Ies RP 7 2001

RP-7-01 ERRATA
If you, as a user of IESNAs Recommended Practice for Industrial Lighting Facilities, believe you have
located an error not covered by the following revisions, you should e-mail your information to Don
Mennie at: dmennie@iesna.org or send a letter to: Don Mennie, Technical Editor, IESNA, 120 Wall
Street 17th Floor, New York, N Y 10005. Additions will be posted to this list as they become available.
This errata list is also included with the published document (when purchased). It was posted to the
IESNA web page on July 20,2004.
Please confiie your comments to specific typographical errors or misstatements of fact in the docu-
ments text and/or graphics. Do not attempt general revisions of RP-7-0 1.
General Comment: Rest assured that IESNA does know how to spell luminaires, but unfortunately,
thanks to a typesetting automatic correction function, the computer thought it knew better! Please note
that luminaries throughout the document should read luminaires.
Page I I , Figure 6: The headers for the three CIE Specification columns in Figure 6 should read x,
and <<y??
Pages 34-36, Figure 20: The references within Figure 20 to a Figure 19 (parts a through o)
actually refer to Figure 19-15 in the IESNA Lighting Handbook, 9th Edition. (Figure 19 in RP-7-01 is
a small black-and-white photo on Page 33.) Also, the Luminaire Type designations used in one col-
umn running throughout Figure 20 are taken from Figure 19-15. Therefore, in the interests of conven-
ience and completeness, Figure 19- 15 (from the Handbook) is reproduced below:
1
Lo o o O ] s-IV
9
Figure 19-15. Typical configurations of supplementary lighting luminaire types.
Page 36, Figure 20: Under ?B. TRANSLUCENT MATERIAL? two of the figure references in the
right-hand ?Luminaire Location? column are broken, with a portion positioned flush left in the
?General Characteristics?co1umn.
Page 71, Annex C: The equations for FCR and CCR appearing at the top of the left-hand column
actually belong on page 72 in the left-hand column, under the second paragraph.
Page 71, Annex C: Text and equations are missing from the bottom of the left-hand column (this
error continues to the very top of the right-hand column) in the paragraph that begins ?TO find the
RCR,. . .? The complete and correct text is:
To find the RCR, either of the following equations can be used:
Vertical Surface Area (VSA)
Horizontal Surface Area (HSA)
RCR =5 X
where:
VSA =the sum of the vertical surfaces within the room cavity. This is the sum of the wall areas
above the working plane and below the luminaires.
HAS =the sum of the working plane and the luminaire plane areas.
or:
Room Cavity Height X (Lenght +Width)
Length X Width
RCR =5X
Correct text resumes on page 71 with the beginning of the first full paragraph in the right-hand column
(?The areas in the first equation are.. ..?).
3
ERRATA RP-7-01
1. Rest assured that I ESNA does know how to spell luiiiinaires, bui unfortunately,
thanks to a typesetting automatic correction function, the computer thought i t
knew better! Please note that luminaries throughout the document should read
luminaires.
2. Header for Figure 6, page 1 1, CIE Specification columns should read x, y,
and Y
3. Figure 20, pages 34 -26, is reproduced from the IESNA Handbook, 9h Edition,
2000. The references to Figures (some misaligned) throughout are to Figures in
the Handbook.
4. Annex C has some misplaced equations. On page 7 I , left columnl equations foi-
ICR and CCR belong on pase 72 following the second paragraph. left column.
h4issing annescs on page 7 1. left coliiii~ii. Test should i-ead:
Pei~icuI Sin:fcrce Ar-eu (JSA)
Horizoritul Surjuce Areu ( HSA)
RCR =5.y
where:
VSA =the sum of the vertical surfaces within the room cavity. This is the sum
of the wall areas above the working plane and below the luminaires.
HSA =the sum of the working plane and the luminaire plane areas
Or:
Room Cavity Height x (Length +Width)
Length x Width
The areas in the first equation.. . . . . . . .etc. Right column, page 7 1.
RCR =5x
ANSUIESNA RP-7-01
Recommended Practice
for
Lighting Industrial Facilities
Publication of this Committee
Report has been approved
by the IESNA. Suggestions for
revisions should be directed
to the IESNA.
Prepared by:
The IESNA Industrial Lighting Committee
Cover photo courtesy of Keene-Widelite Division of Canlyte
ANSI / IESNA RP-7-01
Copyright 200 7 by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America.
Approved by the IESNA Board of Directors, August 4, 2007, as a Transaction of the Illuminating Engineering
Society of North America.
Approved J uly 26, 2001 by the American National Standards Institute, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in any electronic retrieval system
or otherwise, without prior written permission of the IESNA.
Published by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 120 Wall Street, New York, New York 10005.
IESNA Standards and Guides are developed through committee consensus and produced by the IESNA Office
in New York. Careful attention is given to style and accuracy. If any errors are noted in this document, please for-
ward them to Rita Harrold, Director Educational and Technical Development, at the above address for verification
and correction. The IESNA welcomes and urges feedback and comments.
ISBN #O-87995-176-1
Printed in the United States of America.
ANSMESNA RP-7-01 Recommended Practice on Industrial Lighting
Prepared by the IESNA Industrial Lighting Committee
RP Task Force:
Diarmuid McSweeney, FIES Chair
C. Amick
D. DeGrazio
R. Knott
S. Mishky
D. Paulin
M. Rhodes
G. Schaefer
Industrial Lighting Committee
William Busch, Chair 7994-99
Diarmuid McSweeney, FIES Chair 2000 -
C. Amick, FIES
P. Belding
W. Busch
K. Chen*
D. DeGrazio
F. Dickey
D. Duzyk*
J . Engle*
J . Fetters*
D. Finch
J . Fischer
J . Huebner
G. Imine*
V. J ones
R. Knott*
W. Lane*
P. Lanphere*
S. Mishky
M. Packer*
D. Paulin
M. Rhodes
G. Schaefer
W. Smelser*
S. Thomas
R. Topalova
J. Vlah*
R. Weber*
*Advisory
Special recognition to F, Dickey for his work on the first draft of the revision of this
standard and to P. Boyce, FIES and R. Mistrick, FIES for their contributions.
DEDICATION
The IESNA Industrial lighting Committee
would like it noted that Charles Amick
contributed greatly to the development of this
document. The committee, therefore,
dedicates this recommended practice to
the late Charles Amick.
CONTENTS
Forward ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................. 1
2.0 LIGHTING THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................ 1
2.2 IESNA Lighting Design Guide .......................................................................................................... 2
2.1 General Design Considerations for Lighting Industrial Areas ..................................................... 1
3.0 QUALITY OF LIGHTING IN INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES ................................................................................ 2
3.1 Luminance and Luminance Ratios ................................................................................................... 2
3.2 Modeling of Objects ............................................................................................................................ 6
3.3 Glare and Visual Discomfort ............................................................................................................ 6
3.4 Material Characteristics ...................................................................................................................... 7
3.5 Shadows ............................................................................................................................................... 8
3.6 SourcNasWEye Geometry ................................................................................................................ 8
3.7 Task Visibility-Flicker and Strobe .................................................................................................... 9
3.8 Color Rendering (CRI) ...................................................................................................................... 10
3.8.1 Color Rendering Index .......................................................................................................... 10
3.8.2 Safety Colors ......................................................................................................................... 10
3.9 Daylight Integration and Control ..................................................................................................... 10
4.0 QUANTITY OF LIGHTING IN INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES ........................................................................... 11
4.1 Illuminance - Horizontal, Vertical and Intermediate Planes ........................................................ 11
4.1.1 Horizontal Illuminance ........................................................................................................... 11
4.1.2 Vertical Illuminance ............................................................................................................... 12
4.2 Initial and Maintained Illuminance .................................................................................................. 12
4.3 Lighting System Maintenance ......................................................................................................... 13
5.0 GENERAL LIGHTING EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................................ 13
5.1 Fluorescent Systems ........................................................................................................................ 13
5.1.1 Source Characteristics .......................................................................................................... 13
5.1.2 Fluorescent Luminaire Characteristics/Performance ........................................................... 15
5.2 High Intensity Discharge Lighting Systems .................................................................................. 15
5.2.1 Metal Halide Lamps .............................................................................................................. 15
5.2.1.1 Pulse-Start and Ceramic Metal-Halide Lamps ................................................ 17
5.2.2 High Pressure Sodium (HPS) Lamps ................................................................................. 17
5.2.3 Luminaire Selection .............................................................................................................. 17
5.2.3.1 High-Bay Luminaries ......................................................................................... 18
5.2.3.2 Low-Bay Luminaries .......................................................................................... 18
5.2.3.3 Other Luminaire Types ..................................................................................... 18
6.0 BALLAST ISSUES-GENERAL ..................................................................................................................... 18
6.1 Fluorescent Ballast Issues ............................................................................................................. 19
6.1.1 Ballast Circuitry ........................................................................................... .......................... 19
6.1.2 Electromagnetic Ballasts ....................................................................................................... 20
6.1.3 Electronic Ballasts ................................................................................................................. 20
6.1.4 Instant Start Ballasts ............................................................................................................. 20
6.1.5 Rapid Start Ballasts ............................................................................................................. 21
6.1.7 Dimming and Two-Level Switching Ballasts ........................................................................ 21
6.1.8 General Ballast Requirements .............................................................................................. 21
6.1.6 Compact Fluorescent Ballasts .............................................................................................. 21
6.2 High Intensity Discharge (HID) Ballast Issues .............................................................................. 21
6.2.1 Ignitor ..................................................................................................................................... 23
6.2.2 Metal-Halide Ballasts ........................................................................................................... 23
6.2.3 High Pressure Sodium Ballasts ............................................................................................ 23
6.2.3.1
6.2.3.2 Lag or Reactor Ballast ....................................................................................... 23
6.2.3.3 Lead Circuit Ballast ............................................................................................ 24
6.2.4 Other HID Ballasts ................................................................................................................ 24
Magnetic Regulator or Constant-Wattage Autotransformer (CWA) Ballast ..... 23
7.0 DISTRIBUTION MODES ................................................................................................................................ 24
7.1 General Luminaire Characteristics and Performance ................................................................ 24
7.2.1 Electrical ................................................................................................................................ 24
7.3 Luminaire Classifications ............................................................................................................... 24
7.2 Operating Considerations ................................................................................................................ 24
8.0
9.0
10.0
11 .o
12.0
13.0
14.0
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION FEATURES THAT INFLUENCE
LUMINAIRE SELECTION AND LUMINAIRE PLACEMENT ........................................................... 26
LIGHTING SYSTEM ECONOMIC ANALYSIS ............................................................................................. 27
SPECIAL CONSIDERATION FACTORS ...................................................................................................... 29
Lighting and Space Conditioning ................................................................................................... 29 10.1
10.2 Classified Areas ................................................................................................................................ 29
10.3 High Humidity or Corrosive Atmospheres .................................................................................... 30
10.4 High Ambient Temperatures ............................................................................................................ 30
10.5 Low Ambient Temperatures ............................................................................................................. 30
10.6 Clean Rooms ..................................................................................................................................... 30
10.7 Food and Drug Processing .............................................................................................................. 31
GENERAL LIGHTING ................................................................................................................................... 31
SUPPLEMENTARY TASK LIGHTING .......................................................................................................... 31
12.1 Luminaries for Supplementary Task Lighting ............................................................................. 32
.l 2.2 Portable Luminaries ......................................................................................................................... 32
12.3 Classification of Visual Tasks and Lighting Techniques ............................................................. 33
SPECIAL EFFECTS AND TECHNIQUES ................................................................................................... 33
13.1 Color Contrast .................................................................................................................................. 33
13.2 Inspection Techniques .................................................................................................................... 33
EMERGENCY. SAFETY AND SECURITY LIGHTING ............................................................................... 36
14.1 Emergency Lighting ........................................................................................................................ 36
14.2 Safety Lighting ................................................................................................................................. 37
14.3 Security Lighting .......................................................... : .................................................................... 37
15.0 LIGHTING FOR SPECIFIC TASKS .............................................................................................................. 37
15.1
15.2
15.3
Molding of Metal and Plastic Parts: Discussion of Lighting and Equipment Choices .......... 38
15.1.3 Inspection of Sand Castings ................................................................................................. 38
15.1.1 Foundry Molding (Sand Casting) .......................................................................................... 38
15.1.2 Molding Parts of Die-Cast Aluminum and Injection Molded Plastic .................................... 38
15.1.4 Inspection of Die-Castings and Opaque Injection Molded Plastic Parts ............................. 39
Parts Manufacturing and Assembly ............................................................................................... 39
Machining Metal Parts ...................................................................................................................... 40
16.0 LIGHTING FOR SPECIFIC VISUAL TASKS .............................................................................................. 40
16.2 Flat Surfaces ...................................................................................................................................... 40
16.3 Scribed Marks .................................................................................................................................... 40
16.1 Convex Surfaces ............................................................................................................................... 40
16.4 Center-Punch Marks ......................................................................................................................... 41
16.5 Concave Specular Surfaces ........................................................................................................... 41
16.6 Flat Specular Surfaces ..................................................................................................................... 41
16.7 Convex Specular Surfaces ............................................................................................................. 41
16.8 Lighting and Visibility for Specific Sheet Metal Fabrication ...................................................... 42
16.8.1 Punch Press ......................................................................................................................... 42
16.8.2 Shear ..................................................................................................................................... 42
16.9 Lighting for Large Component Sub- and Final Assembly .......................................................... 42
16.10 Control Rooms ................................................................................................................................. 43
16.11 Warehouse and Storage Area Lighting .......................................................................................... 44
16.1 1 . 1 Types of Warehouse Area and Storage Systems ............................................................... 44
16.1 1.2 Warehouse Illuminance ...................................................................................................... 44
16.1 1.3 Warehouse Lighting Design Considerations ...................................................................... 45
17.0 OUTDOOR AREA LIGHTING ....................................................................................................................... 46
17.1 Projected Lighting Systems ........................................................................................................... 46
17.2 Distributed Lighting Systems ......................................................................................................... 46
17.3 Outdoor Tower Platforms, Stairways and Ladders ...................................................................... 46
17.4 Special Equipment ............................................................................................................................ 47
17.5 Low Illuminance and Visual Acuity Outdoors .............................................................................. 47
References .............................................................................................................................................................. 47
Annex Al
The Basis for Deviating from Recommended Illuminances .................................................................. 48
Annex A2
Recommended Illuminance Values (target maintained) for Industrial Lighting Design ................... 51
Annex B
Predictive Methods for Determining Visual Comfort Probability (VCP)
and Unified Glare Rating (UGR) ................................................................................................................ 64
Annex C
Average Illuminance Calculation: The Lumen Method ......................................................................... 69
FOREWORD
(This Foreword is not part of the American National
Standard and Practice ANSIAESNA RP-7-01.)
While the objectives of this Recommended Practice
are to give a comprehensive treatment of lighting in the
industrial environment, there are many spaces in a
modern industrial complex that are used for purposes
other than manufacturing. These include off ices, meet-
ing, conference and reference spaces. It is suggested
that the reader refer to the most recent version of these
other IESNA Recommended Practices and Design
Guides for the appropriate lighting recommendations
for spaces not covered in this publication:
ANSMESNA RP-1, Recommended Practice on
Office Lighting
IESNA RP-5, Recommended Practice of
Daylighting
IESNA RP-20, Recommended Practice on Lighting
for Parking Facilities
ANSI/NECA/IESNA 502, Recornmended Practice
for Installing Industrial Lighting Systems
IESNA DG-2, Design Guide for Warehouse
Lighting
warm-up periods or stroboscopic effects created
where rotating paris are present. The ability of the
lamps to render colors accurately may have an effect
on the recognition of colors or product components
and safety colors used to protect the workers from
dangerous conditions within the work place. Many
industrial operations take place in hostile environ-
ments, and the hardware used in these locations
must be designed and manufactured to survive these
conditions. For these reasons, and many others,
great care is required to provide an effective, efficient
and readily maintainable lighting system to help mod-
ern industrial workers produce at the peak of their
ability in a safe environment.
2.0 LIGHTING THE INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
Providing a successful lighting design for a modern
industrial facility is a complex task. In the last three
decades of the 20th century, much has been leamed
about lighting and its positive effects on the well being of
people. The goal of providing an efficient, reliable and
easily maintainable lighting system, making use of all of
the knowledge available to the designer today, is a task
that requires experience and considerable planning.
1 .O INTRODUCTION
2.1 General Design Considerations for Lighting
Industrial Areas
A well-designed lighting system can make an impor-
tant contribution to the success of an industrial facility.
Unfortunately, too often the lighting is treated as an
afterthought during the planning and construction of
these facilities. Great attention is paid to the physical
dimensions of the building, to the flow of the process
and materials, and to production equipment.
It is common that only horizontal illuminance is con-
sidered in providing an environment in which to per-
form industrial tasks. However, many industrial tasks
do not occur in a horizontal plane. There are many
features of the lighting system, other than quantity of
light, which make a significant contribution to the effi-
ciency of the industrial worker. Placement of the lumi-
naries is critical to providing light of the proper quali-
ty, as well as quantity and direction, to allow fast,
easy recognition of operations, which may be taking
place at high speeds in portions of production
machinery where ambient light cannot easily pene-
trate. Selection of the luminaire distribution can be
important to rendering the visual task properly when
that task is multi-dimensional rather than flat, and
when the task occurs in a plane other than horizon-
tal. The operation of the light sources must be under-
stood to ensure that the proper lamps are selected.
Improper light source choice can result in difficult and
potentially dangerous conditions caused by long
The designer of an industrial lighting system should
carefully consider all of the following design criteria
since any single issue, or combination of several,
could be important in planning a successful industri-
al lighting installation. (These criteria are not neces-
sarily arranged in order of importance since priorities
will vary for different industries or different locations
within an industrial complex.)
1. Determine the quality of illumination for the manu-
facturing processes involved. (See the Industrial
Lighting Design Guide in Figure 1 (a) and Section
3.0.)
2. Determine the quantity of illumination for the manu-
facturing processes involved. (See the Industrial
Lighting Design Guide in Figure 1 (a) and (b),
Section 4.0 and Annex C.)
3. Determine the lighting required for safety and
ensure all three conditions (quality, quantity and
safety) are properly weighed and addressed in the
final design.
4. Select listed or approved lighting equipment that
will provide the requirements of quality and quan-
tity, including photometric characteristics, as well
as the mechanical performance required to meet
installation and operating conditions.
5. Arrange equipment so that it will be safe, easy and
A
B
C
practical to maintain. Evaluate Figure l (b) Determination of Illuminance Categories.
Public Spaces
Simple orientation for short visits
Working spaces where simple visual tasks are
performed
30 lx (3 fc)
50 lx (5 fc)
100 lx (10 fc)
operating conditions that may cre-
ate dangerous or unacceptable
risks to people, plant or equipment.
6. Consider the energy, economic and
operating characteristics of the
selected lighting system and be
sure all factors have been proper-
ly weighed and balanced against
the five considerations above
before finally accepting the design.
2.2 The IESNA Lighting Design
Guide and Industrial
Lighting Design Recommen-
dations
In the past, the IESNA has always
recommended illuminances for specif-
ic applications or visual tasks. Such
recommendations were often mistak-
en as the primary or even sole criteri-
on for lighting design. Beginning with
the publication of the IESNA Lighting
Handbook, 9th Edition, the Society
has introduced a new, formal system
for considering a wide range of light-
ing design criteria important for a high-
quality visual environment. This new
system emphasizes quality factors as
D
E
F
Performance of visual tasks of high contrast and
large size
Performance of visual tasks of high contrast and
small size, or visual tasks of low contrast and
large size
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast and
small size
300 ix (30 fc)
500 lx (50 fc)
1 O00 lx (1 OOfc)
well as illuminance.
reflections, measured illuminance should be within * 10 percent of the recommended
value. It should be noted, however, that the final illuminance may deviate from these rec-
ommended values due to other lighting design criteria.
Central to the new system is the
G
IESNA Lighting Design Guide. The
columns of the Design Guide list multiple criteria impor-
tant for a high quality visual environment, while the
rows list specific locations and tasks alphabetically. At
each row/column intersection, a shaded block indicates
the level of importance for each criterion as it relates to
the associated location or task: very important =solid
shading; important = medium shading; somewhat
important =light shading; and not important or not
applicable =no shading (blank). Those portions of the
Design Guide that apply to industrial applications are
presented in Figure 1 (a), (page 9.) (See Chapter 1 O in
the IESNA Lighting Handbook, 9th Edition, for the com-
plete Guide for all other applications.)
Performance of visual tasks near threshold 3000-10,000 IX
(300- 1 O00 fc)
3.0 QUALITY OF LIGHTING IN INDUSTRIAL
FACILITIES
A pleasant and comfortable environment is desirable
and will generally result in a happier and more pro-
ductive worker. There are various factors to consider
in determining the quality of the visual environment.
They appear in the column headers in the Design
2
Guide in Figure 1 (a). These include luminances of
room surfaces, modeling of objects, glare, shadows,
source/task/eye geometry, flicker and strobe, color
appearance and color contrast, and daylight integra-
tion and control.
3.1 Luminance and Luminance Ratios
The ability to see detail is strongly influenced by the
contrast between the task detail and its background.
The greater the contrast, or difference in luminance,
the more readily the task is seen. However, the eyes
function more comfortably and efficiently when the
luminances within the total visual environment are
fairly uniform. Therefore, all luminances in the field of
view should be carefully controlled. In manufacturing,
there are many areas where it is not practical to
achieve the desirable luminance relationships as
those more easily achieved in areas such as offices.
But between the extremes of heavy manufacturing
and office spaces lie the bulk of industrial areas.
Therefore, Figure 2 (see page 6 has been developed
as a practical guide to recommended maximum lumi-
nance ratios for industrial areas.
Figure l(a). Lighting Design Guide for Industrial Diications.
3
Figure 2. Recommended Maximum Luminance Ratios.
Environmental Classification
A B
3 to 1 3 to 1
1 t o3 1 t o3
10 to 1 20 to 1
1 t o10 1 t o20
20 to 1
1. Between tasks and adjacent darker surroundings
3. Between tasks and more remote darker surfaces
4. Between tasks and more remote lighter surfaces
5. Between luminaries (or windows, skylights, etc.)
6. Anywhere within normal field of view 40 to1 +
2. Between tasks and adjacent lighter surroundings
+
and surfaces adjacent to them
C
5 to 1
1 to 5
+
+
+
+
I
* Classifications are:
A- Interior areas where reflectances of space can be controlled in line with recommendations for optimum visual conditions.
B- Areas where reflectances of immediate work area can be controlled, but control of remote surround is limited.
C- Areas (indoor and outdoor) where it is completely impractical to control reflectances and difficult to alter environmental conditions.
+Luminance ratio control not practical
Workers may experience eye adaptation changes in
shifting their gaze away from a task if the new princi-
pal luminances in a changed viewing direction are sig-
nificantly different from those in the task surround.
This is sometimes called transient adaptation. In cer-
tain industrial operations, workers may experience
transient adaptations continuously during a normal
workday. Problems caused by luminance differences
in the environment can be reduced or avoided by pro-
viding the recommended luminance ratios.
