References
1. Road accidents in india, 2009.

2. V F Babkov. Road Condition and trac safety. MIR Publishers, Moscow, 2019.
3. J Stannard Baker. Trac Accident Investigation Manual. The trac Institute Northwestern University, 2019.
4. Milan Batista. On the mutual coecient of restitution in two car collinear collisions,
2006.
5. S K Khanna C E G Justo. Highway Engineering. Nem Chand and Bros, Roorkee, 2001.
6. K W Ogden, S Y Taylor. Trac Engineering, and Australia. Management. Monash
University. Melbourne. Trac Engineering and Management. Monash University Melbourne, Australia, 2019.
7. Louis J Pignataro. Trac Engineering. USA, 2019.
42.28
January 31, 2014
43. Fuel Consumption and Emission Studies
Chapter 43
Fuel Consumption and Emission
Studies
43.1
Overview
This chapter is an attempt to provide a basic knowledge about the fuel consumption and
vehicular emissions. The concepts of air pollution and automobile pollution are also given due
importance. Various types of numerical models related to fuel consumption and air pollution
are discussed briey. The report aims to identify the necessity of understanding the impact of
vehicular pollution on the environment. In order to bring the fuel consumption and emission
levels to a minimum, various mitigation measures are to be implemented, which are also pointed
out in the report.
43.2
General
Urbanization has paved the way for higher levels of comfort and standard of living. Rapid
urbanization has thus caused an increase in the number of vehicles and this, on the other
hand, is causing another set of problems including lack of space, reduction in natural resources,
environmental pollution, etc. We need to consider the existence of a future generation and plan
the utilization of our environment and resources wisely. The following sections discuss how the
transportation engineering is helpful in bringing about welcome changes in the development of a
sustainable environment. For this, we need to have a basic knowledge about fuel consumption,
emission and resulting air pollution, which are discussed briey below.
43.2.1
Fuel Eciency
Fuel eciency or Fuel Economy is the energy eciency of a vehicle, expressed as the ratio
of distance traveled per unit of fuel consumed in km/liter. Fuel eciency depends on many
43.1
January 31, 2014
parameters of a vehicle, including its engine parameters, aerodynamic drag, weight, and rolling
resistance. Higher the value of fuel eciency, the more economical a vehicle is (i.e., the more
distance it can travel with a certain volume of fuel). Fuel eciency also aects the emissions
from the vehicles.
43.2.2
Fuel Consumption
Fuel consumption is the reciprocal of Fuel Eciency. Hence, it may be dened as the amount of
fuel used per unit distance, expressed in liters/100km. Lower is the value of fuel consumption,
more economical is the vehicle. That is less amount of fuel will be used to travel a certain
distance.
43.2.3
Air Pollution
Air Pollution maybe dened as

The disruption caused to the natural atmospheric environment by the introduction
of certain chemical substances, gases or particulate matter, which cause discomfort
and harm to structures and living organisms including plants, animals and humans.
Air pollution has become a major concern in most of the countries of the world. It is responsible
for causing respiratory diseases, cancers and serious other ailments. Besides the health eects,
air pollution also contributes to high economic losses. Poor ambient air quality is a major
concern, mostly in urban areas. Air pollution is also responsible for serious phenomena such as
acid rain and global warming.
The substances causing air pollution are collectively known as air pollutants. They may
be solid, liquid or gaseous in nature. Pollutants are classied as primary and secondary air
pollutants. Primary pollutants are those which are emitted directly to atmosphere, whereas,
secondary pollutants are formed through chemical reactions and various combinations of the
primary pollutants. Some of the major primary and secondary air pollutants are given in
Table. 43:1 and Table. 43:2. The sources of air pollution may be natural or anthropogenic.
The anthropogenic sources of air pollution are those which are caused by human activity. The
major anthropogenic sources include Stationary sources (such as smoke stacks of power plants,
incinerators, and furnaces), Mobile sources (e.g. motor vehicles, aircraft), Agriculture and
industry (e.g. chemicals, dust), Fumes from paint, hair spray, aerosol sprays, Waste deposits
in landlls (which contain methane) and Military (e.g. Nuclear weapons, toxic gases). The
natural sources of air pollution may be Dust from areas of low vegetation, Radon gas from
43.2
January 31, 2014
Table 43:1: Primary Air Pollutants

Sulphur Oxides (SOx )
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx )
Carbon Dioxide (CO2 )
Volatile Organic Compounds (V OC)
Hydrocarbons (HC)
Ammonia (NH3 )
Particulate Matter (P M)
Radioactive pollutants
Chlorouorocarbons (CF C)
Toxic Metals like Lead, Cadmium and Copper
Table 43:2: Secondary Air Pollutants

Photochemical smog
Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (P AN)
Ozone (O3 )
radioactive decay of Earths crust, Smoke and CO from wildres, and volcanic activity which
produces sulfur, chlorine and particulates.
43.3
Automobile Pollution
The pollution caused due to the emissions from vehicles is generally referred to as automobile pollution. The transportation sector is the major contributor to air pollution. Vehicular
emissions are of particular concerns, since these are ground level sources and hence have the
maximum impact on the general population. The rapid increase in urban population have resulted in unplanned urban development, increase in consumption patterns and higher demands
for transport and energy sources, which all lead to automobile pollution. The automobile pollution will be higher in congested urban areas. The vehicle obtains its power by burning the fuel.
The automobile pollution is majorly caused due to this combustion, which form the exhaust
emissions, as well as, due to the evaporation of the fuel itself. The chemical reactions occurring
during ideal combustion stages may be represented as follows:
F uel (HC) + Air (O2 , N2 ) CO2 + H2 0 + unaected Nitrogen
(43.1)
Similarly, the typical engine combustion which occurs in vehicles can be represented by the
below chemical equation.
F uel (HC) + Air (O2 , N2 ) Unburned HC + NOx + CO + CO2 + H2 O
43.3
(43.2)
January 31, 2014
Evaporative Emissions
Refueling Losses
Exhaust
Emissions
Figure 43:1: Losses of fuel in vehicles
43.3.1
Types of Vehicular Emissions
The fuel loss of vehicles may be due to emissions or refuelling. The emissions maybe evaporative
or exhaust emissions. The fuel losses in a vehicle are shown in Fig. 43:1.
1. Exhaust emissions: Exhaust emissions are those which are emitted through the exhaust
pipe when the vehicle is running or is started. Hence, the exhaust emissions maybe of 2
types - start up emissions and running emissions.
(a) Startup emissions: Emissions when the vehicle is started initially. Based on how
long the vehicle had been turned o after use, they may be cold start and hot start.
Cold start refers to when the vehicle is started suddenly after a long gap of use,
whereas, hot start refers to when the vehicle is started without the vehicle getting
enough time to cool o after its previous use.
(b) Running emissions: Emissions during normal running of the vehicle, i.e., when
the vehicle is in a hot stabilized mode.
2. Evaporative emissions: These include running losses and hot soak emissions produced
from fuel evaporation when an engine is still hot at the end of a trip, and diurnal emissions
(daily temperature variations).
43.3.2
Exhaust Pollutants
The pollutants which are emitted from the exhaust pipe of the automobiles are known as
exhaust pollutants. They are formed as a result of combustion of the fuel in the engine. These
pollutants are harmful to the atmosphere and living things in particular. The major types of
exhaust pollutants are discussed in the following sections.
43.4
January 31, 2014
Sulphur Oxides (SOx )

Combustion of petroleum generates Sulfur Dioxide. It is a colorless, pungent and non ammable
gas. It causes respiratory illness, but occurs only in very low concentrations in exhaust gases.
Further oxidation of SOx forms H2 SO4 and thus acid rains.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx )
Combustion under high temperature and pressure emits Nitrogen dioxide. It is reddish brown
gas. Nitrogen oxides contribute to the formation of ground level Ozone and acid rain.
Hydrocarbons and Volatile Organic Compounds (HC and V OC)
Hydrocarbons result from the incomplete combustion of fuels. Their subsequent reaction with
the sunlight causes smog and ground level Ozone formation. V OCs are a special group of
Hydrocarbons. They are divided into 2 types methane and non methane. Prolonged exposure
to some of these compounds (like Benzene, Toluene and Xylene) may also cause Leukemia.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2 )
It is an indicator of complete combustion of the fuel. Although it does not directly aect our
health, it is a greenhouse gas which causes global warming.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
It is a product of the incomplete burning of fuel and is formed when Carbon is partially oxidized.
CO is an odorless, colorless gas, but is toxic in nature. It reaches the blood stream to form
Carboxyhemoglobin, which reduces the ow of Oxygen in blood.
Lead (P b)
It is a malleable heavy metal. Lead present in the fuel helps in preventing engine knock. Lead
causes harm to the nervous and reproductive systems. It is a neurotoxin which accumulates in
the soft tissues and bones.
Particulate Matter (P M)
These are tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in gas (soot or smoke). Particulate Matter in
higher concentrations may lead to heart diseases and lung cancer.
43.5
January 31, 2014
43.3.3
Factors Aecting Emission Rates
The vehicular emissions are due to a variety of factors. The emissions vary according to the
environment, fuel quality, vehicle, etc. emissions are higher in congested and urban areas.
Fuel adulteration and overloading also cause higher amount of emissions. The emissions from
vehicles depend on the following factors:
1. Travel related factors
2. Highway Network related factors
3. Vehicle related factors
Travel Related Factors
The number of trips, distance travelled and driving mode are the major travel related factors
aecting emissions. As the number of trips increases, the amounts of emissions also increase.
Emissions increase with the distance travelled by the vehicle. The vehicular emissions also
depend on the driving mode. The driving modes may be idling, cruising, acceleration and
deceleration. These modes complete one driving cycle. Other factors aecting the emission
rates are the speed, acceleration and engine load of the vehicle. Low speeds, congested driving
conditions, sharp acceleration, deceleration, etc. result in higher emissions. On the other hand,
intermediate speeds and low density trac conditions cause lower emissions.
Highway Network Related Factors
These include the geometric design features of the highway such as grade. The emission rate
is very high at steep gradients, as the vehicle needs to put in more eort to maintain its speed.
The highway network facilities such as signalized intersections, freeway ramps, toll booths,
weaving sections, etc. also inuence the vehicular emission rates.
Vehicle Related Factors
Vehicle related factors include the engine sizes, horsepower and weight of the vehicle. Vehicles
with large engine sizes emit more pollutants. Since larger sized engines are seen in vehicles with
more horsepower and more weight, these factors also contribute to the emission rates. Another
important factor is the age of the vehicle. Older vehicles have higher emission rates.
43.6
January 31, 2014
Other Factors
1. Ambient Temperature: Evaporative emissions are higher at high temperatures.
2. Type of engine: Two stroke petrol engines emit more amounts of pollutants than the
four stroke diesel engines.
3. Urbanization: Congestion is higher in urban areas, and hence emissions are also higher.
43.3.4
Bharat Stage Emission Standards
Bharat Stage emissions standards are emissions standards instituted by the Government of the
Republic of India that regulate the output of certain major air pollutants (such as nitrogen
oxides (NOx ), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), particulate matter (P M), sulfur
oxides (SOx )) by vehicles and other equipment using internal combustion engines. They are
comparable to the European emissions standards. India started adopting European emission
and fuel regulations for four-wheeled light-duty and for heavy-dc from the year 2000. For two
and three wheeled vehicles, the Indian emission regulations are applied. As per the current
requirement, all transport vehicles must carry a tness certicate which is to be renewed each
year after the rst two years of new vehicle registration. The National Fuel Policy announced
on October 6, 2003, a phased program for implementing the EU emission standards in India
by 2010. The implementation schedule of EU emission standards in India is summarized in
Table. 43:3. Some of the important emission standards for dierent vehicle types are given in
the following tables (Table. 43:4 - 43:7).
43.4
Fuel Consumption Models
Fuel consumption models are mathematical functions relating the various factors contributing
to the fuel consumption. The inuencing factors may be no. of vehicle trips, distance travelled
by the vehicle, no. of stops, vehicles average speed, etc. The major fuel consumption models
are discussed in the following sections.
43.4.1
Average Speed Model
Average speed models are macroscopic in nature. They are concerned with the trac network
as a whole, on a large scale. Individual vehicles are not considered. This model relates the fuel
consumption directly with the travel time (or indirectly with vehicle speeds). This model is
not valid for speeds higher than 56 km/hr. as the eects of air resistance become increasingly
43.7
January 31, 2014
Table 43:3: Indian Emission Standards (4-Wheel Vehicles), Source: Emission Norms, SIAM
India
Standard
Reference Date
Region
India 2000
Euro 1
2000
Nationwide
2001
NCR*, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai
Bharat Stage II
Euro 2
2003.04
NCR*, 13 Cities**
2005.04
Nationwide
Bharat Stage III
Euro 3
2005.04
NCR*, 13 Cities**
2010.04
Nationwide
Bharat Stage IV
Euro 4
2010.04
NCR*, 13 Cities**
* National Capital Region (Delhi)
** Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad,
Pune, Surat, Kanpur, Lucknow, Sholapur, Jamshedpur and Agra
Table 43:4: Emission Standards for Diesel Truck and Bus Engines, g/kWh, Source: Emission
Norms, SIAM India
Year Reference Test CO
HC
NOx
PM
1992
ECE 17.3- 2.7-3.7
R49 32.6
1996
ECE 11.2
2.4
14.4
R49
2000
Euro I
ECE 4.5
1.1
8
0.36*
R49
2005**
Euro II
ECE
4
1.1
7
0.15
R49
2010**
Euro III
ESC
2.1
0.66
5
0.1
ETC 5.45
0.78
5
0.16
2010#
Euro IV
ESC
1.5
0.46
3.5
0.02
ETC
4
0.55
3.5
0.03
* 0.612 for engines below 85 kW
** earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table. 43:1 # only in selected
regions, see Table. 43:1
43.8
January 31, 2014
Table 43:5: Emission Standards for 3-Wheel Wheel Gasoline Vehicles, g/km, Source: Emission
Norms, SIAM India
Year
CO HC HC + NOx
1991
Dec- 0830
Dec
1996
6.75
5.4
2000
4
2
2005 (BS II)
2.25
2
2010.04 (BS III) 1.25
1.25
Table 43:6: Emission Standards for 2- Wheel Gasoline Vehicles, g/km, Source: Emission Norms,
SIAM India
Year
CO HC HC + NOx
1991
Dec- 0830
Dec
1996
5.5
3.6
2000
2
2
2005 (BS II)
1.5
1.5
2010.04 (BS III)
1
1
43.9
January 31, 2014
Table 43:7: Emission Standards for 4 - Wheel Gasoline Vehicles (GVW 3,500 kg), g/km,
Source: Emission Norms, SIAM India
Year Reference
CO
HC HC + NOx
NOx
1991
14.3- 2.027.1
2.9
1996
8.6812.4
3.00-4.36
1998*
4.346.20
1.50-2.18
2000
Euro 1
2.726.90
0.97-1.70
2005**
Euro 2
2.2-5.0
0.5-0.7
2.3
0.2
0.15
2010**
Euro 3
4.17
0.25
0.18
5.22
0.29
0.21
1
0.1
0.08
2010#
Euro 4
1.81
0.13
0.1
2.27
0.16
0.11
* for catalytic converter tted vehicles
** earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table. 43:1 # only
in selected regions, see Table. 43:1
43.10
January 31, 2014
Litres/100m
120
110
100
90
80
70
Overall OGV
PSVs
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
20
40
60
80 100 120 140 160
Speed kph
Figure 43:2: Fuel consumption as a function of speed

stronger. The fuel consumed is related to the average speed (or travel time) using the relation
below:
F = k1 + k2 T
k2
F = k1 +
v
(43.3)
(43.4)
where, F = Fuel consumed per vehicle per unit distance (liters/km), T = Travel time per unit
distance, including stops and speed changes (minutes/km), v = Avg. speed measured over a
distance including stops and speed changes (10 v 56kmph), k1 = parameter associated
with fuel consumed to overcome rolling resistance, approximately proportional to vehicle weight
(liters/veh- km), k2 = Parameter approximately proportional to fuel consumption while idling
(liters/hr).Fig. 43:2 gives the relation between fuel and consumption and speed of the vehicle.
It can be inferred from the gure that fuel consumption is high for lower speeds and is the
minimum for intermediate speeds. Fig. 43:3 shows the relation between bus fuel consumption
and number of stops. It is clear from the graph that fuel consumption increases as the number
of stops of the vehicle increases.
Numerical Example 1
A city has a total of 20000 commuters travelling at an average speed of 25kmph, and using an
arterial road of length 15 km. Due to the congestion and parking problems, 35% commuters
form car pools with a car occupancy of 3.0 and 20% arrange for subscription bus service (50
seater). Rest of the commuters choose to travel by private cars. The peak period congestion
was found to be reduced and the speed was increased to 35kmph. Assuming the no. of stops
to be 7, calculate the amount of fuel saved. Take k1 = 0.085liters/km, k2 = 1.5 liters/hr.
43.11
January 31, 2014
Gallons per bus mile

0.7
With air conditioning
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Without air conditioning
0.2
0.1
0
1
10
Stops per mile
Figure 43:3: Bus fuel consumption as a function of stops

Solution: It is required to nd the dierence in fuel consumption between the two cases. In
the rst case, all commuters use private cars (i.e. car occupancy 1) and in the second case,
some of them use public transport services, while others still use private cars.
In the rst case, there were a total of 20000 commuters with car occupancy = 1, speed
25kmph and the distance to be travelled is 15 km. from the equation 43.3, we have: Total
fuel consumption, F = k1 + k2 /v. Thus for the distance of 15km travelled, the total fuel
consumption is equal to [0.085 * 15] + [(1.5/25) * 15], which is 2.175 liters/vehicle. Thus for a
total of 20000 commuters, the fuel consumption will be 2.175 * 20000 which is equal to 43500
liters.
In the second case, the vehicles move with a new speed of 35kmph, and out of the total
20000 commuters, 35% (0.35 * 20000 = 7000) form carpools with occupancy 3.0. Hence, the
number of carpool vehicles is 7000/3, that is 2333 vehicles. 20% (0.20 * 20000 = 4000) of the
commuters use a 50 seater bus service. Hence the number of buses will be 4000/50, which is
equal to 80 buses. Remaining (20000 - 7000 - 4000 = 9000) are single car drivers. The total
consumption by car will include the consumption of cars of single occupancy and the cars in
the carpool. Hence, the fuel consumption by cars is [0.085 * 15] + [(1.5/35) * 15], that is 1.917
liters/vehicles. So, for all the cars, the total fuel consumption will be 1.917* (9000 + 2333),
which is 21725.36 liters. Similarly, the bus fuel consumption for a bus with 7 stops will be 0.3
*2.35 * 80 * 15 which is 846 liters.
Fuel consumption corresponding to 7 stops is obtained from Fig. 43:3. 2.35 is a conversion
factor to bring the fuel consumption in terms of liters/km instead of gallons/mile. Total fuel
consumption will be the sum of fuel consumptions of bus and car. That is 21725+846 = 22571
liters. The total amount of fuel saved will be the dierence of fuel consumptions in both the
cases. Hence the amount of fuel saved is 43500 - 2257, which is equal to 20929 liters.
43.12
January 31, 2014
43.4.2
Drive Mode Elemental Model
Unlike the average speed model, the drive model elemental model is a microscopic fuel consumption model. It considers the movement of a single vehicle. This model is used to obtain
the fuel consumption rates during various vehicle operating conditions or drive mode. The
dierent drive modes include cruising, idling, accelerating and decelerating, which together
form a driving cycle. The important assumptions used in this model are that the driving mode
elements are independent of each other and the sum of the component consumption equals the
total amount of fuel consumed. The advantages of this model are that the model is simple and
general and there is a direct relationship to existing trac modelling techniques. The disadvantage of this model is that the variation in the behavior of dierent drivers and behavior of
the same driver under dierent situations is ignored.The component elements considered here
are various drive modes such as cruising, idling and accelerating. The total fuel consumed for
the drive mode elemental model is given by the relation:
G = f1 L + f2 D + f3 S
(43.5)
where, G = fuel consumed per vehicle over a measured distance (total section distance), L
= total section distance traveled, D = stopped delay per vehicle (time spent in idling), S
= number of stops, f1 = fuel consumption rate per unit distance while cruising, f2 = fuel
consumption rate per unit time while idling, f3 = excess fuel used in decelerating to stop and
accelerating back to cruise speed
Numerical example
The total fuel consumption by a vehicle travelling on a stretch of road is 0.0735 liters/veh-km.
The average stopped delay for the vehicle is 6s. The vehicle stops thrice during its journey.
Assume f1 = 0.0045, f2 = 0.0035 and f3 = 0.002. Calculate the length of road considered. If the
vehicle is cruising throughout the stretch of the road, what is the decrease in fuel consumption?
Solution: From the equation. 43.5, the fuel consumed per vehicle over a measured distance
is given by
G = f1 L + f2 D + f3 S
Step 1: It is given that fuel consumed per vehicle is 0.0735 liters/veh-km, average delay is
6s and the number of stops are 3. The values of f1 , f2 and f3 are given as 0.0045,0.0035 and
0.002 respectively. It is required to nd the length of the road. The length L can be computed
43.13
January 31, 2014
from the above equation as given: 0.0735 = (0.0045 L) + (0.0035 6) + (0.002 3). Therefore,
Length, L is equal to 10 km.
Step 2: When the vehicle is cruising throughout the length, there will not be any delays or
stops. Therefore, total fuel consumption: G = f1 L = 0.0045 10 = 0.045liters/veh km.
Step 3: The decrease in fuel consumption is will be the dierence in fuel consumptions as
obtained in steps 1 and 2, which is 0.0735-0.045 = 0.0285 liters/veh-km.
43.4.3
Instantaneous Model
Instantaneous fuel consumption models are derived from a relationship between the fuel consumption rates and the instantaneous vehicle power. Second-by-second vehicle characteristics,
trac conditions and road conditions are required in order to estimate the expected fuel consumption. Due to the disaggregate characteristic of fuel consumption data, these models are
usually implemented to evaluate individual transportation projects such as single intersections,
toll plazas, sections of highway, etc. In this model the fuel consumption rate is taken as the
function of dierent variables such as weight of vehicle, drag coecient, rolling resistance,
frontal area, acceleration and speed, transmission eciency and grade.
43.5
Air Pollution Models
Air Pollution Models give a causal relationship between emissions, meteorology, atmospheric
concentrations, deposition, and other factors. They explain the consequences of past and future
scenarios and the determination of the eectiveness of abatement strategies. They are also used
to describe the concentration of various pollutants in the air. The major types of air pollution
models are emission models and dispersion models.
43.5.1
Emission Models
Emission models are commonly used to provide trac emission information for the prediction
and management of air pollution levels near roadways. The model helps in comparing the
actual pollution levels with the emission standards set. Hence, the abatement of pollution can
also be carried out. The basic schematic diagram of an emission model is given in the Fig. 43:4.
Emission models estimate the emission quantity using the emission factor. The emission factor
may be dened as the ratio of average amount of pollutant discharged to the total amount
of the fuel discharged. It is expressed in kg of particulate / metric ton of fuel. The emission
43.14
January 31, 2014
Input
Speed (km/h)
Acceleration (m/s2)
Output
Emissions
module
Emissions array
CO, HC, N Ox, P M,
CO2, C
(g)
Figure 43:4: Basic Schematic Diagram of an Emission model

factors used in the emission models reect dierent levels of congestion. The various types of
emission models are briey discussed in the following paragraphs.
Instantaneous Emission Model
The model is similar to the instantaneous fuel consumption model. It describes the vehicle
emission behavior during any instant of time. The advantages of the model are that the
emission factors can be calculated and generated for any vehicle operating prole, and the
model considers dynamics in driving patterns. The model has some disadvantages also such as:
Detailed and precise information on vehicle operation and location is required and The process
of data collection is expensive.
Emission Factor Model
This model is useful in macro level where detailed information is not required. A single emission
factor is used to represent a particular type of vehicle and general type of driving. Emission is
estimated using the equation:
E = A EF
(43.6)
where, E = emissions, in units of pollutant per unit of time, A = activity rate, in units of weight,
volume, distance or duration per unit of time, EF = emission factor, in units of pollutant per
unit of weight, volume, distance or duration The variation of exhaust emission factors with
speed for the major exhaust pollutants are given in the following gures (Fig. 43:5 to Fig. 43:10).
Cars petrol
HGVs rigid
Cars diesel
HGVs articulated
LGVs petrol
Buses
LGVs diesel
Motorcycles
For Particulate Matter (P M10) and Volatile Organic Compounds, the emissions steadily
decrease with the speed. In case of Nitrogen Oxides, Sulphur Oxides and Carbon Dioxide, the
emission is highest for low speeds, decreases for intermediate speeds and then again increases
with the speed. For Carbon Monoxide, the highest emission levels occur for higher speeds and
minimum emission occurs for intermediate speeds.
43.15
January 31, 2014
Emission factor, g/km
1.8
PM 10
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
20
40
60
80
100 120
Speed (km/hr)
Figure 43:5: Variation of emission factor with Speed for Particulate Matter
18
NOx
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
20
40
60
80
100 120
Speed (km/hr)
Figure 43:6: Variation of emission factor with Speed for Nitrogen Oxides
43.16
January 31, 2014
VOC
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
20
40
60
80
100 120
Speed (km/hr)
Emission factor. g/km
Figure 43:7: Variation of emission factor with Speed for Volatile Organic Compounds
45
CO
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
20
40
60
80 100 120
Speed (km/hr)
Figure 43:8: Variation of emission factor with Speed for Carbon Monoxide, Source: [5]
43.17
January 31, 2014
0.5
SO2
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
20
40
60
80
100 120
Speed (km/hr)
Figure 43:9: Variation of emission factor with Speed for Sulphur Dioxide
600
CO2
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Speed (km/hr)
Figure 43:10: Variation of emission factor with Speed for Carbon Dioxide
43.18
January 31, 2014
Numerical example
Using the emission factor model, the amount of CO emitted by a vehicle was estimated as 50
grams per hour. If the vehicle travelled at a velocity of 40kmph, estimate the emission factor
for CO for the vehicle.
Solution It is given that the total emission E is 50g/hr. The activity A here is the amount of
CO emitted by the vehicle, which is 40km/hr. from the eqn. 43.6, we have, the total emissions
is E = A EF . Therefore, the emission factor will be E/A = 50/40 = 1.25. That is, the
emission factor of CO is 1.25 grams/km.
Average Speed Emission Model
Average Speed Models are used in the measurement of emission rates of a pollutant for a
given vehicle for various speeds during a trip. Average Speed Emission models, along with the
Emission factor models are widely applied in national and regional inventories. The emission
factor in this model (EF ) is measured over a range of driving cycle (which includes driving,
stops, starts, acceleration and deceleration). It is given in g/veh-km. Though these models are
good in measuring congestion, they have certain disadvantages, which are explained below:
1. A single emission factor is used for a value of average speed irrespective of the vehicle
operational characteristics.
2. Average speed is a less reliable indicator of estimation of emissions for the newest generation of vehicles ( as they have after treatment devices).
3. The shape of an average speed function is not fundamental, but depends, amongst other
factors, on the cycle type used. Even though each cycle used in the development of these
functions represents a real life driving condition, the real distribution of these driving
conditions is not normally taken into account.
4. Average speed models do not allow for detailed spatial resolution in emission predictions.
Modal Emission Model
This model is similar to the drive mode elemental fuel consumption model. Emission rates are
explained as a function of the vehicle operation mode. The model provides accurate emission
estimates at micro level. For each mode, emission rate is xed for a particular type of vehicle
and pollutant. Instantaneous trac related data is required to estimate the fuel consumption.
43.19
January 31, 2014
The total emission for a trip on a section of road is given by the product of modal emission
rate and the time spent in the mode.
Major Vehicular Emission Models in Use
Various emission models are available to estimate the contribution of motor vehicle transportation to air pollution. The major vehicular emission models in use are discussed briey below:
1. MOBILE: This model was proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency of the
United States. The MOBILE model estimates the emission rates from on-road motor vehicles. The outputs of the MOBILE model are emissions per unit time or distance of a eet
or vehicle type (i.e. grams/mile or grams/hour) of HC, CO, NOx, CO2, P M, NH3 , SO2
and six toxic air contaminants such as lead. MOBILE estimates emissions of both exhaust and evaporative emissions, and particulate emissions from brake and tire wear.
MOBILE does not apply the vehicle operation such as distance travelled and number of
starts. The model is designed to be able to predict emission rates from a future eet to
understand how emissions will change over time. Aggregate driving cycles are considered
in this model. MOBILE 6.2 is the current version of the model.
2. MOVES: MOVES stands for Motor Vehicle Emission Simulator. MOVES is also a
product of EPA. This model was proposed as a replacement to their MOBILE model.
The MOVES model contains ne scale information, such as second by second resolution
emissions and driving behaviour that can now be collected with on-board instrumentation.
Any driving pattern can be modelled.
3. EMFAC: The Emission Factors model is developed by the California Air Resources
Board. The model is similar to the MOBILE model, except that it is pertained to
California only. The emission standards of California are dierent from rest of the US.
4. COPERT: This model is developed by the European Environmental Agency. COPERT
stands for Computer Program to calculate Emissions from Road Transport. COPERT
4 is the current version of this model. It classies vehicles into various size and age groups
as well as categories for highway, urban and rural driving situations.
5. CMEM: The Comprehensive Modal Emissions Model, or CMEM, was developed at the
University of California, Riverside and is ne-scale emissions predictions model. CMEM
2.0 is the latest version. The model predicts emissions based, not only on the average
speed of the vehicles, but also on the fuel consumption and power of the vehicles.
43.20
January 31, 2014

Gaussian Plume
(Concentrations vary with x, y and z )

z
Plume
Centerline
x
y
h
hs
For a given x, the max conc. is at the

plume centerline and decreases
exponentially away from the centerline
at a rate dependent upon the sigma values,
and z
y
andz
are functions of x
y
Figure 43:11: Gaussian Dispersion Plume
43.5.2
Gaussian Dispersion Model
This is a simple mathematical model used to estimate the concentration of pollutants at a

point at some distance from the source of emission. This model is used for static as well as
mobile sources of emissions. In this model, the dispersion in the three dimensions is calculated.
Dispersion in the downwind direction is a function of the mean wind speed blowing across the
plume. Air pollution is represented by an idealized plume coming from the top of a stack of
some height and diameter. The major assumption in this model is that over short periods of
time (such as a few hours), steady state conditions exists with regard to air pollutant emissions
and meteorological changes. The prominent limitation of this model is that it is not suitable
for pollutants which undergo chemical transformations in the atmosphere. Also, it depends
largely on steady state meteorological conditions and is short term in nature.
The Fig. 43:11 shows the dispersion of pollutants in a Gaussian plume. Dispersion in
the cross-wind direction and in the vertical direction will be governed by the Gaussian plume
equations of lateral dispersion. Lateral dispersion depends on a value known as the atmospheric
condition, which is a measure of the relative stability of the surrounding air. The model
assumes that dispersion in these two dimensions will take the form of a normal Gaussian
curve, with the maximum concentration in the centre of the plume. The model maybe used to
calculate the Eective Stack Height, Lateral and Vertical Dispersion Coecients and GroundLevel Concentrations. The Gaussian plume is used to nd out the concentration of pollutants
at any point in space, and is given by:
2
y
Q
2
e 2y
C(x, y, z) =
2uy z
(zh)2
2
2z
+e
(z+h)2
2
2z
(43.7)
where, C = concentration of the emission (micrograms/cubic meter) at any point x meters

43.21
January 31, 2014
downwind of the source, y meters laterally from the centreline of the plume, and z meters
above ground level.Q = quantity or mass of the emission (in grams) per unit of time (seconds),
u = wind speed (in meters per second), h = height of the source above ground level (in meters),
y and z are the standard deviations of a statistically normal plume in the lateral and vertical
dimensions, respectively. They are functions of x.
Numerical example
A bus stalled at a signal emits pollutants at the rate of 20000g/s. The exhaust pipe is situated
at height of 0.75 m from the Ground level. What will be the concentration of pollutants inhaled
by a man living on the rst oor of a building with storey height 3.5 m? The building is situated
at a lateral distance of 5m from the main road and longitudinal distance of 4m downwind of
the source. Assume a wind velocity of 10 m/s, y = 375m and z = 120m.
Solution: The concentration of the emission is given by eqn. 4.2 which is
2
y
Q
2
C(x, y, z) =
e 2y
2uy z
(zh)2
2
2z
+e
(z+h)2
2
2z
Given that, the man lives on the rst oor of a building which has a storey height 3.5m. Hence,
the man will inhale the pollutants at a distance of 3.5 * 2 = 7m from the ground level. Also
given that the exhaust pipe is at a height of 0.75m form the ground and the lateral distance

y is 5m. The longitudinal distance x is 4m. y and z are functions of x and are given as
375m and 120m respectively. Substituting the values given, we have, The concentration of the
emission,
C(x, y, z) =
52
(7 .5)2
(7 + .5)2
20000
exp
(exp(
) + exp(
)),
2 10 375 120
2 3752
2 3752
2 3752
which is equal to 0.0141 micrograms per cubic meters.
43.6
Mitigation Measures
Mitigation measures are measures taken to control, reduce or prevent pollution due to automobile emissions. Some of the measures that may be adopted to reduce fuel consumption and air
pollution are given below.
1. Control at source using catalytic converters: A catalytic converter is a vehicle
emissions control device which converts toxic by-products of combustion in the exhaust
43.22
January 31, 2014
of an internal combustion engine to less toxic substances by way of catalysed chemical

reactions. The specic reactions vary with the type of catalyst installed. Most present-day
vehicles that run on gasoline are tted with a three way converter, so named because it
converts the three main pollutants in automobile exhaust: an oxidizing reaction converts
carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) to CO2 and water vapour, and
a reduction reaction converts oxides of nitrogen (NOx ) to produce CO2 , nitrogen (N2 ),
and water (H2 O).
2. Modications in engine - (Exhaust gas recirculation) A system in the engine of a
vehicle that routes a metered amount of exhaust into the intake tract under particular
operating conditions. Exhaust neither burns nor supports combustion, so it dilutes the
air/fuel charge to reduce peak combustion chamber temperatures. This, in turn, reduces
the formation of NOx .
3. Modication or replacement of fuel: Petroleum and diesel are known as fossil-fuels,
during burning the emitted gas is very harmful to living and non-living thing and also to
climate. So, modication or replacement of fuels is a way to reduce emission, by curtailing
the amount of some particular components of fuel, we can modify it, for e.g. As sulphur
is most harmful gas emitted from the vehicles, so we can use low-sulphur fuel. Also we
can replace the fossil fuels by so many available alternatives, for e.g.bio-diesel, methanol,
ethanol battery powered vehicles, LPG, natural gas etc..
4. Setting of standards: by setting stringent emission standard, the amount of emission
from the vehicles can be reduced.
5. Legislative measures: under legislative measures the various factors responsible for
emission from the vehicle can be put under certain restriction, for e.g overloading of
heavy vehicles is a cause of more fuel consumption and emission, so a standard load or
weight can be xed beyond that load, the vehicles should be considered overloaded and
penalties for the amount of overload can be charged, this measure will discourage the
overloading, other legal measures are deciding the type of engine installed in the dierent
category of vehicles.
6. Vehicle Pollution Monitoring: vehicles should be monitored regularly at a certain
interval of time for their fuel eciency, their engines condition , rolling power, etc. this
step will help in keeping the vehicles in proper condition by the vehicle owners and hence
reducing the emission from the vehicle.
43.23
January 31, 2014
7. Check on adulteration: : Adulteration of fuels is one of major causes for excess

emission of pollutants from vehicles. To check adulteration, EPCA proposed setting up
of two independent Fuel Testing Laboratories after consultation with the Ministry of
Petroleum and Natural Gas and the Society for Indian Automobile Manufacturers.
8. Burn less fuel: we should implement the burn less fuel strategy. Burning the less fuel
will lead to lesser emission and consequent the lesser air pollution and its harmful eect.
9. Vent Controls: for reducing the evaporative emission vent control is necessary. By
controlling the vent we can control the leakage of the vapours.
10. Vehicle maintenance: as we know the poor vehicle characteristic is one of the factoer
responsible of higher emission, so proper maintenance of vehicles can be helpful to reducing the emission specially the old vehicles should be checked and examined for amount of
emission.
11. Enhancing dispersion: once the harmful gases from the vehicles are emitted, they
should not be allowed to concentrate surrounding area, they should be immediately dispersed.
12. Using vegetation: we know that plants and trees are a good sink of harmful gases like
CO2 etc. so we should encourage the vegetation on the sides of the roads as much as
possible to reduce the amount of pollutants in ambient air
43.7
Conclusion
Automobiles are large contributer to the environmental pollution. The dierent fuel consumption and air pollution models discussed in this report help us to estimate how much fuel we are
using and the amount of pollutants we are releasing in the atmosphere. As the population and
number of vehicles are increasing abruptly, more amounts of pollutants are being discharged. If
this trend continues, there will not be any more energy sources left for the future generations.
Also, the world will be so polluted that living organisms may not be able to thrive. Hence, we
need to understand the importance of saving the environment. Alternate sources of fuels for
e.g. renewable sources can be used which also help in reducing the pollution. Our aim must
be to preserve the nature and have the environment, along with a sustainable transportation
system.
43.24
January 31, 2014
43.8
References
1. Society of indian automobile manufacturers:emission norms, 2011.

2. S K Agarwal. Automobile Pollution. Ecient Oset Printers, 1991.
3. Kyoungho Ahn. Microscopic Fuel Consumption and Emission Modeling. 1998.
[1] C Jotin Khisty. Transportation Engineering An Introduction. Printice-Hall, New Jersey
07632, 1990.
4. Tiwary and Colls. Air Pollution. Routledge Group, 2010.
5. S Tolvett and N Davis. Widely used vehicle emission models, 2011.
43.25
January 31, 2014
44. Congestion Studies
Chapter 44
Congestion Studies
44.1
Introduction
Transportation system consists of a group of activities as well as entities interacting with each
other to achieve the goal of transporting people or goods from one place to another. Hence,
the system has to meet the perceived social and economical needs of the users. As these needs
change, the transportation system itself evolves and problems occur as it becomes inadequate
to serve the public interest. One of the negative impacts of any transportation system is
trac congestion. Trac congestion occurs wherever demand exceeds the capacity of the
transportation system. This lecture gives an overview of how congestion is generated, how
it can be measured or quantied; and also the various countermeasures to be taken in order
to counteract congestion. Adequate performance measures are needed in order to quantify
congestion in a transportation system. Quality of service measures indicates the degree of
traveller satisfaction with system performance and this is covered under traveller perception.
Several measures have been taken in order to counteract congestion. They are basically classied
into supply and demand measures. An overview of all these aspects of congestion is dealt with
in this lecture.
44.2
Generation of trac congestion
The ow chart in Fig. 44:1 shows how trac congestion is generated in a transportation system.
With the evolution of society, economy and technology, the household characteristics as well
as the transportation system gets aected. The change in transport system causes a change in
transport behaviour and locational pattern of the system. The change in household characteristics, transport behaviour, locational pattern, and other growth eects result in the growth of
trac. But the change or improvement in road capacity is only as the result of change in the
transportation system and hence nally a situation arises where the trac demand is greater
44.1
January 31, 2014

Traffic Congestion
Traffic Growth
Roadway Capacity
Transport Behavior
Location Patterns
Growth Effects
Transportation
System
Household Characteristics
& Norms
Evolution of Society Economy

Technology
Figure 44:1: Generation of trac congestion

Household Characteristics
Evolution of Society,
Economy and Technology
Growth Effects
Transportation
System
Traffic Growth
Location
Pattern
Roadway Capacity
Traffic Congestion
than the capacity of the roadway. This situation is called trac congestion.
44.2.1
Eects of congestion
Congestion has a large number of ill eects on drivers, environment, health and the economy
in the following ways.
Drivers who encounter unexpected trac may be late for work and other appointments
causing a loss in productivity and their valuable time.
Since congestion leads to increase in travel time i,e.,vehicles are made to travel for more
time than required which consumes large amount of fuel there by causing fuel loss and
economic loss to the drivers.
One of the most harmful eects of trac congestion is its impact on the environment.
Despite the growing number of vehicles ,cars stopped in trac still produces a large volume
44.2
January 31, 2014
of harmful carbon emissions . Increase in pollutants (because of both the additional fuel
burned and more toxic gases produced while internal combustion engines are in idle or in
stop-and-go trac)
Drivers who become impatient may be more likely to drive aggressively and dangerously
and leads to high potential for trac accidents
Negative impact on peoples psychological state, which may aect productivity at work
and personal relationships
Slow and inecient emergency response and delivery services
Decrease in road surface lifetime: When a vehicle moves over the surface, the areas of
contact (where the vehicles tyres touch the road) are deected downwards under the
weight of the vehicle and as the vehicle moves forward, the deection corrects itself to its
original position.
Vehicle maintenance costs; Wear and tear on mechanical components of vehicles such as
the clutch and brakes is also considerably increased under stop-start driving conditions
and hence increasing the vehicle maintenance costs.
One benecial eect of trac congestion is its ability to encourage drivers to consider
other transportation options like a subway, light rail or bus service. These options reduce
trac on the roads ,thereby reducing congestion and environmental pollution.
The summation of all these eects yields a considerable loss for the society and the economy
of an urban area
44.2.2
Trac congestion
A system is said to be congested when the demand exceeds the capacity of the section. Trac
congestion can be dened in the following two ways:
1. Congestion is the travel time or delay in excess of that normally incurred under light or
free ow trac condition.
2. Unacceptable congestion is travel time or delay in excess of agreed norm which may vary
by type of transport facility, travel mode, geographical location, and time of the day.
Fig. 44:2 shows the denition of congestion. The solid line represents the travel speed under
free-ow conditions and the dotted line represents the actual travel speed. During congestion,
44.3
January 31, 2014

Actual
Travel Speed
Speed
Free flow
Travel Speed
Amount of
Congestion
Street 1
Street 2
Street 3
Street 4
Distance
Figure 44:2: Denition of congestion

the vehicles will be travelling at a speed less than their free ow speed. The shaded area in
between these two lines represents the amount of congestion. Trac congestion may be of two
types:
1. Recurrent Congestion: Recurrent congestion generally occurs at the same place, at
the same time every weekday or weekend day. This is generally the consequence of factors
that act regularly or periodically on the transportation system such as daily commuting
or weekend trips. Recurrent congestion is predictable and typically occurs during peak
hours. It displays a large degree of randomness in terms of duration and severity.
2. Non-Recurrent congestion: Non-Recurrent congestion is the eect of unexpected ,unplanned large events( roadwoks, accidents, special events and so on) that aect transportation system more or less randomly and as such,cannot be easily predicted.
44.3
Measurement of congestion
44.3.1
Need and uses of congestion measurement
Congestion has to be measured or quantied in order to suggest suitable counter measures

and their evaluation. Congestion information can be used in a variety of policy, planning
and operational situations. It may be used by public agencies in assessing facility or system
adequacy, identifying problems, calibrating models, developing and assessing improvements,
formulating programs policies and priorities. It may be used by private sector in making
locational or investment decisions. It may be used by general public and media in assessing
travellers satisfaction.
44.4
January 31, 2014
44.3.2
System performance measurement
Performance measure of a congested roadway can be done using the following four components:
1. Duration,
2. Extent,
3. Intensity, and
4. Reliability.
44.3.3
Duration
Duration of congestion is the amount of time the congestion aects the travel system. The
peak hour has now extended to peak period in many corridors. Measures that can quantify
congestion include:
Amount of time during the day that the travel rate indicates congested travel on a system
element or entire system.
Amount of time during the day that trac density measurement techniques (detectors,
aerial surveillance, etc.) indicate congested travel.
Duration of congestion is the sum of length of each analysis sub period for which the demand
exceeds capacity. This component measures the performance of a particular road in handling
trac eciently i,e.,with the increase in the duration of congestion, poorer will be the performance of the transportation system. The maximum duration on any link indicates the amount
of time before congestion is completely cleared from the corridor. Duration of congestion can
be computed for a corridor using the following equation: For corridor analysis,
H =N T
(44.1)
where, H is the duration of congestion (hours), N is the number of analysis sub periods for
which v/c > 1, and T is the duration of analysis sub-period (hours). For area wide analysis,
Hi =
i
T vi (1 r)
c
i
1 r( vi )
c
(44.2)
where, Hi is the duration of congestion for link i (hours), T is the duration of analysis period
(hours), r is the ratio of peak demand to peak demand rate, vi is the vehicle demand on link i
(veh/hr), and ci is the capacity of link i (veh/hr).
44.5
January 31, 2014
Table 44:1: Queue density default values

Subsystem
Storage density Spacing
(veh/km/lane)
(m)
Free-way
75
13.3
Two lane highway
130
7.5
Urban street
130
7.5
44.3.4
Extent
Extent of congestion is described by estimating the number of people or vehicles aected by

congestion and by the geographic distribution of congestion. These measures include:
1. Number or percentage of trips aected by congestion.
2. Number or percentage of person or vehicle meters aected by congestion.
3. Percentage of the system aected by congestion.
Performance measures of extent of congestion can be computed from sum of length of queuing
on each segment. Segments in which queue overows the capacity are also identied. This is
useful for ramp metering analysis. To compute queue length, average density of vehicles in a
queue need to be known. The default values suggested by HCM 2000 are given in Table 1.
Queue length can be found out using the equation:
QLi =
T (v c)
N ds
(44.3)
where; QLi is the queue length (meter), v is the segment demand (veh/hour), c is the segment
capacity (veh/hour), N is the number of lanes, ds is the storage density (veh/meter/lane), and
T is the duration of analysis period (hour). If v < c, Qi =0 The equation for queue length is
similar for both corridor and area-wide analysis.
Numerical example
Consider a road segment of 6 lanes with a capacity of 2400 veh/hr/lane. It is observed that
the storage density is 75 veh/meter and the segment demand is found to be 2800 veh/hr/lane.
Given that the duration of analysis sub period is 2 hrs calculate the queue length that is formed
due to congestion.
44.6
January 31, 2014
Solution The queue length of a particular road segment is given by,

QL =
T (v c)
N ds
(44.4)
It is given that Number of lanes, N=6, Duration of analysis sub period, T= 2 hrs, Segment Capacity=c=2400 veh/hr/lane, Segment Demand=v=2800 veh/hr/lane, Storage Density=ds=75
veh/meter. Now,the queue length can be calculated by using the above formula as follows:
QL = 2 (2800 2400) 6/(6 75) = 10.667mts Therefore, the extent of congestion in terms
of queue length is 10.667mts
44.3.5
Intensity
Intensity of congestion marks the severity of congestion. It is used to dierentiate between levels
of congestion on transport system and to dene total amount of congestion. It is measured in
terms of:
Delay in person hours or vehicle hours;
Average speed of roadway, corridor, or network;
Delay per capita or per vehicle travelling in the corridor, or per person or per vehicle
aected by congestion;
Relative delay rate (relative rate of time lost for vehicles);
Intensity in terms of delay is given by,
0
DP H = TP H TP H
(44.5)
where, DP H is the person hours of delay, TP H is the person hours of travel under actual
0
conditions, and TP H is the person hours of travel under free ow conditions. The TP H is given
by:
OAV v l
TP H =
(44.6)
S
where, OAV is the average vehicle occupancy, v is the vehicle demand (veh), l is the length of
link (km), and S is the mean speed of link (km/hr). The TP H is given by:
0
TP H =
OAV v l
S0
(44.7)
where, OAV is the average vehicle occupancy, v is the vehicle demand (veh), l is the length of
link (km), and S0 is the free ow speed on the link (km/hr)
44.7
January 31, 2014
Numerical example
On a 2.8 km long link of road, it was found that the demand is 1000 Vehicles/hour mean speed
of the link is 12 km/hr, and the free ow speed is 27 km/hr. Assuming that the average vehicle occupancy is 1.2 person/vehicle, calculate the congestion intensity in terms of total person
hours of delay.
Solution: Given data: Length of the link=l=2.8 km, Vehicle demand=v=1000 veh, Mean
Speed of the link=S=12 km/hr, Free ow speed on the link=So=27 km/hr, and Average Vehicle
Occupancy=AVO=1.2 person/veh. Person hours of delay is given as
0
DP H = TP H TP H
Person hours of travel under actual conditions,

OAV v l
TP H =
S
1.2 1000 2.8
=
12
= 280 person hours
Person hours of travel under free ow conditions,
OAV v l
0
TP H =
S0
1.2 1000 2.8
=
27
= 124.4 person hours
Therefore, person hours of delay can be calculated as follows,,
DP H = = 280 124.4
= 155.6 person hours
= 156 person hours (approx).
Hence, the intensity of congestion is determined in terms of person hours of delay as 156 person
hours.
44.3.6
Relationship between duration, extent, and intensity of congestion
The variation in extent and duration of congestion indicates dierent problems requiring different solutions. Small delay and extent indicates limited problem, small delay for large extent
44.8
January 31, 2014
Time
Duration
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
Extent
Distance
Extent
Figure 44:3: Intensity of congestion-relation between duration and distance
Broad
General
Congestion
Critical
SystemWide
Problems
Critical
Links or
Corridors
Limited
Problem
Duration
Figure 44:4: Intensity of congestion-Relation between extent and duration of delay

indicates general congestion, great delay for small extent indicates critical links and great delay
for large extent indicates critical system-wide problem. Fig. 44:3 also illustrates the relationship between duration, extent and intensity The extent of congestion is seen on the x-axis, the
duration on the y-axis. The intensity is shown in the shading. Based on the extent and duration the congestion can be classied into four types as shown in Fig.44:4. Fig.44:3 indicates a
time distance graph with the shaded area indicating congestion in individual road segments for
discrete time periods. The gure shows the relationship between duration, extent, and intensity. The product of extent and duration indicates the intensity, or magnitude of the congestion
problem.
44.9
January 31, 2014
44.3.7
Reliability
Reliability is a measure of a drivers ability to accurately predict and plan for a certain travel
time. The more unexpected events that occur on a roadway, the less reliable it is. Non
recurrent congestion has a bigger impact on the reliability of the roadway relative to concurrent
congestion. In other words, Travel-time reliability is dened as the level of consistency in
travel conditions over time and is measured by describing the distribution of travel times that
occur over a substantial period of time. Reliability is an important component of roadway
performance and perhaps more importantly, of motorists perceptions of roadway performance.
The importance of measuring and managing reliability in reducing congestion is explained as
follows.
Motorists have less tolerance for unexpected delay than for expected delay
Cost associated with unreliable travel
Reliability is a valued service in other industries and utilities
Therefore, it is clear that Itreliability is the impact of non-recurrent congestion on transport
system and it can be expressed as average travel rate or speed standard deviation or delay
standard deviation.
44.4
Congestion countermeasures
Fully eradicating roadway congestion is neither an aordable, nor feasible goal in economically
dynamic urban areas. However, much can be done to reduce its occurrence and to lessen its
impacts on roadway users within large cities congestion is a phenomenon that can be better
and more eectively managed. There are many possible measures that can be deployed to treat
or mitigate congestion.
44.4.1
classication
Congestion countermeasures include supply measures and demand measures.,which will be discussed in detail in the next section. Other than these two measures, an additional longer-term
tool used against trac problems is land-use planning and policy. It has the potential
To control the number and growth of major trac generators along congestion corridors.
To establish sensible allocations of land for future development given present constraints
and expansion plans for the transportation network and
44.10
January 31, 2014
To enforce balanced employment and residential development, thus reducing the long
home-to-work trips.
44.4.2
Supply measures:
They add capacity to the system or make the system operate more eciently. They focus on
the transportation system. All measures in this category supply capacity so that demand is
better satised and delays and queuing are lessened. Supply measures include
1. Development of new or expanded infrastructure: This includes civil projects (new freeways, transit lines etc), road widening, bridge replacements, permanent freeway lane
conversions, technology conversions(a new rail technology, a modernized bus eet and
ITS)
2. Small scale capacity and eciency improvements: This includes signal system upgrade
and coordination, freeway ramp metering, re-location of bus stops, lane management
schemes, bottleneck elimination through channelization and operational improvements.
44.4.3
Demand measures:
Demand measures focuses on motorists and travelers and attempt to modify their trip making
behaviour. All the measures that are employed in this category aim to modify travel habits so
that travel demand is considerably reduced or switch to other modes,other times or other locations that have more capacity to accommodate it. The demand measures include Congestion
pricing, Parking pricing and Restrictions on vehicle ownership and use. Congestion pricing is
the method in which users are charged on congested roads. This is discussed in detail in the
next section. Parking pricing discourages use of private vehicles to specic areas. It includes
heavy import duties, separate licensing requirement, heavy annual fees, expensive fuel prices,
etc to restrain private vehicle acquisition and use. Heavy annual fees, strict periodic inspections
and expensive fuel prices also restrict use of private vehicles. Intelligent Transportation systems
(ITS) provide tools for implementation of both supply and demand congestion measures. Supply type ITS tools include early incident detection and resolution, optimized signal operation
based on real time demand, freeway management with ramp metering, accident avoidance with
variable message signs(VMS) warning of upcoming conditions(congestion, fog etc.,) and bus
system coordination. Demand-type ITS include the provision of real-time trac congestion
information at various places for informed travel decisions.
44.11
January 31, 2014
Cost of Trips
No. of trips
Figure 44:5: Demand Curve
44.4.4
Congestion pricing
Congestion pricing is a method of road user taxation, charging the users of congested roads according to the time spent or distance travelled on those roads. The principle behind congestion
pricing is that those who cause congestion or use road in congested period should be charged,
thus giving the road user the choice to make a journey or not.
Economic principle behind congestion pricing
Journey costs include private journey cost, congestion cost, environmental cost, and road maintenance cost. The benet a road user obtains from the journey is the price he prepared to pay
in order to make the journey. As the price gradually increases, a point will be reached when the
trip maker considers it not worth performing or it is worth performing by other means. This is
known as the critical price. At a cost less than this critical price, he enjoys a net benet called
as consumer surplus(es) and is given by:
s =xy
(44.8)
where, x is the amount the consumer is prepared to pay, and y is the amount he actually
pays. The basics of congestion pricing involves demand function, private cost function as well
as marginal cost function. These are explained below.
Demand
Fig. 44:5 shows the general form of a demand curve. In the gure, area QOSP indicates the
absolute utility to trip maker and the area SRP indicates the net benet.
44.12
January 31, 2014
Private cost
Total private cost of a trip, is given by:
c=a+
b
v
(44.9)
where, a is the component proportional to distance, b is the component proportional to speed,

and v is the speed of the vehicle (km/h). In the congested region, the speed of the vehicle can
be expressed as,
v = d eq
(44.10)
where, q is the ow in veh/hour, d and e are constants.
Marginal cost
Marginal cost is the additional cost of adding one extra vehicle to the trac stream. It reduces
speed and causes congestion and results in increase in cost of overall journey. The total cost
incurred by all vehicles in one hour(CT ) is given by:
CT = cq
(44.11)
Marginal cost is obtained by dierentiating the total cost with respect to the ow(q) as shown
in the following equations.
M=
dc
d(cq)
= c+q
dq
dq
dc
dc dv
=
dq
dv dq
= (b)/v 2 e
= be/v
dc
d(cq)
= c+q
dq
dq
b d v be
2
= a+ +
v
e
v
(44.12)
(44.13)
(44.14)
(44.15)
(44.16)
(44.17)
Note that c and q in the above derivation is obtained from Equations 44.9 and 44.10 respectively.
Therefore the marginal cost is given as:
M =a+
b (d v)b
+
v
v2
(44.18)
Fig. 44:6 shows the variation of marginal cost per ow as well as private cost per ow. It is seen
that the marginal cost will always be greater than the private cost, the increase representing
the congestion cost.
44.13
January 31, 2014
Private Cost of Trips
Marginal Cost / Flow
Private Cost / Flow
Flow(q)
Figure 44:6: Private cost/ow and cost and marginal curve