To achieve the recommended luminance relation-
ships, it is necessary to carefully select the
reflectance values of all room surface and equipment
finishes, as well as control the candela distribution of
the lighting equipment. Figure 3 lists the recom-
mended reflectance values for industrial interiors and
equipment. High reflectance surfaces are generally
desirable to provide the recommended luminance
relationships and maximize the utilization of light.
They also improve the appearance of the workspace.
A large industrial room with dark surfaces can elicit a
cave-like sensation. At the same time, there may be
visibility consequences from improper luminance
ratios for tasks located adjacent to dark walls or
where the wall forms a significant part of the task
background. If low-reflectance walls and ceilings
exist, a major improvement in lighting system perfor-
mance can be achieved by refinishing those surfaces
to the reflectances recommended in Figure 3.
In many industries, machines are painted to present a
completely harmonious color environment. A slightly
darker background than the task detail is usually pre-
ferred. Stationary and moving parts of machines
should be finished with contrasting colors standard-
ized within the facility to reduce accident hazard.
When color combinations are selected for the build-
ing and machinery parts, the color rendering charac-
Surfaces Reflectance (%y
Ceiling 50% - 70%
Walls 40% - 60%
Desk & Bench Tops, Machines
Floors 20%
& Equipment 25% - 45%
-
Reflectance should be maintained as near as practical to recom-
mended values
Figure 3. Recommended Reflectance Values
(Applying t o Environmental Classifications A and 6
in Figure 2)
teristics of the lamps being used in the space must
also be considered. Failure to do this could produce
a color appearance completely different from the one
anticipated. Paint samples should always be
reviewed under samples of the actual lamps to be
installed to avoid annoying surprises after the project
is completed.
3.2 Modeling of Objects
Lighting will reveal the depth, shape and texture of an
object. In industrial applications, modeling of the visu-
al task can be critical to assessing quality of raw
materials, quality of finished goods and degree of
consistency in manufacturing processes. Appropriate
direction and distribution of light may vary depending
on material and task. Diffuse ambient lighting is often
inadequate for assessing fine texture; task lighting
may be used to provide the required direction, distrib-
ution and intensity of light. (See Section 12.0,
Supplementary Task Lighting.)
3.3 Glare and Visual Comfort
Glare is the sensation produced by luminance within
the visual field that is sufficiently greater than that to
6
Angle of
which the eyes are adapted. Glare may cause annoy-
ance, discomfort or loss of visual performance and
visibility. Direct glare results from high luminances or
from unshielded light sources. Glare can be reduced
by decreasing the luminance or area of the glare
source, by raising the glare sources further above the
line of sight, and by boosting the ambient illuminance.
Angle of Source
Reflected glare results from high luminance sources
or from luminous difference reflected from specular
(shiny) surfaces. ?Veiling reflections? are contrast-
reducing reflections from semi-specular surfaces that
may reduce task visibility.
Disability glare is caused by a veiling luminance
superimposed. on the retinal image within the eye,
which reduces visual performance or visibility, and is
often accompanied by discomfort. Reducing illumi-
nance at workers? eyes and/or raising the source of
the disability glare can alleviate the problem.
Discomfort glare produces visual discomfort without
necessarily interfering with visual performance or vis-
ibility. It occurs when luminous objects (or reflections
of luminous objects) have significantly higher lumi-
nance than the balance of the person?s field of view.
Size, luminance and angular displacement from the
line of sight are all factors. Even a source that is
directly overhead, if bright enough, can cause dis-
comfort glare.
Individual tolerances vary, but visual evaluations of dis-
comfort glare have resulted in numerical systems of
rating the discomfort glare, based on luminaire lumi-
nance, luminaire size, luminaire positions, room dimen-
sions, surface reflectances and average illuminance.
There are two methods used for predicting glare; an
empirical prediction system used in North America
called the Visual Comfort Probability (VCP) system,
and a Unified Glare Rating System (UGR) used pri-
marily in Europe. See Annex B for a discussion of
each. Note that VCP is used for direct distribution
fluorescent luminaries only.
The glare sensation from an industrial system can be
reduced by decreasing the luminance of the light
sources or the luminance of the luminaries; for exam-
ple, choosing a luminaire with a larger refractor. So-
called ?high-bay? high intensity discharge (HID) sys-
tems, where luminaries are mounted 7.6 m (25 ft) or
more above the floor, are considered satisfactory with
respect to glare. High-bay luminaries, however, often
provide a variety of socket positions, which may place
lamps so low in the reflector that they have little or no
cutoff. For such situations, luminaire accessories,
such as louvers, may be considered.
Specific glare ratings for lighting in actual rooms may be
calculated using the methods described in Annex B.
Reflected glare can be minimized or eliminated by
using light sources of low luminance or by orienting
the work so that reflections are directed away from the
normal sight line to the task. It is often desirable to use
large-area luminaries of low luminance located over
the work. See Section 12.0, Supplementary Task
Lighting for possible solutions to such problems.
Unshaded factory windows frequently contribute to
glare sensations among production personnel attrib-
utable to a direct view of the sun, bright portions of the
sky or even light surfaces of adjacent buildings. Direct
sunlight entering the work area may cause glare
when reflected off interior surfaces.
.
3.4 Material Characteristics
Lighting designers must pay attention to material
characteristics of visual tasks, such as texture, spec-
ularity, transparency and translucency. These provide
visual cues and are often a functional part of task con-
trast. They can also impact important process consid-
erations such as degree of finish or completeness,
material quality or correctness as well as other pro-
duction issues. Modeling the principal tasks with a
test installation will help determine the optimum light-
ing system and geometry. Such a test should include
the actual task and a minimum of 4 luminaries at an
appropriate mounting height and spacing.
Normal
Figure 4 (a). Angle of incidence equals angle of
reflection.
7
Bright images reflected from computer screens are fre-
quently the cause of veiling reflections. (See Figure 4
(b).) Screen reflections may be caused by overhead
luminaries, light colored clothing worn by employees,
and unshielded windows or skylights. Means of control
include total cutoff of light source images, changing
VDT orientation and position, using better contrast
screens, adding shields to the monitor, and blocking the
view of luminous surfaces in the offending zone. (See
Figure 4 (c).) For more detailed information on lighting
for VDT workstations see latest version of IESNA RP-
1, Recommended Practice on Ofice Lighting.
Figure 4 (b). Veiling reflections in a VDT screen.
Figure 4 (c). Veiling reflections are minimized to
enable the operator to clearly see the drawing on
the screen. (Photo courtesy of Ruud Lighting.)
Veiling reflections also occur in manufacturing areas
of an industrial facility. For example, in the electronics
industry, solder used in the manufacture of printed cir-
cuit boards has specular characteristics. Glare reflect-
ed from the solder will hinder the ability of the worker
to see the detail of the circuitry on the board.
Not all specular reflections on tasks reduce visibility.
Incised markings on micrometers and other calibrating
instruments are more easily seen when the angle of the
light source creates a bright edge against a shadow to
enhance the detail of the task. (See Section 16.1 .)
3.5 Shadows
Shadows can interfere with task visibility by placing
detail in darkness (e.g., a body shadow on a
machine task), or they can enhance definition of
three-dimensional details (e.g., imperfections in tex-
tiles). Point sources (e.g., incandescent or high
intensity discharge lamps) create more defined
shadows than fluorescent lamps, which produce dif-
fuse shadows.
Generally, a large area of shadow, covering the
whole task area, will simply lower the task illumi-
nance. Shadows cast by the structure of the task
may reveal detail, or may mask what needs to be
seen. High reflectance surroundings help fill in and
modify shadows, as do luminaries with 10 percent or
more uplight when the ceiling cavity reflectance is
over 50 percent. A combination of supplementary
task lighting and general illumination is often the
best approach, if care is taken to minimize glare.
The presence of shadows may be desirable, and the
interplay of highlight and shadow helps to define the
form of many visual tasks. Lighting vertical surfaces
to at least half the horizontal illuminance level often
brings the ratio of highlight to shadow into a tolera-
ble range for three-dimensional tasks. Some shad-
ow will still be present, which helps to model the task
and reveal form. Since each visual task has an opti-
mum range of modeling, a careful evaluation of crit-
ical visual tasks should be made to determine the
effects of various ratios of horizontal vs. vertical illu-
minance on visibility.
Obstructions below the luminaire mounting plane,
such as pipes and ducts, and the location and orien-
tation of the task, affect the availability of vertical illu-
minance. Obstructions can also produce shadows,
as can an operator positioned between the task and
the luminaries. When a task is close to a wall, and
the operator is facing the wall, relatively few lumi-
naries are likely to contribute to task illuminance. In
these cases, high wall reflectances (greater than 60
percent) can improve task visibility.
3.6 SourceKasiEye Geometry
The angular relationships between the viewer, the
task and the luminaire are frequently critical to task
visibility. Industrial tasks are often three-dimensional,
and they often move. Because viewing angles are
dynamic, the source/task/eye geometric relationships
must be understood for individual work areas. The
geometry can enhance contrast (e.g., scribed marks
on a micrometer) or reduce it (e.g., viewing a meter
dial through glass).
8
Lamp Type
Mercury
250W Warm Deluxe
250W Cool Deluxe
250W Deluxe White
250W Deluxe White
3.7 Task Visibility - Flicker and Strobe
Ballast Flicker Index
Reactor O. 127
Reactor 0.137
Reactor 0.131
CWA M-H tvDe) O. 172
Flicker is the rapid variation in light source intensity,
usually most noticeable in peripheral vision. The output
of lighting systems that operate on alternating current
power varies in output at a rate that is twice the cyclic
frequency of the input power. Sometimes this strobe
effect appears to slow or even stop the movement of
objects. This can be annoying or dangerous for opera-
tors of rotating or other rapidly cycling equipment.
1 OOW Deluxe White
400W Deluxe White
400W Deluxe White
The flicker index has been established as a reliable
relative measure of the cyclic variation in output of
various light sources at a given power frequency and
takes into account the waveform of the light output as
well as its amplitude. The flicker index assumes val-
ues from O to 1.0 with zero for steady light output.
Higher values indicate increased possibility of notice-
able stroboscopic effect as well as lamp flicker.
cw O. 183
Reactor 0.121
CWA (M-H type) 0.144
Most fluorescent lamps have low flicker indices, and
typically do not cause problems when operating on a
60-Hz power supply. Their visible flicker is virtually elim-
250W Deluxe
inated when operated at high frequency on electronic
ballasts. Sensitivity to flicker varies among individuals,
vanes across the visual field and often will be unno-
ticed. Designers are cautioned to consult with a lamp
manufacturer about the flicker index of a particular
fluorescent lamphallast combination before it is used in
an area where flicker or strobe could be a problem.
Reactor or CWA 1 0.131
The flicker in HID lamps depends on the lamp type
and the ballast circuit. Fi gure 5 illustrates the varia-
tion in flicker index for mercury (used infrequently
today), metal halide and high pressure sodium lamps
for several ballast types operated at 60-Hz. The flick-
er index is considerably higher in 50-Hz power sys-
tems. Using electronic ballasts having high-frequen-
cy or rectangular wave characteristics can be effec-
tive in reducing the flicker effect. Operating fluores-
cent or HID lamps on alternate phases of a three-
phase power supply will reduce observed flicker
when the light from luminaries connected to all three
phases is well mixed before it reaches the workplane.
This is accomplished by using luminaries with a wider
spacing criterion, designing for 50 percent light pat-
Metal halide
250W High Color Quality
175W Coated
250W High Color Quality
Figure 5. Flicker Index for HID Lamps Operated on Different Ballast Types.
Reactor 0.080
HPS-CWA 0.102
CWA 0.083
175 W Clear-Horizontal
175W (3200K)
250W Coated (A)
250W Clear-Vertical
250W Clear-Horizontal
250W Coated (B)
I 1OOW Deluxe White
CWA 0.092
CWA 0.090
CWA 0.070
CWA 0.102
CWA 0.121
CWA 0.092
I C W-Prem um I 0.142 I
250W Clear-Vertical
400W Clear-Vertical
1 OOOWClear (vert.)
C WA-Premium 0.088
CWA-Premium 0.097
CWA 0.086
CWA 0.095
CWA 0.067
I 250W Standard I Reactor or CWA I 0.200 I
I 175 W Clear-Vertical I CWA I 0.078 I
9
tern overlap, and powering adjacent luminaries from
alternate phases.
3.8 Color Rendering
The selection of a lamp color for an industrial facility
requires consideration of at least two factors, color
appearance and the color rendering ability of the
source. The color appearance is important to create a
pleasant and attractive atmosphere in which to work
and a space that will promote high productivity.
Color rendering is the general expression for the
effect of a light source on the color appearance of an
object compared to the color appearance under a ref-
erence light source. Daylight and incandescent light
sources are generally thought of as having good
color rendering properties because objects look the
way we expect them to look under those sources.
Fluorescent and HID lamps may have a wide range of
color rendering properties depending on the composi-
tion of the arc tube gases and the materials coating
the inside of the lamp envelope.
3.8.1 Color Rendering Index, (CRI)
The Color Rendering Index (CRI) is a system recom-
mended by the International Commission on
Illumination (Commission Internationale de IEclairage
(CIE)) for measuring and specifying the ability of a light
source to render colors. The system rates a lamps
CRI in terms that represent the degree of color shift of
an object under a test lamp in comparison with its color
under a standard lamp of the same correlated color
temperature. Note that CRI is only useful when com-
paring two or more lamps of the same correlated color
temperature. Lamp CRIS used where color rendering
is unimportant may be as low as 20. When color ren-
dering is important, the CRI should exceed 70. Where
color rendering is critical, the CRI should exceed 85.
The color rendering index of the lamps selected for the
lighting system design should permit the workers to effi-
ciently and safely perform their tasks. Many industrial
operations now require color discrimination during the
manufacturing process. Instances have arisen where
an HID source with a relatively low color rendering
index has been used in a space where color coding
was employed in production control and scheduling.
The colors of the codes were not readily identifiable
under the low color rendering HID source. The solution
was to provide supplementary lighting with fluorescent
lamps having a higher color rendering index, permitting
the workers to direct the operations with the necessary
speed and efficiency. Color discrimination can be nec-
essary during assembly and parts picking.For exam-
ple, in the lighting industry, the parts selection task
might involve discerning between gold, champagne
gold, straw and wheat downlight reflectors or selecting
among various screw or wire insulation colors.
The need for high color rendering sources varies wide-
ly throughout industrial facilities. In warehouse areas,
the task may be reading black printing against the
color of a cardboard package. In this example, a lamp
with the very low color rendering index may not only
suffice, but also actually enhance the visibility of the
printing by increasing the contrast of the visual task.
On the other hand, where color comparison or color
discrimination is critical, it will be necessary to select a
source with a high color rendering index to provide the
color quality necessary to perform those visual tasks.
3.8.2 Safety Colors
Safety colors are used to indicate the presence of a
safety hazard, such as an open pit or a lift truck traffic
lane, or a safety facility, such as a first aid station.
These are carefully developed colors, which are spec-
ified in American National Standard 2535.1 -1 998,
Safety Color Code. The background around these
colors should be kept as free of competing colors as
possible, and the number of other colors in the area
should be kept to a minimum. Illumination in the area
of safety color markings should permit positive identi-
fication of the color, hazard or situation without distor-
tion or obscuration of the message to be conveyed.
The specification of these colors is given in Figure 6.
Designers must be aware that these specifications
have been developed based on CIE standard illumi-
nant C (a laboratory simulation of the spectral power
distribution of average daylight). Therefore, the colors
will be recognizable under daylight, conventional incan-
descent and fluorescent sources, which have a broad
spectrum. Note that high intensity discharge sources
render some colors differently than these other source
types. This may cause some confusion in recognition of
safety colors at illuminances of 5 lux (0.5 fc) and lower.
3.9 Daylight Integration and Control
A view of the outdoors is believed to be important for
human psychological and physiological reasons. While
daylight can be used to help light a space, extra care
should be taken in industrial environments to control
the quantity and distribution of the light and its associ-
ated heat gain. It should be noted that more illuminance
is sometimes needed on interior surfaces near win-
dows to reduce the contrasts between those surfaces
and the windows. Daylighting is most effective for many
interior spaces when used as ambient illuminance, but
it is too variable to be considered a reliable source for
task illuminance in industrial applications. (For informa-
tion on the subject of daylighting see IESNA RP-5-99,
Recommended Practice of Daylighting. )
10
Figure 6. Specification of ANSI Safety Colors Viewed under CIE Standard Illuminant C.
Color Name Munsell Notation CIE Specification ISCC-NBS Name
v V V 1
A
0.3269 12.00 Vivid Red Safety Red 7.5R 4.0114 0.5959
Safety Orange 5.OYR 6.0115 0.5510 0.4214 30.05 Vivid Orange
Highway Brown 5.OR 2.7515 0.4766 0.3816 5.52 Moderate Brown
0.4562 0.4788 59.10 Vivid Yellow
Safety Yellow 5.0Y 8.0112
Strong Green
O. 1690 0.1744 9.00 Strong Blue Safety Blue 2.5PB 3.5110
Safety Purple 1O.OP 4.5110 0.3307 0.2245 15.57 Strong Reddish Purple
Safety White N9.01 0.3101 0.3 162 78.70 White
Safety Gray N5.01
Safety Black N1.51 0.3101 0.3 162 2.02 Black
Safety Green 7.5G 4.019 0.21 10 0.4 120 12.00
0.3101 0.3 162 19.80 Medium Gray
4.0 QUANTITY OF LIGHTING IN INDUSTRIAL
FACILITIES
The recommended illuminances provided in the Lighting
Design Guide (Figure 1 (a)) are based on the Societys
consensus judgement of best practice for Yypicalappli-
cations. Typical conditions, however, may not be appro-
priate for a specific application. As a professional, the
lighting designer should have a better understanding of
the particular space and the needs of occupantdclients
than that which can be represented by a recommended
illuminance value for a typical space. The lighting needs
and requirements of an individual industrial facility will
depend on many factors. Certain facilities may include
multiple lighting needs within the same production area,
resulting in the deliberate use of non-uniform lighting.
Beginning in 1979, the IESNA established nine illumi-
nance categories (A through i), and these were used
in previous editions of this recommended practice.
Each category had general descriptions of the visual
task, irrespective of the application. This system has
now been modified in the following significant ways:
The recommended illuminances on industrial task
planes are now provided with reference to a spe-
cific application. The tasks may be horizontal,
inclined or vertical.
The nine original illuminance selection categories
have been reduced to seven categories and orga-
nized into three sets of visual tasks [orientation and
simple (A, B, C), common (DI E, F) and special
(G)]. The seven new letter categories are present-
ed and described in Figure 1 (b). They also appear
in the Illuminance columns of Figure 1 (a).
Guided by scientific literature and practical experi-
ence, IESNAs recommended illuminance values
now increase roughly logarithmically with increas-
ing task difficulty.
Occasionally the visual task in a specific space is
not typical. The information in Annex Al should be
used to adjust the illuminance for that task. In addi-
tion, illuminance recommendations for tasks/
spaces/industries not covered in Figure 1 (a) are
contained in Annex A2.
4.1 Illuminance: Horizontal, Vertical and Inter-
mediate Planes
For the first part of the 20th Century, when lighting
levels were discussed, it was usually understood that
the reference was to illuminance on the horizontal sur-
face. As more has been learned, it is now known that
a horizontal plane is not the only plane that is impor-
tant, particularly in an industrial facility. For that rea-
son, note that when determining illuminance, the ori-
entation of the task (horizontal, vettical or intermedi-
ate inclined plane) should be known.
4.1.1 Horizontal Illuminance
Horizontal illuminance isimportant and should not be
ignored. This is the light that allows us to predict how
clearly tasks and items will be seen when they are on
a flat work surface, shelf or on the floor. Horizontal illu-
minance is important for task visibility, material han-
dling and general circulation. Uniform horizontal illu-
minance (where the maximum level is not more than
one-sixth above the average level, and the minimum,
not more than one-sixth below) is frequently appropri-
ate for specific industrial interiors where tasks are
closely spaced and where there are similar tasks
requiring the same amount of light. In such instances,
uniformity permits flexibility of functions and equip-
ment locations. Neighboring areas with extreme lumi-
nance differences are undesirable because continu-
ously adapting between two significantly different
luminance levels physically adjacent to each other
can be visually fatiguing to the worker. Uniformity may
be more important in industrial lighting than in some
other applications. While non-uniform lighting can add
interest in applications that are of a more aesthetic
11
nature, industrial spaces can benefit from high-quality
uniform lighting when the location of the task cannot
always be accurately predicted. Uniform lighting also
allows repositioning of task locations or production
machinery without needing to relocate luminaries.
This can be particularly beneficial in high-bay industri-
al facilities where the cost and inconvenience of mov-
ing luminaries located 9 m (30 feet) or more above the
production floor can be substantial.
There are instances where non-uniform lighting is
appropriate. Maintaining uniformity between adjacent
areas, which have significantly different visibility (and
illuminance) requirements, may be wasteful of energy
- for example, a storage area adjacent to a machine
shop. In such instances, different lighting levels are
required, according to the needs of the space. This
may be accomplished by using similar luminaries with
different lamp wattages or distributions, different num-
bers of lamps per luminaire or by adjusting the num-
ber of luminaries per unit area, making sure the other
requirements of the lighting design are met.
4.1.2 Vertical Illuminance.
In an industrial setting, vertical illuminance, and the
illuminance at other planes between horizontal and
vertical, is very important. In many large-parts assem-
bly areas, work takes place on the underside of a
major component, such as the wing or fuselage of an
aircraft. Work performed deep within the recesses of
production equipment such as presses, breaks or
molding machines requires that the light penetrate
into the machine to the location of the task for effi-
ciency and safety. This may be accomplished by
using wide-distribution general lighting equipment
(with a majority of the light output 40 to 70from the
vertical). Light is reflected at high angles and high
reflectance surfaces are provided in the work area.
The use of supplementary lighting also helps to put
the light directly on the task.
Diffuse light, including up-light components, from lumi-
naries with very wide distribution (such as low bay
HID luminaries) can have additional benefits in an
industrial environment. The wide distribution can miti-
gate the effects of lamp outages in a single luminaire
and may allow production to continue in a normal man-
ner without having to spot-replace lamps as they fail.
Wide-distribution luminaries also tend to produce a
higher level of vertical illuminance (and wall luminance),
at some sacrifice in horizontal illuminance. This can be
a definite advantage where the seeing task is in a plane
other than horizontal and there is a need to increase
the vertical component of the lighting for task visibility.
Care must be exercised, however, to ensure that the
wider light distribution does not produce discomfort or
disability glare beyond workers tolerances.
Industrial tasks come in all shapes and sizes. Flat
tasks may be viewed in a horizontal plane or in planes
at any number of other angles. The visual task asso-
ciated with solid parts can be made more visible by a
number of means including supplemental lighting and
shadowing to emphasize the shape of the object.
Harsh shadows should be avoided, but some shadow
effect may be desirable to accentuate the depth and
form of objects. There are a few specific visual tasks
where clearly defined shadows improve visibility, and
such effects should be provided by supplementary
lighting equipment arranged for the particular task.
Refer to the material in Section 12.0, Supplementary
Lighting for more information.
Industrial lighting design requires a great deal of infor-
mation about the tasks to be performed in the space.
Because of this, the lighting designer should carefully
discuss the manufacturing process with the facility
personnel to obtain sufficient background information
for proper evaluation of all of the design requirements.
Personal visits to similar operations can be invaluable
and are recommended whenever practical. Interviews
with workers can also reveal information that might
otherwise not be seen directly.
4.2 Initial and Maintained Illuminance
The quantity of light (illuminance) required depends
primarily upon the seeing task, the time to perform the
task, the worker, and the importance of the various
task parameters in performing the work.
The illuminance will determine the workers adaptation
to the visual environment. In todays industrial facilities,
there may be hazards, such as cranes, fork-lift trucks,
conveyors and rotating machinery, which can affect the
illuminance requirements. In locations where dirt accu-
mulates rapidly and adheres readily to luminaire and
room surfaces, and where maintenance is inadequate
to keep lighting systems operating at design levels, the
light loss factor used in calculating the required illumi-
nance must be reduced, thereby increasing the initial
illuminance, to compensate for the poor maintenance.
This practice is not necessarily energy efficient, but
may be justified to assure the worker has adequate
light to safely and efficiently perform the required visual
tasks. Other measures are available to compensate for
the loss of light normally experienced through the life of
a lighting system. Automatic control systems can offset
the degradation of the lighting system due to age.
Automatic switching systems can turn lights off when
they are not needed, or switch them into a power-sav-
ing mode, provided that occupancy sensors are used
for returning the lights to operating levels.
The number of luminaries required to meet the rec-
ommended illuminance can be calculated using a
12
basic manual procedure (such as the Lumen Method
in Annex C ) or any of a number of commercially
available computer based calculation programs to
calculate the number of luminaries required. It is
important that the lamp and luminaire characteristics,
light loss factors and room characteristics discussed
later be carefully selected to assure the acceptability
of the installed lighting system. Many computer based
lighting calculation programs now allow partitions and
equipment to be included in the input data resulting in
a more realistic modeling of the space.
4.3 Lighting System Maintenance
Industrial facilities often present challenging mainte-
nance problems. Luminaries may be located far
above the floor over large production equipment.
Plant operations often will not tolerate interruptions for
lamp and luminaire maintenance. Where cranes are
present in high bay areas, they can often be used as
the maintenance platform. This may be possible dur-
ing normal production times but, more often, mainte-
nance will have to be performed during non-produc-
tion times. Platforms may be used to service lighting
equipment or disconnecting hangers installed to per-
mit the luminaire to be disconnected by chain or cable
from the floor or some intermediate level and lowered
to permit servicing from that level. Where the layout of
the space will permit, telescoping platforms can pro-
vide the necessary access to luminaries.
Good maintenance programs can be effective in
reducing the total power of an installed lighting sys-
tem. A shorter relamping and cleaning cycle can
reduce the number, or wattage, of the luminaries and,
thereby, reduce the electrical load of the lighting sys-
tem. Depending on the system, illuminance levels can
depreciate to less than half of their initial level when
lamps are replaced only as they fail, even if luminar-
ies are thoroughly cleaned at relamping. Better light
loss factors occur when systems are group relamped
and cleaned at a shorter interval (typically 70 percent
of rated life). The savings in labor usually offset high-
er lamp costs from a group maintenance program. A
significant capital and operating (principally electric
energy) cost saving is associated with programmed
maintenance. Figure 7 shows the effect of cleaning
and relamping on the output of a fluorescent lighting
system and how these maintenance operations can
have a beneficial effect on the system output.
It is critical to the proper operation of the lighting sys-
tem that replacement lamps have not only the same
electrical characteristics as the original lamps, but
also the same envelope and color rendering charac-
teristics. It is obvious that the lamp must fit in the lumi-
naires socket and that the lamps electrical character-
istics must permit operation on the system voltage
and with the luminaires auxiliary equipment. In addi-
tion, the envelope of the replacement lamps must
match the original lamp design in shape and finish
(coated or clear). Using the wrong lamp type can
completely change the luminaire photornetrics and
create entirely new lumen distribution patterns in the
space. The lamp and ballast specifications from the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and
Canadian Standards Association (CSA) should be
matched to assure proper lamp operation in both new
and relamping situations.
Information on operating and maintaining the lighting
system should always be documented for facility
operating and maintenance personnel. As an exam-
ple, lamp manufacturers direct that certain metal
halide lamps may be used in open luminaries only if
there is a schedule to cycle the lamps off at least once
a week and to group relamp the area containing those
lamps. These instructions are usually printed on the
paper sleeve in which the lamp is shipped but that
information may or may not be noted. For this reason,
it is good practice to provide the owners, or occu-
pants maintenance personnel with complete and
clear written lighting system maintenance instructions
at the time the project is completed.
Target illuminance levels are rarely achieved without
some consideration during the initial design about the
nature of on-site maintenance. This further demon-
strates the need for providing a written maintenance
program recommendation to assure the continued
integrity of the design.
5.0 GENERAL LIGHTING EQUIPMENT
All lamp performance data such as life, lumen output
and color are based upon statistical data. Lamp life,
for instance, is the point in time when half of the lamps
have failed and half are still operating. Lamp life is
also dependent upon the number of hours per start
(for example, 10 hrs/start vs. 120 hrdstart). It is impor-
tant that the designer have a working knowledge of
the underlying statistics in order to properly evaluate
and/or compare systems and components..
5.1 Fluorescent Systems
5.1.1 Source Characteristics
Among the advantages of fluorescent lamps are their
high luminous efficacy and relatively low brightness.
That is, low brightness to the extent that open-reflec-
tor luminaries are often used in situations that have
high wall and ceiling reflectances with low risk that
workers will complain of excessive glare.
13
1 O0
90
80
70
c

a
8 60
E
c
rn
m
C
al
C
rn
v>
al
U
.- -
-
.-
c
.-
; 50
._
+
c o 40
2
a
c
al
al
30
20
10
O
57 I I I I I I
-I-k-2-4-3.-4-I
Clean Clean Clean Clean
luminaires luminaires luminaires luminaires
once and per 18 months; per 18 months; per 12 months;
relamp 100% relamp 100% relamp 50% relamp 33-1/3%
once per once per once per once per
36 months 18 months 18 months 12 months
= A-Temperature and voltage = D-Lamp lumen depreciation (LLD)
I B-Luminaire deterioration BI E-Lamp burnouts
F-Dirt accumulation on lamps
and luminaires
C-Room surface dirt
accumulation
- A
-B
-C
-D
-E
-F
)
O 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Time in years
Figure 7. Effect of light loss factors on illuminance. Example uses 32-watt rapid-start lamps, operated 10 hours
per day, 5 days per week, 2600 hours per year. All four maintenance systems are shown on the same graph for
convenience. For a relative comparison of the four systems, each should begin at the same time and cover the
same period of time.
A disadvantage is that the luminous flux generated is
related to the surface area of the source; the greater
the length, the higher the efficacy. In recent lamp
designs, as the diameter of the lamp has been
reduced, the lumens per unit area of the lamp surface
area have increased.
The light output of fluorescent lamps decreases
with accumulated operating time because of degra-
dation of the phosphor coating and accumulation of
light-absorbing deposits within the lamp. Protective
coatings are sometimes used to reduce the phos-
phor degradation. Lamps with rare earth phospho-
rs (T-5 or T-8) have better lumen maintenance than
lamps with halo phosphors.
Lamp life is determined by the rate of loss of the emis-
sive coating on the electrodes or electrode failure.
End of lamp life is reached when the coating is com-
pletely removed from one or both electrodes. The
rated average life of fluorescent lamps usually is
based on three hours of operation per start (3 hlstart).
Fluorescent systems offer the best color rendering
ability over the widest ranges of apparent chro-
maticity (correlated color temperature (CCT) mea-
sured in Kelvin).
14
5.1.2 Fluorescent Luminaire Characteristics1
Performance
The most commonly used fluorescent general lighting
luminaries for industrial applications are 8 feet long,
multi-lamped with T-8 or in some older installations,
the less efficient T-12 lamps. T-8, 800ma lamps oper-
ated on high frequency electronic ballasts may repre-
sent the best performance. Recent developments in
performance of smaller diameter (T-5 and T-2) lamps
offer suitable solutions for supplementary lighting.
Most retrofits of industrial fluorescent luminaries use
4 T-8 lamps.
One benefit of fluorescent luminaries is that most two-
lamp systems with electronic instant start ballasts
(parallel lamp operation) offer redundancy; approxi-
mately half the light is still supplied if one lamp fails.
The luminous performance (efficacy or light output)
and color of a fluorescent lamp result from the mer-
cury vapor pressure within the lamp, which depends
on temperature. The internal temperature of a lumi-
naire can adversely affect the life of some types of flu-
orescent lamps. High ambient temperatures not only
lower the lamps lumen output but also can change
the electrical characteristics, bringing them outside
the design range of the ballast. Long-term operation
at higher currents shortens the life of the lamp.
The best fluorescent general lighting systems employ
opaque sided reflectors for each lamp, with a 35-
degree lamp cut-off along the luminaire transverse
axis (across the luminaire), and louvers that provide
similar cut off along the longitudinal axis (along the
luminaire). Luminaries offen have apertures at the top
that allow up-light and air movement. Air movement
enables cleaner operation over an extended period of
time in most open luminaries.
Fluorescent luminaries are generally considered for
installation up to 6.0 m (20 ft) above the floor or plat-
form level. However, with the proper combination of
fluorescent lamps, ballasts and reflector design the
use of fluorescent systems has been successfully
expanded to mounting heights of 13.6 m (45 ff).
White finished diffuse reflector surfaces are the most
common and are generally very efficient. Mirror fin-
ished optical surfaces vary widely in efficiency
depending on the specific materials used and gener-
ally have lower apparent brightness when viewed
from the side. Better optical control, available by using
mirror finishes, may be desirable in narrow confining
spaces or where obstructions block light from adja-
cent luminaries. The fluorescent source size may
interfere with the optical designers attempt to direct
source output at specific angles. This is often done to
increase luminaire intensity at either nadir (for better
utilization in narrow or obstructed spaces) or at the
spacing limit in order to obtain a wider spacing criteri-
on. Other reflectors may be designed for wide or
asymmetric distribution. It is important to use the lamp
type specified since lamps and reflectors are
designed to work in combination. As always, the
improvement in visual comfort must be balanced with
efficiency and maintenance concerns. If greater cutoff
is required, select a deeper reflector.
Spacing criterion (SC) may be an unreliable gauge of
how far apart general lighting luminaries can be
spaced while still providing acceptable uniformity of
horizontal illuminance. Typically, fluorescent industrial
luminaries have spacing criteria of 1.3 to 1.6. (See
Figure 8 page 16.)
5.2 High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lighting
Systems
Because mercury vapor lamps have operating char-
acteristics that are far inferior to both metal halide and
high pressure sodium lamps for general lighting pur-
poses, their use in modern industrial plants is rare.
Therefore, this discussion of HID lamps for general
lighting in industrial facilities does not include mercury
vapor lamps. The reader should contact lamp manu-
facturers for mercury vapor lamp information.
5.2.1 Metal halide Lamps
Metal halide (MH) lamps are similar in construction to
the earlier and simpler mercury vapor lamps. One of
the major differences is the metal halide compounds
included in the arc tube, which improve the color ren-
dering qualities of metal halide lamps compared to
those of even phosphor-coated mercury lamps. It is
also possible, by adjusting the mix of the elements
included in the arc tube, to vary the chromaticity of
metal halide lamps. Metal halide lamps are available
in wattages from 35 to 1000 watts. (There are 1500
watt lamps used primarily for sports lighting applica-
tions. ) The efficacy of MH lamps is greatly improved
over mercury vapor with typical values of 75 to 125
lumens/watt (not including ballast losses). Metal
halide lamps are made in both clear and coated outer
bulb configurations and it is important that the correct
lamp type be used in the luminaire to assure the
lumen distribution for which the luminaire was
designed.
Many metal halide lamps are life and lumen rated for
operating in the vertical position. Using lamps
designed for vertical operation in a horizontal operat-
ing position can seriously affect the lamp life and
lumen output. For this reason, horizontal operating
lamps have been specifically designed. These lamps
will provide about 33 percent increase in life and
approximately 25 percent increase in lumen output
15
Figure 8. Typical Fluorescent Luminaries.
0.97 0.97 0.97
0.84 0.81 0.79
0.73 0.68 0.64
0.64 0.58 0.53
0.56 0.50 0.45
0.50 0.43 0.38
0.45 0.38 0.33
0.41 0.34 0.29
0.37 0.30 0.26
0.34 0.28 0.23
0.31 0.25 0.21
Typical Intensity
Distribution
0.92 0.92 0.92 0.89 0.89 0.89
0.81 0.79 0.76 0.78 0.76 0.74
0.70 0.66 0.63 0.67 0.64 0.61
0.61 0.56 0.52 0.59 0.55 0.51
0.54 0.48 0.44 0.52 0.47 0.43
0.48 0.42 0.38 0.47 0.41 0.37
0.43 0.37 0.33 0.42 0.37 0.32
0.39 0.33 0.29 0.38 0.33 0.29
0.36 0.30 0.26 0.35 0.29 0.25
0.33 0.27 0.23 0.32 0.27 0.23
0.31 0.25 0.21 0.30 0.24 0.21
DCC- 1 1 80
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
50 I 30 1 10 10
70 I
1.03 1.03 1.03
0.93 0.88 0.83
0.83 0.75 0.68
0.75 0.65 0.57
0.69 0.57 0.49
0.63 0.51 0.42
0.58 0.45 0.37
0.53 0.41 0.33
0.50 0.37 0.29
0.46 0.34 0.26
0.43 0.31 0.24
pw- 1 I 70 50 30
1.00 1.00 1.00
0.89 0.84 0.80
0.80 0.72 0.66
0.72 0.63 0.56
0.65 0.55 0.47
0.60 0.49 0.41
0.55 0.44 0.36
0.51 0.40 0.32
0.47 0.36 0.29
0.44 0.33 0.26
0.41 0.30 0.23
70 50 30 I 50 30 10 I 50 30 10 1 50 30 10 I
0.92
0.78
0.67
0.58
0.51
0.46
0.41
0.37
0.34
0.31
0.29
Typical Luminaire
0.92
0.72
0.58
0.47
0.40
0.34
0.29
0.26
0.23
0.20
0.18
":" 1 EFF =90.5%
0.86 0.86 0.86
0.73 0.70 0.68
0.62 0.58 0.55
0.54 0.49 0.45
0.48 0.42 0.38
0.43 0.37 0.32
0.38 0.32 0.28
0.35 0.29 0.25
0.32 0.26 0.22
0.29 0.24 0.19
0.27 0.21 0.18
Lamp =(2) F40T12
SC (along, across, 45') =1.3. 1.5, 1.5 % DN =78.2% % UP =21.8%
0.80 0.80 0.80
0.67 0.65 0.63
0.58 0.55 0.52
0.50 0.46 0.43
0.44 0.40 0.36
0.40 0.35 0.31
0.36 0.31 0.27
0.33 0.27 0.24
0.30 0.25 0.21
0.27 0.22 0.19
0.25 0.20 0.17
0.77
0.61
0.49
0.40
0.34
0.29
0.25
0.22
0.19
0.17
0.15
O
1
2
3
4
5
8
7
8
9
10
0.87 0.87 0.87
0.81 0.78 0.76
0.75 0.70 0.66
0.69 0.63 0.58
0.64 0.56 0.51
0.59 0.51 0.45
0.55 0.46 0.40
0.51 0.42 0.36
0.47 0.38 0.32
0.44 0.35 0.29
0.41 0.32 0.27
0.82 0.82
0.68 0.66
0.58 0.54
0.49 0.45
0.43 0.39
0.37 0.33
0.33 0.29
0.30 0.26
0.27 0.23
0.24 0.20
0.22 0.18
~
0.71
0.58
0.47
0.40
0.33
0.29
0.25
0.22
0.19
0.17
0.16
0.98 0.98 0.98
0.89 0.85 0.81
0.80 0.74 0.68
0.73 0.64 0.58
0.66 0.57 0.50
0.61 0.51 0.43
0.56 0.45 0.38
0.52 0.41 0.34
0.48 0.37 0.30
0.45 0.34 0.27
0.42 0.31 0.25
% DN =100%
0.74 0.74 0.74
0.64 0.62 0.61
0.56 0.53 0.50
0.49 0.45 0.42
0.44 0.39 0.36
0.39 0.35 0.31
0.35 0.31 0.27
0.32 0.28 0.24
0.29 0.25 0.21
0.27 0.23 0.19
0.25 0.21 0.17
Eh ;
Industrial, white enamel reflector, 20% up
0.77 0.67 0.60
0.70 0.59 0.51
0.64 0.53 0.45
0.59 0.47 0.39
0.51 0.39 0.31
EFF =86.9%
-
0.87
0.72
0.59
0.49
0.41
0.35
0.31
0.27
0.24
0.21
0.19
-
1.01 1.01 1.01
0.92 0.88 0.84
0.83 0.76 0.70
0.75 0.66 0.59
0.68 0.58 0.51
0.63 0.52 0.44
0.58 0.47 0.39
0.53 0.42 0.35
0.50 0.38 0.31
0.46 0.35 0.28
0.43 0.32 0.25
0.85 0.78 0.72
0.77 0.68 0.60
0.70 0.60 0.52
0.65 0.53 0.45
0.59 0.47 0.39
0.55 0.43 0.35
0.51 0.39 0.31
0.48 0.36 0.28
EFF =89.3%
Industrial, white enamel reflector, down only
% DN =86.4%
0.92
0.75
0.62
0.52
0.45
0.39
0.34
0.30
0.27
0.25
0.22
2-Lamp bare strip
Lamp =(3) F32T8
SC (along, across, 45') =1.3, 1.6, 1.6 EFF =72.7% % DN =100 %UP=O
0.74 0.73
0.66 0.65
0.58 0.57
0.51 0.49
0.44 0.43
0.39 0.38
0.35 0.33
0.31 0.30
0.28 0.27
0.25 0.24
! 0.23 0.22
0.81 0.81 0.81
0.74 0.72 0.70
0.66 0.63 0.61
0.60 0.56 0.52
0.54 0.49 0.46
0.48 0.44 0.40
0.44 0.39 0.35
0.40 0.35 0.31
' 0.37 0.32 0.28
0.34 0.29 0.25
0.31 0.26 0.23
0.77 0.77
0.71 0.69
0.64 0.61
0.58 0.54
0.52 0.48
0.47 0.43
0.43 0.38
0.39 0.35
0.36 0.31
0.33 0.29
0.31 0.26
0.77
0.68
0.59
0.52
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.31
0.28
0.25
0.23
0.74 0.74
0.68 0.67
0.62 0.60
0.56 0.53
0.51 0.47
0.46 0.42
0.42 0.38
0.38 0.34
0.35 0.31
0.32 0.28
0.30 0.26
0.85 0.85 0.85
0.79 0.77 0.74
0.73 0.69 0.65
0.68 0.62 0.57
0.62 0.55 0.50
0.58 0.50 0.44
0.53 0.45 0.40
0.50 0.41 0.36
0.46 0.38 0.32
0.43 0.35 0.29
0.40 0.32 0.27
2 x 4, 3-Lamp parabolic troffer with 3 semi-spec.
louvers, 18 cells
Lamp =(3) F40T12
SC (along, across, 45') =1.3, 1.6, 1.5 %DN=100 %UP=O EFF =66.2%
0.63 0.58 0.53
0.59 0.52 0.47
0.54 0.47 0.42
0.50 0.43 0.37
0.47 0.39 0.33
0.44 0.35 0.30
0.41 0.33 0.27
-
0.70
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.48
0.44
0.40
0.36
0.33
0.31
0.28
-
-
0.70
0.64
0.57
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.36
0.32
0.29
0.27
0.24
-
-
0.74
0.66
0.58
0.51
0.46
0.41
0.36
0.33
0.30
0.27
0.25
-
-
0.74
0.64
0.56
0.48
0.42
0.37
0.33
0.30
0.26
0.24
0.22
-
0.77
0.72
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.53
0.49
0.46
0.43
0.40
0.37
-
0.77
0.70
0.63
0.57
0.51
0.46
0.42
0.38
0.35
0.32
0.30
-
2 X 4, 3-Lamp parabolic troffer with 4" semi-spec.
louvers, 18 cells
16
over universal burning position lamps when operated
in the horizontal position. A special base and socket
are required for all of the horizontal burn, high-output,
MH lamps to assure the arc tube is properly posi-
tioned. These lamps should always be used in lumi-
naries equipped with the proper socket.
Because MH arc tubes produce high-energy ultravio-
let radiation, some lamps are manufactured with an
electrical cutout that will automatically extinguish the
lamp if the outer envelope should crack or rupture in a
manner that would normally still allow the arc to oper-
ate. These lamps should be used in locations where it
is necessary to limit UV radiation and where the lumi-
naire will not provide the necessary protection.
Transparent sleeves (shrouds) may be used internal-
ly in some single ended (screw-base) MH lamps for
two reasons. Thin walled shields are used to help
achieve a more uniform arc tube temperature, which
will improve the lamp performance. Heavy walled
shrouds are used on lamps designed for use in open
luminaries. The heavy walled shroud is designed to
contain the hot quartz particles and protect the outer
bulb of the lamp from breaking in the event the arc
tube should fail.
5.2.1.1 Pulse-start and Ceramic Metal halide
Lamps
The choice between metal halide (MH) and high pres-
sure sodium (HPS) high intensity discharge (HID)
lamps was, until recently, a choice between the supe-
rior color of MH (although some MH lamps display
strong color shift near end-of-life) versus the improved
lumen output and longer life of HPS. HPS was fre-
quently the choice. Recently, however, the advent of
pulse-start (high wattage 175W - lOOOW, and low
wattage 35/39W - 150W) and ceramic metal halide
lamps has blurred the line between these choices.
The pulse start lamps have improved starting .times,
some starting as much as three times faster than con-
ventional MH lamps. They also start more reliably,
have better lumen maintenance, improved lamp life,
and reduced restrike times. The cost of a pulse start
metal halide luminaire and lamp may run from 5-10
percent more than a conventional luminaire/lamp
combination but the cost may be easily justified by the
improved performance.
Ceramic metal halide lamps are used when color ren-
dering and color consistency are a priority. They
achieve over 80 CRI by utilizing higher fill pressures
and operating at higher temperatures. They also have
the potential for longer life, with some expected to
achieve significantly higher life ratings, more stable
color, higher lumen output and better lumen deprecia-
tion characteristics than other metal halide lamp
types. This will make these lamps more attractive
choices in some industrial environments. At the time
of publication, ceramic metal halide lamps are avail-
able in ratings from 39 to 400 watts.
Cost may become a determining factor in the choice
between the widening selection of metal halide lamps
and HPS lamps in the short term, but that must be fol-
lowed closely and weighed against the benefits of the
improved characteristics of the MH lamps.