Equilibrium condition and Optimum condition
Superimposing the demand curve on the private cost/ow and marginal cost/ow curves, the
position as shown in Fig. 44:7 is obtained. The intersection of the demand curve and the private
costs curve at point A represents the equilibrium condition, obtained when travel decisions are
based on private costs only. The intersection of the demand curve and the marginal costs curve
at point B represents the optimum condition. At this point the ow Q0 corresponds to the cost
C0 which is the marginal cost as well as the value of the trip to the trip maker. The net benet
under the two positions A and B are shown by the areas ACZ and BY CY Z respectively. If
the conditions are shifted from point A to B, the net benet due to change will be given by
area CCy Y X minus AXB. If the area CCy Y X is greater than arc AXB, the net benet will
be positive. The shifting of conditions from point A to B can be brought about by imposing
a road pricing charge BY. Under this scheme, the private vehicles continuing to use the roads
will on an average be worse o in the rst place because BY will always exceed the individual
increase in benets XY.
44.4.5
Numerical example
Vehicles are moving on a road at the rate of 500 vehicle/hour, at a velocity of 15 km/hr. Find
the equation for marginal cost.
Solution: Private cost of the trip is given by,
a+b
v
a+b
=
15
c =
44.14
January 31, 2014
Cost / Benifit
Z
Optimum
Condition
Marginal Cost / Flow
B
X A
Y
Private Cost / Flow

Equilibrium
Condition
Flow(q)
Figure 44:7: Relation between material cost, private cost and demand curves.
It is given that Flow rate, q=500 veh/hr. Speed of the vehicle is given by,
v = d eq
= d 500e
Marginal Cost is given by,
b (d v)b
+
v
v2
(d 15)b
b
+
= a+
15
225
M = a+
Therefore, the equation of marginal cost for the vehicles moving on the given congested road
is given by M = a + (b/15) + [(d 15) b/225]
44.4.6
Uses of congestion pricing
1. Diverts travelers to other modes

2. Causes cancellation of non essential trips during peak hours
3. Collects sucient fund for major upgrades of highways and other road maintenance works.
4. Cross-subsidizes public transport modes thereby fetching income to the government.
44.15
January 31, 2014
44.4.7
Requirements of a good pricing system
1. Charges should be closely related to the amount of use made of roads

2. Price should be variable at dierent times of day/week/year or for dierent classes of
vehicles
3. It should be stable and ascertainable by road users before commencement of journey
4. Method should be simple for road users to understand and police to enforce
5. Should be accepted by public as fair to all
6. Payment in advance should be possible
7. Should be reliable
8. Should be free from fraud or evasion
9. Should be capable of being applied to the whole country
44.5
Conclusion
Causes and eects of congestion along with various performance measures and with many other
counter measures are discussed in detail considering the actual or technical denition of congestion. The congestion performance measures described are generalized measures. There are
several other performance measures and indices. Advanced study on congestion can include
improved measurement schemes and the combined travel demand modeling and route choice
under congested conditions. With the implementation of all the counter measures trac congestion, the most pronouncing problem of transportation may be reduced or controlled to certain
extent. The principle and process of congestion pricing was also discussed with the help of
certain graphs..
44.6
References
1. Transport research board - quantifying congestion volume 1 nal report, nchrp report
398, 1997.
44.16
January 31, 2014

New Delhi, 1987.
4. Sarah B Medley and Michael J Demetsky. Development of congestion performance measures using its information. Virginia Transportation Research Council, 2019.
5. C. S Papacostas.
Delhi, 1987.
44.17
Prentice-Hall, New
January 31, 2014
45. Queuing Analysis
Chapter 45
Queuing Analysis
45.1
Introduction
One of the major issues in the analysis of any trac system is the analysis of delay. Delay is
a more subtle concept. It may be dened as the dierence between the actual travel time on a
given segment and some ideal travel time of that segment. This raises the question as to what
is the ideal travel time. In practice, the ideal travel time chosen will depend on the situation;
in general, however, there are two particular travel times that seem best suited as benchmarks
for comparison with the actual performance of the system. These are the travel time under free
ow conditions and travel time at capacity.
Most recent research has found that for highway systems, there is comparatively little
dierence between these two speeds. That being the case, the analysis of delay normally focuses
on delay that results when demand exceeds its capacity; such delay is known as queuing delay,
and may be studied by means of queuing theory. This theory involves the analysis of what is
known as a queuing system, which is composed of a server; a stream of customers, who demand
service; and a queue, or line of customers waiting to be served.
45.2
Queuing System
Figure 45:1 shows a schematic diagram illustrating the concept of a queuing system. Various
components are discussed below.
45.2.1
Input parameters
Mean arrival rate

Mean service rate
The number of servers
45.1
January 31, 2014

Arrival rate
Input source
(Customers)

Queue
discipline
Service rate
Service
facility
Queue
Served
costumers
(leaving)
Figure 45:1: Components of a basic queuing system

Queue discipline
These are explained in the following sections.
Mean Arrival rate ()
It is rate at which customers arrive at a service facility. It is expressed in ow (customers/hr or
vehicles/hour in transportation scenario) or time headway (seconds/customer or seconds/vehicle
in transportation scenario). If inter arrival time that is time headway (h) is known, the arrival
rate can be found out from the equation:
=
3600
h
(45.1)
Mean arrival rate can be specied as a deterministic distribution or probabilistic distribution

and sometimes demand or input are substituted for arrival.
Mean arrival rate ()
It is the rate at which customers (vehicles in transportation scenario) depart from a transportation facility. It is expressed in ow (customers/hr or vehicles/hour in transportation scenario)
or time headway (seconds/customer or seconds/vehicle in transportation scenario). If inter
service time that is time headway (h) is known, the service rate can be found out from the
equation:
3600
=
(45.2)
h
Number of servers
The number of servers that are being utilized should be specied and in the manner they work
that is they work as parallel servers or series servers has to be specied.
45.2
January 31, 2014
Queue discipline
Queue discipline is a parameter that explains how the customers arrive at a service facility.
The various types of queue disciplines are
1. First in rst out (FIFO)
2. First in last out (FILO)
3. Served in random order (SIRO)
4. Priority scheduling
5. Processor (or Time) Sharing
1. First in rst out (FIFO): If the customers are served in the order of their arrival,
then this is known as the rst-come, rst-served (FCFS) service discipline. Prepaid taxi
queue at airports where a taxi is engaged on a rst-come, rst-served basis is an example
of this discipline.
2. First in last out (FILO): Sometimes, the customers are serviced in the reverse order
of their entry so that the ones who join the last are served rst. For example, assume
that letters to be typed, or order forms to be processed accumulate in a pile, each new
addition being put on the top of them. The typist or the clerk might process these letters
or orders by taking each new task from the top of the pile. Thus, a just arriving task
would be the next to be serviced provided that no fresh task arrives before it is picked
up. Similarly, the people who join an elevator rst are the last ones to leave it.
3. Served in random order (SIRO): Under this rule customers are selected for service at
random, irrespective of their arrivals in the service system. In this every customer in the
queue is equally likely to be selected. The time of arrival of the customers is, therefore,
of no relevance in such a case.
4. Priority Service: Under this rule customers are grouped in priority classes on the
basis of some attributes such as service time or urgency or according to some identiable
characteristic, and FIFO rule is used within each class to provide service. Treatment of
VIPs in preference to other patients in a hospital is an example of priority service.
5. Processor (or Time) Sharing: The server is switched between all the queues for a
predened slice of time (quantum time) in a round-robin manner. Each queue head is
served for that specic time. It doesnt matter if the service is complete for a customer or
45.3
January 31, 2014
not. If not then itll be served in its next turn. This is used to avoid the server time killed
by customer for the external activities (e.g. Preparing for payment or lling half-lled
form ).
45.3
System performance measures
The following notation assumes that the system is in a steady-state condition (At a given time
t):
1. Utilization factor =
2. Pn = probability of exactly n customers in queuing system (waiting + service).

3. L= expected(avg) number of customers in queuing system. [sometimes denoted as Ls]
4. Lq=expected (avg) queue length (excludes customers being served) or no of Customers.
5. W = Expected waiting time in system (includes service time) for each individual customer
or time a customer spends in the system. [sometimes denoted as Ws]
6. Wq = waiting time in queue (excludes service time) for each individual customer or
Expected time a customer spends in a queue
45.3.1
Relationships between L, W, Lq and Wq:
Assume that n is a constant for all n. It has been proved that in a steady-state queuing
process, ( may be considered as avg):
1. L = W
2. Lq = W q
3. W = W q +
45.3.2
Queuing Patterns
A variety of queuing patterns can be encountered and a classication of these patterns is

proposed in this section. The classication scheme is based on how the arrival and service
rates vary over time. In the following gures the top two graphs are drawn taking time as
independent variable and volume of vehicles as dependant variable and the bottom two graphs
are drawn taking time as independant variable and cumulative volume of vehicles as dependant
variable.
45.4
January 31, 2014
q
m
m
t
S
v
S
v
l
m
t
Figure 45:2: Constant arrival and service rates

q
Figure 45:3: Constant arrival rate and varying service rate
45.3.3
Constant arrival and service rates
In the left hand part of the Fig.45:2 arrival rate is less than service rate so no queuing is
encountered and in the right hand part of the gure the arrival rate is higher than service rate,
the queue has a never ending growth with a queue length equal to the product of time and the
dierence between the arrival and service rates.
45.3.4
Constant arrival rate and varying service rate
In the left hand of Fig. 45:3 the arrival rate is constant over time while the service rates vary
over time. It should be noted that the service rate must be less than the arrival rate for some
periods of tim but greater than the arrival rate for other periods of time.
One of the examples of the left hand part of the gure is a signalized intersection and that
45.5
January 31, 2014
Figure 45:4: Varying arrival rate and constant service rate

q
Figure 45:5: Varying arrival and service rates

of the right hand side part of the gure is an incident or an accident on the roads which causes
a reduction in the service rate.
45.3.5
Varying arrival rate and constant service rate
In the left part of Fig. 45:4 the arrival rate vary over time but service rate is constant. Both
the left and right parts are examples of trac variation over a day on a facility but the left
hand side one is an approximation to make formulations and calculations simpler and the right
hand side one considers all the transition periods during changes in arrival rates.
45.6
January 31, 2014
45.3.6
Varying arrival and service rates
In the Fig.45:5 the arrival rate follows a square wave type and service rate follows inverted
square wave type. The diagrams on the right side are an extension of the rst one with
transitional periods during changes in the arrival and service rates. These are more complex to
analyzed using analytical methods so simulation is often employed particularly when sensitivity
parameter is to be investigated.
45.4
Queuing models
There are various kinds of queuing models. These queuing models have a set of dened characteristics like some arrival and service distribution, queue discipline, etc. The queuing models
are represented by using a notation which is discussed in the following section of queue notation.
45.4.1
M/M/1 model
In this model the arrival times and service rates follow markovian distribution or exponential
distribution which are probabilistic distributions, so this is an example of stochastic process.
In this model there is only one server. The important results of this model are:
1. Average number of customers in the system = L =
2. Average number of customers in the system = Lq =

3. Expected waiting time in the system W =
4. Expected waiting time in the queue Wq =
Lq
2
1
= (1/) =
2
()
()
Numerical example
Vehicles arrive at a toll booth at an average rate of 300 per hour. Average waiting time at
the toll booth is 10s per vehicle. If both arrivals and departures are exponentially distributed,
what is the average number of vehicles in the system, average queue length, the average delay
per vehicle, the average time a vehicle is in the system?
45.7
January 31, 2014

/N
Server 1
/N
Server 1
Dispatching
Departures
Arrivals
discipline
=arrival
rate
Server N
/N
Figure 45:6: Multi-server model

Solution Mean arrival rate = 300 vehicles/hr. Mean service rate = 3600 vehicles/hr.
10
300
Utilization factor = trac intensity = = = 360 = 0.833. Percent of time the toll booth
will be idle = P(0) = P(X=0) = 0 (1 ) = (0.833)0 (1 0.833) = 0.139(60min)=8.34 min.
Average number of vehicles in the system = E[X] = 1 =4.98. Average number of vehicles in
2
1
the queue =E[Lq ] = 1 = 4.01. Average a vehicle spend in the system =E[T ] = = 0.016 hr
= 0.96 min = 57.6 sec. Average time a vehicle spends in the queue =E[Tq ] = () = 0.013hr
= 0.83 min = 50 sec.
45.4.2
M/M/N model
The dierence between the earlier model and this model is the number of servers. This is a
multi -server model with N number of servers whereas the earlier one was single server model.
The assumptions stated in M/M/1 model are also assumed here. Here is the average service
rate for N identical service counters in parallel. For x=0
N 1
P (0) =
x=0
N
x
+
x! (N 1)!(N )
(45.3)
The probability of x number of customers in the system is given by P(x). For 1 x N

P (x) =
x
P (0)
x!
(45.4)
For x > N
x
P (0)
N!N xN
The average number of customers in the system is
P (x) =
E[X] = + [
N +1
]P (0)
(N 1)!(N )2
45.8
(45.5)
(45.6)
January 31, 2014
The average queue length

E[Lq ] = [
N +1
]P (0)
(N 1)!(N )2
(45.7)
The expected time in the system

E[T ] =
E[X]
(45.8)
E[Tq ] =
E[Lq ]
(45.9)
The expected time in the queue
45.4.3
Numerical example
Consider the earlier problem as a multi-server problem with two servers in parallel.
Solution Average arrival rate = = 300 vehicles/hr. Average service rate = =
300
vehicles/hr. Utilization factor = trac intensity = = = 360 = 0.833.

N 1
P (0) =
x=0
x
N
+
x! (N 1)!(N )
3600
10
= 0.92(60) = 55.2min
N+1
Average number of vehicles in the system is = L = E[X] = + [ (N 1)!(N )2 ]P (0) = 1.22.

N+1
The average number of customers in the queue = Lq = E[Lq ] = [ (N 1)!(N )2 ]P (0)= 0.387.
Expected time in the system =W =

=Wq = Lq = 0.00129 hr = 4.64 sec.
45.4.4
E[X]
=
0.004 hr = 14 sec. The expected time in the queue
Multiple single servers model
In this model there are N numbers of identical independent parallel servers which receive
customers from a same source but in dierent parallel queues (Compare to M/M/N model.
It has only one queue) each one receiving customers at a rate of N . Fig. 45:7 shows how a
typical multiple single servers model looks like.
45.4.5
Numerical example
Consider the problem 1 as a multiple single servers model with two servers which work independently with each one receiving half the arrival rate that is 150 vehicles/hr.
45.9
January 31, 2014

/N
Server 1
/N
Server 1
Departures
Arrivals
=arrival
rate
Server N
/N
Figure 45:7: Multiple single server

M/M/1 model
Idle time of toll
booths(minutes)
Number of vehicles
in the system(units)
Number of vehicles
in the queue(units)
Average waiting time
in system(seconds)
Average waiting time
in queue(seconds)
M/M/2 model
8.34
55.2
Multiple single
server model
35.04
4.98
1.22
0.712
4.01
0.387
0.296
57.6
14
17.14
50
4.64
8.05
Solution Mean arrival rate = = 150 vehicles/hr. Mean service rate = = 3600 vehicles/hr.
10
150
Utilization factor = trac intensity = = = 360 = 0.416. The percent of time the toll booth
will be idle = P(0) = P(X=0) = (0.416)0 (1 0.416) = 0.584(60min)=35.04 min. The average
number of vehicles in the system = E[X] = 1 = 0.712. The average number of vehicles in
2
1
the queue =Lq = 1 = 0.296. The average a vehicle spend in the system =E[T ] = W = =
0.0047 hr = 0.285 min = 17.14 sec. The average time a vehicle spends in the queue =E[Tq ] =
Wq = () = 0.0022hr = 0.13 min = 8.05 sec
45.10
January 31, 2014
Comparison of the three models

From the Table 1 by providing 2 servers the queue length reduced from 4.01 to 0.387 and the
average waiting time of the vehicles came down from 50 sec to 4.64 sec, but at the expense
of having either one or both of the toll booths idle 92% of the time as compared to 13.9% of
the time for the single-server situation. Thus there exists a trade-o between the customers
convenience and the cost of running the system.
45.4.6
D/D/N model
In this model the arrival and service rates are deterministic that is the arrival and service times
of each vehicle are known.
Assumptions
1. Customers are assumed to be patient.
2. System is assumed to have unlimited capacity.
3. Users arrive from an unlimited source.
4. The queue discipline is assumed to be rst in rst out.
45.4.7
Numerical example
Morning peak trac upstream of a toll booth is given in the table 2. The toll plaza consists of
three booths, each of which can handle an average of one vehicle every 8 seconds. Determine
the maximum queue, the longest delay to an individual vehicle.
Time period
7.00-7.10
7.10-7.20
7.20-7.30
7.30-7.40
7.40-7.50
7.50-8.00
10 min volume
200
400
500
250
200
150
45.11
January 31, 2014

Time
10 min
period
ow (3)
7.00-7.10
200
7.10-7.20
400
7.20-7.30
500
7.30-7.40
250
7.40-7.50
200
7.50-8.00
150
Cum.
Service
rate(4) service(5)
200
200
600
225
1100
225
1350
225
1550
225
1700
225
Cumulative
=(3)-(4)
200
425
650
875
1100
1325
Queue
(6)
0
175
450
475
450
375
Delay
0
7.78
20.00
21.11
20.00
16.67
Solution The arrival volume is given in the table. Service rate is given as 8 seconds per
vehicle. This implies for 10 min, 75 vehicles can be served by each server. It is given there are
3 servers. Hence 225 vehicles can be served by 3 servers in 10 min. In the rst 10 min only 200
vehicles arrive which are served so the service rate for rest 50 min is 225 veh/10 min as there is
a queue for the rest period. The solution to the problem is showed in the table 3 following. The
cumulative arrivals and services are calculated in columns 3 and 5. Queue length at the end
of any 10 min interval is got by simply subtracting column 5 from column 3 and is recorded in
column 6. Maximum of the column 6 is maximum queue length for the study period which is
300 vehicles. The service rate has been found out as 225 vehicles per hour. From proportioning
we get the time required for each queue length to be served and as 475 vehicles is the max
queue length, the max delay is corresponding to this queue. Therefore max delay is 21.11 min.
45.5
Conclusions
The queuing models often assume innite numbers of customers, innite queue capacity, or
no bounds on inter-arrival or service times, when it is quite apparent that these bounds must
exist in reality. Often, although the bounds do exist, they can be safely ignored because the
dierences between the real-world and theory is not statistically signicant, as the probability
that such boundary situations might occur is remote compared to the expected normal situation.
Furthermore, several studies show the robustness of queuing models outside their assumptions.
In other cases the theoretical solution may either prove intractable or insuciently informative
to be useful. Alternative means of analysis have thus been devised in order to provide some
insight into problems that do not fall under the scope of queuing theory, although they are
often scenario-specic because they generally consist of computer simulations or analysis of
experimental data.
45.12
January 31, 2014
45.6
References

2. Frederick S. Hillier and Gerald J. Lieberman. Operations Research. CBS publishers,
2019.
4. C S Papacostas. Transportation engineering and planning by Papacostas. C. S, 3rd
edition, Prentice-Hall of India in 2001. Prentice-Hall of India, 2001.
45.13
January 31, 2014
47. Pedestrian Studies
Chapter 47
Pedestrian Studies
47.1
Introduction
People walk for many reasons: to go to a neighbours house, to run errands, for school, or
to get to a business meeting. People also walk for recreation and health benets or for the
enjoyment of being outside. Some pedestrians must walk to transit or other destinations if
they wish to travel independently. It is a public responsibility to provide a safe, secure, and
comfortable system for all people who walk. In this lecture we will discuss about the pedestrian
problems, pedestrian survey (data collection), characteristics, dierent level of services, and
design principles of pedestrian facilities. There are many problems related to safety security of
pedestrians. These are discussed below in brief.
47.1.1
Pedestrian Problems
Accidents Circumstances - Pedestrian accidents occurs in a variety of ways; the most common
type involves pedestrian crossing or entering the street at or between intersections.
1. Darting: It is used to indicate the sudden appearance of a pedestrian from behind a
vehicle or other sight obstruction.
2. Dashing: It refers to the running pedestrians.
Special Problems
1. Age: Children under 15 years of age from the largest group of pedestrian victims and have
the highest injury rate per population in their age group, the elderly have the highest
fatality rate because of the lower probability of their recovery from injuries.
2. Intoxication and Drug eects: Alcohol and drugs impair the behavior of pedestrians to
the extent that they may be a primary cause of accident.
47.1
January 31, 2014
3. Dusk and Darkness: Special pedestrian safety problems arise during the hours of dusk
and darkness, when it is most dicult for motorists to see pedestrians.
47.1.2
Denition of a Pedestrian
Any person afoot is the denition of Uniform Vehicle Code of pedestrian. However expand this
denition to explicitly include people with disabilities, such as who use wheelchairs or other
mobility devices. At the beginning and end of every motorists trip, he or she is pedestrian.
The driver and/or passenger walks to the vehicle, which is parked, drives to a destination, parks
the vehicle again, and walks to the nal destination. In urban centers, pedestrian ows can
be signicant, and they must be accommodated in planning and design of trac facilities and
controls. Pedestrian safety is also a major issue, as the pedestrian is at a visible disadvantage
where potential pedestrian-vehicle conict exist, such as at the intersections.
It is important to recognize the forces inuencing the demand for provision of more and
better pedestrian facilities. Undoubtedly one important factor has been the increased awareness
of the environmental problems created by the rapid national and worldwide growth in vehicle
travel, but of equal important has been the recognition by many people of need for physical
tness and the role that play in achieving this.
47.1.3
Factors aecting pedestrian demand
The demand for pedestrian facilities is inuenced by a number of factors of which some of the
most important are
1. The nature of the local community- Walking is more likely to occur in a community
that has a high proportion of young people.
2. Car ownership -The availability of the private car reduces the amount of walking, even
for short journey.
3. Local land use activities- Walking is primarily used for short distance trips. Consequently the distance between local origins and destinations (e.g. homes and school, homes
and shops) is an important factor inuencing the level of demand, particularly for the
young and elderly.
4. Quality of provision- If good quality pedestrian facilities are provided, then demand
will tend to increase.
47.2
January 31, 2014
5. Safety and security- It is important that pedestrians perceive the facilities to be safe
and secure. For pedestrians this means freedom from conict with motor vehicle, as well
as a minimal threat from personal attack and the risk of tripping on uneven surfaces.
47.1.4
Terminology
1. Pedestrian speed is the average pedestrian walking speed, generally expressed in units of
meters per second.
2. Pedestrian ow rate is the number of pedestrians passing a point per unit of time, expressed as pedestrians per 15 min or pedestrians per minute. Point refers to a line of
sight across the width of a walkway perpendicular to the pedestrian path.
3. Pedestrian ow per unit of width is the average ow of pedestrians per unit of eective
walkway width, expressed as pedestrians per minute per meter (p/min/m). Pedestrian
density is the average number of pedestrians per unit of area within a walkway or queuing
area, expressed as pedestrians per square meter (p/m2).
4. Pedestrian space is the average area provided for each pedestrian in a walkway or queuing
area, expressed in terms of square meters per pedestrian. This is the inverse of density,
and is often a more practical unit for analysing pedestrian facilities.
5. Platoon refers to a number of pedestrians walking together in a group, usually involuntarily, as a result of signal control and other factors.
47.1.5
Data collection
Before deciding on the appropriate extent and standard of pedestrian facilities, it is important
to assess the potential demand. The possible methods of obtaining such estimates are manual
count, video survey, and attitude survey described as follows.
Manual counts
Count the ow of pedestrian through a junction, across a road, or along a road section/footway
manually using manual clicker and tally marking sheet. Manual counts need to satisfy the
following conditions.
1. The time period(s) in the day over which the counts are undertaken must coincide with
the peak times of the activity of study.
47.3
January 31, 2014
2. The day(s) of the week and month(s) of the year when observations are made must be
representative of the demand. School holidays, early closing, and special events should
be avoided since they can result in non-typical conditions.
3. The survey locations need to be carefully selected in order to ensure that the total existing
demand is observed.
Advantages of this manual counting are that these are simple to set up and carry out, and
exible to response observed changes in demand on site and disadvantages are that these are
labour intensive also simple information can be achieved and not detailed information.
Video survey
Cameras are setup at the selected sites and video recording taken of the pedestrians during the
selected observation periods. A suitable vantage point for the camera is important. Such survey
produces a permanent record of pedestrian movement and their interaction with vehicles. In it
the record of behavior pattern is also obtained which helps in analyzing the crossing diculties.
Attitude survey
Detailed questionnaire requires enabling complete information about pedestrians origins and
destination points, also can gather information on what new facilities, or improvements to existing facilities, need to be provided to divert trips to walking, or increase the current pedestrian
activities.
47.2
Pedestrian Flow characteristic
In many ways pedestrian ow are similar to those used for vehicular ow because it can be
described in terms of familiar variables such as speed, volume, rate of ow and density. Other
measures related specically to pedestrian ow include the ability to cross a pedestrian trac
stream, to walk in the reverse direction of a major pedestrian ow, to manoeuvre generally
without conicts and changes in walking speed, and the delay experienced by pedestrians at
signalized and unsignalized intersections. It is dissimilar to the vehicular ow in that pedestrian
ow may be unidirectional, bidirectional, or multidirectional. Pedestrian do not always travel
in clear lanes although they may do sometimes under heavy ow.
47.4
January 31, 2014
120
90
Students
Commuters
60
Shoppers
30
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
Figure 47:1: Relationship between pedestrian speed and density