5.2.2 High Pressure Sodium (HPS) Lamps
Most HPS lamps can operate in any position. The
operating position has no significant effect on light
output. Lamps are also available with diffuse coatings
on the inside of the outer bulb to increase source lumi-
nous size or reduce source luminance. A diffuse coat-
ing, however, does not increase the CRI of the lamp.
HPS lamps have high lamp efficacy (lumenshatt), and
long life. They are available in wattages from 35 to 1 O00
watts. The color rendering ability of HPS is not as good
as metal halide lamps. Color improved HPS lamps are
available but at a sacrifice in efficacy and life.
The life of an HPS lamp is limited by a rise in operat-
ing voltage that occurs over the life of the lamp. When
the ballast can no longer supply enough voltage to
reignite the arc during each electrical half-cycle, the
lamp extinguishes. When it cools down, the lamp will
again ignite and warm up until the arc voltage rises so
that the ballast cannot support the arc. This cycling
process occurs until the lamp is replaced. This cycling
can cause annoyance and, more important, a varia-
tion in light output and distribution in a production
area, underlining the need for a planned relamping
program. Cycling also overworks the ignitor, eventual-
ly causing it to fail.
HPS lamps are also available in a double arc tube
configuration with two identical arc tubes contained
within the outer envelope. These arc tubes are con-
nected in parallel inside the lamp, but only one arc
tube is started with the ignitor pulse. In the event of a
momentary power outage, this dual arc tube lamp
restrikes immediately when power is restored. Within
about one minute, the lamp returns to full light output.
5.2.3 Luminaire Selection
Industrial HID luminaries are generally divided into
two categories - High-Bay and Low-Bay. These cate-
gories are not well defined throughout the lighting
industry. Therefore, for the sake of consistency in this
Recommended Practice, they are defined as follows:
17
High-Bay luminaries designed to produce gener-
al illumination in the space where the application
requires a spacing to mounting height ratio of 1 .O
or less and where the mounting height is not less
than 7.6 m (25 fi).
Low-Bay luminaries designed to produce general
illumination in the space where the application
requires a spacing to mounting height ratio greater
than 1.0 and where the mounting height is less
than 7.6 m (25 ft).
These are not rigid rules. Conditions will often dictate
the use of high-bay or low-bay luminaries at mounting
heights that vary from those indicated above.
5.2.3.1 High-Bay Luminaries
These luminaries generally use an HID lamp installed
in a socket mounted below a ballast housed in some
form of metal enclosure. Lumen distribution is con-
trolled by a reflector, or refractor, installed in such a
way that it captures most of the light emitted by the
lamp and directs it in a concentrated pattern down-
ward. The luminaire may have an enclosing plastic or
glass cover attached to the bottom of the reflector or
refractor to enclose the lamp and to protect against
accidental damage. The cover may have a pattern of
prisms to aid in the distribution of light from the lumi-
naire. The luminaire design will usually dictate the use
of either a clear or coated HID lamp, and the proper
lamp selection is critical to the success of the lighting
design. These luminaries may have an adjustable
socket mount to permit relocation of the lamp within
the reflector or refractor. This will allow some field
adjustment of the luminaire distribution to meet spe-
cific condition of the installation. Care must be exer-
cised in positioning the lamp. The lamp socket must
be securely locked into place to ensure the position
will not change during normal luminaire operation.
There are usually openings around the top of the
reflector to permit some of the light to be directed
upward toward the ceiling. Where conditions warrant,
the luminaire may be gasketed to reduce the infiltra-
tion of air-borne contaminants. Several methods have
been developed to filter the air exchange between the
inside of the luminaire and the room. This becomes
more important if the luminaire operating cycle
includes turning the luminaire off daily, which will
accentuate the effects of warming and cooling on this
air exchange.
Designers often recommend luminaire spacing that
provides a strong overlap in the light distribution pat-
tern to mitigate the effects of single lamp burnouts
during the operating life of the system. Installing lumi-
naries having a spacing criterion of 1.0 in a pattern
18
where the luminaries are actually located at approxi-
mately 0.65 times the mounting height will usually pro-
vide the desired overlap. If the luminaries are to be
located closer together than dictated by the luminar-
ies spacing criteria, a spacing adjustment should be
considered when the lighting calculations are per-
formed to assure the proper illuminance and lighting
quality in the final installation.
5.2.3.2 Low-Bay Luminaries
The construction of low-bay luminaries is very similar to
that of high-bay luminaries except the reflectors, or
refractors, of the low-bay units are generally larger in
diameter than the high-bay units and the low-bay units
are usually fitted with a prismatic refractor cover on the
bottom of the luminaire. The refractor will oten drop
down below the reflector to assure good distribution in
a wider pattern. While this will allow a wider spacing cri-
terion and better vertical illuminance, the potential for
glare from the luminaire may increase. Often the larger
diameter of these covers will permit light distribution
over an area great enough to lower the luminance of
the cover to a level acceptable to the occupants.
There have been several successful installations in
high-bay applications where low-bay luminaries were
used to improve the vertical illuminance of the tasks or
to provide greater wall luminance, thereby improving
the quality of the visual environment.
5.2.3.3 Other Luminaire Types
Industrial luminaries are manufactured in various
forms for special purposes. HID luminaries with pris-
matic reflectors or full refractors are available to pro-
duce several distribution patterns: maximum distribu-
tion up, equal distribution up and down, or maximum
distribution down. These can be used effectively in
large spaces with light colored surface finishes to pro-
duce excellent vertical illuminance, good penetration
into hard to light spaces within machinery, and a very
comfortable visual environment.
Fiber optic luminaries and tubular guided illuminators
are useful where light is necessary in spaces having
hazardous atmospheres or in inaccessible locations.
The illuminators can be located in more easily acces-
sible spaces and the light piped into the hazardous
spaces or the difficult to reach locations.
All discharge lamps, fluorescent or HID, have acces-
sory devices called ballasts for starting and stabilizing
operation of the lamp. Detailed information should be
obtained from the ballast manufacturers at the time of
project design because of the rapidly changing lamp
and ballast technology. Specific ballast issues associ-
ated with industrial lighting that may arise in almost
every project are included here.
6.1 Fluorescent Ballast Issues
Advances in solid-state, high frequency ballasts have
improved fluorescent system efficacy and, to some
extent, luminaire light delivery efficiency through
improved performance of smaller diameter lamps.
Fluorescent lamp ballasts are available in a wide
array of choices. The choices for straight! fluorescent
lamps include magnetic, electronic, instant start, rapid
start and dimming ballasts. The following paragraphs
attempt to give guidance in the selection process to
designers, plant operating personnel and contractors.
Factors which may impact on the correct choice of flu-
orescent lamp ballasts include environmental condi-
tions, operating cycle, maintenance conditions, elec-
trical power conditions and utility company require-
ments. It is often in the best interest of an end user to
participate in ballast selection.
Magnetic ballasts have provided the foundation for dis-
charge lamp operation since the first fluorescent and
HID lamps were invented in the middle of the 20th cen-
tury. Electronic ballast development began in the
1980s. Toward the middle of the 1990s, electronic bal-
last technology advanced to the point where the origi-
nal problems were overcome. The drive for improved
energy utilization has fueled a rapid conversion to the
use of electronic ballasts in fluorescent luminaries. As
we move into the 2Ist century, electronic ballasts will be
the preferred fluorescent lamp operating accessory
and it is likely their use will continue to increase.
Over the past several years, to assure proper operat-
ing characteristics for both the lamp and ballast, many
fluorescent lamp manufacturers have either manufac-
tured their own ballasts or formed alliances with ballast
manufacturers to provide warranted lamphallast sys-
tems with system performance guaranteed for some
period of years. It is important that the replacement
lamps used during the maintenance of these systems
be the same as the lamps originally installed to main-
tain the warranted performance. If this can not be
assured, then any lamps substituted for the original
types must be evaluated prior to lamp replacement to
assure system performance will be maintained. The
system warranty may be voided by such replacement.
It must be understood that the fluorescent lamp bal-
last market is in a constant state of development and
it is suggested that manufacturers information be ref-
erenced before a final ballast selection is made.
6.1 .I Ballast Circuitry
Four important characteristics of electronic ballast cir-
cuitry should be noted. These.are ballast factor, power .
factor, crest factor and total harmonic distortion (THD).
Ballast factor provides a measure of the actual lamp
lumen output when operated by the individual ballast
in relation to the lumen output of the lamp when oper-
ated by a reference ballast. In other words, a percent
of the lumens generated in application versus the
lumens listed in the lamp catalog.
Power factor is a measure of how efficiently the bal-
last converts the voltage and current drawn from the
system to usable lamp power.
Lamp Current Crest factor, is a ratio of peak lamp cur-
rent to the root mean square (RMS) lamp current. It is
an indicator of the lamp current wave shape, and is
generally required by lamp manufacturers to be I 1.7
in order to achieve rated lamp life.
Total harmonic distortion (THD) is, in simplified terms, a
measure of the amount by which the electric waveform
is distorted by harmonic currents flowing in the electric
power system lines. This distortion is generated, in
large part, by non-linear electrical loads in a facility. In
North America, the fundamental frequency is 60 Hz, the
second harmonic is 120 Hz, and the third harmonic is
180 Hz, and so forth. For practical purposes, the third
harmonic is usually the only one that will make a signif-
icant contribution and most of the harmonic current in
the neutral of three-phase distribution systems is the
third harmonic. This harmonic current will disturb utility
power generation and, of more interest to the end-user,
increase the current flowing in the neutral of three-
phase distribution systems and, possibly, cause it to
overheat and fail. Switching in modern solid-state elec-
tronic ballasts can cause substantial line-current har-
monics when corrections are not implemented in the
ballast. THD is, therefore, an important component of
the ballast operating effect. The American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) requires electronic ballasts
to have a THD of no more than 32 percent. Most elec-
tronic ballasts sold in North America have THDs in the
range of 5 to 30 percent and, therefore, should present
no problems. There is a likelihood that electronic bal-
lasts with a THD of less than l O percent can cause high
inrush currents upon starting. Switching equipment
installed on such circuits must be capable of withstand-
ing this current. All these ballast characteristics must be
carefully considered for each application.
Finally, it is important to be aware of the lamp holder
(socket) configuration in luminaries using ballasts. A
reputable luminaire manufacturer will select the proper
lamp holder to perform properly with the ballast select-
Typical Industrial Areas in Which
This Sound Level is Appropriate
Average
Ambient Noise
Level of Interior
20-24 dE3 Offices, Control Rooms, Meeting
ed. If a luminaire, originally supplied with
an instant start ballast, is to be refitted
with a rapid start ballast, the lamp holder
MUST be identified as suitable for the
rapid start ballast, or the original lamp
holder should be replaced with a holder
suitable for use with a rapid start ballast.
Ballast manufacturers recommend the
use of knife-edge lamp holders when
using electronic ballasts. High frequency
lamp currents require a better connection
than low frequency magnetic currents.
Sound Level
Rating
A
6.1.2 Electromagnetic Ballasts
Warehouse or Storage Areas 25-30 dB B
Shipping Dock, Equipment
Machine Shops, Foundries,
Rooms, Electrical Vaults, Large
Parts Sub-Assembly
Printing Press Rooms,
31-36 dB C
37 dB or More D
Magnetic ballasts are available in full and reduced
lumen output in both standard and energy saving
types. The ballast must be compatible with the lamps
to be used in the installation. This sounds obvious, but
some energy saving lamps and ballasts will not oper-
ate properly in combination.
All indoor magnetic ballasts (except reactive types,
which should seldom be used) should be Class P.
These ballasts have a thermally activated reclosing
switch to protect the ballast from overtemperature and
tampering and to meet the requirements of the
National Electrical Code (NEC) in the United States.
Electromagnetic ballasts, as well as all other types,
must be effectively grounded to meet code require-
ments. In areas where the ambient temperature may
drop below 10C (50"F), electromagnetic ballasts
selected must be capable of starting and operating
the associated fluorescent lamps at the lowest ambi-
ent temperature expected in the space.
By law, ballasts with PCB capacitors are no longer
permitted in North America.
Sound ratings for electromagnetic ballasts vary
depending on the type of lamps being operated. A bal-
last with the lowest available sound generating char-
acteristics should be selected. This becomes particu-
larly important in locations where added sound from
lamp ballasts may be distracting. In an office or quiet
location in the manufacturing facility, the ballast sound
level should be " A where such a rating is available.
Most T-12, T-1 O, T-8 and smaller diameter lamps not
over 1200 mm (48 in) long will operate on sound level
" A ballasts. Higher power lamp ballasts will generate
more sound with 1500 ma, 2400 mm (96 in) lamp bal-
lasts having a sound rating of "D. Figure 9 indicates
the various ambient sound levels in which the four rat-
ings should be used.
Because they operate at the normal power system
frequency of 60 Hz, electromagnetic ballasts will be
more likely to produce flicker and stroboscopic effects.
20
This can be an annoying and potentially dangerous
characteristic in areas where there is moving machin-
ery. If either of these conditions is a concern, elec-
tronic ballasts should be considered.
The US Department of Energy (DOE) Ballast Rule,
officially adopted in 2000, was designed to raise the
ballast efficacy for ballasts sold in new fluorescent
luminaries by the year 2005, and as replacements in
existing luminaries by the year 2010. A likely result of
this legislation is rapid conversion of most common flu-
orescent ballasts in North America to electronic types.
6.1.3 Electronic Ballasts
Many of the problems encountered with electromag-
netic ballasts are overcome with electronic ballasts.
Along with their positive attributes, electronic ballasts
may also introduce a few problems.
Since electronic ballasts operate at a frequency of 20 to
50 kHz, they will not produce annoying flicker or poten-
tially dangerous stroboscopic effects. The sound rating
for most of these ballasts is "A" and any sound that is
generated is usually at a frequency that cannot be heard
by humans. Electronic ballasts will operate most fluo-
rescent lamps down to temperatures of -1 8C (@ F).
In areas where infra-red control systems are used, the
ballast operating frequency should be separated from
the operating frequencies of these controls, which typi-
cally operate in the band between 3042 kHz, to prevent
ballast generated interference. (Most ballasts manufac-
tured today do operate above 40 kHz.)
Electronic ballasts are available in either instant start
or some version of rapid start configuration.
6.1.4 Instant Start Ballasts
Instant start ballasts are popular because they pro-
vide maximum energy savings and operate lamps in
parallel, which means if one lamp fails, the balance of
the lamps on that ballast will continue to operate.
Instant start ballasts may shotten lamp life in situa-
tions where the lamps are frequently switched on and
off. On circuits that have operating cycles of eight
hours or more, lamp life is essentially the same when
using either instant start or rapid start ballasts.
6.1.5 Rapid Start Ballasts
Rapid start lamp circuits are usually series-wired,
which will extend lamp life for circuits switched often
but cause increased energy consumption compared
with instant start circuits. Therefore, a decision must
be made, based on the operating cycles of the
lamps, which wiring configuration best suits the indi-
vidual needs of the application. There are various
versions of the rapid start ballast circuit; for example
rapid start, programmed rapid start or programmed-
start. Each has specific advantages and the char-
acteristics of each should be considered in the
choice of ballast to be used. Rapid start ballasts,
particularly the "program" modified circuits, will
result in long lamp life regardless of the number of
switching cycles.
6.1.6 Compact Fluorescent Ballasts
Much of the previous discussion of electronic ballasts
also applies to compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) bal-
lasts with the following additional comments.
The CFLs chosen should have four-pin bases. Two-
pin CFLs are preheat lamps with starters and they are
not suitable for use with electronic ballasts.
The electronic ballasts used with these lamps should
have an end-of-life (EOL) circuit built into the ballast to
reduce overheating of broken lamp cathodes and
minimize the potential for lamps melting or cracking at
end of life.
A range of CFLs is available in self-contained, screw
mount base configurations, which can, if space is
available and other conditions of use are met, replace
incandescent lamps in many applications.
Consultation with lamp and luminaire manufacturers
is recommended before these substitutions are made.
Note that power factor may be compromised in uni-
tized magnetic screw-base systems.
6.1.7 Dimming and Two-Level Switching Ballasts
For additional energy savings, and where variable out-
put fluorescent lighting is required, dimming and multi-
level switching systems are available. Dimming ballasts
will dim from 100 percent light output to several lower
levels, such as 50 percent, 10 percent or 1 percent of
full light output. The cost and the compatibility of these
ballasts with various control systems varies, so it is rec-
ommended that a thorough investigation of the needs
and system compatibility be carried out before recom-
mending fluorescent dimming systems. It is also rec-
ommended that lamp warranty and performance infor-
mation be checked with the lamp manufacturer for
lamps used with a particular dimming ballast. Multi-
level switching is available using multiple ballasts in
each luminaire or a single ballast per luminaire
arranged for two level control. Careful investigation is
required before such a system can be employed.
6.1.8 General Ballast Requirements
Figure 10 (see page 22) presents some of the elec-
tronic ballast considerations, and typical data, which
must be evaluated before a final system decision is
made. It is recommended that the specific numeric
values listed be checked against current practice and
equipment availability prior to purchasing.
6.2 High Intensity Discharge Ballast Issues
Ballast Factor should be considered when selecting
HID luminaries. (See Section 6.1.1 .) The specific bal-
last factor of 0.9, 0.95 or occasionally 1.0 must be
used in the calculation process as it directly affects the
initial and maintained light levels from the luminaries
under consideration.
All fluorescent and HID lamps exhibit negative voltage
characteristics; that is, initially the impedance to the
flow of current through the arc tube is high (before the
arc is actually struck) and, as the arc is established in
the lamp, the impedance goes down. Because the
impedance drops so dramatically with the striking of
the arc, an auxiliary device is required in the lamp cir-
cuit to limit the flow of current through the circuit. This
device is the ballast. There are several circuit config-
urations for operating HID lamps. The power loss in
an HID ballast is generally in the range of 5-15 per-
cent. HID lamp ballasts using the autotransformer
type of voltage input have the advantage of wiring
arrangements that allow a tapped primary. This will
permit the manufacturer to use one ballast production
model for several different system voltages. While this
may be of limited value to a final user, it will probably
reduce the cost of production and inventory for the
ballast manufacturer and may translate to a lower
product cost. It may also be useful if the manufactur-
ing facility has several locations on the site, which
may have different voltages, because the tapped bal-
last primary would allow one replacement part to be
used in several different plant locations.
This discussion will concentrate on those ballast cir-
cuits that are most common in industrial lighting appli-
cations. (See Figure 11 .)
21
ANSI / IESNA-RP-7-01
Ballast Ballast Characteristic
TYP
Electro- Sound Rating
Magnetic MinimumLamp Starting Temperature
Recommended Values - Unless mers
are Specified by Lamp Manufacturer
(<=less than; >=greater than)
See Text
10C (50F)
I
Maximum Ballast Case Temperature
Standards Met
I 90C (194F) at Hottest Spot
I UL935; CANICSA-22.2 No 74-92 and
Ballast Factor
Power Factor
Crest Factor
Total Harmonic distortion (THD)
Number of Lamps Operated
654; CBM; NEC; ANSIJEEE 82.1
>85%
>90%
4. 7
<20%
1 or 2 (Vsdly)
Electronic Sound Rating
Minimum Operating Frequency 20,000 Hz
Minimum Lamp Starting Temperature - 1 soc (0F)
Standards Met
<A (Usuaily Much Less)
ANSIAEEE C62.41; FCC Part 18
Figure 11. Typical circuits for operating high intensity discharge lamps.
Circuit Configuration
Ballast Factor
Power Factor
Crest Factor
Total Harmonic distortion (THD)
Number of Lamps Operated
r - - - - _
(EMIRFI); CBM; L; CSA; NEC
Instant Start or Rapid Start
>85% (May be lower for some lamps)
>90%
4. 7
GO%
1,2,3 or 4
Line I Lamp
(a) High power factor reactor mercury lamp
ballast
r-------- 1
I
l I
I
L. - - - - . - - . ----I
Capacitor I \
Voltage L J
I \
a a b a
'\ II
Lamp
Line
(b) High power factor autotransformer
mercury lamp ballast
r-----
1 Core with
Lamp
Line
(c) Constant wattage autotransformer
ballast for mercury lamps or peak-lead
ballast for metal halide lamps
Caoacitor
Series
line
I I
\ I
r - 1
I I
\ I
L J
Lamp
(d) Constant wattage (isolated circuit)
ballast for mercury lamps
(e) Constant current series regulator ballast
for mercury lamps
22
6.2.1 Ignitors 6.2.3 High Pressure Sodium Ballasts
HPS lamp ballasts and pulse-start MH lamp ballasts
differ from mercury vapor and most standard metal
halide ballasts in that they contain an ignitor to provide
the high voltage pulse required to start the lamp. The
range of voltage pulses required to cold start HPS
lamps varies from 2.5 - 4.0 kV. Pulse start metal
halide lamps require about a 3 kV pulse for starting.
The pulse circuit is designed to turn off after the lamp
has successfully started by sensing the drop in open-
circuit lamp voltage.
Instant restarting of hot lamps can be accomplished
by increasing the ignition voltage. Voltage pulses of
10 - 70 kV are usually required to instantly restart a
hot lamp. In most cases, instant restarting is limited to
double-ended lamps because the increased voltage
may result in arc-over between the lead wires, sup-
ports or base contacts in single-ended lamps.
6.2.2 Metal Halide Ballasts
The most common types of ballasts for MH lamps are
Lead-Peaked for lamps over 175 watts and Lag
Regulator (sometimes referred to as HX or HX-
HPF for high power factor ballasts) for lamps rated
less than 175 watts. Lead Peaked ballasts are very
similar to Constant Wattage, Autotransformer (CWA)
ballasts and, in fact, may be referred to as CWA bal-
lasts in some literature. These ballasts provide rela-
tively good voltage regulation and, because they con-
tain a capacitor in series with the lamp, offer good
power factor characteristics. Where supply voltage
regulation is good, it may be possible to use a high
power factor, reactor ballast which is usually less
expensive than the more complex ballasts.
A lag-reactor ballast is essentially a metal core coil (the
reactor) in series with the lamp. As long as the electri-
cal system voltage is within the range of the lamp open
circuit voltage and voltage regulation of the source is
good, these ballasts can be satisfactory and are sim-
ple, small and inexpensive. The disadvantage is these
ballasts have a power factor in the range of 50 percent.
To improve the power factor, a capacitor can be added
across the power leads, which will improve the power
factor to the range of 90-95 percent.
Pulse-start metal halide luminaries require a special
ballast with an ignitor, similar to those used in high
pressure sodium ballasts. The ignitor is used to give
the lamp the additional voltage kick, or pulse, it
requires to start quickly. These luminaries may be use-
ful where it is necessary to have more rapid restart of
the MH lamps following a voltage outage or when the
luminaries are first turned on. (See Section 5.2.2.1 for
more advantages of pulse-start metal halide systems.)
HPS lamps show a rising voltage with rising lamp
wattage. Because of this characteristic, maximum and
minimum lamp voltage and wattage parameters have
been established for HPS lamps (see Figure 12).
Maximum lamp wattage
i I I
. , .
I I I I I I I
i l
A 1 I
r
O 67 84 95101 122 140151
Lamp voltage
Figure 12. Wattage and voltage limits for 400-W high
pressure sodium lamps-HPS Trapezoid.
6.2.3.1 Magnetic Regulator or Constant-Wattage
Autotransformer (CWA) Ballast
CWA ballasts are probably the most common for HPS
lamp operation and consist of a voltage regulating cir-
cuit that feeds a current limiting circuit and an ignitor
pulse generator required to start the HPS lamp. CWA
ballasts provide good wattage regulation over a range
of input voltage changes and good regulation for
changes in lamp wattage. This type is a higher cost
ballast than the reactor or lead circuit ballast and has
higher power losses, but the added costs can often be
justified because of the better lamp performance. A
capacitor is usually included to provide good power
factor correction. As with all auto transformer type bal-
lasts, these may be suitable for use on a range of line
voltage systems.
6.2.3.2 Lag or Reactor Ballast
These ballasts employ a reactor in series with the lamp
designed to keep the operating characteristics of the
lamp within the design trapezoid (see Figure 12). A
starting ignitor is required and there is usually a power
factor correcting capacitor added across the line or the
primaty transformer winding. These ballasts provide
good wattage regulation for lamp voltage swings but
poor regulation if the line voltage varies more than 5
percent. These ballasts are the least costly HPS bal-
lasts and have the lowest power losses.
23
6.2.3.3 Lead Circuit Ballast
These HPS ballasts have a combination of induc-
tance and capacitance in the lamp circuit. They
decrease lamp current as the lamp voltage rises to
keep lamp operation within the trapezoid. These bal-
lasts provide wattage regulation for changes in both
lamp wattage and line voltage of no more than 1 O per-
cent. This ballast type is intermediate in cost and
power loss.
6.2.4 Other HID Ballasts
There are other types of HID ballasts available.
Among them are dimming ballasts and two-level
switching ballasts (to allow selecting between two
lamp lumen outputs without extinguishing the lamp).
The designer should contact manufacturers for further
information since the products available are develop-
ing and the information changes rapidly.
HID ballasts used in industrial lighting can be differen-
tiated by their lamp wattage regulation capabilities.
Depending on the ballast type used, the lamp wattage
can change as much as 2.5 percent.for each one per-
cent change in line voltage. The best regulation bal-
lasts available maintain lamp wattage to within a
range of less than one percent for each one percent
of line voltage change.
HID lamps have poor lagging power factor, which can
be expressed as relatively high line current for the
power load involved. Generally, the presence of a
power factor correction capacitor in the ballast circuit
solves this problem. Additionally, high pressure sodi-
um systems, even with capacitors present, lose their
power factor correction as the lamp ages. This is
because lamp impedance changes with age, while
the ballast electrical characteristics remain the same.
For specific detailed information on all types, always
consult manufacturers ballast data.
7.0 DISTRIBUTION MODES
7.1 General Luminaire Characteristics and
Performance
Industrial lighting luminaries include a range of types,
housing incandescent, fluorescent and HID light
sources. There are applications in industrial facilities
for all of the above and for other specialized lighting
equipment such as light emitting diode (LED), fiber
optic, stroboscopic luminaries and more. This docu-
ment will investigate only those general lighting lumi-
naries commonly found in industrial environments,
including luminaries using fluorescent and HID lamps.
For applications of other, more specialized luminaries
in industry, refer to manufacturers publications that
address those luminaries and applications.
7.2 Operating Considerations
Industrial luminaries must operate reliably in some-
times hostile environments. It is rare in industry to find
locations where the space is conditioned and the
mounting is as uncomplicated as recessed luminaries
in a tee-bar ceiling. When those conditions do pre-
vail, the same luminaire installations found in offices
will often work. In many locations in the modern fac-
tory, there is minimal environmental control.
Therefore, the luminaries must be capable of with-
standing the ambient environmental conditions.
7.2.1 Electrical
The lighting specifier must know the electrical charac-
teristics of the building to properly select the luminaire
operating voltage. If incandescent lamps are used in
any part of the building, it is necessary to provide a
voltage compatible with the lamps used. In the case of
fluorescent or HID systems, where a ballast provides
the lamp voltage, the operating line voltage to the bal-
last is the designers critical consideration. The length
of the wiring runs from the lighting panelboard to the
farthest luminaire on the circuit can impact voltage
selection. Wire length and size must be matched to the
circuit lighting load to ensure that the last luminaire on
the circuit will have suitable operating voltage. Voltage
selection must also comply with the applicable electri-
cal code requirements for maximum voltage to be
used for luminaries at the prevailing mounting height.
7.3 Luminaire classifications
Luminaries are complete lighting units connecting
lamp(s) and ballast(s) together with the parts
designed to distribute the light, to position and protect
the lamp, and to connect the lamps to the power sup-
ply. A common form of classification organizes lumi-
naries into three application areas: residential, com-
mercial and industrial. Within each application,
source, mounting and construction, e.g., high-bay
suspended metal halide lamp types, further classify
luminaries. Another form of classification uses the
luminaire intensity distribution. Chapter 7 in the
IESNA Lighting Handbook, 9th Edition, describes the
various classifications in detail. The International
Commission on Illumination (CIE) provides a classifi-
cation system based on the proportion of upward and
downward directed light output. This system is usual-
ly applied to indoor luminaries:
0 Direct lighting - 90 to 100 percent of output
downward
24
0 Semidirect lighting - 60 to 90 percent of output
General diffuse lighting - downward and upward
0 Semi-indirect lighting - 60 to 90 percent of out-
Indirect lighting - 90 to 100 percent of output
downward
components of light about equal
put upward
upward
Most industrial applications require luminaries
designed for a direct or semidirect light distribution.
Luminaries with an upward component of light, usually
1 O to 30 percent, are preferred for most areas, because
lighting the ceiling or upper structure reduces lumi-
nance ratios between luminaries and the background.
The upward light reduces the perception of glare from
the luminaries, mitigates the dungeoneffect of totally
direct lighting, and creates a more comfortable and
cheerful environment. Industrial luminaries for fluores-
cent, HID and incandescent lamps are available with
upward components. Good luminance relationships
can be achieved with direct lighting equipment if the illu-
minances and room surface reflectances are high and
if all components of the space have been carefully posi-
tioned (see Figure 13 (a) and (b), color insert).
Factors that lead to more comfortable and effective
industrial lighting applications include:
Light-colored finishes on the outside of luminar-
ies to reduce luminance ratios between the out-
side of the luminaries and the inner reflecting
surface and light source.
0 Higher mounting heights to raise luminaries out
of the normal field of view.
0 Better shielding of the light source by deeper
reflectors, cross baffles, louvers, or well-designed
diffusers. This is particularly important with high-
wattage incandescent or HID sources and very
bright smaller-diameter fluorescent lamps.
0 Selection of luminaries that contain specular or
non-specular aluminum or prismatic configured
glass or plastic for light control, so that luminaire
luminance in the viewing zone can be limited.
0 Top and bottom openings in luminaries, which
generally minimize dirt collection on the reflector
and lamp by allowing convective air circulation
to move dirt particles upward, through, and out
the luminaire. Ventilated types of luminaries
have proved their ability to reduce maintenance
of fluorescent, HID and incandescent types of
luminaries. Gasketed, dust-tight and dirt- and
moisture-resistant luminaries are also effective
in minimizing dirt collection on reflector surfaces.
Even gasketed luminaries, no matter how effec-
tive the gasket seal, have an exchange of air
between the ambient environment and the
inside of the luminaire. For particularly dirty
areas, there are luminaries available that are fit-
ted with various types of filters that allow the
luminaire to breatheand still control the accu-
mulation of dirt and contaminants on the inner
surfaces of the luminaire. These luminaries
should be carefully evaluated for effectiveness
against the contaminated air in the application
area in order to justify the added expense of fil-
tered luminaries.
Direct Lighting Equipment-Luminaries that direct 90 to
100 percent of their lumen output downward form a
direct lighting system. Distributions of direct lighting
equipment vary from hidespread to highly concen-
trated. The widespread distribution types include dif-
fuse and diff use-specular white reflecting surfaces.
Aluminum, mirrored glass, prismatic glass, and other
similar materials may be used to provide a wide distri-
bution when the reflector is designed with the proper
contour. Also, this type of light distribution is advanta-
geous in industrial applications where mounting
heights are relatively low or where a large number of
the visual tasks are vertical or nearly vertical. Highly
concentrated distributions are obtained with prismatic
glass, mirrored glass and aluminum reflectors. In addi-
tion, this type of light distribution is useful where the
mounting height is approximately equal to, or greater
than, the width of the room, or where tall machinery or
processing equipment necessitate directional control
for efficient illumination between the equipment. This
type of distribution produces relatively high horizontal
illuminance in proportion to the vertical illuminance,
and so may require the use of supplementary lighting
when vertical illuminance is required on the visual task.
In making a choice between widespread and highly
concentrated equipment on the basis of horizontal illu-
minance, a comparison of coefficients of utilization and
spacing criteria for the actual room conditions serves
as a guide in selecting the most effective distribution.
The coefficients of utilization should be based on the
best estimate of the actual ceiling, wall and floor
reflectances as well as actual room proportions.
However, if it is desired to determine illuminances at a
specific location or task orientation, then a point calcu-
lation method should be used. This is particularly true
for luminaries at high mounting heights.
Other Types of Direct Lighting Equipment-Where a
low-brightness luminaire is required, a large-area Iow-
luminance luminaire should be used; for example a
diffusing panel placed on a standard type of fluores-
cent reflector, an indirect light hood or a completely
luminous ceiling.
25
Semidirect Lighting Equipment-This classification of
distribution is useful in industrial areas because the
upward component (1 O to 40 percent) is particularly
effective in creating more comfortable seeing condi-
tions. A variety of fluorescent and HID luminaries with
this distribution are available and designed specifically
for industrial applications. While the semi-direct type of
distribution has a sufficient upward component to illu-
minate the ceiling, the downward component of 60 to
90 percent of the output contributes to good efficiency,
particularly where occasional ceiling obstructions may
lessen the effectiveness of the indirect component.
Industrial Applications of Other Distribution
Classifications-The general diffuse, semi-indirect, and
indirect systems are suitable for industrial applications
where a superior quality of diffused, low-luminance
illumination is required and where environmental con-
ditions make such systems practical. An example of
such an application is the precision manufacturing
industry where there is a need for a completely con-
trolled environment including lighting and air condi-
tioning. Room suhace reflectances (initial and main-
tained) are important in the application of these light-
ing systems to ensure proper illuminance from the
system throughout its life.
8.0 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION FEATURES THAT
NAIRE PLACEMENT
INFLUENCE LUMINAIRE SELECTION AND LUMI-
Mounting of luminaries must conform to the building
structure. Industrial luminaries are usually designed to
be mounted to the surface of the structure or sus-
pended by a hanging device. l he skeletal framework
used in the construction of industrial buildings forms
interior subspaces called bays. The selection of lumi-
naries, based upon their spacing criteria, is strongly
influenced by the height of the bay. For this reason,
industrial buildings are described as having low-bay
and high-bay areas (see Figure 14).
Many modern industrial assembly buildings involve
steel member construction with an outer shell or tilt-
up concrete wall construction. The economies of this
kind of project generally require a single floor building
(and maybe a mezzanine) spread out generously
over the site. This type of building may have a mixture
of high-bay and low-bay areas.
There are certain types of structures, particularly in
metals material producing and fabrication (stamping
and forging), where large machines and overhead
cranes are involved and where mounting heights can
often exceed 15m (50 ft). l he combination of low
room cavity ratios and dirty environmental conditions
26
\
Figure 14. This plant has a variation in height
between high bay in the foreground and low bay at
the rear of the assembly area. (Photo courtesy of
Ruud Lighting.)
may require luminaries with narrow distributions.
Closely spaced high-bay luminaries are required
where the light is needed at or near floor level.
Since the structure of the building is a convenient
location for power distribution, the structural bay often
influences the luminaire pattern. This can either be in
terms of the spacing module of the main structure,
which sets a minimum spacing, or the secondary hor-
izontal members like purlins, which are used to sup-
port the power distribution system and may also
establish a set quantity of luminaries in each bay.
Either way, the luminaire spacing may be determined
by the structure. It is common to adjust the number of
luminaries installed in a space to allow for a some-
what regular luminaire pattern that will compliment the
structural building array. This approach is practical as
long as the adjustment in the number of installed lumi-
naries does not vary from the number required to
achieve the designed illuminance, light distribution
and lighting quality by more than 1 O percent. Lighting
designers, then, must fine-tune their designs with
respect to the target illuminance levels.
Luminaries that are properly designed to operate
under the expected shock conditions should be
installed in building locations where there is a proba-
bility of high levels of vibration. The luminaire mount-
ing must be carefully designed to accommodate the
vibration. Accessories that are useful for these appli-
cations include spring mounting devices, lamp retain-
ers to prevent lamps from vibrating out of the lamp
holders, and safety chains to prevent the luminaire
from vibrating loose and falling to the floor.
9.0 LIGHTING SYSTEM ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Good lighting must be responsive to the needs of the
owner. Lighting systems must provide a lighted envi-
ronment that allows workers to perform at the highest
possible level, satisfy the aesthetic needs of the occu-
pants, and must operate economically. Economical
should not be confused with cheapor even lowest
first cost. The lighting system that provides the lowest
installed cost may result in poor worker performance,
which leads to unacceptably high labor costs. Or, it
may not provide a lighted environment to allow the
workers to perform at a level that will allow the com-
pany to be as profitable as it should be. An economi-
cal lighting system is one which, when the first cost,
operating cost, and system performance are all con-
sidered, provides the greatest practical benefits for
the least total cost. This description of economical is
often termed cost-effective.
The IESNA considers economic analysis to be a two
level process. First-level provides a quick and inex-
pensive means of determining the costs of two, or
more, lighting systems, relative to each other. While
the cost to provide a first-level analysis may be low,
the results are more subject to error than a more com-
plete analysis would be and the longer the time frame
under consideration in the study, the greater the
potential for error. Second-level economic studies
take into consideration many more conditions than
first cost, such as operating cost, maintenance, and
time cost of money. These also require a great deal
more time to complete. The first decision that must be
made is the level of confidence required and the
acceptable study cost for the numbers coming out of
the economic analysis.
After this has been determined, the study level can be
established.
First-Level Analysis: First-level analysis requires rela-
tively simple calculations that can usually be per-
formed by hand calculation methods and do not
require the use of a computer program. Because
these methods do not take into consideration the time
value of money and do not usually provide the means
to evaluate various maintenance and operating condi-
tions, they yield only crude numbers, which may be
valid for only a short time after the initial installation is
completed. One way to determine if a first-level analy-
sis is adequate is to answer the question what is the
cost of a wrong answer?
Probably the most common type of first-level analysis
is the Simple Payback method. This method is
designed to answer the question how long will it take
to recover the initial lighting system cost? This is
determined in the simple payback method by the for-
mula:
Equation 1
simple payback = incremental investment
In this equation, the incremental investment is the
difference in the first (or installed) cost of the two sys-
tems, which are being compared. The incremental
annual cash flow is the difference in the cost of ener-
gy and maintenance (including lamp replacement,
energy cost, repair or replacement parts and the labor
to accomplish the maintenance) for the two systems
that are being compared. The method can be used to
compare an existing system with a potential replace-
ment system or two systems that are being consid-
ered for a new installation. In addition, the method
may also be used to compare more than two systems
but that may lead to even wider variance of results. A
simple payback result is shown in Figure 15.
Ali first-level economic analysis, such as the simple
payback method, suffer from a lack of consideration of
many important elements of a complete analysis. The
cost of money and equipment lifetimes need to be
considered for a complete economic analysis.
incremental annual cash flow
There are other first-level methods of analysis avail-
able if such a study will provide the necessary infor-
mation. Simple Rate ofeturn is the inverse of Simple
Payback, giving a simplified rate of return for the sys-
tems with the lower total costs. However, it suffers
from the same problems of the Simple Payback
method. The popular Cost of Light considers the cost
per lumen for two different lighting systems by com-
paring the owning and operating costs for each.
All of these systems have shortcomings if the real
need is a complete economic analysis. The better
solution, if more exact data is required, is to run a sec-
ond-level analysis that will include many of the critical
elements not included in the first-level analysis.
Second-Level Analysis: The distinguishing feature of
all second-level economic analysis methods is the
inclusion of the time value of money. Additionally,
these methods allow extending the period of the
analysis over many more years than is possible with
a first-level analysis, often considering the costs for
periods of twenty years. If a second-level analysis is
required, quite often the end users financial depart-
27
Systems Initial Incremental Additional
Investment Change Annualized
(in $000) (in $000) costs
(in $000)
Base System 110 NIA 20
Alternate Sys. 2 130 . 20 13
Alternate Sys. 3 140 30 21
Alternate Sys. 1 120 10 17
Annual Simple
System Payback
Savings (in years)
(in $000)
NIA NIA
3 3.33
7 2.86
-1 No
Payback
Where the following definitions apply:
Column Heading
System
Initial Investment
Information Contained in Column
A listing of the number and description of each of the systems to be compared
The initial installed cost of each of the installed systems in thousands of
dollars ($000)
Incremental Change
from Base (in $000)
Incremental change in the initial installed cost of the alternate systems vs. the
base system
Additional Annualized
Cost (in $000)
The annual cost of operating and maintaining the system (energy, lamps,
repairs, labor, etc.)
Annual Savings
(in $000)
The difference between the annualized cost of the base system and the
annualized cost of each of the alternate systems (minus sign {-}indicates
alternate system costs more /year to operate than base system)
Simple Payback .
(in years)
The number of years it will take to return the initial added investment in each
of the alternate systems
Note that Alternate System 3 will never pay back the added initial investment cost because it costs more to
operate Alternate 3 than it does the Base System.
ment or advisor will determine the calculation proce-
dure and values to be used. The information in this
section is provided to give the reader a general
overview of the information that may be required for
second-level economic studies.
The lighting and associated mechanical system infor-
mation required to perform a second-level analysis is
more comprehensive than required for first-level analy-
sis. The information required for second-level analysis
may include the following (see box top of next page):
In addition to these considerations, there are system
costs associated with environmental issues such as
hazardous waste disposal in the lighting system com-
ponents that must be considered.
Once all of the necessary information has been gath-
ered, the costs can be converted to equivalent annu-
al costs for each of the systems under consideration.
28
A decision must then be made as to whether the study
should be performed in terms of present value or
future value and an interest rate (or opportunity rate,
a term often used by financial professionals) must be
selected. The cost is usually provided in consultation
with the owners financial advisors.
There are many methods that the second-level eco-
nomic analysis may take - Saving Investment Ratio,
Internal Rate of Return, Net Present Value or, the
most common method, Life Cycle Cost/Benefit
Analysis. The actual method of economic analysis
must be determined between the lighting system
designer and the financial advisors. The calculation
method for second-level economic analysis is beyond
the scope of this Recommended Practice but further
information is available from IESNA in the document
RP-31-96, Recommended Practice for the Economic
Analysis of Lighting.
Initial System Costs
Lighting system material and labor cost
Total lighting system power wiring cost
Air conditioning to dissipate heat from lighting system (Tons)
1 st cost of air conditioning equipment
Reduction in cost of heating equipment due to heat from
lighting system
Utility incentives (reduced cost due to energy efficient
lighting)
Other first costs
Sales tax on equipment purchase
Salvage value of lighting system at end-of-life
Owning and Operating Costs
Lighting system energy costs
Air conditioning energy costs
Lighting system maintenance costs (lamps, ballasts, labor
to replace & clean, etc.)
Air conditioning operating costs
Heating system operating costs
Other annual costs
Annual insurance costs
Annual property taxes on equipment
Income tax effect (due to depreciation of equipment)
10.0 SPECIAL CONSIDERATION FACTORS
10.1 Lighting and Space Conditioning
The heat from lighting equipment is heat that is added
to the normal space heating. For some manufacturing
spaces, this heat must be considered as part of the
cooling load. By using the lighting system as a return
air path, or returning air from locations where the light-
ing is located, lighting heat can be exhausted before it
affects cooling. Whether this happens as described
depends on the type of HVAC system and how the
particular space is heated and cooled. Conversely,
lighting heat can be used for comfort heating in loca-
tions where it is required.
10.2 Classified Areas
Classified Areas are where flammable gas or vapors
or combustible dust or easily ignitable flyings or fibers
are or can be present. (See Figure 16, color insert.)
These are defined in the National Electric Code
(NEC) in the United States in terms of Classes (gas,
dust) and Divisions, which define the conditions and
manner in which the material is present. The National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) defines the haz-
ardous nature of the space and the requirements for
luminaries suitable for application in classified areas.
The designer should check with the insurance carrier
for the industrial site to determine the exact Class and
Division for individual areas.
Hazardous Gas Normally Present (Class 1, Division 1)
A considerable focus is placed on external or internal
temperatures, or 7-number of the luminaire. Internal
temperature is usually the hot spot temperature of the
lamp envelope. In the case of hazardous gases, the
limiting temperature is on the exterior luminaire sur-
face if the hazardous material is normally present in
quantities cuff icient to produce ignitable mixtures
(Division 1). The 7-number of the lighting equipment
must always be less than the flash point temperature
of the hazardous material in the area.
Hazardous Gas Not Normally Present (Class 1,
Division 2)
If the gaseous material is not normally present
(Division 2), the limiting temperature is internal to the
luminaire, usually the lamp envelope hot spot.
Hazardous Dust Normally Present (Class 2, Division
1); Hazardous Dust Not Normally Present (Class 2,
Division 2), and Fibers and Flyings (Class 3, Division
1 and2)
The limiting temperature is on the exterior of the lumi-
naire.
A third party, such as an independent testing laborato-
ry, usually listsa specific luminaire as being suitable
for classified environment and allows the luminaire
manufacturer to apply a label indicating suitability.
Typically these are large red labels. The two most com-
mon mistakes in classified lighting applications are:
1. An area is defined incorrectly as being hazardous
or a specific luminaire or rating is erroneously
declared suitable for a specifically rated area.
2. An applied luminaire rating has critical tempera-
tures that are too high with regard to the auto-igni-
tion temperature of the hazardous material or rating
category present.
The classified label may say that it is suitable for
Class I, Division 2 applications. But it is the tempera-
ture for each wattage rating that determines whether
that luminaire can be applied based on the auto-igni-
tion temperature of the substance present.
The typical Class 1, Division 1 luminaire has a ballast
compartment and a heat resistant tempered glass lamp
enclosure. Configured this way the luminaire has almost
the same optical characteristics as the bare lamp.
29
Utilization can be materially improved with classified
location luminaries by using optical refractors or extemal
reflector accessories available from the manufacturer.
10.3 High Humidity or Corrosive Atmospheres
High humidity or corrosive atmospheres are likely to be
present in at least some areas in a typical plant. Further,
outdoor lighting locations may be exposed to rain, snow,
fog, wind, high humidity and salt-laden sea air.