Pedestrian Speed-Density Relationships
The fundamental relationship between speed, density, and volume for pedestrian ow is analogous to vehicular ow. As volume and density increase, pedestrian speed declines. As density
increases and pedestrian space decreases, the degree of mobility aorded to the individual
pedestrian declines, as does the average speed of the pedestrian stream, it is shown in Fig. 47:1.
Flow-Density Relationships
The relationship among density, speed, and ow for pedestrians is similar to that for vehicular
trac streams, and is expressed in equation.
Qped = Sped Dped
(47.1)
where, Qped = unit ow rate (p/min/m), Sped = pedestrian speed (m/min), and Dped= pedestrian
density (p/m2 ). Pedestrian density is an awkward variable in that it has fractional values in
pedestrian per square meter. This relationship often expressed in terms of Space module(M)
which is the inverse of pedestrian density. The inverse of density is more practical unit for
analysing pedestrian facilities ,so expression becomes
Qed =
Sped
M
(47.2)
where M in(m2 /ped). The basic relationship between ow and space, recorded by several
researchers, is illustrated in the Fig. 47:2. The conditions at maximum ow represent the
47.5
January 31, 2014
Flow (p/min/m)
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
0
9 10
Space2 /p)
(m
Figure 47:2: Relationship between pedestrian space & ow

capacity of the walkway facility. From Fig. 47:2, it is apparent that all observations of maximum
unit ow fall within a narrow range of density, with the average space per pedestrian varying
between 0.4 and 0.9 m2 /p. Even the outer range of these observations indicates that maximum
ow occurs at this density, although the actual ow in this study is considerably higher than
in the others. As space is reduced to less than 0.4 m2 /p, the ow rate declines precipitously.
All movement eectively stops at the minimum space allocation of 0.2 to 0.3 m2 /p.
Speed-Flow Relationships
The following Fig. 47:3 illustrates the relationship between pedestrian speed and ow. These
curves, similar to vehicle ow curves, show that when there are few pedestrians on a walkway
(i.e., low ow levels), there is space available to choose higher walking speeds. As ow increases, speeds decline because of closer interactions among pedestrians. When a critical level
of crowding occurs, movement becomes more dicult, and both ow and speed decline. The
Fig. 47:4 conrms the relationships of walking speed and available space, and suggests some
points of demarcation for developing LOS criteria. The outer range of observations indicates
that at an average space of less than 1.5 m2 /p, even the slowest pedestrians cannot achieve
their desired walking speeds. Faster pedestrians, who walk at speeds of up to 1.8 m/s, are not
able to achieve that speed unless average space is 4.0 m2 /p or more.
Pedestrian Space Requirements
Pedestrian facility designers use body depth and shoulder breadth for minimum space standards,
at least implicitly. A simplied body ellipse of 0.50 m * 0.60 m, with total area of 0.30 m2 is
used as the basic space for a single pedestrian, as shown in Fig. 47:5 this represents the practical
47.6
January 31, 2014
Speed (m/s)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0
25
50
100
125
150
Flow (p/min/m)
Speed (m/s)
Figure 47:3: Relationships between Pedestrian Speed and Flow
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
0
9 10
Space2 /p)
(m
Figure 47:4: Relationships between Pedestrian Speed and Space
47.7
January 31, 2014
0.5 m
body
depth
0.60 m shoulder breadth
Figure 47:5: Pedestrian body ellipse
Pacing Zone
Sensory Zone or
Forward Space
Figure 47:6: Pedestrian walking space requirement

minimum for standing pedestrians. In evaluating a pedestrian facility, an area of 0.75 m2 is
used as the buer zone for each pedestrian. A walking pedestrian requires a certain amount of
forward space. This forward space is a critical dimension, since it determines the speed of the
trip and the number of pedestrians that are able to pass a point in a given time period. The
forward space in the Fig 47:6 is categorized into a pacing zone and a sensory zone.
Pedestrian Walking Speed
Pedestrian walking speed is highly dependent on the proportion of elderly pedestrians (65 years
old or more) in the walking population. If 0 to 20 per cent of pedestrians are elderly, the average
walking speed is 1.2 m/s on walkways. If elderly people constitute more than 20 per cent of
the total pedestrians, the average walking speed decreases to 1.0 m/s. In addition, a walkway
upgrade of 10 per cent or more reduces walking speed by 0.1 m/s. On sidewalks, the free-ow
speed of pedestrians is approximately 1.5 m/s. There are several other conditions that could
reduce average pedestrian speed, such as a high percentage of slow-walking children in the
pedestrian ow.
47.8
January 31, 2014
Figure 47:7: LOS A

Pedestrian Start-Up Time and Capacity
A pedestrian start-up time of 3 s is a reasonable midrange value for evaluating crosswalks at
trac signals. A capacity of 75p/min/m or 4,500p/h/m is a reasonable value for a pedestrian
facility if local data are not available. At capacity, a walking speed of 0.8 m/s is considered a
reasonable value.
47.3
Level of Services
The HCM uses pedestrian space as primary measure of eectiveness, with mean speed and
ow rate as secondary measures. Provision of adequate space for both moving and queuing
pedestrian ow is necessary to ensure a good LOS. Alternatively LOS considered as pedestrian
comfort, convenience, perception of safety and security. Alternative LOS measurements consider specic constraints to pedestrian ow such as stairway and wait time to cross roadways.
We are going to discuss LOS of walkways, LOS of queuing and LOS at signalised intersection
below.
47.3.1
Pedestrian Walkway LOS
LOS A
Pedestrian Space > 5.6 m2 /p Flow Rate 16 p/min/m. At a walkway LOS A, pedestrians move
in desired paths without altering their movements in response to other pedestrians. Walking
speeds are freely selected, and conicts between pedestrians are unlikely. It is shown in Fig. 47:7.
47.9
January 31, 2014
Figure 47:8: LOS B
Figure 47:9: LOS C

LOS B
Pedestrian Space > 3.7 5.6 m2 /p Flow Rate > 16 23 p/min/m. At LOS B, there is sucient
area for pedestrians to select walking speeds freely, to bypass other pedestrians, and to avoid
crossing conicts. At this level, pedestrians begin to be aware of other pedestrians, and to
respond to their presence when selecting a walking path. It is shown in Fig. 47:8.
LOS C
Pedestrian Space > 2.2 3.7 m2 /p Flow Rate > 23 33 p/min/m. At LOS C, space is sucient
for normal walking speeds, and for bypassing other pedestrians in primarily unidirectional
streams. Reverse-direction or crossing movements can cause minor conicts, and speeds and
ow rate are somewhat lower. It is shown in Fig. 47:9.
LOS D
Pedestrian Space > 1.4 2.2 m2 /p Flow Rate > 33 49 p/min/m. At LOS D, freedom to select
individual walking speed and to bypass other pedestrians is restricted. Crossing or reverse ow
movements face a high probability of conict, requiring frequent changes in speed and position.
47.10
January 31, 2014
Figure 47:10: LOS D
Figure 47:11: LOS E

The LOS provides reasonably uid ow, but friction and interaction between pedestrians is
likely. It is shown in Fig. 47:10.
LOS E
Pedestrian Space > 0.75 1.4 m2 /p Flow Rate > 49 75 p/min/m. At LOS E, virtually
all pedestrians restrict their normal walking speed, frequently adjusting their gait. At the
lower range, forward movement is possible only by shuing. Space is not sucient for passing
slower pedestrians. Cross- or reverse-ow movements are possible only with extreme diculties.
Design volumes approach the limit of walkway capacity, with stoppages and interruptions to
ow. It is shown in Fig. 47:11.
LOS F
Pedestrian Space 0.75 m2 /p Flow Rate varies p/min/m. At LOS F, all walking speeds
are severely restricted, and forward progress is made only by shuing. There is frequent,
unavoidable contact with other pedestrians. Cross- and reverse-ow movements are virtually
impossible. Flow is sporadic and unstable. Space is more characteristic of queued pedestrians
than of moving pedestrian streams. It is shown in Fig. 47:12.
47.11
January 31, 2014
Figure 47:12: LOS F
47.3.2
Pedestrian Queuing LOS
LOS A
Average Pedestrian Space > 1.2 m2 /p. Standing and free circulation through the queuing area
is possible without disturbing others within the queue.
LOS B
Average Pedestrian Space > 0.9 1.2 m2 / p. Standing and partially restricted circulation to
avoid disturbing others in the queue is possible.
LOS C
Average Pedestrian Space > 0.6 0.9 m2 /p. Standing and restricted circulation through the
queuing area by disturbing others in the queue is possible; this density is within the range of
personal comfort.
LOS D
Average Pedestrian Space > 0.3 0.6 m2 /p. Standing without touching is possible; circulation
is severely restricted within the queue and forward movement is only possible as a group;
long-term waiting at this density is uncomfortable.
LOS E
Average Pedestrian Space > 0.2 0.3 m2 /p. Standing in physical contact with others is unavoidable; circulation in the queue is not possible; queuing can only be sustained for a short
period without serious discomfort.
47.12
January 31, 2014
Table 47:1: Los Criteria For Pedestrians At Signalized Intersections

LOS Pedestrian Delay(s/p) Likelihood of
Noncompliance
A
< 10
Low
B
10 20
C
> 20 30
Moderate
D
> 30 40
E
> 40 60
High
F
> 60
Very high
LOS F
Average Pedestrian Space 0.2 m2 /p. Virtually all persons within the queue are standing in
direct physical contact with others; this density is extremely uncomfortable; no movement is
possible in the queue; there is potential for panic in large crowds at this density.
LOS at signalised intersection
The signalized intersection crossing is more complicated to analyse than a midblock crossing,
because it involves intersecting sidewalk ows, pedestrians crossing the street, and others queued
waiting for the signal to change. The service measure is the average delay experienced by a
pedestrian. Research indicates that the average delay of pedestrians at signalized intersection
crossings is not constrained by capacity, even when pedestrian ow rates reach 5,000 p/h. The
average delay per pedestrian for a crosswalk is given by Equation:
dp =
0.5(C g)2
C
(47.3)
Where, dp = average pedestrian delay (s), g = eective green time (for pedestrians) (s), and C=
cycle length (s).
Numerical example
Calculate time delay of pedestrian crossing at a signalized intersection operating on a two phase,
80.0-s cycle length, with 4.0-s change interval, and no pedestrian signals. Major street: Phase
green time, Gd = 44.0 s; Crosswalk length, Ld = 14.0 m; Minor street: Crosswalk length, Lc
= 8.5 m; Phase green time, Gc = 28.0 s;
47.13
January 31, 2014
Table 47:2: Minimum pedestrian clear area (excluding sidewalk obstructions)

Pedestrian Flow rate
LOS A
LOS B LOS C LOS D LOS E
(pedestrian/hour)
< 600
1.5 m
1.2 m
1.2 m
1.2 m
1.2 m
600-1200
3.1 m
1.2 m
1.2 m
1.2 m
1.2 m
1200-2400
6.1m
1.8 m
1.5 m
1.2 m
1.2 m
2400-3600
2.8 m
1.8 m
1.5 m
1.2 m
3600-4800
3.7 m
2.5 m
1.8 m
1.2 m
4800-6000
4.6 m
3.1 m
2.1 m
1.2 m
6000-7200
Not
5.5 m
3.7 m
2.5 m
1.5 m
7200-8400
recommended 6.1 m
4.3 m
3.1 m
1.8 m
8400-9600
7.1 m
4.9 m
3.4 m
2.1 m
9600-10800
8.1 m
5.5 m
3.7 m
2.5 m
10800-12000
8.9 m
6.1 m
4.3 m
2.5 m
Solution dp =(c g)2 /2c, dp (major) = (80.0 - 28.0)* (80.0 - 28.0)/2(80), = 16.9 s (i.e. LOS
B using above table), dp (minor) = (80.0 - 44.0)* (80.0 - 44.0)/2(80) = 8.1 s (i.e. LOS A using
above table).
47.4
Design principle of pedestrian facilities
In the design facilities we will discuss the design criteria of sidewalk, street corner, crosswalk,
trac island, overpass and underpass and other facilities like as pedestrian signals and signage.
47.4.1
Side walk
Sidewalks are pedestrian lanes that provide people with space to travel within the public rightof-way that is separated from roadway vehicles. They also provide places for children to walk,
run, skate, ride bikes, and play. Sidewalks are associated with signicant reductions in pedestrian collisions with motor vehicles.
1. Width: The minimum clear width of a pedestrian access route shall be 1220 mm
exclusive of the width of curb. It varies according to pedestrian ow rate and dierent
LOS. It is shown in following Table.
2. Cross slope: The cross slope of the pedestrian access route shall be maximum 1:48.
47.14
January 31, 2014
Solid
Standard Continental Dashed
Zebra
Ladder
Figure 47:13: Cross walk marking pattern

3. Surfaces: Surface should be rm, stable, slip resistance and prohibit openings & avoid
service elements i.e. manholes etc.
A buer zone of 1.2 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft) is desirable and should be provided to separate
pedestrians from the street. The buer zone will vary according to the street type. In downtown
or commercial districts, a street furniture zone is usually appropriate.
47.4.2
Cross Walk
Marked crosswalks indicate optimal or preferred locations for pedestrians to cross and help
designate right-of-way for motorists to yield to pedestrians. Crosswalks are often installed at
signalized intersections and other selected locations.
1. It should be located at all open legs of signalized intersection.
2. It should be perpendicular to roadway.
3. The parallel line should be 0.2-0.6 m in width and min. length 1.8 m (standard 3m).
4. Marking may be of dierent type to increase visibility like as solid, standard, continental,
dashed, zebra, ladder. It is shown in Fig. 47:13.
47.4.3
Trac Islands
Trac islands to reduce the length of the crossing should be considered for the safety of all
road users. It is used to permit safe crossing when insucient gap in two directions trac &
helps elderly, children and disabled.
1. It works best when refuse area median is greater than cross walk width or 3.6 m, have
a surface area of at least 4.6 sq.m, are free of obstructions, have adequate drainage, and
provide a at, street level surface to provide accessibility to people with disabilities.
47.15
January 31, 2014
Figure 47:14: Ladder pattern at intersection

2. The Refuge area width should be at least 1.2 m wide and depend upon trac speed.
It should be 1.5m wide on streets with speeds between 40-48 kmph, 1.8 m wide(48-56
kmph), and 2.4 m (56-72 kmph).
47.4.4
Pedestrian Overpass and Underpass
Pedestrian facilities at-grade and as directly as possible are always preferred. However, where
grade separation is indicated, paths that are attractive, convenient and direct can become
well-used and highly valued parts of a citys pedestrian infrastructure.
1. These are expensive method but eliminate all or most conicts. These may be warranted
for critical locations such as schools factory gates, sports arenas, and major downtown
intersections (specially in conjunction with transit stations).
2. Overpasses are less expensive than underpass. However , vertical rise and fall to be
negotiated by pedestrians is usually greater for an overpass, and it may be aesthetically
inferior.
3. Minimum width is required 1.22 m, although 1.83 is preferred.
4. Ramps slopes not greater than 1:12 (8.33%) are preferable to ights of stairs to accommodate wheelchair, strollers, and bicycles and to comply with ADA.
47.16
January 31, 2014

Sidewalk B
Wb
Major street
Ld
V
di
V
do
W
a
Vco Vci
W
d
Crosswalk D
Sidewalk A
Building
line
2
Area = 0.215R
Figure 47:15: Intersection Corner Geometry
47.4.5
Street Corner
Available Time-Space: The total time-space available for circulation and queuing in the intersection corner during an analysis period is the product of the net corner area and the length
of the analysis period. For street corners, the analysis period is one signal cycle and therefore
is equal to the cycle length. The following equation is used to compute time-space available at
an intersection corner. Intersection Corner Geometry is shown in Fig. 47:15.
T S = C(Wa Wb 0.215R2)
(47.4)
where, TS =available time-space (m2 -s), Wa = eective width of Sidewalk a (m), Wb = eective
width of Sidewalk b (m), R = radius of corner curb (m), and C = cycle length (s).
47.4.6
Pedestrian signals
Pedestrian signals are designed basically considering minimum time gap required for crossing
the pedestrians. This minimum time gap can be calculated by using following gap equation.
Gs =
W
+ tc(N 1) + ts
Sped
(47.5)
where, Gs=min time gap in sec, W= width of crossing section, ts= startup time, tc=consecutive
time between two pedestrian, N=no of rows, and Sped =pedestrian speed.
47.4.7
Numerical example
Calculate time gap for a platoon of 27 school children 5 in a row, consecutive time 2 sec width
of crossing section is 7.5 m and walking speed of children .9 m/s start up time 3 sec. Solution
47.17
January 31, 2014
Figure 47:16: In-Pavement Raised Markers with Amber LED Strobe Lighting and LED Signs
Given w=7.5m; tc= 3 sec Sped = 0.9m/s Find out N N=27/5 i.e. 6 row (5 containing 5 & 6th
containing 2) Time gap
W
+ tc(N 1) + ts
Sped
= [(7.5/0.9) + 2(6 1) + 3]
Gs =
= 21.33sec
47.4.8
Trac signage
There are many signage used for pedestrian facilities like as in-pavement ashers, overhead
signs, animated pedestrian indications and school zone symbol. These are shown below.
1. In-Pavement Flashers (Fig. 47:16)
2. Overhead Signs (Fig. 47:17)
3. Animated Pedestrian Indications (Fig. 47:18)
4. School Zone Symbol (Fig. 47:19)
47.5
Conclusion
This lectures covers pedestrian problems, their characteristics, dierent level of services and design principles of pedestrian facilities. Pedestrian as the most basic unit / component for street
and public space design. Pedestrian includes vulnerable road users - elderly, disabled, children,
47.18
January 31, 2014
Figure 47:17: Overhead Pedestrian Signs
Figure 47:18: Animated Pedestrian Signals
Figure 47:19: School Zone Symbol

47.19
January 31, 2014
people with luggage etc. Safety of pedestrians to be on top priority (to be never compromised by design / policy). Eective integration of technical innovations, policies, institutional
mechanisms for pedestrian safety.
47.6
References
1. Pedestrians Research Problem Statements.

Transportation Research Board, 2005.
Transportation Research Circular E-C084,
2. C A O Flaherty. Transport Planning and Trac Engineering. Elsevier, 2006.

New Delhi, 1987.
47.20
January 31, 2014
48. Intelligent Transportation System - I
Chapter 48
Intelligent Transportation System - I
48.1
Overview
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) is the application of computer, electronics, and communication technologies and management strategies in an integrated manner to provide traveler
information to increase the safety and eciency of the road transportation systems. This paper mainly describes ITS user services, ITS architecture and ITS planning. The various user
services oered by ITS have been divided in eight groups have been briey described. The
ITS architecture which provides a common framework for planning, dening, and integrating
intelligent transportation systems is briey described emphasizing logical and physical architecture. Integration of ITS in transportation planning process which follows a systems engineering
approach to develop a transportation plan is also briey described in this paper.
48.2
Introduction
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) is the application of computer, electronics, and communication technologies and management strategies in an integrated manner to provide traveler
information to increase the safety and eciency of the surface transportation systems. These
systems involve vehicles, drivers, passengers, road operators, and managers all interacting with
each other and the environment, and linking with the complex infrastructure systems to improve
the safety and capacity of road systems.
As reported by Commission for Global Road Safety(June 2006) , the global road deaths were
between 750,000 to 880,000 in the year 1999 and estimated about 1.25 million deaths per year
and the toll is increasing further. World health organization report (1999), showed that in the
year 1990 road accidents as a cause of death or disability were the ninth most signicant cause of
death or disability and predicted that by 2020 this will move to sixth place. Without signicant
changes to the road transport systems these dreadful gures are likely to increase signicantly.
48.1
January 31, 2014
Traditional driver training, infrastructure and safety improvements, may contribute to certain
extent to reduce the number of accidents but not enough to combat this menace. Intelligent
Transport Systems are the best solution to the problem. Safety is one of the principal driving
forces behind the evolution, development, standardization, and implementation of ITS systems.
ITS improves transportation safety and mobility and enhances global connectivity by means
of productivity improvements achieved through the integration of advanced communications
technologies into the transportation infrastructure and in vehicles. Intelligent transportation
systems encompass a broad range of wireless and wire line communication based information
and electronics technologies to better manage trac and maximize the utilization of the existing transportation infrastructure. It improves driving experience, safety and capacity of road
systems, reduces risks in transportation, relieves trac congestion, improves transportation
eciency and reduces pollution.
48.3
ITS user services
In order to deploy ITS, a framework is developed highlighting various services the ITS can
oer to the users. A list of 33 user services has been provided in the National ITS Program
Plan. The number of user services, keep changing over time when a new service is added. All
the above services are divided in eight groups. The division of these services is based on the
perspective of the organization and sharing of common technical functions. Some of the user
services oered by ITS are shown in Fig. 48:1. The eight groups are described as follows:
1. Travel and trac management
2. Public transportation operations
3. Electronic payment
4. Commercial vehicle operations
5. Advance vehicle control and safety systems
6. Emergency management
7. Information management
8. Maintenance and construction management
48.2
January 31, 2014

Signal Control Systems
Incident Detection
Electronic Road Parking
Road Maintanance
Scheduling and Monitoring
Intelligent Parking
Travel Time Prediction

Transit Priority
Bus Scheduling
Assistance
Figure 48:1: ITS user services
48.3.1
Travel and trac management
The main objective of this group of services is to use real time information on the status of the
transportation system to improve its eciency and productivity and to mitigate the adverse
environmental impacts of the system. This group of user service is further divided in 10 user
services. Most of these services share information with one another in a highly integrated
manner for the overall benet of the road transportation system. These services are described
as below:
Pre trip information
This user service provides information to the travelers about the transportation system before
they begin their trips so that they can make more informed decisions regarding their time of
departure, the mode to use and route to take to their destinations. The travelers can access
this information through computer or telephone systems at home or work and at major public
places. Pre travel information can be accessed through mobile phones as shown in Fig. 48:2.
Dierent routes and respective travel time durations indicated on VMS are shown in Fig. 48:3.
The information include real time ow condition, real incidents and suggested alternate routes,
scheduled road construction and maintenance tasks, transit routes, schedules, fares, transfers,
and parking facilities.
En-route driver information
This user service provides travel related information to the travelers en route after they start
their trips through variable message signs (VMS), car radio, or portable communication devices.
Fig. 48:4 shows the various congested and non congested routes shown on display screen. VMS
48.3
January 31, 2014
START :ABCD
: 396
: 12:21
END : XYZ
: 13:05
Figure 48:2: Pre trip information
City Transit
ROUTE
DUE
69
3 mins
98
6 mins
408
7 mins
535
9 mins
Figure 48:3: VMS showing routes
48.4
January 31, 2014

Traffic
Map
Satellite
Hybrid
Figure 48:4: Showing congested routes
LYNNWOOD 11 MIN
S. EVERETT 19 MIN
Figure 48:5: VMS showing routes and travel times

indicating dierent routes and travel time is shown in Fig. 48:5. This helps the travelers to
better utilize the existing facility by changing routes etc to avoid congestion. This also provides
warning messages for roadway signs such as stop signs, sharp curves, reduced speed advisories,
wet road condition ashed with in vehicle displays to the travelers to improve the safety of
operating a vehicle. The information can be presented as voice output also.
Route guidance
This service provides information to the travellers with a suggested route to reach a specied
destination, along with simple instructions on upcoming turns and other manoeuvres. This
also provides travellers of all modes the real-time information about the transportation system,
including trac conditions, road closures, and the status and schedule of transit systems. The
benets of this service are reduced delay and drivers stress levels particularly in an unfamiliar
area.
Ride matching and reservation
This user service provide real-time ride matching information to travellers in their homes, oces
or other locations, and assists transportation providers with vehicle assignments and scheduling.
48.5
January 31, 2014

3 Detect,Verify and Respond
Access road
Loop detectors
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
2
Accident Occurs
Figure 48:6: Incident management