The usual methods to protect against these atmos-
pheres include the use of materials that resist corro-
sion, special surface preparations and corrosion resis-
tant coatings or paint such as epoxy, polyester or
polyvinyl chloride. In addition, robust modes of paint
application such as electro-static coating or powder
coating may be used. Luminaries that have non-metal-
lic outer housings are also available. Some luminaries
for classified locations are constructed in a manner
that makes them suitable for high-corrosion areas.
In the future, fiber-optics-based systems may find more
application in classified and high corrosive areas
because both the heat source and the material subject to
corrosive attack are effectively removed from the space.
10.4 High Ambient Temperatures
Abnormally high ambient temperatures are often pre-
sent in industrial applications, especially near the ceil-
ing where the luminaries are installed. Industrial lumi-
naries are available with ratings for ambient tempera-
ture conditions of 40" C, 55" C and 65" C (1 04" F, 131"
F, 149" F). The temperature rating of the selected lumi-
naire is important and should be at least as high as the
temperature in which it is to operate during the
warmest season of the year. The limiting factor can be
any of several components within the luminaire. If the
limiter is a ballast component, the ballast housing may
often be remotely mounted in a cooler location.
Except for ignitor-start lamps (high pressure sodium
and pulse-start metal halide), the only distance limita-
tion to remote ballast location is the wire gauge. This
is sized for the distance, according to the ballast man-
ufacturer's recommendation, to hold voltage drops to
a comfortable minimum.
With any system that has a pulse-igniter, the maximum
distance the ignitor can be removed from the lamp is
limited. In some cases the igniter can be placed in a
compartment that has suitable heat sinking and
remain with the optical portion of the luminaire (the
other heat-sensitive components can be mounted
remotely). Otherwise, a "long range ignitor" should be
used to increase the remote distance. The ballast
manufacturer should be consulted for exact limitations.
10.5 Low Ambient Temperatures
Abnormally low ambient temperatures are usually
found in commercial food processing and distribution
facilities. Temperatures become an issue if they are
below 10" C (50F) for fluorescent lamps, and -29" C
(-20" F) for HID lamps. Fluorescent systems general-
ly require a ballast for low temperature starting if the
ambient temperature is lower than 10" C (50" F) for
standard lamps and -18" C (Oo F) for 800 ma and
1500 ma lamps. At temperatures less than 20" C (68"
F) fluorescent lamps stabilize at rated watts but at less
than rated lumens. Enclosing the bulb-wall, either with
a plastic sleeve or an enclosed optical area, will
improve the lumen output. Depending on the type of
enclosure and the ambient conditions, the lamp or
lamps may heat up the enclosure to normal operating
temperature to produce rated lamp lumens.
Most ignitor-start HID ballasts are rated to start a lamp
(pulse-start metal halide or high pressure sodium) in
temperatures to -40" C (-40F). Temperatures below
this require auxiliary incandescent sources, which warm
up the interior of the luminaire until the HID lamp starts.
These are usually coupled with a relay, which tums off
the incandescent source when the HID lamp starts.
10.6 Clean Rooms
Clean room lighting uses entirely different luminaries
than other industrial environments. Clean rooms are
sealed, controlled environments designed to eliminate
microscopic particles of a specified size. The particle
may be dirt, which at a certain size (usually measured
in microns) causes quality problems of the manufac-
tured product, such as a silicon chip. The particle
could also be an organism, such as a microbe that
must be eliminated from an operating room. The
Institute of Environmental Sciences (IES) categorizes
generic clean rooms by a series of classifications
based upon the number of micron particles found in a
cubic foot of air inside the room. The categories start
at 100,000 parts per cubic foot and get cleaner by fac-
tors of ten. Class 10,000, class 1,000, class 1 O0 and
class 10 Clean Rooms are all defined by this organi-
zation. Quite often, class 100 clean rooms are found
inside class 1.000 clean rooms.
Clean room structure usually includes t-grid ceilings of
a type not found outside this application. The t-grid is'
of a larger cross-section, such as 1 ?" or 2 wide and
is always gasketed in some fashion. Many of these
ceilings are made for walking upon so that the fixtures
and High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters can
be serviced from above.
There are four main types of luminaries used in clean-
rooms:
30
Gasketed recessed (troffer) fluorescent
Tear-drop surface fluorescent
Flow-thru recessed fluorescent
Recessed T5 fluorescent integral to the T-grid
Gasketed recessed fluorescent luminaries are usual-
ly used in the class 100,000 and class 10,000 spaces,
and the other three types are used as more and more
of the grid-spaces are taken up with filters and cannot
be occupied with luminaries.
In most of these construction styles, the important
issues are that gasketing seals the room from the out-
side environment and that the outside surfaces are
smooth and cleanable. Prismatic lenses, for example
normally are installed prisms-up to present a smooth
surface to the space.
10.7 Food and Drug Processing
Food and drug processing areas generally have addi-
tional requirements for construction and materials
used in the luminaire. The requirements are docu-
mented by sanitation-regulating entities, such as the
National Sanitary Foundation (NSF) or the US
Department of Agriculture (USDA), and can classify
different sections of the food processing area by the
proximity of the luminaire to the food. Some classifi-
cations call for smooth exterior surfaces to eliminate
areas for particle accumulation or bacterial growth.
One constant is that glass cannot be exposed. This
means that open-lamp and glass-enclosed luminaries
are not suitable. In many food processing areas,
scheduled pressure washing is required and therefore
luminaries must be gasketed to withstand washing.
Each facilitys pressure washing equipment is differ-
ent, producing different pressure and flow rates. This
information should be obtained from the plant engi-
neering office and luminaire capabilities matched to it.
Paint is required to be non-toxic and environmentally
neutral, in case it chips or flakes off. Unfinished stain-
less steel luminaries are popular in the extremes of
this type of application.
The color rendering properties of light sources used in
food inspection areas are important when examina-
tion is based on color appearance. (See Section 3.8.)
11 .O GENERAL LIGHTING
General lighting is intended to provide substantially
uniform illumination throughout an area, exclusive of
any provision for special local requirements. Uniform
illuminance is the distribution of light such that the
maximum and minimum illuminance at any point is
not more than one-sixth above or below the average
level. There may be perceptible differences in illumi-
nance if suggested spacing criteria values are
exceeded. Recommended luminaire spacings can be
determined from published spacing criteria. When cal-
culating values such as uniformity and average light
levels for general lighting the grid spacings should be
sufficiently small to give accurate values.
Production functions situated close to walls should
have a general illuminance comparable to that in the
central area. The distance between the wall and the
adjacent luminaries should not exceed one-half the
spacing between those in the central area. Closer
spacing is often preferred.
General lighting defined by the building structure may
not be adequate for some difficult visual tasks or situ-
ations where there are obstructions. Here, supple-
mentary task lighting may be necessary.
One design approach is to provide general lighting for
circulation, safety or simple visual tasks, with the addi-
tion of supplementary lighting directly adjacent to an
assembly line, workbench or inspection area.
12.0 SUPPLEMENTARY TASK LIGHTING
Difficult visual tasks, such as inspection, often require
a specific quality and quantity of light that cannot read-
ily be obtained by general lighting methods.
Supplementary luminaries are often used to:
o provide higher illuminances
o direct attention on small or restricted areas
o achieve a certain luminance
o provide a specific color rendition
o permit special aiming or positioning of light
o reveal the details of the visual task.
sources to produce/avoid highlights or shadows
The specific requirement of each visual task need to
be evaluated before supplementary task lighting can
be specified. Simply adding lighting at the task with no
consideration for the light reflecting or transmitting
characteristics of the object(s) observed will be inef-
fective. An improvement in the visibility of the task will
depend upon improvement of one or more of the four
fundamental visibility factors - luminance, contrast
(chromatic or achromatic), size and time.
The planning of supplementary task lighting also
requires consideration of the visual comfort of work-
ers performing the task and other workers in the
immediate area. Supplementary equipment must be
carefully shielded to prevent glare for the user and
neighboring workers. Luminance ratios should be
31
carefully controlled. Ratios between task and imme-
diate surroundings should be limited, as recom-
mended in Figure 2. To attain these ratios it is nec-
essary to coordinate the design of supplementary
task lighting and general lighting. (See Figure 17 (a)
and (b).)
12.1 Luminaries for Supplementary Task Lighting
Supplementary task lighting luminaries can be divided
into five major types according to candlepower distri-
bution, luminance and other construction features. A
graphic representation of the different types of sup-
plementary lighting is shown in Figure 18.
Figure 18. Typical configurations of supplementary
lighting luminaire types.
Type S-l - Directional. Includes all concentrating lumi-
naries. Examples are reflector or narrow-beam spot
lamps Or units that employ concentrating or colhat-
ing reflectors or lenses. Also included in the group are
concentrating linear units such as a well-shielded flu-
orescent lamp within a concentrating reflector or lens,
or both.
Figure 17. (a) A combination of general and task light-
ing provides uniform illuminance for assembly of elec-
tronic Printers. (Photo Courtesy of Genlytmhomas.)
Type S-Il - Spread, High-Luminance. Includes
small-area sources, such as incandescent, tungsten-
halogen or high-intensity discharge. An open-bottom
luminaire that has a deep-bowl reflector with a diffuse
reflecting surface is an example of this type.
Type S-Ill - Spread, Moderate-Luminance. Includes all
fluorescent luminaries having a variance in luminance
greater than 2:l across the light-emitting surface.
Type S-IV - Unifonn-Luminance. Includes all lighting
units having less than 2:l luminance variance across
the light-emitting surface. Usually this luminance is less
than 6800 cd/m2. An example of this type is a group of
fluorescent lamps behind a diffusing panel, or con-
cealed fluorescent lamps producing a linear arrange-
ment of reflected light on a diffuse reflective surface.
Type S-V - Uniform-Luminance with Pattern. Includes
all units described in Type S-IV except that a pattern
of stripes is superimposed over the lighted image. An
example of this is a group of bare fluorescent lamps,
arranged in a regular, directional spacing, with a black
background or non-reflective surface between the
lamps. This unit is used to project a precise series of
high-contrast lines across the surface of the task or
the object being inspected.
12.2 Portable Luminaries
Wherever possible, supplementary luminaries should
be permanently mounted in the location where they
can produce the best lighting effect and maintenance
32
Figure 17. (b) and for computer workstations in a pro-
duction area (Photo courtesy of Hubbell Lighting.)
afier assembly. Portable equipment, however, can be
used.to good advantage where it must be moved in
and around movable machines or objects, as in air-
plane assembly, or in maintenance operations where
internal surfaces must be viewed. (See Figure 19.)
The luminaries must be mechanically and electrically
rugged to withstand possible rough handling. Lamps
should be guarded and of the rough-service type.
Guards or other means should protect the user from
excessive heat. Precautions, such as the use of
ground fault circuit interrupters for personnel protec-
tion, should be taken to prevent electrical shock, and
electrical connections must be suitable for the service
to which they will be subjected.
f l
Figure 30.
Storage of
materials in
the center
oor area of a
production
facility.
(Photo
courtesy of
Holophane.)
Fiaure 32. Aimable floodlight luminaries. (Photo courtesy of Ruud Lighting.)
Figure 13 (a) and (b).
Light colored surfaces
ensure good lumi-
nance relationships.
Figure 13(a) (Photo courtesy of Holophane.)
Figure 13b
(Photo
courtesy
of Hubbell
Lighting.)
II
Figure 16. Dust-tight luminaries on an outdoor crane assembly.
(Photo courtesy of Phoenix Products Company, Inc.)
Figure 23.
Uniform lighting
is provided for
horizontal work
surfaces in a
packaging area.
(Photo courtesy
Holophane.)
III
Figure 24.
Luminaries
located over
the floor
storage area
provide
horizontal
illuminance for
identification
of product to
be shipped,
while
luminaries
close to the
door openings
provide light
for loading
trailers.
(Photo
courtesy of
Holophane.)
Figure 29. Careful
placement of overhead
luminaries and a built-in
shield over the LCD
display insure that there
are no reflections on the
tilted control panel. (Phc
courtesy of Holophane.)
IV
Figure 19. Small portable luminaries provide local-
ized lighting on the task.
12.3 Classification of Visual Tasks and Lighting
Techniques
Visual tasks requiring supplementary lighting are
unlimited in number but can be classified according
to certain common characteristics. The detail to be
seen in each task group can be emphasized by the
application of certain lighting fundamentals. Figure
20 classifies tasks according to their physical and
light controlling characteristics and suggests lighting
techniques for good visual perception. It should be
noted when using Figure 20 that the classification
of a visual task is based on the task?s characteris-
tics and not on its application. For example, on a
drill press, the visual task is often the discernment
of a punch mark on metal. This could be a specular
detail with a diffuse, dark background, classification
A-3 (b) in Figure 20. Luminaire types S-Il or S-Ill
are recommended. S-Il on an adjustable arm brack-
et may be a practical recommendation when space
is limited. Several luminaire types are applicable for
many visual task classifications, and the best lumi-
naire for a particular job will depend upon physical
limitations, possible locations of luminaries and the
size of the task to be illuminated.
~~ ~ ~~~~~~
13.0 SPECIAL EFFECTS AND TECHNIQUES
13.1 Color Contrast
Color as a part of the seeing task can be effectively
used to improve contrast. While black and white may
be the most desirable combinations for continual
tasks such as reading a book, it has been found that
certain color combinations have a greater attention
value. Black on yellow provides the maximum visual
contrast; and the next combinations in order of prefer-
ence are green on white, red on white, blue on white,
white on blue, and, finally, black on white.
13.2 Inspection Techniques
The color of light can be used to increase contrast by
either intensifying or subduing certain colors inherent
in the seeing task. To intensify a color, the light source
should be strong in that color; to subdue a color the
source should have relatively low spectral power in
that color. For example, it has been found that using a
bluish light such as a daylight fluorescent lamp can
emphasize imperfections in chromium plating over
nickel plating.
Three-dimensional objects are seen in their apparent
shapes because of the shadows and highlights result-
ing from a strong directional component in the incident
light. This directional effect is particularly useful in
emphasizing texture and defects on uneven surfaces.
(See Figure 21 .)
Figure 21.
Directional
lighting
(right)
reveals a
pulled
thread
unseen by
diffuse
lighting
(left.)
Silhouette is an effective means of checking contour
with a standard template. Illumination behind the tem-
plate will show brightness where there is a difference
between the contour of the standard and the object to
be checked.
Fluorescence under ultraviolet radiation is often use-
ful in creating contrast. Surface flaws in metal and
nonporous plastic and ceramic parts can be detected
by the use of fluorescent materials.
The detection of internal strains in glass, lenses, lamp
bulbs and transparent plastics may be facilitated by
transmitted polarized light. The nonuniform spectral
transmittance of strained areas causes the formation of
color fringes that are visible to an inspector. With trans-
parent models of structures and machine parts, it is
possible to analyze strains under operating conditions.
33
Figure 20. Classification of Visual Tasks and Lighting Techniques.
Classification of Example Lighting Technique
Visual Task
General Description Lighting Requirements Luminaire Type Luminaire Location
Characteristics
PART I-FLAT SURFACES
~~~
A.-OPAQUE MATERIAL
1. DIFFUSE DETAIL AND BACKGROUND
a. Unbroken surface Proofreading printed text Prevent direct glare and S-Il or S-Ill
b. Broken surface Scratch on unglazed title Emphasize surface breaks S-l
shadows
At 45" to page, opposite
At grazing angle to surface
viewer
2. SPECULAR DETAIL AND BACKGROUND
a. Unbroken surfaces Dents, warps, uneven Emphasize uneven surface
surfaces
b. Broken surface Scratch, scribe, engraving, Create contrast of cut edge
punch marks against specular surface
mark
c. Specular coating Inspection of finish plating Emphasize unplated surfaces
over specular over specular base
background material
3. COMBINED SPECULAR AND DIFFUSE SURFACES
s-v So image of sourceipattern
is reflected to viewer
S-Ill or S-IV when not Source/pattern is reflected
to viewer and edge or
is dark
image toward viewer
practical to reorient task
S-IV with color of source
selected to create
maximum color contrast
between two coatings
To reflect large, diffuse source
a. Specular detail on
diffuse, light
background
diffuse, dark
background
c. Diffuse detail on
specular light
background
d. Diffuse detail on
specular dark
background
b. Specular detail on
Reflective varnish or foil Produce maximum contrast S-Ill or S-IV
applique on matte paper
stock
dull or dyed metal
without veiling reflections
Punch or scribe marks on Create uniform, bright reflection S-Il or S-Ill
on detail
Graduation marks on a Create uniform, low-brightness S-lll or S-IV
steel scale; reverse print
on a glossy stock background
paint against dark background
reflections in specular
Soapstone marks on black Produce high-brightness detail S-Il or 5-111
Off-center so image of
source does not reflect
directly
So that light reflects from
detail
So that image of source is
reflected toward viewer
So that image of source is
not reflected into view
B. TRANSLUCENT MATERIAL
a. With diffuse surface Frostedetched glass or Visibility of surface detail S-Il or S-Ill
plastic, lightweight
fabrics, hosiery
Visibility of detail within the
Visibility of surface detail
Visibility of detail within the
S-l or S-IV
material
b. With specular Scratch on opal glass or
surface plastic
S-Il, S-ill, or S-IV
material
Treat as opaque, diffuse
surface (see A.l)
Backlight through material
(see Fig. 19-1 5f and n)
Treat as opaque, specular
(see A.2)
Backlight through material
(see Fig. 19-1 5f and n)
C.TRANCPARENT MATERIAL
Clear material with Plate glass; plastic To produce visibility of details S-V and S-I
specular surface glazing sheet within the material, such as
bubbles and details on the
surface, or scratches
and waviness
Transparent materials should
move in front of Type S-V
then in front of black
background with Type S-l
directed to prevent
reflected glare
34
Figure 20 Continued
Visual Task
~
Characteristics
D. TRANSPARENT OVER OPAQUE MATERIAL
a. Transparent ma- Instrument panel Visibility of pointer and scale S-I
terial over diffuse
background from the scale background
without veiling reflections
or cover
the transparent coating or
on the opaque base
material
Emphasize uneven surface
Visibility of detail on or in
transparent material
Varnished desk top Visibility of detail on or in S-IV
S-l b. Transparent ma- Glass mirror
terial over specular
background
Visibility of detail on specular S-IV
background
So reflection of source does
not coincide with the angle
of view (see Fig 19-1 50)
So that image of source and
pattern is not reflected to
the eye (see Fig. 19-15)
So reflection of source does
not coincide with the angle
of view the mirror should
reflect a black background
So that image of source and
pattern is reflected to the
eye (see Fig. 19-1 51)
~
PART Il-THREE-DIMENSIONAL OBJ ECTS
A. OPAQUE MATERIAL
1. Diffuse detail and Dirt, checking, cold-flow or To emphasize detail having S-Ill or S-Il (standard To prevent direct glare and
background blow-holes in castings poor contrast source) shadows (see Fig.
19-15h)
"Black-light" source when To direct ultraviolet
object has a fluorescent
coating to be inspected
radiation to all surfaces
S-l (standard source) To emphasize detail by
means of highlight and
shadow (see Fig. 19-150)
2. Specular detail and background
a. Detail on the Dent on silverware or To emphasize surface s-v To reflect image of source to
surface chrome variation eye (see Fig. 19-159)
To reflect image of source to
over underplating plated of color eye (see Fig. 19-1 59)
b. Detail in the Scratch on watch case To emphasize surface break S-IV To reflect image of source to
eye (see Fig. 19-1 5m)
Inspection of finish plating To show areas not properly S-V plus proper selection
surface
3. Combination Specular and diffuse
a. Specular detail on Scribe marking on casting To make line reflect light over S-Ill or S-Il Adjust in relation to task for
diffuse background dull background best visibility (adjustable
luminaire required)
Overhead to reflect image of
source to.eye (see Fig.
19-1 5j)
b. Diffuse detail on Micrometer scale To create luminous back- S-IV or S-Ill Position with axis normal to
specular ground against which dark axis of micrometer
background scale markings are in high
contrast
contrast to dull
impurities
Coal picking To make coal glitter in S-l or S-Il To prevent direct glare
35
Figure 20 Continued
Visual Task
Characteristics
B.TRANSLUCENT MATERIAL
1. Diffuse surface Lamp shade To show imperfections or S-l
15f)
2. Specular surface Glass enclosing globe To emphasize surface s-v
To check homogeneity s-IV
irregularities in material
irregularities
15n
Behind or within object for
backlighting (see Fig. 19-
Overhead to reflect image of
source to the eye (see Fig.
19-1 5m)
Behind or within object for
backlighting (see Fig. 19-
~~ ~~
C.TRANCPARENT MATERIAL
Clear material with Bottles, glassware empty To emphasize surface irregu- S-l Directed obliquely at objects
specular surface or filled with clear liquid larities
To emphasize cracks, chips, S-IV or S-V Behind or within object for
backlighting (see Fig.
19-1511). Motion of light
source or object helpful
or foreign particles
Successful inspection of very small objects is great-
ly improved by viewing them through lenses. For
production work, the magnified image may be pro-
jected on a screen. Because the projected silhouette
is many times the actual size of the object, any irreg-
ular shapes or improper spacings can be detected
readily. Similar devices are employed for the inspec-
tion of machine parts where accurate dimensions
and contours are essential. One typical device now
in common use projects an enlarged silhouette of
gear teeth on a profile chart. The meshing of these
production gears with a perfectly cut standard is
examined on the chart.
There are occasions when moving parts must be
inspected or studied while they are operating.
Stroboscopic illumination can be effective in this
process by adjusting the rate of strobe to stop or
slow the apparent motion of constant-speed rotating
or reciprocating machinery. Stroboscopic lamps give
flashes of light at controllable intervals (frequencies).
The flashing can be so timed that when the flash
occurs, an object with rotating or reciprocating motion
is always in exactly the same position and appears to
remain stationary. This technique can be very effec-
tive in allowing inspection of rotating parts without the
necessity of stopping the process.
There is a potentially dangerous stroboscopic effect
unintentionally produced by fluorescent and HID
lamps and other sources operated on magnetic bal-
lasts when flicker occurs on rotating equipment such
as drilling, milling and lathe machines. At some rota-
tional speeds, these parts can appear to be stopped
36
when, in fact, they are rotating at a dangerous speed.
For some optional considerations, refer to the Section
3.7, Flicker and Strobe. The use of electronic ballasts
to operate fluorescent lamps at high frequency can vir-
tually eliminate flicker and strobe effects.
14.0 EMERGENCY, SAFETY AND SECURITY
LIGHTING
Each of these subjects is covered at some length in
Chapter 29 of the IESNA Lighting Handbook, 9th
Edition. Reference to that chapter is recommended
for further details on the design and selection of hard-
ware for these very important systems.
14.1 Emergency Lighting
Locating exit and unit emergency lighting equipment
can be improved when the designer visualizes how
occupants will need to move through the space in an
emergency. Buildings are usually large, complex and
subject to materials being moved in and out continu-
ously. In the event of an emergency where illumination
is lost, it is likely that a worker could become confused.
Emergency lighting requirements are often covered in
codes or local ordinances that detail the levels of illu-
minance required, the duration of the lighting in the
event of a loss of power, and the types of power sup-
plies that are acceptable to the authority having juris-
diction. Reference to these codes and ordinances is
essential to ensure compliance with them.
Hazards Requiring
Visual Detection
Normal Activity
Level
In addition, it may be helpful for lighting designers to
put themselves in the place of building occupants and
mentally walk through the facility to ensure they have
provided lighting for exit and emergency egress and
all foreseeable conditions.
Degree of Hazard
Slight High
Low High Low High
Often, in industrial areas, presses, conveyors and
other obstructions can defeat the emergency equip-
ment, or obscure signage. A tour of the facility after
occupancy may be necessary to satisfy all parties that
the emergency lighting is satisfactory. Final adjust-
ments to the system are often necessary to accom-
modate unexpected pieces of machinery or owner fur-
nished obstructions installed during the project, which
can change the effectiveness of the originally
designed emergency lighting.
Illuminance Levels
Lux
Footcandles
14.2 Safety Lighting
5.4 11 22 54
0.5 1 2 5
Unlike emergency lighting, safety lighting is required
at all times when the building or outdoor space is
occupied. This ensures the occupants ability to move
safely throughout the facility without danger. In indus-
trial facilities there are many obstructions, potential
danger from moving equipment and manufactured
goods, and hazards associated with the manufactur-
ing process. Minimum lighting for safety is recom-
mended in Figure 22.
These values represent absolute minimum illumi-
nances at any time and location where safety is related
to visibility and they may require modification in some
instances to ensure proper visibility in particularly haz-
ardous locations. Care must be taken in the design of
industrial lighting systems to guarantee the system will
provide not only the necessary illuminance for the tasks
to be performed but will also adequately indicate dan-
gers and hazards within the facility. In addition, the light-
ing should be free of glare, shadows and extreme illu-
minance changes which could contribute to accidents.
Lamp selection is important in planning lighting for
safety to ensure proper rendering of the safety colors
Figure 22. Illuminance levels for safety.
used throughout the facility. Many industries use color
as an indicator of danger and the selection of a lamp
which does not accurately render all of the colors with-
in the facility can compromise the identification of
these safety indicators by the occupants and lead to
dangerous conditions.
It may be a code requirement that HID lighting sys-
tems have at least some of the luminaries fitted with
auxiliary incandescent lamps to provide light during
warm-up or re-strike times.
14.3 Security Lighting
In an industrial facility security lighting is usually
required for protection of property, to discourage tres-
passers and to provide a means for guards to identify
employees during shift changes. Security lighting
should be designed in consultation with the owner
and his personnel responsible for the safety of prop-
erty and employees. Consulting with local law
enforcement departments can also aid in the design
of a security lighting system to ensure that the lighting
will aid, and not hinder, those officers (and private
security personne1)in the performance of their duties.
Security lighting methods for interior and exterior
installations are discussed at length in Chapter 29 of
the IESNA Lighting Handbook, 9th Edition,and refer-
ence to that chapter is recommended.
15.0 LIGHTING FOR SPECIFIC TASKS
The lighting requirements for specific tasks can be
similar in a wide range of different industries. Whether
the task occurs in a steel plant, machine shop or elec-
tronic assembly facility, the same lighting considera-
tions apply for that task. In past editions of this
Recommended Practice, consideration has been
given to the lighting requirements in specific indus-
tries. It is now felt the specific industry may be less
These values represent absolute minimum illuminances at any time in locations where safety is related to visibility. (Note: the
illuminance conversion used here is 10.76 lux =1 fc.) However, in some cases higher levels may be required (such as where
security is a factor). In other conditions, especially involving work with light-sensitive materials such as photographic film, much
lower illuminances may be used. In these cases, alternate methods of ensuring safety must be employed.
37
important than the requirements for lighting of a spe-
cific task. For those who are looking for specific indus-
try lighting recommendations, refer to Annex A-2.
15.1 Molding of Metal and Plastic Parts:
Discussion of Lighting and Equipment
Choices
Metal castings and plastic parts are made in a variety
of sizes and shapes. Some are made to very close tol-
erances; others require less accuracy. The lighting
requirements for molding operations vary with the
required accuracy and the severity of the seeing task.
A constant, however, is that foundry mold rooms and
die-casting operations tend to be dirty, requiring care-
ful selection of luminaries, while injection molding is a
relatively clean process.
Maintenance in foundry and die-casting operations
may be minimized by the use of ventilated or enclosed
and gasketed luminaries. Some luminaries have filters,
which permit "breathing" but minimize the ingress of
dust. Best practice dictates the use of the minimum
quantity of luminaries to provide the recommended
illuminance and light distribution at the point of lowest
lamp output and highest dirt accumulation.
In areas where injection molding operations occur,
lighting can usually be provided by ventilated industri-
al luminaries. Painting the ceilings and walls with a
highly reflective paint finish will increase the benefits
of an uplight component.
Melting, molding and coremaking usually involve
equipment with nonspecular surfaces. Where such
work is done in high-bay areas, high intensity dis-
charge luminaries may be installed without concern
for the introduction of reflected glare.
15.1.1 Foundry Molding (Sand Casting)
The molding process involves forming molds from
treated sand. The visual tasks are:
Inspecting the pattern for foreign material
Setting the pattern in the flask and packing sand
around it
0 Removing the pattern and inspecting the mold
for loose sand and for accuracy of mold contour
Inserting core supports and cores (the operator
must be able to see the core supports)
Smoothing mold surfaces, checking core posi-
tion and checking clearance between parts
The size and detail of the tasks may vary. The small-
est task has a visual angle of about 1 O minutes of arc
(1/6") corresponding to the size of separate grains of
sand A defect involving the misplacement of only five
or six grains of sand will cause imperfections in small
castings. The more exacting seeing tasks are repeti-
tive and of interrupted and short-time duration.
Lighting should be designed for the intermittent, criti-
cal seeing of materials that have low reflectances and
unfavorable contrasts. The varying depths of mold
cavities demand adequate illumination without harsh
shadows.
Deep pit molds require additional consideration in
planning proper lighting. The walls of the pit may block
some of the light from the general lighting system and
result in shadows and lower luminance, especially on
the vertical surfaces of the molds. Visibility in the pit
areas will benefit from the installation of additional
general lighting luminaries, located to avoid conflict
with materials handling equipment.
To improve visibility within the mold, placing white
parting sand around the opening sometimes increas-
es contrast. When weights are used, the opening in
the weight indicates the general location of the pour-
ing basin.
15.1.2 Molding Parts of Die-cast Aluminum and
Injection Molded Plastic
The molding process involves forming parts from
machined steel molds, or dies. The molds can be sin-
gle or multiple cavity, but have two halves, complete-
ly encasing the part. The visual tasks are:
0 Inspecting the mold for foreign material
0 Applying the mold-release agent to the die
0 Closing the die and actuating the mold cycle
0 Removing the part
0 Performing secondary at-mold operations
0 Stacking or packaging of parts for material
handling
Lighting should be designed for the intermittent, criti-
cal seeing of materials that have low and high
reflectances and unfavorable contrasts. The varying
depths of mold cavities demand adequate vertical illu-
mination that does not produce harsh shadows.
Proper general illumination contributes to safety. The
eyes of the workers often become adapted to the
bright, molten metal contrasted with dark surround-
ings. This adaptation may cause difficulty in seeing
any obstructions on a poorly illuminated dark-colored
floor. Adequate lighting reveals such obstructions.
15.1.3 Inspection of Sand-castings
Quality control depends largely on visibility. A casting
meets the specified tolerances when:
38
Patterns are carefully checked against the
Flasks are inspected for fit
Cores and molds are inspected for size,
accuracy and alignment
Core clearances are gauged prior to mold
closing
Castings are checked against templates and
gauges
Surfaces are inspected and defective castings
are culled
drawings
Inspections are generally conducted at intermediate
stages during the manufacture of the product. The
inspections at some stages are either combined with
the functional operation or performed in the same
area. The type of inspection will dictate the proper
quality and quantity of illumination.
An inspection of the cores by the coremaker is per-
formed prior to baking. Later, the castings may be
inspected and, if necessary, scrapped by the
shake-out handlers or by the grinder operators, avoid-
ing subsequent waste of labor on defective parts.
Proper lighting will allow this inspection to be done
quickly and effectively at this stage of production.
Small castings are frequently inspected and sorted
simultaneously.
15.1.4 inspection of Die-castings and Opaque
Injection Molded Plastic Parts
Most parts of this type have specular or semi-specu-
lar surfaces, against which flaws are seen under cat-
egory s-1 V supplementary lighting (see Figure 18.)
Parts that have a matte (or heavier) texture in the
mold are inspected much like sand castings, and
have similar lighting requirements.
In sorting areas, a simple, general lighting system of
ventilated fluorescent industrial luminaries may be
mounted 1.2 m (4 ft) or more above the sorting table
or conveyor. Atmospheric and maintenance condi-
tions will determine the type of luminaries (open,
enclosed or filtered) to be used.
For medium inspections, fluorescent luminaries may
reduce reflected glare and improve diffusion of light.
Medium-fine and fine inspection sometimes require
special lighting equipment.
15.2 Parts Manufacturing and Assembly
Incoming Raw Materials. Raw materials are delivered
to manufacturing facilities by truck or rail shipment.
Both open-top and closed-top vehicles may be used.
The visual task is to identify the materials and corre-
late the material and shipping documents. General
lighting with supplementary portable lighting for trailer
or rail car interiors is required.
Active Storage Areas. Raw materials are often
unloaded in the receiving areas by lift trucks or over-
head cranes. They are transported to the active stor-
age areas or directly to the production process by the
same means. The visual task is to identify the materi-
als (labels or markings) from the cab of an overhead
crane or lift truck and to move the materials and
deposit them at a designated location. Lighting
requirements include general lighting with vertical illu-
minance for identifying labels and markings and hori-
zontal illuminance for reading pick tickets.
Parts Manufacturing Processes. Several different
types and sizes of parts using many unique processes
may be manufactured in a single plant. The designer
should refer to other sections of this document for
major activities that occur in manufacturing plants such
as machining, sheet metal fabrication, and casting. A
number of different tasks may be performed. These
are described under their own subheadings. General
lighting is required with properly positioned supple-
mentary lighting in areas or on equipment.
Parts Assembly. In many manufacturing plants, indi-
vidual components are assembled into subassem-
blies. The assembly process combines manual, semi-
automatic and automatic activities. The visual tasks
are to select, orient, install and fasten a component to
the subassembly. General lighting with supplemen-
tary lighting added to specific work station positions
will help to reduce shadows.
Testing. Highly diversified and complicated proce-
dures and test equipment determine compliance with
design specifications for many subassemblies.
Testing activities are manual, semiautomatic and
automatic. The visual tasks are to secure the assem-
bly to the testing device; to perform tests on electrical
or mechanical connections; to run tests and read
gauges and meters; to perform mechanical or electri-
cal adjustments as required; to complete test reports;
to disconnect and remove the assembly from the test-
ing device. General lighting and properly positioned
supplementary lighting are required.
Common tasks in manufacturing facilities include the
manufacture of parts and the joining of those parts into
larger sub-assemblies. Some of the important seeing
tasks and typical lighting systems are as follows:
Final Inspection. Inspection determines whether the
manufactured part or subassembly is in total compli-
ance with the design specification. The visual tasks
are inspecting the part or subassembly for specifica-
39
tion compliance and to verify that all intermediate
inspections and tests are satisfactory. General lighting
with supplementary lighting to inspect the part or sub-
assembly is required. Note that good color rendering
light sources should be used.
Packing. Parts are manually or semiautomatically
placed in boxes, containers or racks for shipment. The
visual tasks are to identify the part and place it in a
destination-designated shipping container or rack.
General area lighting is required. (See Figure 23,
color insert.)
Shipping. Parts may be shipped to other plants or
warehouses in enclosed rail cars and trucks. Lift
trucks are generally used to load these vehicles. The
visual tasks are to identify a shipping container or rack
by part and destination and load it into the designated
rail car or truck. (See Fi gure 24, color insert.)
General lighting with adjustable or portable supple-
mentary lighting will provide good vertical illuminance
for the rail car or truck trailer interior.
15.3 Machi ni ng Met al Part s
While computer numerically controlled (CNC)
machines do most precision work, much of the follow-
ing information still applies, especially as pertaining to
Set-up work. Machining of metal parts consists of the
preparation and operation of machines such as lath-
es, grinders (internal, external and surface), millers
(universal and vertical), shapers and drill presses,
bench work, and inspection of metal surfaces. The
precision of such machine operations usually
depends upon the accuracy of the setup and the care-
ful use of the graduated feed-indicating dials rather
than the observation of the cutting tool or its path. The
work is usually checked by portable measuring instru-
ments, and only in rare cases is a precision cut made
to a scribed line. The fundamental visual task is to dis-
criminate detail on planar or curved metallic surfaces.
General Lighting: Most of the visual tasks in the
machining of metal parts are best lighted by large-
area low-luminance sources. The ideal general light-
ing system would have a large indirect component.
While both fluorescent and high-intensity discharge
sources can be used for general lighting, fluorescent
luminaries, particularly in a grid pattern, are some-
times preferred for low mounting heights.
High-reflectance room surfaces improve illumination
and visual performance.
Since workers often refer to information on CRT
screens, the needs of this visual task must be consid-
ered. In particular this refers to veiling reflections on
the CRT screen from luminaries, light surfaced walls,
and windows.
16.0 LIGHTING FOR SPECIFIC VISUAL TASKS
This section describes certain industrial visual tasks and
suggested lighting techniques for addressing them.
16.1 Convex Surf aces
Discriminating detail on a convex surface, as in read-
ing a convex scale on a micrometer caliper, is a typical
seeing task. The reflected image of a large-area
low-luminance source on the scale provides excellent
contrast between the dark figures and divisions and
the bright background without producing reflected
glare. The use of a near-point source for such applica-
tions results in a narrow, brilliant band that obscures
the remainder of the scale because of the harsh spec-
ular reflection and loss of contrast between the figures
or divisions and the background. (See Figure 25.)
Figure 25. (Left) Micrometer illuminated with a sys-
tem of small, bright sources is seen with bright
streak reflections against a dark background. (Right)
When illuminated with a large-area, low-luminance
source, the micrometer graduations are seen in
excellent contrast against a luminous task back-
ground.
16.2 Fl at Surf aces
In viewing a flat surface, such as a flat scale, the see-
ing task is similar to that in reading a convex scale.
With a flat scale, however, it is possible, depending on
the size, location and shape of the source, to reflect
the image of the source either on the entire scale, or
only on a small part of it. If the reflected image of the
source is restricted to too small a part of the scale, the
reflection is likely to be glaring.
16.3 Scri bed Marks
The visibility of scribed marks depends upon the char-
40
acteristics of the surface, the orienta-
tion of the scribed mark and the
nature of the light source. Directional
light produces good visibility of
scribed marks on untreated
cold-rolled steel if the marks are ori-
ented for maximum visibility, so that
the brightness of the source is reflect-
ed from the side of the scribed mark
to the observers eye. Unfortunately,
this technique reduces the visibility of
other scribed marks. Better results
are obtained with a large-area
low-luminance source. If the surface
to be scribed is treated with a
low-reflectance dye, the process of
scribing will remove the dye and
expose the surface of the metal.
Such scribing appears bright against
a dark background. The same tech-
Size source
required
Eve
n
\
\ \
Width of
luminous area \\ \
\. \
\
Figure 26. Procedure used for establishing the luminaire size necessary
to obtain source reflections on a flat specular surface.
nique is appropriate for lighting specular or diffuse alu-
minum. In this case, the scribed marks will appear dark
against a bright background.
16.4 Center-Punch Marks
A visual task quite similar to scribing is that of seeing
center-punch marks. Maximum visibility is obtained
when the side of the punch opposite the observer
reflects the brightness of a light source. A directional
source located between the observer and the task
provides excellent results when the light is at an angle
of about 45 with the horizontal.
16.5 Concave Specular Surfaces
The inspection of concave specular surfaces is diffi-
cult because of reflections from surrounding light
sources. Large-area, low-luminance sources provide
the best visibility. In the machining of small metal
parts, a low-luminance source of approximately 1700
cd/m* is desirable. The size of the source depends on
the shape of the machined surface and the area from
which it is desired to reflect the brightness. The tech-
niques applicable to specular reflections can also be
applied to semispecular surfaces.
16.6 Flat Specular Surfaces
The geometry for determining luminous source size is
illustrated in Figure 26. First, draw lines from the
extremities of the surface that is to reflect the source, to
the location of the observers eye, forming an angle a. At
the intersections of these lines with the plane of the sur-
face, erect vertical lines from that plane, forming angles
bl and b2. Project these lines to the luminaire location
to define the luminaire width; extend them in the oppo-
site direction until they intersect, forming an angle.
16.7 Convex Specular Surfaces
The appropriate width of the luminous area of the con-
vex surface is shown in Figure 27. Draw lines from
the location of the observers eye to the edges of the
surfaces luminous area, forming angle a. Erect nor-
mals at intersections of lines with the surface. At these
intersections and on the other side of the normals,
construct lines to form angles equal to those to the
eye (the same procedure as that for flat surfaces
described above). Project lines (as for flat surfaces) to
define the luminaire width. This procedure can be
applied to concave surfaces.
I
Size source
required
I
I
/
I
I
/ E??
position
Established \
mounting \
\
.(
height
I
/..- Width of
luminous area
8 = 2 u + a
Figure 27. Procedure used for establishing the lumi-
naire size necessary to obtain source reflections on a
convex specular surface. In the diagram, q =2s +a.
41
16.8 Lighting and Visibility Issues for Specific
Visual Tasks for Sheet Metal Fabrication
Visual tasks in the sheet metal shop are often difficult
because sheet metal (after pickling and oiling) has a
reflectance similar to the working surface of the
machine, resulting in poor contrasts between the
machine and work. Low reflectance of the metal results
in a low task luminance. High-speed operation of small
presses reduces the available time for seeing and bulky
machinery obstructs the distribution of light from gener-
al-lighting luminaries. Noise also contributes to fatigue.
16.8.1 Punch Press
The seeing task is essentially the same for a large
press as it is for a small press, except that with a small
press less time is available for seeing. The shadow
problem, however, is much greater with a large press.
The operator must have adequate illuminance, often
from supplementary or task lighting, to move the stock
into the press, inspect the die for scrap after the oper-
ating cycle is completed and inspect the product.
Where an automatic feed is employed, the speed of
operation is so great that the operator has time only to
inspect the die for scrap clearance.
The general lighting system in press areas should
provide illuminance adequate for the safe and rapid
handling of stock in the form of unprocessed metal,
scrap or finished products. In large press areas illumi-
nation should be furnished by high-bay lighting equip-
ment or by a combination of high-bay and supple-
mentary task lighting. For moderate mounting heights,
the illuminance should be supplied by luminaries hav-
ing a widespread distribution to provide uniform illumi-
nance for the bay and the die surface area.
The operators ability to inspect the die is more direct-
ly related to the reflected brightness of the die Surface
than to the amount of light incident upon it. For exam-
ple, a concentrated light placed on the operators side
of the press and directed toward the die may produce
results much less satisfactory than a large-area
source of low luminance placed at the back or side of
the press. The luminance required for optimum visibil-
ity of the die has not been established; consensus
suggests that 1700 cam2 is satisfactory.
Paint applied to both the exterior and the throat surfaces
of a press contributes to the operators ability to see. The
reflectance of the paint selected for the exterior of the
press should be not less than 40 percent. This treatment
of vertical surfaces on the exterior provides for maxi-
mum utilization of light from the general lighting system.
Similarly, the paint selected for throat surfaces should
have a reflectance of 60 percent or higher.
16.8.2 Shear
The operator must be able to see a measuring scale
in order to set the stops for gauging the size of cut.
When a sheet has to be trimmed, either to square the
sides or to cut off scrap from the edges, the operator
must be able to see the location of the cut in order to
minimize scrap;
The general lighting system should provide adequate
illuminance in the area around the shear to safely feed
the sheets at the front, collecting the scrap at the back
and stacking the finished pieces in preparation for
removal. Local lighting should indicate where the cut
will be made and the amount of scrap that will be
trimmed. It also provides light to enable the operator,
who is responsible for pressing the foot-release bar, to
see quickly that all hands are clear of the guard.
16.9 Lighting for Large Component Sub- and Final
Assembly
This phase of manufacturing has special require-
ments not usually found in other industrial operations.
Modern industrial requirements have necessitated the
construction of buildings with clear bay areas, which
may exceed 26,000 m2 (300,000 ft2) and truss heights
of more than 24 m (80 ft) from floor level. The lighting
problems in buildings of this size are not confined to
the engineering and design concepts but include the
task of maintenance and lamp replacement. The use
of either a system of catwalks or traveling-bridge
cranes may be appropriate to allow access to the
lighting units. In some cases, mobile telescoping
cranes can be used to reach luminaries from the floor,
but the heights involved and obstructions on the floor
may make this method of maintenance impractical.
Where access is available from the floor, disconnect-
ing hangers and lowering chains can be an effective
method for maintaining luminaries in high-bay areas.
One special problem in lighting certain assembly
tasks, is that the lighting is usually designed to specif-
ic task levels with the assumption that the areas will
be completely open, whereas in reality that is seldom
so. The lighting from overhead systems is often
reduced by the presence of large assemblies or large
production equipment. .
Typical of the types of assemblies found in these facil-
ities are aircraft and automobile sub-assemblies and
the installation of sub-systems in these assemblies for
which supplementary lighting is often required.
Assembly of large aircraft sections, for instance, can
present special lighting problems. Exterior lighting for
joining together these sections requires both horizon-
tal and vertical illuminance as well as lighting installed
42
in such a manner that it will light the underside of the
body and wings. Use of floodlights can give both com-
ponents of light on the exterior body and also provide
light to the undersides of the body and wings.
Specially mounted luminaries or portable lighting are
required to light areas such as landing-gear pockets.
High reflectance floor finishes will aid in lighting the
underside of assemblies but supplementary lighting is
still usually required. See Figure 28 (a) , (b) and (c).
Figure 28 (b) for aircraft assembly. (Photo courtesy
of Holophane.)
Figure 28 (a) Light surfaces, including the floor,
insure high quality lighting (a) for truck assembly.
(Photo courtesy of Hubbell Lighting.)
16.10 Control Rooms
The control room is the nerve center of facilities such as
electric generating plants, electric-dispatch facilities,
steam or hot water generating plants, and chemical
plants, and it must be continuously monitored. Lighting
must be designed with special attention on the comfort
of the operator; direct and reflected glare and veiling
reflections must be minimized, and luminance ratios
must be low. Along with ordinary office-type seeing
tasks, the operator has to read gauges, meters and
other monitoring devices, often at distances of 3-4.5 m
(1 0-1 5 ft) away. Reflected glare and veiling reflections
must be eliminated from these indicating devices,
including those with curved glass faces.
While the practice is not standardized, most
control-room lighting involves one of two general cat-
egories: diffuse lighting or directional lighting. Diffuse
lighting may be from low-luminance, indirect lighting
equipment, solid luminous plastic ceilings or louvered
ceilings. Directional lighting may be from recessed
troffers, which follow the general contour of the control
board. (These luminaries must be accurately located
to keep reflected light out of the glare zone.) Lighting
for the rest of the room may be from any type of
low-luminance general lighting equipment.