Travellers give information to the service center and get number of ride sharing options from
which they can choose the best.
Traveler Services Information
This service provides a business directory of information on travel-related services and facilities
like the location, operating hours, and availability of food, lodging, parking, auto repair, hospitals, gas stations and police facilities. This also makes reservations for many of these traveler
services. The traveler services information are accessible in the home, oce or other public
locations to help plan trips. These services are available en-route also.
Trac Control
This service collects the real time data from the transportation system, processes it into usable
information, and uses it to determine the optimum assignment of right-of-way to vehicles and
pedestrians. This helps in improving the ow of trac by giving preference to transit and other
high occupancy vehicles or by adjusting the signal timing to current trac conditions. The
information collected by the Trac Control service is also disseminated for use by many other
user services.
Incident Management
This service aims to improve the incident management and response capabilities of transportation and public safety ocials, the towing and recovery industry, and others involved in incident
response. Advanced sensors (close circuit TV cameras), data processors and communication
technologies are used to identify incidents quickly and accurately and to implement response
48.6
January 31, 2014
which minimizes trac congestion and the eects of these incidents on the environment and
the movement of people and goods. Fig. 48:6 shows the occurrence of incident and its detection
by the center and decision implemented responding to the incident on a highway pertaining to
incident management.
Travel Demand Management
This user service develop and implement strategies to reduce the number of single occupancy
vehicles while encouraging the use of high occupancy vehicles and the use of more ecient
travel mode. The strategies adopted are:
1. Congestion pricing
2. Parking management and control
3. Mode change support
4. Telecommuting and alternate work schedule.
Emissions Testing and Mitigation
The main objective of this service is to monitor and implement strategies to divert trac away
from sensitive air quality areas, or control access to such areas using advanced sensors. This
also used to identify vehicles emitting pollutants exceeding the standard values and to inform
drivers to enable them to take corrective action. This helps in facilitating implementation and
evaluation of various pollution control strategies by authorities.
Highway Rail Intersection
This service is to provide improved control of highway and train trac to avoid or decrease
the severity of collisions between trains and vehicles at highway-rail intersections. This also
monitors the condition of various HRI equipments.
48.3.2
Public transportation operations
This group of service is concerned with improving the public transportation systems and encouraging their use. Fig. 48:7 shows dierent public transportation facilities. This group is
divided in four services which are described as below:
48.7
January 31, 2014
Implementing the
Construction and Development
of Metropolitan Rapid Transit
Systems
Improving the
Operational
Enviornment of Urban
Bus Systems
Providing a Healthy
Operational Environment of
Mass Rapid Transit Systems
Facilitating the
Development of
Enhancing the Service
Urban Bus Systems
Quality of Rapid Transit

Systems
Figure 48:7: Dierent public transportation systems

Public Transportation Management
This user service collects data through advanced communications and information systems to
improve the operations of vehicles and facilities and to automate the planning and management
functions of public transit systems. This oers three tasks:
1. To provide real-time computer analysis of vehicles and facilities to improve transit operations and maintenance by monitoring the location of transit vehicles, by identifying
deviations from the schedule, and oering potential solutions to dispatchers and operators.
2. To maintain transportation schedules and to assure transfer connections from vehicle to
vehicle and between modes to facilitate quick response to service delays .
3. To enhance security of transit personnel by providing access management of transit vehicles.
En-Route Transit Information
This service is intended to provide information on expected arrival times of t vehicles, transfers,
and connections to travellers after they begin their trips using public transportation. This also
provide real-time, accurate transit service information on-board the vehicle, at transit stations
and bus stops to assist travellers in making decisions and modify their trips underway.
48.8
January 31, 2014
Personalized Public Transit

The aim of this service is to oer public transport facility to travellers by assigning or scheduling
vehicles by
1. diverting exibly routed transit vehicles.
2. assigning privately operated vehicles on demand which include small buses, taxicabs, or
other small, shared-ride vehicles.
Under this service, travellers provide information of their trip origin and destination to service
station. The center then assigns the closest vehicle to service the request and to inform the
travellers regarding arrival of such vehicles well in advance to reduce their anxiety.
Public Travel Security
This user service creates a secure environment for public transportation operators and support
sta and monitors the environment in transit facilities, transit stations, parking lots, bus stops
and on-board transit vehicles and generates alarms (either automatically or manually) when
necessary. It also provides security to the systems that monitor key infrastructure of transit
(rail track, bridges, tunnels, bus guide ways, etc.).
48.3.3
Electronic payment
This user service allows travellers to pay for transportation services with a common electronic
payment medium for dierent transportation modes and functions. Toll collection, transit fare
payment, and parking payment are linked through a multimodal multi-use electronic system.
With an integrated payment system a traveller driving on a toll road, using parking lot would
be able to use the same electronic device to pay toll, parking price and the transit fare. Fig. 48:8
shows the electronic payment facility by radio car tag.
48.3.4
Commercial Vehicle operations
The aim is to improve the eciency and safety of commercial vehicle operations. This involves
following services:
1. CV electronic clearance
2. Automated road side safety inspection
3. Onboard safety monitoring administrative process
48.9
January 31, 2014

traffic
monitoring camera
tag reader
traffic gate
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111
000000000000000
111111111111111
5 000000000000000
REDUCE
SPEED
PASS
MPH
traffic
Information display
EZ Pass tag
The EZ Pass Process
Figure 48:8: Electronic payment facility

4. Hazardous material incident response
5. Freight Mobility
Commercial Vehicle Electronic Clearance
This service allows enforcement personnel to electronically check safety status, vehicles credentials, and size and weight data for the commercial vehicles before they reach an inspection site.
The authorities send the illegal or potentially unsafe vehicles only for inspection and bypass
safe and legal carriers to travel without stopping for compliance checks at weigh stations and
other inspection sites.
Automated Roadside Safety Inspection
At inspection station the safety requirements are checked more quickly and more accurately
during a safety inspection using automated inspection capabilities. Advanced equipments are
used to check brake, steering and suspension performance and also the drivers performance
pertaining to driver alertness and tness for duty.
On-board Safety Monitoring
This service monitors the driver, vehicle, and cargo and notify the driver, carrier, and, also
to the enforcement personnel, if an unsafe situation arises during operation of the vehicle.
This is user service also assures freight container, trailer, and commercial vehicle integrity by
monitoring on-board sensors for a breach or tamper event.
48.10
January 31, 2014
Commercial Vehicle Administrative Processes

This service allows carriers to purchase credentials such as fuel use taxes, trip permits, overweight permit, or hazardous material permits automatically. The mileage and fuel reporting
and auditing components are provided to the carriers automatically which reduce signicant
amount of time and paperwork.
Hazardous Materials Incident Response
This user service provides immediate information regarding the types and quantities of hazardous materials present at incident location to the emergency personnel in order to facilitate
a quick and appropriate response. The emergency personnel are informed regarding shipment
of any sensitive hazardous materials so that timely action could be taken in case of accidents.
Freight Mobility
This service provides information to the drivers, dispatchers, and intermodal transportation
providers, enabling carriers to take advantage of real-time trac information, as well as vehicle
and load location information, to increase productivity.
48.3.5
Advanced vehicle control and safety systems
This user service aims to improve the safety of the transportation system by supplementing
drivers abilities to maintain vigilance and control of the vehicle by enhancing the crash avoidance capabilities of vehicles. Following user services are included in this group:
Longitudinal Collision Avoidance
This user service provides assistance to vehicle operators in avoiding longitudinal collisions
to the front and/or rear of the vehicle. This is achieved by implementing rear-end collision
warning and control, Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), head-on collision warning and control,
and backing collision warning to the drivers.
Lateral Collision Avoidance
This helps drivers in avoiding accidents that result when a vehicle leaves its own lane of travel,
by warning drivers and by assuming temporary control of the vehicle. This service provides
to the drivers the lane change/blind spot situation display, collision warning control and lane
departure warning and control.
48.11
January 31, 2014
Intersection Collision Avoidance

This user service is specically aimed at providing vehicle operators with assistance in avoiding
collisions at intersections. The system tracks the position of vehicles within the intersection
area through the use of vehicle-to-vehicle communications or vehicle to infrastructure communications.
Vision Enhancement for Crash Avoidance
This service helps in reducing the number of vehicle crashes that occur during periods of
poor visibility by in vehicle sensors capable of capturing an image of driving environment and
providing a graphical display of the image to the drivers.
Safety Readiness
This helps to provide drivers with warnings regarding their own driving performance, the condition of the vehicle, and the condition of the roadway as sensed from the vehicle.
Pre-Crash Restraint Deployment
This service helps in reducing the number and severity of injuries caused by vehicle collisions
by anticipating an imminent collision and by activating passenger safety systems prior to the
actual impact.
Automated Vehicle Operations (AVO)
This service provides a fully automated vehicle-highway system in which instrumented vehicles
operate on instrumented roadways without operator intervention.
48.3.6
Emergency management
This service has two functions:

1. Emergency notication and personal security - This is to provide travellers the ability to
notify appropriate emergency response personnel regarding the need for assistance due
to emergency or non-emergency situations either by manually or automatically from the
vehicle on the occurrence of an accident.
2. Emergency vehicle management - This user service is to reduce the time from the receipt
of an emergency notication to the arrival of the emergency vehicles at incident location
thereby reducing the severity of accident injuries.
48.12
January 31, 2014
48.3.7
Information management
This service is aimed to provide the functionality needed to store and archive the huge amounts
of data being collected on a continuous basis by dierent ITS technologies.
48.3.8
Maintenance and construction management
This user service is aimed to provide the functionality needed for managing the eets of maintenance vehicles, managing the roadway with regards to construction and maintenance and safe
roadway operations.
48.4
ITS Architecture
The ITS Architecture provides a common framework for planning, dening, and integrating
intelligent transportation systems. It species how the dierent ITS components would interact with each other to help solving transportation problems. It provides the transportation
professionals to address their needs with wide variety of options. It identies and describes
various functions and assigns responsibilities to various stakeholders of ITS. The ITS architecture should be common and of specied standards throughout the state or region so that it can
address solution to several problems while interacting with various agencies.
1. Interoperability - The ITS architecture should be such that the information collected,
function implemented or any equipment installed be interoperable by various agencies in
dierent state and regions.
2. Capable of sharing and exchanging information - The information by trac operations
may be useful to the emergency services.
3. Resource sharing - regional communication towers constructed by various private agencies
are required to be shared by ITS operations.
48.4.1
National ITS architecture
This is developed by US Department of Transportation to provide guidance and co-ordinate all

regions in deploying ITS. It documents all information available and keep updating continuously.
The national architecture contains the following components:
48.13
January 31, 2014
Table 48:1: User service requirements for Trac Control user service
Trac Control provides the capability to eciently manage the movement of trac
on streets and highways. Four functions are provided which are
(1) Trac Flow Optimization,
(2) Trac Surveillance,
(3) Control, and
(4) Provide Information.
This will also include control of network signal systems with integration of freeway
control. The specied User service requirements
(1) TC shall include a Trac Flow Optimization function to provide the capability
to optimize trac ow.
(1.1) Trac Flow Optimization shall employ control strategies that seek to maximize
trac-movement eciency.
(1.2) Trac Flow Optimization shall include a wide area optimization capability, to
include several jurisdictions.
(1.2.1) Wide area optimization shall integrate the control of network signal systems
with the control of freeways.
(1.2.2) Wide area optimization shall include features that provide preferential
treatment for transit vehicles.
(2) TC shall include a Trac Surveillance function.
48.4.2
User services and their requirements
A number of functions are needed to accomplish the user services. These functional statements
are called user services requirements. For all the user services the requirements have been
specied. If any new function is added, new requirements are to be dened. Table. 48:1 shows
an illustration of user service requirements for trac control user service.
48.4.3
Logical architecture
To accomplish user service requirements many functions or processes are needed. The logical
architecture denes a set of functions (or processes) and information ows (or data ows) that
respond to the user service requirements. It describes the lower end interaction of dierent
components of ITS. Processes and data ows are grouped to form a particular functions. These
are represented graphically by data ow diagrams (DFDs). Fig. 48:9 shows the interaction
of Manage Trac process with other processes. Each process is broken down into more sub
48.14
January 31, 2014
Provide
Driver and
Traveller
Services
Manage
Emergency
Services
Manage
Commercial
Vehicles Manage
Archived
Data
Provide
Electronic
Payment
Services
Provide
Vehicle
Monitoring
and
Control
Manage
Transit
Manage
Traffic
Manage
Maintenance
and
Construction
Figure 48:9: High level ITS logical architecture
Figure 48:10: Decomposition of process into P-specs

processes. The sub process is further broken into sub process which are called process specications (P-specs) lowest level. These p specs are required to be performed to fulll user services
requirements. Fig. 48:10 shows process decomposition into process specications.
48.4.4
Physical architecture
The functions from logical architecture that serve the same need are grouped into sub systems.
With these subsystems a physical entity is developed to deliver functions. The data ow of
logical architecture are also combined to dene interface between subsystems. Fig. 48:11 shows
the functions A and B of logical architecture assigned to subsystem A in physical architecture.
Both the architecture forms the core of ITS. The physical architecture of ITS denes the physical
subsystems and architectural ows based on the logical architecture. The 22 subsystems are
broadly classied in four groups as centers, eld, vehicle, and travelers. Fig. 48:12 shows
the subsystems and communications that comprise the national physical architecture. The
subsystem represent aggregation of functions that serve the same transportation need and
closely correspond to physical elements of transportation management system.
48.15
January 31, 2014

data flows
Logical Architecture
What has to be done
(functions or
processes)
Function
Function
Function
Function
Physical Architecture
Subsystem A
Subsystem H
(Group functions
together)
Architecture
flow
Figure 48:11: Assigning function from logical to the physical architecture

Centers
Travelers
Commercial Maintenance &

Emergency
Traffic
Toll
Vehicle
Management Management Administration Administration Construction
Management
Remote
Traveler
Support
Information
Fleet and
Archived
Emissions
Transit
Service
Freight
Data
Provider Management Management Management Management
Fixed Point Fixed Communications
Vehicle Vehicle Communications
Wide Area Wireless Communications
Vehicle
Emergency
Vehicle
Commercial
Vehicle
Transit
Vehicle
Maintenance &
Construction
Vehicle
Roadway
Field Vehicle Communications
Personal
Information
Access
Vehicles
Security
Monitoring
Toll
Collection
Parking
Management
Field
Commercial
Vehicle
Check
Figure 48:12: National ITS physical architecture showing subsystems and communications
Vehicle group consists of ve dierent types of vehicles. The traveler group represents
dierent ways a traveler can access information on the status of the transportation system.
There are four dierent types of communication systems.
1. Fixed point to xed point
2. Wide area wireless
3. Vehicle - vehicle communication
4. Field - vehicle communication
Through the communication systems all the subsystems are interconnected and transfer the
required data. Fig. 48:13 shows the communication between trac management subsystem
and the roadway subsystem. Trac management subsystem is connected to communications
48.16
January 31, 2014

Roadway Subsystem
Traffic management center

Central Computer System
Signal Control
Controller Cabinet
Communications
Surveillance
Centers
Traffic
Management
Information
Personal
Service
Information Access Provider
Commercial Maintenance and

Payment
Vehicle
Management Administration Construction
Emergency
Management
Emissions
Management
Field Vehicle Communications
Vehicle Vehicle Communications
Travelers
Remote Traveler
Support
Transit
Fleet and Freight Archived Data
Management
Management Management
Wide Area Wireless(Mobile)Communications

Fixed Point fixed Point Communications
Vehicle
Emergency
Vehicle
Commercial
Vehicle
Transit
Vehicle
Maintanance and
Construction
Vehicle
Vehicles
Roadway
Security
Monitoring
Roadway
Pavement
Parking
Management
Field
Commercial Vehicle
Check
Figure 48:13: Communications between subsystems of physical architecture

Table 48:2: TMC Signal control equipment package
TMC Equipment package provides the capability for trac managers to monitor
and manage the trac ow at signalized intersections. It analyzes and reduces the
collected data from trac surveillance equipment and implements control plans
for signalized intersections.
TMC signal control equipment package contains ve P- specs:
(i) Trac operation personnel trac interface
(ii) Process trac data
(iii) Select strategy
(iv) Determine indicator state for road management
(v) Output control data for roads
which gets real time information of the transportation system through roadway subsystem
which comprise of signal control, detectors, camera, VMS etc.
48.4.5
Equipment packages
In order to provide more deployment oriented perspective to the ITS architecture an equipment
package is developed. In this similar functions of a particular subsystem are grouped together
and implemented by a package of hardware and software facilities. As an example Table. 48:2
shows the TMC signal control equipment package and its functional requirements.
48.17
January 31, 2014

ATMS03 Surface Street Control
signal control
data
Traffic
Management
Roadway
signal control
status
Roadway
traffic flow +
Basic
traffic images Surveillance
traffic sensor
Roadway
control +
video surveillance Equipment
control
Coordination
request for
Roadway
rightofway
Signal
Controls
roadway
equipment
coordination
Other
Roadway
driver
information
Driver
crossing
call
crossing
permission
Pedestrians
traffic
characteristics
Traffic
Collect Traffic
Surveillance traffic operator
TMC Signal
data
Control
Traffic Operations
Personnel
Traffic
Maintenance traffic operator
inputs
Figure 48:14: Surface street control market package
48.4.6
Market package
The market package denes a set of equipment packages that are required to work together
to provide a given transportation service. Most market packages are made up of equipment
packages from two or more subsystems. These are designed to address specic transportation
problems and needs. Fig. 48:14 shows surface street control market package. This package
provide the central control and monitoring equipment, communication links and the signal
control equipment that support local street control or arterial trac management. The various
signal control systems dynamically adjusted control plans and strategies based on current trac
conditions and priority requests.
48.5
ITS Planning
ITS planning is to integrate ITS into the transportation planning process.
48.5.1
Transportation planning and ITS
Transportation planning helps in shaping a well balanced transportation system that can meet
future demands. Transportation planning is an iterative process which include problem identication, solution generation, analysis, evaluation and implementation. This can be integrated
with ITS using computers, communication systems and software. As planning is normally made
for long period, installing ITS facilities needs to be updated and one should ensure that the
equipments and technologies are compatible for future improvement and expansion. The steps
48.18
January 31, 2014
in traditional transportation planning are as follows:

1. Establish goals and objectives
2. Inventory existing conditions
3. Analyze existing conditions
4. Long range/ short range element
5. Forecast land use, population/employment
6. Forecast future travel/trips
7. Develop and evaluate alternative transportation plans
8. Prepare recommended plans and programs
ITS transportation planning process diers from the traditional transportation planning process. ITS has the unique capability to integrate dierent modes of transportation such as
public auto, transit, and infrastructural elements through communications and control. The
multimodal integration potential provides a great opportunity for planning across modes. The
comparison between ITS approach and conventional approach for solving various transportation
problems are shown for few problems are shown in table. 48:3.
48.5.2
Planning and ITS architecture
ITS architecture is a useful tool for integrating ITS technique into planning process. The ITS
architecture denes the comprehensive set of data that should be shared by various agencies of
transportation network. With the knowledge of what data must be exchanged, these agencies
develop a common interest in cooperating planning eorts between all transportation projects.
48.5.3
Planning for ITS
ITS planning process follows a systems engineering approach to develop a deployment plan in
descending order vision, goal, objectives, and functions. Table. 48:4 shows the ITS approach
for achieving goal enhance public safety.
48.19
January 31, 2014
Table 48:3: Relationship between problems, conventional approach and ITS approach
Problem
Possible solutions Conventional approach
ITS approach
Lack of
Provide user
Expand xed route
Multimodal pre trip and
mobility
friendly access to
transit and Para
en-route traveler
and
quality
transit service
information
accessibility
transportation
services
Radio and TV
Personalize public
trac reports
transportation
Car pooling
Flex-time program
Trac
congestion
Increase roadway
capacity
Enhance fare card

Advanced trac
control, advanced
vehicle systems
Real time ride matching
New roads
Reduce demand
Personalized public
transport
Trac
accidents
Improve safety
Improve roadway
geometry, sight
distance, trac
signal
Grade separated
intersection
Telecommuting
transportation pricing
Fully automated vehicle
control system
Automated warning
system
Driver condition on
monitoring
Driver training
Street lighting
Automated detection of
adverse weather
Emergency notication
48.20
January 31, 2014
Table 48:4: ITS approach for the goal enhance public safety
Vision
Improvement of travelers safety by providing advance warning by
implementing crash counter measures and by controlling to the security
of the transportation facilities
Goal
Enhance public safety
Objectives Promote safety of transportation
Reduce crashes on freeways
facility
and streets
Functions
# Monitoring of rest areas
# Implement crash counter
measures at high accident
# Provide public safety at park
locations
and ride lots
# Implement work zone safety
# Coordinate emergency response
measures
using appropriate agency
# Install trac signs signals and
road marking
# Remove obstruction from the
incident scene
48.21
January 31, 2014
48.5.4
Integrating ITS into Transportation planning
Integrating ITS into transportation planning process require overcoming some obstacles and
some changes in the business practices of many institutions. The major challenges in mainstreaming ITS into everyday operations of transportation agencies are:
Institutional coordination and cooperation for sharing information and data
Technical compatibility among ITS projects
Human resource needs and training
Financial constraints and opportunities to involve the private sector
Most public agencies are aware of the challenges in mainstreaming ITS into transportation
planning process where ITS projects are part of traditional transportation programs on local
or state level to achieve the best output from transportation investments.
48.6
Summary
This lecture introduces three important intelligent transportation system concepts such as:
user services architecture planning. ITS user services includes concept on Travel and trac
management, Public transportation operations, Electronic payment, Commercial Vehicle operations, Advanced vehicle control and safety systems, Emergency management, Information
management, and Maintenance and construction management A general ITS architecture and
its national representation is then covered. The ITS planning discusses how to integrate ITS
into transportation planning
48.7
References
1. M A Chowdhary and A Sadek. Fundamentals of Intelligent Transportation systems

planning. Artech House Inc., US, 2003.
2. Bob Williams.
2008.
Intelligent transportation systems standards.
48.22
Artech House, London,
January 31, 2014
49. Intelligent Transportation System - II
Chapter 49
Intelligent Transportation System - II
49.1
Standards
Standards provide some norms and regulations to be followed. Just as the standards are
provided by IRC for the signs to be used similar standards are there for ITS. They bring
oneness in the system. They help in generalizing any system. Also they bring homogeneity in
the design. The standards help the non-transportation designers to adhere to some guidelines
so that the system is sound technically.
49.1.1
Need of ITS standards
The need of ITS standards can be explained by ve aspects:

Product behavior.
Interface.
Performance.
Co-ordination and interaction.
Benets to vendors, manufacturers and government.
Product behavior
The standards prescribe ways the product should behave. The behavior everywhere should be
uniform. It should not happen that the product behaves dierently in some dierent scenarios.
It ensures uniform product responses. It also helps in easy understanding of a device. It
provides consistency in the output. Confusion to the users is also avoided. Just as a STOP or
GO sign is used it everywhere and every time means the same. Standards do the same thing
in ITS.
49.1
January 31, 2014
Interface
Many devices are to be connected with each other. Connection of components to system must
be universal. More plug and play type devices should be used. By having a standard the
device will get connected using a standard interface. For ex, many trac signals should be
connectable to same controller. If universal interface is not there, then many devices will not
work everywhere, which is not desirable.
Performance
Check on performance of a device is essential. Standards should be set to have at-least minimum
performances. The standards will help the manufacturers to develop quality and less expensive
products. It will set the minimum quality threshold accepted for the product. Detection of
under-performance of a device is essential to keep an overall check on the system.
Co-ordination and interaction
Data transfer is an important aspect in the ITS and the data ows from one agency to other.
Thus the co-ordination and interaction between various agencies must take place eectively.
The data must be in stored or transferred in standard format. Data sharing must be possible.
Standard data dictionary and message sets are required for this purpose. The data for each
organization should mean the same. Thus the data dictionary is essential.
Benets to vendors, manufacturers and government
It helps the government in enforcing some rules which are otherwise dicult to implement. It
also helps the vendors to choose the manufacturer best from the lot which will also be best for
the users. It provides manufacturer with a guide to produce ecient device. If some standards
are made by the government then the manufacturer has to follow the rules. So the uniformity is
achieved in the product and its output. As all the devices are made by following same standards
it provides same platform for vendors to judge a product. Thus a best product is selected by
the vendor which will also be good for the user.
49.1.2
Case study
In US there are many types of toll collection systems implemented to collect the toll. Each
system requires its own tags and receiver devices. This gives rise to many types of tags and
receiver devices. Such variance in devices is undesirable and dicult to handle. Thus some
standard platform was thought to be required to generalise the system. Standardization of
49.2
January 31, 2014
ETC was thus started with this issue in mind. Standardization will provide uniform platform.
Still the process of standardization is ongoing and a single standard is in the making. It is
expected to reduce the problems of toll collection in US. Thus from this case study it can be
seen that the standards are helping the engineers to simplify the system and help in reducing
complexities.
49.2
Classication of standards
Just like ITS services are classied into user services the standard are to be classied in some
ve groups depending upon the interface it is made for. These classications are termed as
application areas. The various application area in ITS standards are:
Centre - roadside interface
Centre - center interface
Centre - vehicle interface
Roadside - vehicle interface
Roadside - roadside interface
Each of the class has some sub classes or sub-groups. For each sub-group some set of standards
are to be used. Each sub-group may have more than one standard to follow. This takes care
for the standard to be eective in all aspects.
49.2.1
Centre - roadside interface
Standards are made for the interface that exists between a center device and a roadside device. These are standards for communications between transportation management center and
roadway equipment. Majority of the ITS services can be grouped under this. Various elds
included are:
Data collection and monitoring
Dynamic message system
Ramp metering
Trac signal
Vehicle sensors
49.3
January 31, 2014
Data collection and monitoring

This application area includes the interface between a trac management center or a data
archive and roadside equipment. Primarily the interface is between trac management subsystem and roadway sub-system. By this standard we can eectively control, monitor and
collect data from the equipment on or at the roadside. The roadside equipment collects and
processes signals from the sensors as vehicles are detected to generate information. The roadside
equipment sends the information to the center. The standards included are:
Object denitions for video switches.
Data dictionary for closed circuit television
Object denitions for environmental sensor station and roadside weather information
system.
Transportation system sensor objects.
Data collection and monitoring devices.
The 1st , 2nd and 4th standards are used for video data collection. The 3rd is used when some
environmental data collection is to be done. The last is the common standard to be followed
while data collection is done.
Dynamic message signing
It is an interface between trac management and roadway system. It gives real time information
such as trac conditions, weather conditions or any other advisory to user. It has one primary
and several secondary standards. The primary standard is listed below. The standard included
is
Object denitions for dynamic message signs.
The standard is discussed below in detail.
Ramp metering
This application area provides an interface between trac management and roadway system.
The roadway sub-system includes a ramp meter which controls trac in freeway lanes. One
primary standard is included for this application. The standard included is
Ramp meter controller objects.
49.4
January 31, 2014
Trac signal
It is an interface that is used for local signal controllers. It is also used for master controller.
The roadway sub-system includes a local-signal controller or on-street master controller. Based
on the trac data appropriate signal timing is decided and then interface provides information
to controller about the signal timings. 2 major standards for this are:
The standards used are:
Objects for signal system master.
Object denitions for actuated trac signal controller.
Vehicle sensors
This application area includes the interface between a trac management and roadway system
and a roadway and archived data management subsystem. The roadway subsystem includes
roadway sensors that identify dierent characteristics and communicates it to main center.
There are 4 primary standards for this application. The standards are:
Object denitions for video switches.
Data dictionary for CCTV.
Transportation system sensor objects.
Data collection and monitoring devices.
49.2.2
Center - center interface
It is an interface that is used to make standards for communication between management

centers. This interface is important from planning point of view. The standards help in
tackling the diversities. Eective communication takes place between various centers because
of these group of standards. The archived data transfer is ecient and also the real time data
transfer is possible. Various elds in centre - centre interface are:
Data archival
Trac management
Traveller information
49.5
January 31, 2014
Data archival
This application area includes an interface between the archived data management subsystem
and the sources and the users of archived data. The data archive collects data for o-line
analysis purposes such as planning and research. Data sources for the archive include trac
management centers, emergency management centers and commercial vehicle administration
system. Eectively it is the data transfer between centers for planning and research. There are
two primary standards for this. Standards used are:
Archival data management system(ADMS) guidelines
ADMS data dictionary specications
Trac management
It provides an interface between a trac management center and other centers like transit
management center, emergency management, toll operation, event promoter, media and other
management centers. It enables transfer of real time trac data and control over emergencymaintenance operations. Three standards are used for this. Standards used are:
Message set for external TMC communications.
Standard for functional level trac management data dictionary.
Message set for weather reports.
Traveller information
This application area includes the interface between information service provider and traveler
information collector/disseminator. These interfaces support the roles of an ISP that may
include information collection, integration of collected data and dissemination of aggregated
data. Four standards are included in this. Standards used are:
Data dictionary for advanced traveler information system (ATIS).
Message system for ATIS.
Messages for handling strings and look-up tables in ATIS standards
Message set for weather reports
49.6
January 31, 2014
49.2.3
Center - vehicle interfaces
It provides standards for communication between management center and vehicle. The number
of application area in this interface may be less but they assume high importance in ITS services.
There eective implementation helps in overall eective use of ITS. Fields included are:
Mayday
Transit vehicle communications
MAYDAY
This application area includes interface between driver and emergency management center. The
interface enables the driver or traveler to either request emergency assistance or have such a
request automatically sent after a crash. One standard is included for this type of application.
Standards used is
On-board land vehicle Mayday reporting interface
Transit vehicle communications
This application area includes interface between transit vehicle and transit management center.
Transit vehicles send information on location, passenger count, maintenance and so on to the
transit management center. Similarly the transit management center provides information
regarding dispatch, routing and other information. Standards used are:
TCIP-control center business area standard.
TCIP-common public business area standard.
TCIP-fare collection business area standard.
TCIP-onboard business area standard.
The TCIP stands for Transit Communications Interface Proles. This is body forms under
NTCIP. It is responsible to formation of standards regarding the transit management.
49.2.4
Roadside - vehicle interfaces
This interface provides standards for wireless communication between roadside and vehicles.
These are implemented to increase the service of any system and their by increasing its quality.
Communication takes place between a vehicle and roadside equipment by automatic means.
Fields included are:
49.7
January 31, 2014
Toll/fee collection
Signal priority
Toll/Fee collection
This application area includes interface between toll or parking management facility and vehicles
that would pay the toll or fee. This interface supports reading vehicle and processing electronic
identication and associated account information. 5 primary standards are included in this.
Standards used are:
Standard specication for 5.9 GHZ data link layer.
Standard specication for 5.9 GHZ physical layer.
Standard for message set for vehicle /roadside communications.
Specication for Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) medium access and
logical link control
Specication for Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) physical layer using
microwave in 902-928 MHz.
Signal priority
This application area includes interface between trac controllers and transit or emergency
vehicles. The interface supports providing priority to the transit vehicles or preempting emergency vehicles, depending on the detection of the vehicle type or request from vehicle. This
application area has 5 standards associated with it. Out of these 5 standards 4 are same as for
toll collection. Standards used are:
Standard specication for 5.9GHZ data link layer.
Standard specication for 5.9GHZ physical layer.
Objects for signal control priority.
Specication for Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) medium access and
logical link control
Specication for Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) physical layer using
microwave in 902-928 MHz.
49.8
January 31, 2014
49.2.5
Roadside - roadside interfaces
This area involves standards for communications between roadside and railroad wayside equipment. The most important of it is the interaction between the road and rail equipment.
Highway Rail Interface
This application area includes interface between railway and roadside equipment. The interface
support co-ordinated operations of the railway and roadway-side equipment to improve the
operations and safety for both rail transit and highway vehicles. This includes one standard
between two systems. Standard used is:
Standard for interface between railway subsystem and highway sub-system at intersection
49.2.6
Dynamic Message Sign Standard
Dynamic message sign standard is a standard employed to have certain set of rules and regulations for dynamic message signs. All the devices used should comply with the standard
so that the device can be used on any platform. All the functioning of the device should be
universal. It denes the data elements required for DMS. Data elements are like font, font size,
the height of font, the spacing between characters, the type of message etc. It also denes
the conformity-performance of a DMS device. That is it denes how the DMS system should
work in any scenario. The performance of the system is thus checked. It contains mandatory,
optional and conditional clauses which are needed to be followed.
There are many actions that are required to be done in a DMS system. All such actions can
be done using some syntax. The standard provides these syntaxes that are to be used while
working with the DMS devices. All devices should work with this syntax.
Sign conguration
All the parameters regarding the sign boards are included in this feature. Whenever a message
has to be displayed some standard data of the sign board is required for proper display of
message. To access this parameter some syntax is to be followed to get the information. 2
important parameters are:
Height/Width of sign board- it gives the height and width of the board.
Horizontal/vertical border parameter- it gives the border available on the board.
49.9
January 31, 2014
Font conguration
All data regarding the type of font, the size is described by the font conguration. It is a
read-write parameter where we can access the data and also overwrite it if required. Height
may be expressed in pixels. The important parameters are:
Font name parameter - it gives the type of font to be used as default which can be changed.
Font size parameter - gives the size of font.
Sign control objects
These provide some codes that are used for controlling any sign. The activity on a sign is
governed by these parameters. Some important parameters are:
Activate message parameter - provides a code - when to activate a certain parameter.
Message display time remaining parameter - states the display time remaining for a particular message.
Message parameters
All the data regarding the various types of messages their characteristics are controlled by these
parameters. The changing of any message or the status of any message can be assessed by these
parameters. Some important parameters are discussed below:
Max. no. of changeable message parameter - it species the maximum number of changeable messages that can be stored or used at a time.
Message run time priority parameter - it gives the run time priority of the message and
thus is helps in decision making.
Message status parameter - it gives the status of the message i.e. whether it has been
displayed or not; whether it is edited; whether it is being edited, etc.
Illumination objects
This gives the parameters related to the illumination of the sign boards. The status of present
illumination, the source of illumination can be assessed. Some important parameters of it are:
Illumination control parameter - it gives the source of the illumination of the sign board.
The source can be assessed and also can be changed. Thus it is a read-write parameter.
49.10
January 31, 2014
Illumination brightness level parameter - it gives the brightness around the sign board.
Some sensors are used to know the current brightness level.
Status objects
They help in nding the status as is specied initially. Some important parameters are:
Current speed parameter - it gives the current speed of the vehicle. It is an read-only
parameter.
Current speed limit parameter - it denotes the current speed limit of the corridor. It is a
read-write parameter.
Power status objects
It gives the power status of a vehicle. This type of DMS service is inside the vehicle. It gives
information to the driver. Some important parameters of this eld are discussed below:
Low fuel parameter.
Engine RPM parameter.
Power source parameter.
49.2.7
Standards testing
Just as testing is required for any new thing which is made, the standards are also needed to
be tested. It is like an evaluation of a system. It helps in judging whether the standard made is
eective or not. Also the practicality of standard is needed to be judged. So testing is essential
for any standard. It can be done in 3 ways.
Validation testing
Standards are continually tested during development process. It ensures that it satises all
requirements. The standards are validated in this step.
Verication testing
This examines the practicality and economic viability to build system based on standards.
This is mainly done by vendors and users. It can be performed by reviewing and analyzing the
standards documents or developing software for the same.
49.11
January 31, 2014
Experienced based testing

This type of testing is done by experience. It includes real world experience with the system.
As it is subjective mostly it is not followed.
49.3
Evaluation
Just like testing is done for standards the whole ITS system is also needed to be evaluated in
stages. It helps in judging any project and its deployment. It minimizes the risk of project
failure. It helps in identication of current performance of system.
49.3.1
Types of evaluation
The various types of evaluation stages are:

Planning level evaluation
Deployment tracking
Impact assessment
RP and SP survey
Planning level evaluation
Evaluation is done before the project is implemented. During the planning stage this type of
evaluation can be done. Previous data can be used for doing this. Two methods of this are:
Benet cost analysis- the benets of the project need to be evaluated. The cost of the
project is also to be found out. Then depending upon the ratio the evaluation is done.
Relative ranking- it is a weight based method. Weight given to criteria and the value of
each alternative is calculated.
S = K V
(49.1)
where, S is the value of alternative, V is the value of one criterion, and K is the weight of that
criterion.
Here, S is the total value of the alternative. More the value of alternative, more prospects
of that alternative to be selected. Each alternative can be evaluated by dierent criteria. The
value of that criteria is denoted by V . Study is to be conducted to calculate the value of the
49.12
January 31, 2014
criteria. K denotes the importance of that criteria to the alternative. It is a global entity and
does not change with the value of the criteria. For example, consider a case of providing the
signal priority system on a certain link. For evaluating this system an important criteria is the
travel time on a corridor. The value of the travel time will be the V value. Also the weightage
to this parameter will be K.
Deployment tracking
This evaluation is done when the project is being implemented. It gives the idea regarding the
dierence in the goals and actual work undertaken. We can determine the current progress rate
of the work. The future directions needed to to be taken can also be assessed. Eective way of
knowing this is the amount of data transfer between various agencies.
Impact assessment
After an ITS system is deployed it is allowed to collect data over a period of time. The data
collected is regarding the parameters from which assessment can be done. The criteria and the
measure of eectiveness is mentioned in table. 49:1.
RP and SP survey
Many times benets cannot be expressed in terms of monetary units as is required for benets
cost analysis. In such cases RP and SP surveys are conducted. RP survey is the revealed
preference survey. In this assessment of present system is done. In this survey the questionnaire
is asked regarding the present facilities. The respondents grade the parameters set in the survey.
Based on this grading the evaluation is done. SP survey is stated preference survey. This
survey is done for future projects. In this type of survey the future project is explained to the
respondents. They are given alternatives regarding this project. The respondents rate each
alternative and thus total evaluation is done.
49.3.2
Evaluation tools
Some tools are used which help in evaluation of the ITS technologies. They are just the means
of evaluation. The basic principle of evaluation remains the same. It can be done in 2 ways.
Trac simulation models
This is a model based technique. In this method, models such as INTEGRATION, DYNASMART, DYNAMIT are used for evaluation. It is a cost eective way of analysis. In these
49.13
January 31, 2014
Table 49:1: The criteria and measure of eectiveness

Performance Criteria
Measure of Eectiveness
Crashes
Safety
Injuries
Fatalities
Travel time/delays for selected O-D
Travel time
survey
Network travel time
Throughput
Vehicles / persons using the facility
Customer satisfaction
Ratings of travel experience
CO
NO2
Air Quality
V OC
HC
Ozone
Fuel consumption
Reduction or not
models simulation is done considering the future ITS installment in the facility. The facility is
reproduced in the software. The future changes to be made in the facility are added. Then it
is simulated to show the desired results in terms of some trac parameters. Also simulation is
done without the introduction of the new facility. The parameters are again calculated. These
two analysis gives the dierence in the facility that may arise in the facility. This gives instant
evaluation of the facility of ITS. Also it is cost eective as less personnel are required and the
data collection is not a major issue. Evaluation can be done before the implementation of any
facility. Thus cost savings in selection of alternative facilities is also observed. If the present
technology used is not found satisfactory then some improved technology can be procured to
fulll our requirements.
ITS deployment analysis system
In this type of technique the traditional way of benet-cost analysis is done. There are some
softwares that directly compute cost and benet. Some softwares use parameters like travel
time, speed, delay to compute cost and benet. But the basic idea remains the same. IDAS
model of US DOT is an example of such software.
The basic principle in IDAS model is to calculate the benet cost ratio. It helps in providing
49.14
January 31, 2014
ALTERNATIVE
COMPARISON
MODULE
BENEFITS
MODULE
COST MODULE
COST
INPUTS
ALTERNATIVES
GENERATOR
INPUT/OUTPUT INTERFACE
TRAVEL DEMAND MODEL
Figure 49:1: IDAS model

a step wise approach for calculate it. Initially input is to be given from a travel demand
model. It will evaluate the input and output parameters from the system. Depending upon
the parameters various parameters will be generated. Then the control goes to cost and benet
module where the benets and cost of alternatives are calculated. Last step is comparison of
these calculated cost and benets. Depending upon the comparison is done. At all the steps
cost input is given. This cost may not always be in monetary terms but can be expressed in
some discomfort. The IDAS model is shown in Fig. 49:1.
Sample Question 1
Describe the Dynamic Message Sign Standard with 3 features?
Answer Dynamic message sign standard is a standard employed to have certain set of rules
and regulations for dynamic message signs. All the devices used should comply with the
standard so that the device can be used on any platform. All the functioning of the device
should be universal. It denes the data elements required for DMS. Data elements are like
font, font size, the height of font, the spacings between characters, the type of message etc.
It also denes the conformity-performance of a DMS device. That is it denes how the DMS
system should work in any scenario. The performance of the system is thus checked. It contains
mandatory, optional and conditional clauses which are needed to be followed.
There are many actions that are required to be done in a DMS system. All such actions can
be done using some syntax. The standard provides these syntaxes that are to be used while
working with the DMS devices. All devices should work with these syntax.
49.15
January 31, 2014
Features:
1. Sign conguration: All the parameters regarding the sign boards are included in this
feature. Whenever a message has to be displayed some standard data of the sign board
is required for proper display of message. To access this parameter some syntax is to be
followed to get the information. Two important parameters are:
Height/Widht of sign board- it gives the height and width of the board.
Horizontal/vertical border parameter- it gives the border available on the board.
2. Font conguration: All data regarding the type of font, the size is described by the
font conguration. It is a read-write parameter where we can access the data and also
overwrite it if required. Height may be expressed in pixels. The important parameters
are:
Font name parameter which gives the type of font to be used as default which can
be changed.
Font size parameter which gives the size of font.
3. Sign control objects: These provide some codes that are used for controlling any sign.
The activity on a sign is governed by these parameters. Some important parameters are:
Activate message parameter which provides a code stating when to activate a certain
parameter.
Message display time remaining parameter indicating states the display time remaining for a particular message.
Sample Question 2
Describe the methods of evaluation of ITS technologies.
Answer ITS evaluation can be done in four dierent ways as given below:
(a) Planning level evaluation: evaluation is done before the the project is implemented. During the planning stage this type of evaluation can be done. Previous
data can be used for doing this. Two methods of this are:
Benet cost analysis- the benets of the project need to be evaluated. The
cost of the project is also to be found out. Then depending upon the ratio the
evaluation is done.
49.16
January 31, 2014

Performance criteria
Safety
Travel time
Throughput
Customer satisfaction

Parameters
Crashes
Injuries
Fatalities
Travel time/delays for selected O-D
or mode.
Network travel time
Vehicles / persons using the facility
Ratings of travel experience
Relative ranking- it is a weight based method. Weight given to criteria and the
value of each alternative is calculated as S = K V , where S is the value of
alternative, V is the value of one criterion, and K is the weight of that criterion.
(b) Deployment tracking: this evaluation is done when the project is being implemented. It gives the idea regarding the dierence in the goals and actual work
undertaken. We can determine the current progress rate of the work. The future
directions needed to to be taken can also be assessed. Eective way of knowing this
is the amount of data transfer between various agencies.
(c) Impact assessment: after an ITS system is deployed it is allowed to collect data
over a period of time. The data collected is regarding the parameters from which
assessment can be done(Table. 3c).
(d) RP and SP survey: many times benets cannot be expressed in terms of monetary
units as is required for benets cost analysis. In such cases RP and SP surveys are
conducted. RP survey is the revealed preference survey. In this assessment of present
system is done. SP survey is stated preference survey. This survey is done for future
projects.
Sample Question 3
Describe how IDAS model can be used for ITS evaluation.
Answer The basic principle in IDAS model is to calculate the benet cost ratio. It
helps in providing a step wise approach for calculate it. Initially input is to be given
from a travel demand model. It will evaluate the input and output parameters from the
49.17
January 31, 2014
system. Depending upon the parameters various parameters will be generated. Then
the control goes to cost and benet module where the benets and cost of alternatives
are calculated. Last step is comparison of these calculated cost and benets. Depending
upon the comparison is done. At all the steps cost input is given. This cost may not
always be in monetary terms but can be expressed in some discomfort.
49.4
Summary
This lecture give in detail ITS standards, its use and classication followed by various ways of
evaluation ITS deployment. Some of the important ways of evaluation include: planning level
evaluation, deployment tracking, impact assessment, and RP and SP survey.
49.5
References
1. M A Chowdhary and A Sadek. Fundamentals of Intelligent Transportation systems

planning. Artech House Inc., US, 2003.
3. Yokota Toshiyuki and Weiland Richard.
2004.
Its standards for developing countries.
49.18
(3),
January 31, 2014
50. Advanced ITS
Chapter 50
Advanced ITS
50.1
Introduction
Some new features in the ITS sector are covered in this section. The rst basic concept in any
ITS implementation is SMART CAR. It is the car with all modern features. The SMART CAR
has to be complimented by a SMART ROAD. The developments in the ITS eld started with
the infrastructure to infrastructure communications. They formed the basis of further development of ITS. Then the I2I communications were upgraded with the vehicle to infrastructure
communications. They are called V2I communications. The latest development is the vehicle
to vehicle communications, i.e. V2V communications.
50.2
Smart car
As mentioned earlier the car is equipped with all the new electronic gadgets. It helps the user
to use service eciently. Some of the features of SMART CAR are:
GPS and on-board communications
Anti-collision sensors
A smart car must be able to sense, analyse, predict and react to the road environment, which
is the key feature of smart cars. The car works with a central component that monitors
the roadway and the driver. It also evaluates of the potential safety benets. It addresses
navigation, obstacle avoidance and platooning problems. The car aims at expanding the time
horizon for acquiring safety relevant information and improving precision, reliability and quality
of driving. There are some preventive safety technologies and in-vehicle systems, which sense
the potential danger. The Adaptive Integrated Driver-vehicle Interface (AIDE) project tries
to maximize the eciency and safety of advanced driver assistance systems, while minimizing
the workload and distraction imposed by in-vehicle information systems. Almost 95% of the
50.1
January 31, 2014
50. Advanced ITS
accidents are due to human factors and in almost three-quarters of the cases human behaviour
is solely to blame. Smart cars present promising potentials to assist drivers in improving their
situational awareness and reducing errors. With cameras monitoring the drivers gaze and
activity, smart cars attempt to keep the drivers attention on the road ahead. Physiological
sensors can detect whether the driver is in good condition. The actuators will execute specied
control on the car without the drivers commands. The smart car will adopt active measures
such as stopping the car in case that the driver is unable to act properly, or applying passive
protection to reduce possible harm in abrupt accidents, for example, popping up airbags.
50.3
Smart road
As mentioned earlier SMART CAR alone cannot operate in a system. Thus along with the
SMART CAR, the infrastructure should also be improved. The infrastructure also should be
well prepared for taking care of smart car. The road equipment will communicate with the
vehicle and provide real time assistance to the user. Provision of Smart road along with Smart
car will complete the Smart features of any facility. It may be possible that the highway forms
a high density platoon of vehicles moving bumper to bumper and this platoon will move at
a speed of 70 kmph or so. That road will be equipped with some sensors may be along the
pavements and the decisions are left to the central unit. The road itself will show some messages
which can be easily read.
50.4
Infrastructure to Infrastructure Communications
This type of communication is a initial stage in formation of present ITS system. Communication takes place between infrastructures. Evolution of I2I services led to more advanced vehicle
communications. They are the easy means of communications. But handling them on a large is
an area of concern. Fig. 50:1 and 50:2 show the I2I communications in case of ramp metering.
50.5
Vehicle to infrastructure communications
These involve advanced vehicle to infrastructure interface. The communication takes place
between a vehicular device and a infrastructure equipment. It is an improvement over I2I
services. Large communication is possible with this type of communication. Some examples of
V2I communication are:
Blind merge warning
50.2
January 31, 2014
50. Advanced ITS
Ramp signals
Vehicles on
the motorway
Vehicles entering
the motorway
One vehicle per
lane per green
phase
Figure 50:1: On-ramp meterting-1
ONE VEHICLE PER

EACH LANE
STOP
WERE ON
RED
Figure 50:2: On-ramp meterting-1
50.3
January 31, 2014
50. Advanced ITS
Curve speed warning

Weather warning
Intelligent on-ramp metering
eCALL
50.6
Vehicle to vehicle communications
Each vehicle communicates with other vehicles and assess the required data. It is the most
advanced technique implemented in ITS. It requires very less communication with the centre or
infrastructure. All vehicles will communicate with each other and decisions will be made by the
vehicle device only. For ex, the ramp meter will work all by itself and no infrastructure device
will be required. Some real time services cannot be provided by infrastructure. In these cases
such type of communication will be helpful. Fig. 50:3 shows the collision warning principle.
Some examples are:
Approaching vehicle warning
Blind spot warning
Co-operative cruise control
Collision warning
Lane change assistant
50.7
Summary
This chapter briey covers some pointers to future directions of ITS developments. This inlcude
smart cars and smart road and a communcation system between them resulting in complete
automation of the tac system.
50.8
References

New Delhi, 1987.
50.4
January 31, 2014
50. Advanced ITS
Brake
Support
Collision
Warning
Figure 50:3: Collision Warning
50.5
January 31, 2014
Problems
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http://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/1111_nptel/800_Problems/plain/
Problems
Lecture notes in Traffic Engineering And Management
August 14, 2013
Introduction to Transportation Systems Analysis

1. Select a current transportation issue for modeling and do the following.
(i) Identify the transportation system components, (ii) Activity system that is interest to the transportaion issue, (iii) What
could be a suitable service function, (iv) What could be a suitable demand function, (v) Visualize how the activity system
may change, (vi) Propose some transport improvement options, (vii) Illustrate flow predictions.
2. An airline company has set a base price of Rs 2500 on a particular route. However, depending upon demand they increase
the price of a seat by Rs 50 per user. The maximum number of people travel on this route is 4000. However, people will
drop out of travel at a rate of one person for every Rs 10 rise.
From next year airliner is planning to change fare structure, the new base price of a route is Rs 3000. However, they
increase the price of a seat by Rs 52 per user. The maximum number of people that travel from next year is 5000.
However, people will drop out of travel at a rate of 2 persons for every Rs 10 rise. What is the revenue generated by
airliner this year as well as next year? (8)
3. A highway connecting two small cities has the following characteristics. The time
highway is
=12+0.01
, where
to travel on a certain stretch of a
is the flow of vehicles (veh/hr). The demand function is
=4800+0.01 .
(a) Estimate the equilibrium flow and travel time
(b)The traffic department wants to close the existing highway and replace it with a better highway with a supply function
of
=12+0.006
, with the same demand function. How much additional traffic will will be induced by this new highway?
(c) Citizens currently using the existing highway want to continue using it, and in addition, demand the new highway as
well. What will be the equilibrium flow and travel time for this scenario, assuming the demand for travel time remains
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Problems
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unchanged (Wardrop's principle applies)?
(d)If the new road is built with a supply function
=10+0.005
, and the existing highway is uased as well, what would
be the equilibrium flow and travel time?

the price of a seat by Rs 50 per user. The maximum number of people that may travel on this route is 4000. However,
people will drop out of travel at a rate of one person for every Rs 10 of the actual price. From next year airliner is
planning to change fare structure, the new base price of a route is Rs 3000. However, they increase the price of a seat by
Rs 45 per user. The maximum number of people that travel from next year is 5000. However, people will drop out of
travel at a rate of two persons for every Rs 10 of the actual price. What is the revenue generated by airliner this year as
well as next year?
5. State and illustrate the three relationships between transportation, activity, and flow system
6. Illustrate with a sketch a demand function, service function and how they are used to predict flow and the associated
impact
Fundamenal Parameters of Traffic Flow

Fundamenal Relations of Traffic Flow
1. The following travel times in seconds were measured for vehicles as they traversed a 3 km segmeny of a highway.
Compute the time mean speed and space mean speed for this data. Why space mean speed is always lower than time
mean speed, explain with a derivation.
2. A moving vehicle experiment was conducted on a 2.5 km section of a highway. Two trials were conducted in the direction
of dominant traffic flow. In the first trial, number of vehicles that had overtaken the test vehicle is 30, number of vehicles
overtaken by the test vehicle is 6, and test vehicle speed is 30 kmph. In the second trial, number of vehicles that had
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Problems
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overtaken the test vehicle is 20, number of vehicles overtaken by the test vehicle 26, and test vehicle speed is 35 kmph.
Calculate the fundamental parameters of traffic flow and the average headway and spacing.
3. Derive the equation for flow ( ) from the moving observer method.
4. Calculate the time mean speed and the space mean speed of the following spot speed data:
Speed Range Volume
(m/sec)
(veh/hr)
10-12
12
12-14
18
14-16
24
16-18
20
18-20
14
5. (a) Derive the relationship between time mean speed and space mean speed. (b) Write the probability density function for
normal distribution and Parson type III distribution and its special cases with various notations used.
6. A 6 km undivided four lane highway on level terrain has free flow speed of 75 kmph. The lane width is 3.5m with peak
hour volume of 1600 veh/hr and 12% trucks and buses, 2% Recreational vehicles. Find the capacity and level of service.
Assume peak hour factor 0.9.
7. Two friends were traveling from Mumbai to Pune and have decided to count the vehicles on a short stretch of 5 km. The
first one sat on the left side and counted vehicles passed by him. The second sat on the right side and counted vehicles
overtaken him. They counted 20 and 60 respectively while traveling at 30 kmph. They did the same exercise on the next
day about same time and counted 25 and 40 respectively and were traveling at 35 kmph. Assuming same traffic
conditions on both days, compute the density, mean speed, and flow on that stretch.
8. Derive the relationship between fundamental parameters of traffic with a detailed illustration of fundamental diagrams of
traffic flow.
9. Determine the time mean speed and space mean speed from the following data. Verify the relationship between them.
Speed m/s Frequency
1-5
6-10
11-15
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Problems
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16-20
10. As a traffic engineer, discuss various traffic management measures that you will recommend to IITB authorities for our
campus (Make brief and specific points, with simple sketches).
11. (a) Derive the expression for flow across a section of road by moving car method. (b) Prove that this formulae actually
estimates the stream flow.
12. Determine the time mean speed, space mean speed, and
percentile speed from the following data.
Speed m/s Frequency

1- 5
6-10
16
11-15
32
16-20
48
21-25
23
26-30
13. A student riding his bicycle from campus on a one-way street takes 50 min to get home, of which 10 min was taken
talking to the driver of a stalled vehicle. He counted 42 vehicles while he rode his bicycle and 35 vehicles while he
stopped. What are the travel time and flow of the vehicle stream? (6)
14. Derive expression for the fundamental parameters of traffic flow by moving observer method (10)
15. On a 2.8km long link of road, it was found that the vehicle demand was 1000, mean speed of the link 12 km/hr, and free
flow speed 27 km/hr. Assuming the Average vehicle occupancy as 1.2 person/vehicle, calculate congestion intensity in
terms of total person hours of delay.
16. A person walking from office on a one-way street takes 60 min to get home, of which 12 min was taken talking to the
driver of a stalled vehicle. He counted 52 vehicles while he was walking and 25 vehicles while he stopped. What are the
travel time and flow of the vehicle stream? (7)
17. The observations from a moving car method are given below. Assuming linear speed-density relation, what is the
maximum flow, speed, and density the following following stretch can take. Show the details of the calculation
Overtaken Overtaking Moving Travel Travel
by the
the test
against time time
test
vehicle
traffic with
against
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Problems
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vehicle
stream the
the
traffic traffic
(s)
(s)
119
618
422
268
26
12
389
213
188
24
401
226
396
55
410
274
255
26
374
226
396
Traffic Stream Models

1. A study of flow at a particular location resulted in a calibrated speed-density relationship as follows.
For this relationship, determine free flow speed, jam density, maximum flow, speed-flow relationship, and flow-density
relationship. (Illustrate with a sketch)
2. Explain with neat sketch the need and examples of multi-regime stream models.
3. In a traffic study, the observed densities were 150, 120, 50, 70 and 20 veh/km and the corresponding speeds were 10,
25, 45, 40 and 32km/h. Find the jam density according to Greenberg's logarithmic traffic stream model. (Hint: Linearize
the expression)
4. Sketch the three fundamental diagrams of traffic flow. Derive the relation between maximum flow (
), and free flow speed (
). Assume liner speed flow relation:
), jam density (
5. Sketch the three fundamental diagrams of traffic flow. Derive the relation between maximum flow, jam density, and free
flow speed. Assume Greenshields' speed-flow relation.
6. For the following data on speed and concentration, determine the parameters of Greenshields' model. Find the
concentration corresponding to a speed of 40 kmph. Find also the maximum flow.
Concentration(veh/km) Speed(kmph)
180
140
20
30
50
75
35
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Problems
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. For this relationship, determine free flow speed, jam density, maximum flow, and the relationship between fundamental
parameters of traffic. (Illustrate with a sketch)
8. Determine the parameters of Greenshields model for the following data. Find the maximum flow and density for a speed
of 45 kmph.
Speed (kmph) Density (veh/km)
5
150
20
120
30
100
40
70
9. In a traffic study experiment, density values are obtained as 160, 120, 40, and 72 veh/km corresponding to speed values
of 3, 18, 55, 32 respectively. Determine the parameters of Greenshields' model. Find the density corresponding to a
speed of 40 kmph. Find also the maximum flow.
For this relationship, determine free flow speed, jam density, maximum flow, speed-flow relationship, and flow-density
relationship. (Illustrate with a sketch)
11. The following speed and density is observed from a road section. If we assume the speed decreases linearly with respect
to density, then: (a) what will be the density at a speed of 10 kmph, and (b) what will be the maximum flow across the
section
5
120
20
90
30
40
40
10
12. The speed and density observed from a road is given below. What is the density and flow corresponding to a speed of 25
kmph. State the assumptions/model used in the computation.
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Problems
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10
200
20
170
30
120
40
100
13. Illustrate neatly on a single graph the speed-density relation by Greenberg, Greenshield, Underwood, Pipe(n=0.5,2), two
regime, and three regime models, along with typical field observations
14. The speed and density observed from a road is given below. What will be the maximum flow in this stretch? State the
assumptions/model used in the computation.
10
200
20
170
30
120
40
100
Moving Observer Method

1. In a traffic stream, 30% of the vehicles travel at a constant speed of 60km/h, 30% at a constant speed of 80km/h, and
the remaining vehicles at a constant speed of 100km/h. An observer travelling at a constant speed of 70km/h with the
stream over a length of 5km is overtaken by 17 vehicles more than what he has overtaken. The observer met 303
vehicles while traveling against the stream at the same speed and over the same length of highway. What is the mean
speed and flow of the traffic stream?
2. Calculate the time mean speed and the space mean speed of the following observation.
Speed Range Volume
(m/sec)
(veh/hr)
10-12
12
12-14
18
14-16
24
16-18
20
18-20
14
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Problems
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Parking
1. Calculate the length required to park N number of vehicles in the case of
on-street parking facility with the help of
neat diagrams. Assume the dimensions of vehicle as 5.5m X 2.5m.

2. Illustrate with a sketch
on-street parking facility and derive the length required to park N number of vehicles with the
help of neat diagrams. Assume the dimensions of vehicle as 5.5m X 2.5m.

3. From an in-out survey consiting of 50 bays, the initial count was 18. The number of vehicles coming in and out of the
parking lot for a time interval of 5 minutes is shown below. Find the accumulation, total parking load, average occupancy,
and efficiency of parking lot.
Time 5 10 15 20 25 30
In
7 6
Out 2 4
Headway Modeling
1. An observation of headways for 800 samples is given below. Mean headway and standard deviation observed are 2.76
and 1.79. Fit Pearson type III distribution if the shift parameter is 0.5.
t
Observed Proportion
0.0
1.0
191
1.0
2.0
131
2.0
3.0
170
3.0
4.0
98
4.0
5.0
82
5.0
6.0
81
6.0
7.0
44
7.0
2. The number of vehicles arriving on a single lane highway from one direction in successive 10 seconds intervals is shown
below. Fit a poisson distribution to this data and comment on the results. Plot the observed and modeled values in a
graph sheet.
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Problems
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Vehicle arriving 0
4 5 6
in 20s interval
Frequency
3. The headway distribution from 1200 observation (
17 31 12 24 10 6 0
1.5 sec and
0.8 sec) is given below. (a) Fit a negative exponential
distribution and show the results in a tabular form. (b) What is the probability of headway between 1.8 and 2.1 seconds.
(c) How many vehicles arrived (both actual and modeled) with headway greater than 1.5 sec and less than 2.5 sec.
h
h+dh prob(obs)
0.0
0.5
0.086
0.5
1.0
0.283
1.0
1.5
0.297
1.5
2.0
0.153
2.0
2.5
0.086
2.5
3.0
0.077
3.0
0.018
4. Using the following random numbers generate vehicle arrival for a period of 20 sec. Assume headways to follow
exponential distribution with mean time headway 6 sec.
5. Vehicles arrive at a toll booth at an average rate of 300 per hour. Average waiting time at the toll booth is 10 s per
vehicle. If both arrival and departures are markovian events, what is the average number of vehicles in the system,
average queue length, average delay per vehicle, average time in the system?
6. Given the headways observed from a survey is given below. Fit an exponential distribution and compare the actual and
computed mean and standard deviation. 5.15, 1.22, 2.65, 2.35, 0.47, 2.8, 7.67, 4.74, 2.42, 4.87, 5.94, 8.58, 9.74, 0.56,
0.66, 6.72, 7.41, 6.94, 2.42, 5.61
7. A headway survey gave a mean of 3.76 and standard deviation of 1.17. Fit a Pearson type III distribution and find
probability that the headway is between 2 and 4 seconds. Assume a shift parameter of 0.5 and an interval of 0.5 for
calculations.
8. If the flow rate at a given section of road is 1600 and if we assume the inter arrival time of vehicles follow an exponential
distribution, then:
1. the probability of headways greater than 1.8 second
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2. the probability of headway between 1.2 and 2.4 seconds

3. the probability of headways less than the mean headway
Shockwave Theory
1. Explain the shock-wave phenomenon and derive the expression for speed of a shock wave with the help of neat diagrams.
2. Write a brief note on the shockwave phenomenon and illustrate with neat sketches.
Markings & Signs

1. Discuss any five road markings with the help of neat sketches.
2. (a) Any two longitudinal and transverse road markings. (b) A diamond interchange with movement of all flows. (c)
Elements involved in the design of a rotary. (d) Zone and zoning principles. (e) Show all the relevant dimensions of a
angle parking for a car.
3. (a) Describe the main categories of traffic signs with two examples for each category alongwith neat sketches.
(b) Describe any two longitudinal markings with the help of neat diagrams.
4. Draw a neat sketch of the time-space diagram of an overtaking operation of a two-lane two directional flow and mark the
important parameters(like
etc.).
5. Illustrate with neat sketches: (i) A diamond interchange showing the movement of all the flows. (ii) Road markings on a
two lane bi-directional horizontal curve when the sight distance is less than the length of the curve. (iii) The concept of
flow prediction in a transportation system when the supply is improved.
6. Draw a neat sketch of a fully clover leaf intersection and mark all the traffic movements.
7. What is the difference between a stop sign and give way sign? Under what circumstances are they required? Illustrate
with neat sketches.
8. With a neat sketch describe the signs and marking required for a three legged intersection.
9. With the help of neat diagrams show the traffic signs and road markings for
1. Ramp from an urban arterial joining the freeway,
2. Rotary,
3. Uncontrolled intersection joining a minor and major road,
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Problems
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4. Signalised intersection.
10. A road has four lanes. A bridge goes over the road, which has a pile at the middle of road. Illustrate with neat sketch the
road markings that are to be provided.
11. Discuss various traffic control measures at a typical 4 legged intersection in an urban area. Illustrate them with the help
of neat sketches. Explore all the options other than rotary, signal and grade separation.
12. Give two examples for each of the following categories of traffic signs: [A] Right of way series, [B] Movement series, [C]
Informatory signs, and [D] Warning signs
13. Illustrate with neat sketch various road markings at a signalized intersection
14. (a) Illustrate with a neat sketch what traffic signs and road markings you propose at the IITB main gate? (b) Illustrate
with a neat sketch no passing zone markings at a horizontal curve when the stopping sight distance is less than the radius
of the curve (Assume the road is two lane bidirectional).
15. Channelize the intersection given in the Figure [*] with the help of a neat sketch. Show the paths of movements by short
arrows. All the roads are bidirectional.
[width=6cm]1903.eps
Figure: Intersection
layout
16. i) How do you channelize a three legged intersection for a high volume traffic in an urban area? ii) At an uncontrolled
intersection the cumulative number of gaps accepted and rejected have been tabulated as shown below. Determine
critical gap using Raff's method.
Gap (sec) Accepted gaps Rejected gaps 0.0
Simulation
1. A line of vehicles are in car following mode and all vehicles are travelling at 15 m/s with distance headway of 25 m. After
1 second, the lead vehicle suddenly decelerates at a rate of
until it stops completely. Simulate the behaviour of
first following vehicle using the GM fifth car following model for the first 3 seconds. Tabulate the results. Assume headway
exponent 1.0, speed exponent 1.5, sensitivity coefficient 0.5, reaction time 0.5 seconds, and scan interval 0.25 seconds.
2. Explain with the help of an example vehicle-vehicle interaction models for a straight multi-lane link.
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1.2 seconds, the lead vehicle suddenly decelerates at a rate of 1.2
until it stops completely. simulate the behaviour
of first following vehicle using the GM fifth car following model for the first 2.5 seconds. Tabulate the results. Assume
headway exponent 1.2, speed exponent 1.6, sensitivity coefficient 0.8, reaction time 0.6 seconds, and scan interval 0.3
seconds.
4. A car is travelling with a speed of 16 m/sec at time t=0. Another car follows the first at a distance of 28 m with same
velocity. If the first car accelerated by 1 m/sec
from t=1 to 2 and decelerate by 1 m/sec
from t=2 to 3, find the speed,
acceleration and spacing of the follower at time t=3.0 sec. Assume the reaction time is 1 sec, vehicle dynamics are
updated every 0.5 seconds, and the car following model is given by Eq. [*]. (Use of a tabular form is encouraged).
(1)
5. Simulate the following vehicle behaviour for the following data using Widemann 74 model. (a) For the case of stand still
distance 3.5m, additive part of safety distance 1.5, and multiplicative part of safety distance 0.8. (b) For the case of stand
still distance 3.5m, additive part of safety distance 1.5, and multiplicative part of safety distance 0.8. Comment on the
following vehicle behaviour for the above two cases.
6. In a simulation experiment on a single lane road, one vehicle is travelling at 18
suddenly accelerates at a rate of
. After 1.5 seconds, the vehicle
for the next 1.8 seconds. Simulate the behaviour of subsequent vehicle with an
initial speed of 16 m/s using GM fifth car following model for the first 3 seconds if the initial distance headway is 20
Tabulate the results. Assume headway exponent 1.2, speed exponent 1.5, sensitivity coefficient 0.8, reaction time 0.6
seconds, and update interval of 0.3 seconds.
7. Discuss the concepts and model formulations of Generalised GM model, Gipps' model, and Wiedemann 74 car-following
models.
1.2 seconds, the lead vehicle suddenly decelerates at a rate of 1.2
until it stops completely. simulate the behaviour
of first following vehicle using the GM fifth car following model for the first 2.5 seconds. Tabulate the results. Assume
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headway exponent 1.2, speed exponent 1.6, sensitivity coefficient 0.6, reaction time 0.6 seconds, and scan interval 0.3
seconds.
initial speed of 16 m/s using GM fifth car following model for the first 2.1 seconds if the initial distance headway is 25
10. Discuss the concepts and model formulations of Generalised GM model.
initial speed of 16
using GM fifth car following model for the first 3 seconds if the initial distance headway is 20
Traffic Signals
1. The phase plan and flows of a signalised intersection are given in Fig. [*]. Design the cycle length using HCM method (
=0.9) and green time for each phase. Compute also the average delay per vehicle using Webster's model. Show these in
a phase-time diagram. Assume lost time and amber time as 3 and 4 sec respectively for each phase. Ignore pedestrian
requirements.
[width=6cm]1000.eps
flows and phase plan
2. A North-South corridor has three junctions namely A, B, and C. Junction A is on the south end of the corridor and junction
C is on the north end. These junctions are coordinated in the north direction. All the junctions are having two phase
signals with a cycle of 80 sec. The juctions A, B, and C have green times of 40, 50, and 30 sec respectively in the
coordinated direction. The distance between A and B is 600 meters and B and C is 900 meters. The junctions are
coordinated considering a speed of 15 m/sec. (a) What will be the resulting band width? (b) While the corridor is
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operating under the above control conditions, if the vechiles could travel only at a speed of 12 m/sec, what bandwidth will
be achieved?
3. The phase plan and flows of a signalised intersection are given in Fig. [*]. Design the cycle length using HCM method (
=0.9) and green time for each phase. Compute also the average delay per vehicle using Webster's model. Show these in
a phase-time diagram. Assume lost time and amber time as 3 and 4 sec respectively for each phase. Ignore pedestrian
requirements.
[width=6cm]1405.eps
flows and phase plan
4. A major road with four lane running E-W direction meets a minor road having two lane running in N-S direction. The E-W
flow is 1670, W-E flow is 1550, N-S flow is 720, and S-N flow is 680 vehicles per hour. The intersection of the two road is
controlled by a traffic signal with a cycle time of 60 seconds. Assume for all the phases the yellow time is 3 seconds, the
lost time is 4 seconds, and saturation headway is 2.1 seconds. Ignore turning movements and pedestrian traffic. Compute
the green time for each phase and total delay experienced by all vehicles in the intersection for one hour duration.
5. A major road with four lane running E-W direction meets a minor road having two lane running in N-S direction. The E-W
flow is 1670, W-E flow is 1550, N-S flow is 720, and S-N flow is 680 vehicles per hour. The intersection of the two road is
controlled by a traffic signal with a cycle time of 60 seconds. Assume for all the phases the yellow time is 3 seconds, the
lost time is 4 seconds, and saturation headway is 2.1 seconds. Ignore turning movements and pedestrian traffic. Compute
the green time for each phase and total delay experienced by all vehicles in the intersection for one hour duration.
6. Calculate the delay and level of service using HCM method for a signalised intersection in South bound direction. Follow
the terminology as per HCM 2000 and the intersection geometry is as shown in Figure [*].
[width=8cm]1422.eps
Geometry
The intersection is located in CBD area and the traffic volume in each direction in vehicles/hour is given as
East
West
North South
bound bound bound bound

Left turn
65
30
30
40
Through
620
700
370
510
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Right turn
35
20
20
50
Pedestrian volume = 100 pedestrains/hour,

Percentage of heavy vehicles = 5% in East and West approaches and 8% in North and South approaches,
Base saturation flow rate = 1900 veh/h/lane,
Peak hour factor= 0.9,
Cross walk width = 3.0 m,
Two phase signal with cycle time 70 seconds and North bound-South bound green time=36 s,
East bound-West bound green time =26 s,
Amber time= 4 s and Movement lost time =4 s,
Arrival type 4 and Analysis duration = 15 min,
Assume 0% grade with no parking maneuvers and no buses stopping.
Consider Lane utilisation adjustment factor in North and South approaches= 1.00, East and West approaches = 0.95.
Left turn pedestrian/bicycle adjustment factor= 0.999(N), 0.998(S), 0.997(E), 0.998(W),
Right turn pedestrian/bicycle adjustment factor= 0.996(N), 0.994(S), 0.992(E), 0.995(W),
Passenger car equivalent for heavy vehicle = 2.0,
Left turn adjustment factor is 0.937(N), 0.951(S), 0.716(E), 0.901(W).
Incremental delay factor= 0.5 and Initial queue delay= 0 s/veh.
Progression adjustment factor = 1.000.
7. The distance between two intersections is 0.75 km and the average vehicle speed in the northbound direction is 50 kmph
and south bound direction is 54 kmph. If the cycle time is 100 seconds and north bound and south bound traffic volume is
950 vehicles/hour. (a) Compute the offset if south bound direction is ignored. (b) Compute the offset if both directions are
considered. Illustrate the result using time-space diagram.
8. Describe the levels of intersection control.
9. The traffic flow and phase plan for a four-legged intersection is as shown in fig1. The E-W flow is 1420(Through 710, Left
284, Right 426), W-E flow is 1150(Through 575, Left 230, Right 345), N-S flow is 640(Through 320, Left 128, Right 192)
and S-N flow is 580(Through 290, Left 116, Right 174) vehicles per hour. Assume for all the phases the yellow time is 3
seconds, the lost time is 4 seconds, saturation headway is 1.2 seconds and degree of saturation is 0.9. Assume left turn
adjustment factor 1.2 and right turn adjustment factor 1.3. Compute the cycle length and green time for each phase.
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[width=6cm]1506
Figure:
Intersection
Geometry
and south bound direction is 50 kmph. If the cycle time is 90 seconds, split is 50 percent, and north bound and south
bound traffic volume is 900 vehicles/hour, compute offset and band width, if: (a) only north bound traffic is considered,
and (b) both directions are considered. Illustrate the result using time-space diagram.
11. The intersection of Third Avenue (NB/SB) and Main Street (EB/WB) is located in the central business district (CBD) of a
small urban area. Intersection geometry and flow characteristics are shown on the input worksheet. Facts/Data
/Assumptions: (a) EB and WB HV = 5 percent, (b) NB and SB HV = 8 percemnt (c) PHF = 0.9, (d) Two-phase signal,
(e) 70 sec cycle length, (f) NB-SB green = 36 s, (g) EB-WB green = 26 s, (h) Yellow =4 s, (i) Third avenue has two lanes,
one in each direction, (j) Main street has four lanes, two in each direction, (k) No parking at intersection, (l) Pedestrian
volume = 100 p/h, all approaches, (m) Bicycle volume = 20 bicycles/h, all approaches, (n) Movement lost time = 4s, (o)
Level terrain, (p) Assume crosswalk width = 3.0 m for all approaches, (q) Assume base saturation flow rate = 1900
pc/h/lane, (r) Assume
turning
, and
, (s) No buses, (t) Left turn correction factor

(v) Lane utilization factor
= 0.937, (u) Pedestrian-Bicycle effects on
Compute the the delay and peak-hour LOS of the
NB approach using HCM 2000 guidelines? Fill the relevant cells of the Exhibit 16-20,21, and 22.
/Assumptions: (a) EB and WB HV = 6 percent, (b) NB and SB HV = 9 percent (c) PHF = 0.85, (d) Two-phase signal, (e)
76 sec cycle length, (f) NB-SB green = 40 s, (g) EB-WB green = 28 s, (h) Yellow =4 s, (i) Third avenue has two lanes,
Level terrain, (p) Assume cross walk width = 3.0 m for all approaches, (q) Assume base saturation flow rate = 1900
turning
, and
, (u) Pedestrian-Bicycle effects on
(v) Vehicle arrival type (AT) is 4 (w) Type of control is pre-timed (P) (x) East bound
flow is 750 ( Left 70, Through 640, and Right 40) Compute the the delay and peak-hour LOS of the EB approach using
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HCM 2000 guidelines? Fill the relevant cells of the Exhibit 16-20,21, and 22.
13. Derive an expression for webster's uniform delay.
14. What are the various building blocks of area traffic control system SCOOT.
15. An urban arterial with 2 signalized intersections 400 m apart is to be coordinated in both directions with a design speed of
20 m/s and a cycle of 60 seconds. Determine the optimal offset at the second intersection with respect to both directions.
16. A person standing at a stop line of signalized intersection found that the vehicles arrive at 3.7, 6.9, 9.7, 12, 14.1, 16,
17.9, and 19.8 seconds after the start of the green. The signal turns red at 20th second. Find the lost time, saturation
flow and lane capacity. (Assume cycle is 60 second, amber is 3 s)
17. A person standing at a stop line of signalized intersection found that the vehicles arrive at 3.7, 6.9, 9.7, 12, 14.1, 16,
17.9, and 19.8 seconds after the start of the green. Find the lost time and saturation headway.
18. In the above problem, If the actual green time allotted for phase 1,2,3 and 4 is 30, 35, 8, and 9 respectively, compute
the stopped delay for East-West movement (Assume uniform vehicle arrival).
19. (a) Derive an expression for cycle length calculation for a signalized intersection. (b) Write briefly on Webster's stopped
delay calculations
20. Highlight the broad principle of SCOOT system and its implementation issues for Indian cities.
and south bound direction is 60 kmph. If the cycle time is 120 seconds, split is 50 percent, and north bound traffic is 1000
vph and south bound traffic is 800 vph, compute offset and band width, if: (i) only north bound traffic is considered, and
(ii) both directions are considered. Illustrate the result using time-space diagram.
/Assumptions: (a) EB and WB HV = 6 percent, (b) NB and SB HV = 9 percent (c) PHF = 0.85, (d) Two-phase signal, (e)
76 sec cycle length, (f) NB-SB green = 40 s, (g) EB-WB green = 28 s, (h) Yellow =4 s, (i) Third avenue has two lanes,
Level terrain, (p) Assume cross walk width = 3.0 m for all approaches, (q) Assume base saturation flow rate = 1900
turning
, and
, (u) Pedestrian-Bicycle effects on
(v) Vehicle arrival type (AT) is 4 (w) Type of control is pre-timed (P). The north
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bound flow is 420 ( Left 30, Through 370, and Right 20) Compute the saturation flow of the NB approach using HCM 2000
guidelines?
23. i) Illustrate the concept of control delay and oversaturate delay using appropriate sketches. ii) Derive an expression for
the stopped delay if you assume that vehicle arrival is uniform.
24. Discuss briefly how the performance of a corridor is evaluated in HCM 2000.
Rotary
1. The entry and exit width of a rotary intersection are 9m and 11m respectively. The width of approaches at the
intersection is 15m. The traffic from the four approaches traversing the intersection is given below. If the traffic
composition is 50% car, 40% two-wheelers and 10% trucks and the passenger car units of two-wheelers and trucks are
0.5 and 3 respectively, find the capacity of the rotary using TRL formulae.
Approach Left turn Straight Right turn
North
500
800
300
South
400
350
450
East
250
400
500
West
300
450
500
intersection is 15m. The traffic from the four approaches traversing the intersection is given below. Find the capacity of
the rotary.
North
500
800
300
South
400
350
450
East
250
400
500
West
300
450
500
intersection is 14 m. The traffic from the four approaches traversing the intersection is given below. Find the capacity of
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the rotary using TRL formulae.

North
550
750
340
South
450
390
450
East
280
400
520
West
350
480
500
4. The entry and exit width of a rotary intersection are 8 m and 10 m respectively. Assume the length of the weaving section
is four times the weaving width. The traffic from the four approaches traversing the intersection is given below. Find the
capacity of the rotary using TRL formulae.
North
550
750
340
South
450
390
440
East
280
400
520
West
350
480
500
5. The entry and exit width of a rotary intersection are 10m each. The width of approaches at the intersection is 15m. The
traffic from the four approaches traversing the intersection is given below. Find the capacity of the rotary using TRL
formulae
North
415
643
350
South
549
358
424
East
408
450
402
West
450
423
493
Transportation Systems Analysis

1. Select a current transportation issue for modeling and do the following.
(i) Identify the transportation system components, (ii) Activity system that is interest to the transportaion issue, (iii) What
could be a suitable service function, (iv) What could be a suitable demand function, (v) Visualize how the activity system
may change, (vi) Propose some transport improvement options, (vii) Illustrate flow predictions.
2. Briefly discuss the principles of road classification and the classification of roads by Nagpur and Lucknow congress.
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3. Explain various vehicle factors affecting transportation.

4. Discuss the principles of classification of roads and the practice followed in India.
5. Explain terminal functions for airport terminal. Explain the status of knowledge about various types of transport terminals.
OR
Explain LP model formulation for the traffic assignment.
6.
1. Sketch various vehicle performance characteristics

2. List the technological and operational characteristics of mass transit modes
7. Explain the use of production functions for a freight transport company.

8. Explain shadow pricing in economic analysis. Compare IRR method with NPV and B/C methods for their advantages and
limitations.
9. Define the goals/objectives/problems relationship in the context of transportation system
10. Explain by any model, the transportation system components and their interactions/relationships.
11. Differentiate between financial and economic analysis.
12. Trace various vehicle performance chracteristics. (4)
13. Explain with examples, the production functions and their use.
14. Explain the status of knowledge about various types of terminals.
15. Explain transportation system-environment ensemble.
16. Explain the concept and importance of transportation systems problems.
17. List major challenges in the analysis of transportation systems analysis.
18. Explain the economic and political roles of transportation in society.
19. Differentiate between traffic management / transport management / transportation planning.
20. Bring out the importantance of criteria for differentiating MOC and MOE. OR
Explain the allocation to and performance of different major modes of transportation.
21. Explain the concept of transportation system demand-supply equilibrium with the help of neat sketches.
the price of a seat by Rs 50 per user. The maximum number of people travel on this route is 4000. However, people will
drop out of travel at a rate of one person for every Rs 10 rise.
From next year airliner is planning to change fare structure, the new base price of a route is Rs 3000. However, they
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increase the price of a seat by Rs 52 per user. The maximum number of people that travel from next year is 5000.
However, people will drop out of travel at a rate of 2 persons for every Rs 10 rise. What is the revenue generated by
airliner this year as well as next year? (8)
23. Define ramp meter and explain various objectives of ramp metering
24. In a case study, the average travel time for a particular stretch was found out to be 22.8 seconds, standard deviation is
5.951 and model time step duration is 10 sec. Find out the Robertsons model parameters and also the flow at
downstream
at
different
time
steps
where
the
upstream
flows
are
as
follows
25. Calculate time gap for a platoon of 27 school children 5 in a row, consecutive time 2 sec width of crossing section is 7.5 m
and walking speed of children 0.9 m/s start up time 3 sec.
26. Describe how traffic flow can be predicted using the concepts of
system and by using
service and demand functions.

27. State and illustrate the three relationships between transportation, activity, and flow system
28. Illustrate with a sketch a demand function, service function and how they are used to predict flow and the associated
impact
the price of a seat by Rs 50 per user. The maximum number of people that may travel on this route is 4000. However,
people will drop out of travel at a rate of one person for every Rs 10 of the actual price. From next year airliner is
planning to change fare structure, the new base price of a route is Rs 3000. However, they increase the price of a seat by
Rs 45 per user. The maximum number of people that travel from next year is 5000. However, people will drop out of
travel at a rate of two persons for every Rs 10 of the actual price. What is the revenue generated by airliner this year as
well as next year?
30. A highway connecting two small cities has the following characteristics. The time
highway is
=12+0.01
, where
to travel on a certain stretch of a
is the flow of vehicles (veh/hr). The demand function is
=4800+0.01 .
(a) Estimate the equilibrium flow and travel time
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(b)The traffic department wants to close the existing highway and replace it with a better highway with a supply function
of
=12+0.006
, with the same demand function. How much additional traffic will will be induced by this new highway?
(c) Citizens currently using the existing highway want to continue using it, and in addition, demand the new highway as
well. What will be the equilibrium flow and travel time for this scenario, assuming the demand for travel time remains
unchanged (Wardrop's principle applies)?
(d)If the new road is built with a supply function
=10+0.005
, and the existing highway is uased as well, what would
be the equilibrium flow and travel time?
Capacity & LOS

1. A major arterial is meeting a minor arteial and is located in the central business district (CBD) of a small urban area.
Compute the delay and peak-hour LOS for west bound direction. Main Street has four lanes of 3.3 width, two in each
direction and minor street has two lanes of 4.5m width, one in each direction. Heavy vehicle percentage is 5 % in east
and west bound direction and 8 % in north and south bound. Assume no parking at intersection and no buses. Peak hour
factor is 0.90. Pedestrian volume is 100 p/h in all approaches, Bicycle volume is 20 bicycles/h for all approaches,
Movement lost time is 4 s, yellow time is 4 s and terrain is level. Assume base saturation flow rate
crosswalk width of 3.0 m, and heavy vehicle adjustment factor 2.0. Left turn adjustment factor in east bound direction is
0.716 and west bound direction is 0.901. Left turn pedestrian/bike adjustment factor is 0.998 and right turn
pedestrian/bike adjustment factor is 0.995 for all approaches. The traffic volume is given in the input worksheet. Report
the results in the capacity and LOS worksheet and submit alongwith the answer sheet
2. How do you measure operational performance of a given urban arterial? Explain the HCM method of assessment
3. A segment of undivided four-lane highway on level terrain has field-measured FFS 74.0-km/h, lane width 3.4-m,
peak-hour volume 1,900-veh/h, 13 percent trucks and buses, 2 percent RVs, and 0.90 PHF. What is the peak-hour speed,
and density for the level terrain portion of the highway? (
and
4. Consider an existing four lane free-way in rural area, having very restricted geometry with rolling terrain. Peak hour
volume is 2000 veh/h with 5% trucks. The traffic is commuter type with peak hour factor 0.92 and interchange density as
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0.6 interchanges per kilometer. Free-way consists of two lanes in each direction of 3.3 m width with lateral clearance of
0.6 m. Find the LOS of free-way during peak hour.
5. Discuss in detail (i) the concept of capacity and LOS in HCM 2000 and (ii) how it is used in the analysis of ramp metering.
ITS
1. Show a typical ITS architecture and write briefly on the communications involved.
2. Describe how RP & SP surveys can be used for ITS evaluation.
3. Discuss briefly any three services offered and their respective implementation challenges for each of the following ITS
user service components (i) travel and traffic management, and (ii) public transport operations.
Advanced Topics
1. Assume a single lane road stretch divided into 9 cells and vehicles are present in the first ,fourth , seventh and eight cells
with 3, 2 , 2, 1 as their velocities respectively. Apply the rules of CA and update the position of the vehicles in the next
second.
2. Vehicle A is approaching from west and vehicle B from south. After collision A skids
north of east and B skids
south of east. Skid distance before collision for A is 18 m and B is 26 m. The skid distances after collision are 30m and 15
m respectively. Weight of A and B are 4500 and 6000 respectively. Skid resistance of pavement is 0.55 m. Determine the
pre-collision speed.
3. A bus stalled at a signal emits pollutants at the rate of 20000 g/s. The exhaust pipe is situated at height of 0.75 m from
the Ground level. What will be the concentration of pollutants inhaled by a man living on the first floor of a building with
storey height 3.5 m? The building is situated at a lateral distance of 5 m from the main road and longitudinal distance of
4 m downwind of the source. Assume a wind velocity of 10 m/s,
= 375 m and
= 120 m. The concentration of the
emission is given by
4. What is the total fuel consumption of a vehicle travelling on a 10 km stretch of road if the average stopped delay is 6 s
and it stops thrice during its journey. Assume that the fuel consumption rate per unit distance while cruising is 0.0045,
the fuel consumption rate per unit time while idling is 0.0035, and the excess fuel used in decelerating to stop and
accelerating back to cruise speed is 0.002. If the vehicle is cruising throughout the stretch of the road, what is the
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decrease in fuel consumption?

5. Illustrate with a numerical example of your choice how energy theory is used in the accident reconstruction of a collinear
impact.
6. Describe the working principle and various control parameters of a vehicle actuated controller and its limitations.
Trip Generation
1. The trip rate ( ) and the corresponding household sizes ( ) from a sample are shown in table below. Compute the trip
rate if the average household size is 3.25 (Hint: use regression method).
Household size(x)
1
Trips
per
day(y)
2. A study area has four zones and it is observed that they generate 65, 84, 115, 105 trips per day. The average income is
respectively 1400, 2400, 3400, and 2700 and the population is 3000, 2500, 3500, and 4000. Government proposes two
major policy changes in zone 2. First proposal will result in an increase of income by 40 % and the second will increase
the population by 50 %. Compute the trips that will be generated as a result of these policy changes.
3. A study area has four zones and it is observed that they generate 70, 89, 120, 110 trips per day. The average income is
respectively 1500, 2500, 3500, and 2800 and the population is 3100, 2600, 3600, and 4100. Government proposes two
major policy changes in zone 2. First proposal will result in an increase of income by 40 % and the second will increase
the population by 50 %. Which proposal will generate more trips?.
Trip Distribution
1. The trip productions from zones 1, 2 and 3 are 110, 122 and 114 respectively and the trip attractions to these zones are
120,134 and 118 respectively. The cost matrix is given below. The function
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Compute the trip matrix using doubly constrained gravity model. Provide one complete iteration.
2. The base year trip matrix for a study area consisting of three zones is given below. The productions from the zones 1,2
and 3 for the horizon year is expected to increase to 95, 102, and 98 respectively. The attractions for the zones 1 and 2
are expected to increase to 85 and 115 respectively. Compute the trip matrix for the horizon year.
1
1 25 33 27
2 28 38 14
3 22 19 24
3. Derive expressions for the distribution factors of a doubly constrained gravity model.
4. The trips originating from zones 1, 2 and 3 are 110, 122 and 114 respectively and the trips ending at these zones are
120, 108 and 118 respectively. Assume distance within the zones is of 1 km while it is 1.2 km from 1 to 2, 1.8 km from 1
to 3 and 1.5 km from 2 to 3. If we also assume the deterance to travel is inverse to the square of the distance, then how
many trips will be taking place from each zone to the other zone.
Mode Choice
1. The total number of trips from zone
to zone
is 4200. Currently all trips are made by car. Government has two
alternatives- to introduce a train or a bus. The travel characteristics and respective coeffcients are given in table. Decide
the best alternative in terms of trips carried.
coefficient 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.2 0.2

car
22
bus
35
train
2. The total number of trips from zone
25
17
14
to zone
is 4000. Currently all trips are made by car. Government plans to
introduce a train and a bus. The travel characteristics and respective coeffcients are given in table. Compute the trips
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carried by each mode and also the fare collected by bus and train.
coefficient 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.1 0.1

car
20
25
bus
40
10
10
train
15
15
3. A person is currently using his car to go to office which takes about 15 minutes and costs about Rs. 33 for fuel and
parking. One of his friends suggested to use a bus instead which takes about 30 minutes but costs only Rs. 20. However,
another friend suggested him to use a metro which takes only 20 minutes but costs Rs. 15. Assuming that the weightages
given to travel time and travel cost by the person are 0.7 and 0.5 respectively, (a) What is the probability that the person
will stop using car? (b) Given that the person stops using car, what is the probability that he will use metro?
4. Total number of trips (people) from zone A to zone B is 1000. Some travel by car which takes 20 minutes and they have
to spend Rs. 30 for fuel and Rs. 10 for parking. Some travel by train which takes 30 minutes with a fare of Rs. 10 and
incurs a waiting time of 10 minutes. Suppose a new taxi company starts a service which takes the same travel time as
that of a car and the charge is Rs. 15 per person. But the person has to wait about 17 minutes to get a taxi. How many
people will travel by the newly introduced taxi service. How many people will shift from car to the new taxi service.
Assume that the people of the city give a weightage of 0.7 for their time and 0.5 for their money.
5. A roadway has 3 lanes. A vehicle is travelling in the middle lane (i.e., 2nd ) and has the options of either travelling in the
same lane or changing either to the 1st or 3rd lanes. These decisions are governed by the utlities of the lanes (
gaps (
) and
) . If the vehicle has decided to leave the current lane, the decisions of choosing among the other two lanes are
governed by the utilities of gaps (
) in those lanes. On which lane would the vehicle like to travel probably?
Lane Relative Front Lead Lag

No. speed
gap gap gap
(m/s)
(m) (m) (m)
1
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2
Trip Assignment
1. Calculate the system travel time and link flows by doing user equilibrium assignment for the network in the given figure.
Verify that the flows are at user equilibrium.
[width=6cm]1007.eps
2. Using shortest path algorithm and given O-D and t-t matrix, assign the travel demand to the given four node network.
3. Explain step by step, the computational procedure for the shortest path algorithm.
4. Calculate the system travel time and link flows by doing user equilibrium assignment for the network in the given
figure [*]. Verify that the flows are at user equilibrium.
[height=1.8cm]1122.eps
Figure: Example
network
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5. Calculate the system travel time and link flows by all or nothing, user equilibrium, and system optimum assignment for a
network with two nodes having two paths as links. The travel time functions are
and
. The total flow on
the two links is limited to 14.

6. A network has two nodes with two paths as links. The travel time functions are given as 18+4
and 12+2
. The total
flow on the two links is limited to 16. What will be the system travel time and link flows if we ignore the effects of
congestion and at the same time assuming user equilibrium conditions.
7. A transport network is shown below along with the free flow link travel time. Given
,
, where
is the demand (trips) from node
to
. Compute the total system travel time and average
travel time if we assume that each link has infinite capacity. Show also the path flows and link flows.
[width=6cm]1128.eps
8. Calculate the system travel time and link flows by the following cases for a network with two nodes having two paths as
links by All or nothing, User equilibrium, and System optimum assignment methods. The travel time functions are
and
and total flow on the two links is limited to 12.
9. Calculate the system travel time and link flows by system optimum assignment using Frank Wolfe algorithm for a network
with two nodes having two paths as links. The travel time functions are
and
. The total flow on the two
links is limited to 14.

[width=4 cm]1713
10. Calculate the system travel time and link flows for the network in the given figureAssume that the drivers are forced to
take path that will result in an overall minimum travel time. Given that the total flow is 14.
[width=3cm]1007j.eps
11. A transport network is shown below along with the free flow link travel time. Given
,
, where
is the demand (trips) from node
to
. Compute the total system travel time and average
travel time if we assume that each link has infinite capacity. Show also the path flows and link flows.
[width=4.5cm]1128j
Systems Planning
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1. Explain the procedure for urban transportation planning.

2. Write the formulation of a network capacity exapansion problem.
3. Discuss briefly with the help of a block diagram how four step (stage) travel demand modeling is used to predict future
link flows
4. State and mathematically formulate: (a) User equilibrium conditions, and (b) Wardrops II principle.
5. State the user equlibrium conditions mathematically and explain the terms.
6. Discuss briefly with the help of a block diagram how four step (stage) travel demand modeling is used in transportation
planning.
7. Suppose you were asked to do travel demand modelling for Mumbai, illustrate the following with a typical sketch. (i)
Study area (ii) Internal zones (iii) External zones (iv) Cordon line (v) Screen line
Geometric Design
1. A national highway passing through a rolling terrain has two horizontal curves of radius 450 m and 150 m. Design the
required superelevation for the curves as per IRC guidelines.
2. Derive the expression for computing superelevation at a horizontal curve. Give the step by step procedure for designing
superelevation for a highway.
3. What are the factors controlling highway alignment?
4. Derive the expression for overtaking sight distance for a two lane bi-directional highway with the help of time-space
diagram. Explain the constants used and the IRC guidelines for their values.
5. Design the radius of a horizontal curve and the length of its transition curve for a two lane national highway passing
through a plain terrain. Assume: maximum super elevation, all the vehicles travel at the design speed, rate of
introduction of super elevation is 1 in 150, pavement is rotated with respect to centerline, rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration is 0.57 and a ruling design speed.
6. Discuss the effects of a horizontal curve on vehicle stability and derive the conditions of overturning and skidding.
7. Derive the expression for set back distance with the help of a neat sketch when the sight distance is greater than the
length of the curve for a multilane highway.
8. Illustrate the overtaking operation with a neat time-space diagram for a two lane highway assuming unidirectional traffic.
9. Derive the relation for the setback distance for a multi lane highway when the sight distance is less than the length of the
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curve. Provide neat sketch.

10. A valley curve is formed by a descending gradient of (
) 4 percent and an ascending gradient of (
) 3.3 percent.
Design the length of the valley curve for a design speed of 80 kmph. State assumptions clearly and provide detailed
steps.
11. Compute the overtaking sight distance for a two lane National Highway for a design speed of 90 kmph. Assume the rate
of overtaking acceleration as 0.6 m/sec
and rest of the data based on IRC specification
12. Compute the setback distance of a two lane National Highway for a design speed of 90 kmph. Assume an OSD of 624
metes, length of the curve as 250 meter, and the rest of the data based on IRC specifications.
13. A national highway passing through a rolling terrain has two horizontal curves of radius 600 m and 100 m. Design the
required superelevation for the curves as per IRC guidelines.
14. Derive the relation for the setback distance for a multi lane highway when the sight distance is less than the length of the
curve. Provide a neat sketch.
15. A valley curve is formed by a descending gradient of 3 percent and an ascending gradient of 4 percent. Design the length
of the valley curve for a design speed of 80 kmph. State assumptions clearly and provide detailed steps.
16. A huge pipeline is going across a road at the same level. Therefore, a bridge is to be constructed across the pipeline. If
the maximum permissible gradient is 3 %, what is the length of the vertical curve at the top of the bridge. Assume a
stopping sight distance of 150 m.
17. For a given road following speed data is collected. 25, 31, 36, 39, 42, 44, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 57,
57, 58, 59, 60, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 66, 68, 68, 69, 70, 70, 71, 73, 75, 79, 85, 89, 90. What is the speed you will
recommend for designing sight distance or radius of circular curve?
Pavement Analysis & Design

1. Find ESWL at a depth of 50 cm for a dual wheel carrying 2044 kg each. The center to center tyre spacing is 25 cm and
distance between the walls of the tyre is 10 cm.
2. Design the length and spacing of dowel bars if the the radius of relative stiffness is 80 cm, design wheel load is 3000 kg,
joint width is 2.5 cm, load transfer is 40%, permissible bending, shear, and bond stress are 1400, 1000 and 100 kg/cm
respectively. Assume dowel bars of 2 cm dia.
3. Calculate the critical load stress in a cement concrete pavement using Westergard's equations, if the wheel load is
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5000 kg, modulus of elasticity of concrete 3.0
10
kg/cm , pavement thickness is 20 cm, Poisson's ratio of concrete is
0.15, modulus of sub-grade reaction is 6 kg/cm3 and radius of contact area is 15 cm.
4. Explain the three main requirements of a bituminous mix. (ii) Find the optimum bitumen content for test result given in
table. (3+3) [6]
Stability Flow
4
499.4
9.0 12.5
34
2.17
717.3
9.6
7.2
65
2.21
812.7
12.0 3.9
84
2.26
767.3
14.8 2.4
91
2.23
662.8
19.5 1.9
93
2.18
5. (i) Explain ESWL. (ii) Find ESWL at depths of 5 cm, 25 cm, and 60 cm for a dual wheel carrying 2044 kg each; the center
to center tyre spacing is 27 cm and the width of the tyre is 26 cm.
6. Design as per IRC37:1974 a flexible pavement for a design life of 12 year having the present ADT of 2000 commercial
vehicles with 7% annual growth. The sub-grade CBR is 8%. Use poorly and well graded granular layers of 20% and 70%
CBR respectively. Provide a wearing course of minimum 5 cm thick.
7. Using IRC 37:2001 design procedure, find the total thickness needed and the composition of a flexible pavement for a (i)
single lane road and (ii) two lane dual carriage way. Given that the sub-grade CBR is 4%, initial traffic on both directions
is 2000 commercial veh/day, growth factor is 7%, vehicle damage factor is 4.5 and design life is 12 years. Suggest the
changes in the design if the CBR of the sub-grade is improved to 8% (only for case ii).
8. Calculate the interior stress of a cement concrete pavement using Westergaard's stress equation, if the design wheel load
P=5000 kg, modulus of elasticity E=3.0
10r
kg/cm , pavement thickness h=20 cm, Poisson's ratio of concrete
=0.15, modulus of sub-grade reaction K=6.0 kg/cm3 and radius of contact area, a=15 cm.
9. Design length and spacing of dowel bars. Given that the pavement thickness is 25 cm, radius of relative stiffness is 70
cm, design wheel load is 5000 kg, joint width is 2 cm, load transfer is 40%, permissible shear, flextural, and bond stress
are respectively 1000, 1400, and 100 kg/cm . Assume dowel bars of 2.5 cm diameter and length of the bar should be
multiples of 5 cm. Provide detailed steps and appropriate sketches.
10. Let the number of load repetition expected by 80 kN standard axle is 1000, 160 kN 100, and 40 kN is 10000. Find the
equivalent axle load if the equivalence criteria is fatigue cracking. Assume the following fatigue cracking model:
06-02-2014 12:42
Problems
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with
11. The volume and weight of a Marshall specimen is 475 cc and 1100 gm respectively. Assuming absorption of bitumen in
aggregate is nil, find
, and
; The specific gravities and weight proportions of aggregate and bitumen
used for the mix is given below.

Item
A_1
A_2
A_3 A_4
Wt (gm) 1050 1000 300 150 100

Sp. Gr
2.63 2.51 2.46 2.43 1.05
12. Illustrate the analytical method of proportioning of aggregates with a hypothetical example.
13. Compare flexible and rigid pavements, their failure criteria, design approaches, and influencing design factors.
14. Write notes on: (i) resiliant modulus, (ii) modulus of subgrade reaction, (iii) Abrasion test, and (iv) Ductility test
15. Let the number of load repetition expected by 120 kN axle is 1000, 160 kN is 100, and 40 kN is 10000. Find the
equivalent standard axle load if the equivalence criteria is rutting . Assume 80 kN as starndard axle load and the rutting
model is
where
and
16. Calculate the critical load stress in a cement concrete pavement using Westergard's equations, if the wheel load is
4000 kg, modulus of elasticity of concrete 3.0
0.15, modulus of sub-grade reaction is 6 kg/cm
10
kg/cm , pavement thickness is 25 cm, Poisson's ratio of concrete is
and radius of contact area is 15 cm.
17. Find ESWL at a depth of 40 cm for a dual wheel carrying 2044 kg each. The center to center tyre spacing is 20 cm and
distance between the walls of the two tyres is 10 cm.
18. Design the length and spacing of tie bars. Given that the pavement thickness is 20 cm, and width of the road is 7 m with
one longiudnal joint. The unit weight of concrete is 2400 kg/cm , the coefficient of friction is 1.5, allowable working
tensile stress in steel is 1750 kg/cm ,allowable bond stress for plain and deformed bars are as 17.5 and 24.6 kg/cm .
19. The imprints of a dual tandem wheel configuration (one side) is shown in the following figure. Each wheel carries 1540 kg.
What will be the load of a single wheel which replaces these four wheels but results in the same stress as the original at a
depth of (i) 5, (ii) 25, and (iii) 50 cm.
[width=3cm]1319
20. A new two lane dual carriageway road is proposed to be constructed. The current traffic (2009) on that road is 1800
commercial vehicles/day for both directions. The construction period is 3 years and the traffic grows at 7.5% per year
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during this time. If the design life is 15 years after opening to traffic, growth rate during design life is 8.5% and subgrade
soil has a CBR of 4% compute the thickness and composition of pavement assuming a vehicle damage factor of 2.0.
21. Three aggregates mixes, named as A, B, and C, need to be mixed to get a certain gradation. The sieve size, the gradation
of A, B, and C, upper and lower limit of the required gradation are given in the table below. Two proportions are planed:
first has 20, 30, 50 % of A, B, and C respectively; and the second has 10, 30, and 60 % of A, B, and C. Verify whether
these proportions satisfies the required gradation.
Sieve Size
Upper Lower
0.075
30
10
0.15
75
20
12
22
0.3
85
40
18
20
35
1.18
95
70
35
40
55
4.76
100 90
55
60
75
12.7
100 100 85
90
100
25.4
100 100 100
100
100
Prof. Tom V. Mathew 2013-08-14
06-02-2014 12:42

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Transportation Systems Engineering

1. Fundamental Parameters of Trac Flow

Trac stream parameters

January 31, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering

1. Fundamental Parameters of Trac Flow

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay

January 31, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering

1. Fundamental Parameters of Trac Flow

Time mean speed and space mean speed

Transportation Systems Engineering

1. Fundamental Parameters of Trac Flow

Types of volume measurements

January 31, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering

1. Fundamental Parameters of Trac Flow

Figure 1:1: Illustration of density

January 31, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering

1. Fundamental Parameters of Trac Flow

But the density (k) is the number of vehicles nx at a distance of x, that is

January 31, 2014

1. Fundamental Parameters of Trac Flow

Transportation Systems Engineering

Figure 1:2: Time space diagram for a single vehicle

January 31, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering

1. Fundamental Parameters of Trac Flow

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay

January 31, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering

1. Fundamental Parameters of Trac Flow

Figure 1:3: Time space diagram for many vehicles

1. Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board. National Research Council,

Fundamentals of Transportation Engineering.

Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay

January 31, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering

2. Fundamental Relations of Trac Flow

Time mean speed (vt)

Space mean speed (vs)

January 31, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering

2. Fundamental Relations of Trac Flow

If tav is the average travel time, then average speed vs =

January 31, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering

2. Fundamental Relations of Trac Flow

Illustration of mean speeds

January 31, 2014

Transportation Systems Engineering

2. Fundamental Relations of Trac Flow

Relation between time mean speed and space mean

where,qi is the frequency of the vehicle having vi speed.

Derivation of the relation

Therefore for any sub-stream qi , the following relationship will be valid.

The summation of all sub-stream ows will give the total ow q:

Let fi denote the proportion of sub-stream density ki to the total density k,

Transportation Systems Engineering

2. Fundamental Relations of Trac Flow

Substituting 2.9, vt can be written as,