--
_I --I_---- ~ -
Figure 28 (c) for maintenance in a hangar. (Photo
courtesy of Ruud Lighting.)
As control room data displays are more and more dig-
ital, the problems concerning lighting and CRTs are
more in evidence. Many operators like to have black
or dark colored backgrounds on their CRTs in order to
increase the contrast between pixel derived dataand
its background. In this instance the veiling reflection
problems are increased over those with light back-
ground panel meters. Under these conditions light
surfaced walls behind the operator, walls and lighting
outside of glass partitions, floors and even light
reflecting off the operators clothing and the table sur-
43
faces next to the operator can show up as a veiling
reflection in the CRT screen.
Often, the orientation and tilt angle of these CRT
screens may not be easily adjusted to reduce objec-
tionable screen reflections. In these cases, control of
sources of direct and reflected light relative to the
screens and operators is even more critical. (Figure
29, see color insert.)
16.11 Warehouse and Storage Area Lighting
Placing items in storage, accounting for them and
later retrieving them are some of the most widespread
activities requiring electric lighting in industrial facili-
ties. Storage activities are found in business opera-
tions of every type, ranging from small local opera-
tions to multinational corporations.
Since rapid changes are taking place, the traditional
concept of the warehouse must be expanded to
encompass new techniques, including automation,
high-rise storage, bar coding, cold storage, and
shrink-wrap packaging .
16.11.1 Types of Warehouse Area and Storage
Systems
A variety of warehouse areas and storage systems
requiring specific tasks may occur in warehouse
usage:
Open Storage. Areas of material stored without the
use of rack systems. This includes storage on the floor
and on pallets, which may be stacked on each other.
In Figure 30 (see insert page IV) the center area of a
production facility is used for storing aluminum coils.
High Rise. Areas generally automated, where storage
bins may be rotated so that unused bins are kept high
up, and with storage levels rising to over 30.5 m (1 O0 ft).
Fixed Racking. Areas with fixed racking may range
from 1-4 m (3-12 ft) wide and from 2.5-9 m (8 to 30 ft)
high. Items may be in bins, on racks, or in various
types of containers. Labeling of the racks, containers
or bins can vary from large black-on-white lettering to
small, hard-to-read hand written labels.
Mobile Racking. A storage system now widely used
in North America. Entire blocks of racking move on
floor-mounted rails to open and close aisles as need-
ed. In order to obtain maximum use from any lighting
provided, the definition of the actual seeing task
should be considered.
Off ices. Papetwork areas located within warehouses
require lighting appropriate for office tasks.
Stockroom Area: Identification marks on the sides of
bulky materials, rolls of paper, and crates or boxes
require vertical illumination. Additional lighting should
be provided over the aisles where high piles of stock
interfere with general lighting.
Cold Storage. Areas that warehouse normally per-
ishable food items and require low (sometimes below
freezing) temperatures. See Section 10.5 on Low
Ambient Temperatures.
Hazardous Materials Storage. Areas where haz-
ardous gases, vapors, or dust are or could be present
require specific methods of storage. Local building
code requirements should be checked as to permissi-
ble luminaries for lighting areas where hazardous
materials are stored or used. See Section 10.5 on
Classified Areas.
Exit and Emergency. Areas within warehouses that
provide safe passage through to exit from the building
and that must conform to Life Safety Codes in case of
emergency.
Shipping and Receiving. Areas where materials are
received into the warehouse for sorting and piace-
ment in storage areas. Areas that setve as staging
areas for coordination of products to be sorted and
placed on trucks or trains to be shipped. One of the
most difficult visual tasks is reading markings on ship-
ments, labels and bills of lading. General illumination
may provide sufficient light for these tasks and for the
operation of manual or powered forklift trucks, as well
as for general traffic in the area.
Supplementary lighting may be necessary for the interi-
or of transport carriers bringing material to the plant.
Angle or projector-type luminaries may be utilized, but
care must be taken to avoid glare from these sources. If
the conveyances are deep, reel-type or other portable
lighting equipment may be necessary. Yard or load-
ing-dock lighting should be installed for night operation.
Loading Docks and Staging Areas. Areas, generally
just outside the shipping area, that may be outdoors but
are often covered and that are used to place items on
and off trucks and railroad cars and to assemble goods.
Maintenance Shops, Fork Lift Recharging Areas
and Refrigeration Equipment Rooms. Locations
where general plant housekeeping activities occur.
Separate areas or rooms are generally set aside for
these purposes.
16.11.2 Warehouse Illuminance3
Vertical illuminance. From the tasks encountered in
the warehouse, it can be concluded that the majority
44
of critical seeing tasks occur in a vertical plane. A
major consideration, therefore, in warehouse lighting
design is providing illuminance on the vertical sur-
faces of stored goods. Illuminance should be distrib-
uted uniformly over the entire vertical seeing surface,
from top to bottom, and along the entire length of stor-
age aisles. (See Figure 31 .)
Figure 31. Warehouse with uniform distribution
along the length of the storage aisle. (Photo cour-
tesy of Holophane.)
The reflectances of exposed surfaces can significantly
affect lighting results. While the reflecting characteristics
of stored goods cannot be controlled at the warehouse
operating level, they should be taken into consideration
when carton and container decisions are being made.
Light-colored packing material can contribute to efficient
utilization of available light and increase visibility through
greater contrast. Clear plastic wrappings over packages
can reduce visibility of labels and markings due to
reflected glare from the plastic wrap.
Some racks and storage locations may be partly or
wholly empty at times. The lack of reflecting surfaces
in the empty shelves may reduce the overall illumi-
nance. This effect should be anticipated and included
in the design parameters.
Horizontal illuminance. While not as critical as the
need for vertical illuminance, adequate horizontal illu-
minance must be provided for safety and navigation in
the aisles. Other horizontal-plane tasks include read-
ing of documents such as pick tickets.
Recommended illuminance levels for warehouses are
shown in Figure l(a).
16.11.3 Warehouse Lighting Design Considerations
Since storage in fixed-location racking generally
results in long narrow aisles, lighting layout and cal-
culation procedures should be based on the dimen-
sions of the aisle space rather then the overall build-
ing size parameters. Lighting fixtures should be locat-
ed over the aisles (generally in the middle), regardless
of the overall building configuration. Because of the
special geometry of aisle space, which generally
yields cavity ratios higher than 10.0, and because the
determination of vertical illuminance is a key task, the
Lumen Method of average illuminance calculation
(see Annex C) is not effective for such warehouse
calculations. Computer programs for point-by-point
calculation of both horizontal and vertical illuminance,
now generally available throughout the industry, are
much more effective calculation tools.
To help ensure a productive work environment, glare
from light sources should be minimized. This
becomes particularly important when concentrated
HID sources are used because operators working
beneath luminaries may encounter disability glare
when looking up to the top of stacks. Proper shielding
of the source needs to be considered, as well as view-
ing angles up and along the aisles.
Indirect lighting systems for warehouses, while not as
efficient in producing illuminance, can be useful in pro-
viding excellent seeing results and have proved partic-
ularly useful in areas with computer terminals and
where both storage and selling take place. Ceiling sur-
faces with high reflectance characteristics are impor-
tant when considering indirect lighting systems.
Aisles or narrow rooms can be lighted with HID
sources in classical high-bay luminaries, provided that
the luminaries are spaced reasonably close together to
avoid unacceptable drop-off of illuminance between
luminaries. The spacing can be increased with luminar-
ies that have a substantial uplight component when the
ceilings have high reflectance. Other equipment choic-
es include low-bay luminaries or special aisle luminar-
ies that have an asymmetric light distribution. HID
sources in appropriate luminaries are generally most
effective at mounting heights of 5 m (15 ft) or more.
Special care must be taken at higher mounting heights
to ensure that sufficient illuminance is produced along
the entire height and length of the aisle stacks, espe-
cially when wider luminaire spacings are used.
Fluorescent lighting is frequently used for warehouse
aisles and can be used effectively in mounting heights
up to about 1 O meters (30 ft). Fluorescent designs are
45
implemented either with continuous rows along an
aisle (in reflector, lensed, open strip types) or with
individually mounted units.
Warehouse spaces are often accessed only intermit-
tently. It is therefore possible to save energy by con-
trolling light output with passive infra-red sensors or
other control devices. Lamps are switched off or oper-
ated at reduced output at inactive times and then
operated at full output only when the space is in use,
or, in the case of a passive infra-red sensing system,
when a person is present. Multilevel fluorescent and
HID ballasts have been developed for this purpose.
These lamps are operated at reduced levels when
there is no activity, and a sensor activates the circuit
when someone is present in the space. Significant
energy savings can be realized, depending on the
occupancy patterns of the space.
17.0 OUTDOOR AREA LIGHTING
Two different systems of lighting are commonly used
to illuminate large, outdoor areas of industrial facilities:
projected (long-throw) lighting and distributed lighting.
Each has its advantages under specific situations.
17.1 Projected Lighting System
The function of this system is to provide illumination
from a minimum of locations throughout the various
outdoor work areas. This is usually accomplished by
use of aimable floodlighting luminaries. (Figure 32,
see color insert.)
Advantages are:
1. The use of high poles on towers reduces the
number of mounting sites.
2. The light distribution is flexible. Both general and
local lighting are readily achieved. (Aiming of
floodlights, however, may be more critical.)
3. Floodlights are effective over long ranges.
4. Lighting system maintenance is restricted to a few
5. Physical and visual obstructions are minimized.
6. The electrical distribution system serves a small
concentrated areas.
number of concentrated loads.
Typically wide beam floodlights such as NEMA 5
through NEMA 7 distributions are not used to cover
areas wider than two mounting heights in front (trans-
verse dimension) of their locations. Individual floodlights
should not cover more than 90 degrees in the horizon-
tal plane. This means that at least two luminaries are
needed when the location is at the side of an area. Four
are needed for locations in the center of an area.
When coverage is more than two mounting heights
transversely, narrower distributions, such as NEMA 2
and NEMA 3 are called for.
Coverage greater than four mounting heights from a
location is not recommended. The use of projected
lighting has a greater potential for direct glare and
obtrusive light than distributed lighting.
Projected outdoor area lighting has the fewest loca-
tions and thus requires the least amount of aria1 struc-
ture. Structures are usually the most expensive part of
the lighting system.
17.2 Distributed Lighting System
Distributed lighting differs from projected lighting in
that luminaries are installed at many locations.
Advantages are:
1. Good illuminance uniformity on the horizontal
2. Glare can be controlled with the proper selection
of cut-off luminaries
3. Good utilization of light (less wasted spill light)
4. Reduction of undesirable shadows
5. Less critical aiming
6. Lower mounting heights (floodlight maintenance is
7. Reduced losses to atmospheric absorption and
8. The electrical distribution system serves a large
plane
facilitated)
scatte ring
number of small, distributed loads
In the Distributed Lighting method, wall mounted
equipment is often used at personnel and loading
dock doors. Wall mounted equipment, however,
should rarely be used to cover a transverse dimen-
sion greater than two mounting heights and a longitu-
dinal (horizontal, to the side) area more than 4 mount-
ing heights. This would place continuous area lighting
equipment on 4 mounting height spacing along a wall.
Distributed outdoor area lighting systems have the
least amount of glare because mounting heights can
be lower. When floodlights are used, aiming angles
can be less oblique, thus permitting glare control
media such as louvers and visors to work. Care
should be taken to keep aiming angles below 65
degrees above nadir.
17.3 Outdoor Tower Platforms, Stairways, and
Ladders
Luminaries should provide uniform illumination and
be shielded from direct view of persons using these
structures. Enclosed and gasketed or weatherproof
46
luminaries equipped with refractors or clear, gasket-
ed lenses may be used for reading gauges.
Luminaries above top platforms or ladder tops should
be equipped with refractors or reflectors. Reflectors
may be omitted on intermediate platforms around
towers so that the sides of the towers will receive
some illumination and the reflected light will mitigate
deep shadows. If luminaries are attached to equip-
ment, care should be taken in mounting the luminar-
ies to reduce damage from equipment vibration.
Normal installations have intense HID sources locat-
ed fairly close to personnel. Exchanging coated for
clear lamps may reduce glare in these situations, but
may also significantly change the light distribution
from luminaries.
17.4 Special Equipment
Special lighting equipment may be needed for such
functions as illuminating the insides of filters or other
equipment whose operation must be inspected
through observation ports. If the equipment does not
include built-in luminaries, concentrating-type reflec-
tor luminaries should be mounted at ports in the
equipment housing.
Portable luminaries are utilized where access holes
are provided for inside cleaning and maintenance of
tanks and towers. Explosion-proof types (where haz-
ardous conditions may exist) with portable cables are
connected to industrial receptacles (either
explosion-proof or standard as may be appropriate for
the atmospheric conditions present) located near
tower access holes or at other locations.
17.5 Low Illuminance and Visual Acuity Outdoors
In outdoor environments with low illuminance levels,
the human eyes processes of visual adaptation oper-
ate in three categories of vision: Photopic, Scotopic
and Mesopic.
Photopic Vision is the human eyes response at high
light levels where the cones in the eye account for the
majority of vision. This vision is generally associated
with adaptation to a luminance of 2 3 cdm (2 0.3 cw) .
Scotopic Vision is the human eyes response at very
low light levels such as moonlight where the rods in
the eye account for the majority of vision. This vision
is generally associated with adaptation to a luminance
of f 0.001 cd/m2 (f 0.0001 cd/t2). Scotopic vision is
largely irrelevant to most lighting design practice.
contribute to the visual response. This vision is gen-
erally associated with adaptation to a luminance
between 3 and 0.001 cd/m2 (0.3 and 0.0001 cd/ft2).
Low illuminance design should take into account the
prevalence of mesopic conditions.
When clarity, depth of field, and peripheral detection
are important, then a light source rich in short wave-
length (blue and green) light should be used. Current
research4 indicates that less light is required with a
light source rich in green and blue components (metal
halide, fluorescent) relative to a light source with few
blue green and blue components, for an equivalent
mesopic response.
Sources of different spectral composition that affect
the eye equally at 3 cd/m2 (0.03 cd/ft2) and above may
not affect the eye equally when those same sources
are used at lower adaptation levels. This includes
color matching, off-axis reaction time, and brightness
perception. The spectral sensitivity of the eye and the
effects of the spectral composition of light sources on
brightness perception should not be confused with
color rendering tasks or with color naming.5t6
References
Rea, M., Editor, IESNA Lighting Handbook, 9th
Edition, 2000. New York: Illuminating Engineering
Society of North America.
IESNA. Lighting Economics Committee. 1996.
Recommended Practice for the Economic Analysis of
Lighting, IESNNRP-31-96. New York: Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America.
IESNA. Industrial Lighting Committee. 1992. Design
Guide on Warehouse Lighting. IESNNDG-2-92. New
York: Illuminating Engineering Society of North
America.
McGowan, T. and Rea. M. S., 1995. Visibility and
spectral composition: Another look in the mesopic. 70
Years of CIE Photometv. Vienna: Commission
Internationale de 1Eclairage.
Vision at Low Light LevelsSymposium, May 1998,
Electric Power Research Institute, Lighting Research
Off ice.
Rea, M. S., Essay by Invitation, Lighting Design and
Application, Vol. 26 No.10 p.15. New York:
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America,
October, 1996.
Mesopic Vision occurs under the majority of exterior
night lighting conditions and is a combination of pho-
topic and scotopic vision. Both the rods and cones
47
(This Annex is not part of the American National
Standard and Practice ANSIAESNA RP-7-2001.)
~ ~~ ~~
ANNEX Al
THE BASIS FOR DEVIATING FROM
RECOMMENDED ILLUMINANCES
Occasionally the visual task in a specific space is not
typical and Figures Al .1 and Al .2 should be used to
adjust the illuminance for that task. It is extremely
important that the lighting designer have a clear
understanding of the visual task being illuminated and
then determine if the recommended illuminance is
appropriate. It is also possible that more than one
visual task is performed in a space. The designer
should make provision to illuminate these tasks to the
recommended levels unless other design criteria
supercede illuminance as the design criterion.
A dramatic difference between an actual and a recom-
mended illuminance (a difference of two standard devi-
Figure Al .1 Determination of visual task parameters.
ations or more) would be 'x more or 'x less than the
recommended value. Such dramatic deviations should
be carefully documented by the designer as part of
good professional practice and for future reference.
The recommendations ' for illuminance in this
Recommended Practice are not made with respect to
the age of the occupants. Generally the visual require-
ments of older persons are significantly different from
those of younger persons in two ways:
There is a thickening of the yellow crystalline lens, which
decreases the amount of light reaching the retina,
increases scatter within the eye, and reduces the range
of distances that can be properly focused (presbyopia)
There is a reduction in pupil size, decreasing the
amount of light reaching the retina.
The retinal illuminance of a 60-year-old person is only
about one-third of the retinal illuminance of a typical
~~ ~~~~
CONTRAST
How to calculate:
IL, - Li/Lb or Ipb - ptl/p,
where L is luminance (L,, and L, must use same units)
and p is reflectance
b refers to the background
t refers to the target
Definition of contrast using reflectance requires equal
illuminance on task and background.
How to interpret:
low contrast: 0.3 or lower, but not near threshold*
high contrast: above 0.3
This division is based on the plateau-escarpment nature of visual performance 1.2
Target
SIZE (see also Figure Al -2)
How to calculate:
solid angle (sr): (d' cos8)/l?
where d, 8 and I are defined as for visual angle
where d is the dimension (length or width) of the critical detail of the target
8 is the viewing angle
I is the viewing distance (d and I are in the same units)
visual angle: arctan(d cos)/l
Note that only one dimension, d, is defined for the critical detail of the target. Visual performance for two different
targets subtending the same area will be the same, even if the targets have different aspect ratios, e.g., a square-
shaped target versus a long, rectangular-shaped object1,
4%
How to interpret:
small size: 4.0 x lo6 sr or smaller (solid angle), but not near the acuity limit*
large size: larger than 4.0 x
Note: 1" =0.01 75 radians =60 minarc; 1 sr =66" visual angle for a circular target. For a cone where 9 is the
half-cone angle, solid angle =2n(1 - cosq).
This division, like that of contrast, is based upon the plateau-escarpment of visual performance.l.*
sr
*It should be noted that contrast threshold and the acuity limit are dependent upon background luminance, duration
of presentation, color, surround conditions, and in general, any number of factors that affect visibility, including those
idiosyncratic to the viewer. Above a contrast of 0.3 and a size of 4.0 x 1 O* sr, these factors are not very important to
visual performance.
Figure A1-2. Examples of common visual angles and solid angles.
Printed reading task from 15 in. (40 cm)
Typeface size
6 point
8 point
10 point
12 point
14 point
24 point
36 point
Visual angle (")*
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.12
0.18
Solid angle (sr)f
1.7 x lo6
3.1 x lo6
4.8 x l o6
6.9 x
9.4 x 10-6
2.8 x 10-5
6.2 x 10-5
*Angular width of single character stroke (vertical stroke, Times typeface).
+Average solid angle of total printed area of character for numerical digits (see reference 1).
Viewing a square-shaped object from 100 ft (30 m)
Object size Visual angle (") Solid angle (sr)
3 x 3 in. (7.5 x 7.5 cm) 0.14
0.57
6.3 x lo6
1.0 x 10"
6 x 6 in. (15 x 15 cm)
12 x 12 in. (30 x 30 cm)
0.29 2.5 x 10-5
Wire sizes (diameter in cross section) viewed from 15 in. (40 cm)
Wire size Visual angle (") Solid angle (sr)
American Wire Gauge (AWG) 30
AWG 24 (0.51 mm diameter) 0.07 1.6 x lo6
AWG 20 (0.81 mm diameter) 0.12 4.1 x lo6
(0.25 mm diameter) 0.04 3.9 x 107
AWG 16 (1.29 mm diameter) 0.18 1.0 x 105
AWG 12 (2.05 mm diameter) 0.29 3.3 x 10-5
AWG 8 (3.28 mm diameter) 0.47 6.7 x 10-5
Circular drilled holes viewed from 15 in. (40 cm)
Hole diameter Visual angle (") Solid angle (sr)
0.02 in. (0.51 mm) 0.07 1.4 x lo6
0.03 in. (0.76 mm) 0.11 3.1 x lo6
0.04 in. (1 .O2 mm) 0.15 5.6 x lo6
0.01 in. (0.25 mm) 0.04 3.5 x 107
49
20-year-old person due to smaller pupil sizes and
thicker lenses. (See Figure A l .3.) Additionally the
near point of a typical 20-year-old person is 10 cm (4
in.), compared to more than 1 m (3 ft) for a typical 60-
year-old person. (See Figure A l .4.)
References
Rea, M.S. and Ouellette, M.J . 1991. Relative visual
performance: A basis for application. Lighting
Research and,Techno/ogy. 23(3):135-144.
Rea, M.S. and Ouellette, M.J . 1988. Visual perfor-
mance using reaction times. Lighting Research and
Techno/ogy. 20(4):139-53.
Age in years
Figure Al .3 An estimate of relative decline in retinal
illuminance with age.
16
14
12
10
6
4
2
O
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Age in years
Figure Al .4 l h e decrease of amplitude of accommo-
dation with age.
50
Consequently, older persons tend to require higher
task illuminances for the same retinal illuminance and
because of reduced clarity in the lens, have reduced
image quality. Similarly, greater attention to sources of
glare within the field of view is more important for
older than for younger persons for reasons of
increased light scatter within the aged eye.
(This Annex is not pari of the American National Standard and Practice ANSVIESNA P-7-2001.)
ANNEX A2
RECOMMENDED ILLUMINANCE VALUES (TARGET MAINTAINED) FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING DESIGN
Figure A2-1 Recommended Illuminance Values for Industrial Areas/Activitiec - Interior
51
52
Explosives manufacturing
Hand haces, boiling tanks, stationary driers, stationary and gravity crystallizers
Mechanical furnace, generators and stills, mechanisai dners, evaporators, filtration,
ater treatinu areA
300 (30)
300 (30)
54
55
56
Fabric dyeing (printing) 300 (30)
Drying, stripping 300 (30)
Grading and sorting lSOO(150) ,
Upholstering 1500 (150)
Tobacco products
a Industry representatives have established this table of single illuminance values. Illuminance values for
specific operations can also be determined by using illuminance values for similar tasks and activities.
Color temperature of the light source is important for color matching.
Special lighting such that (i) the luminous area is large enough to cover the surface which is being
inspected and (2) the luminance is within the limits necessaq to obtain comfortable contrast conditions.
This involves the use of sources of large area and relatively low luminance in which the source luminance
is the principal factor rather than the illuminance produced at a given point.
Maximumlevels - controlled system.
e Higher levels from local lighting may be required for manually operated cutting machines.
If color matching is critical, use illuminance of 3000 lx (300 fc).
Supplementary lighting should beprovided in this space to produce the higher levels required for specific
f
seeing tasks involved.
Additional lighting needs to beprovided for maintenance only.
57
, Hump area (vertical) 200 (20)
100 (10) Control tower and retarder area (vertical)
Body 10 (i )
Head end 50 (5)
58
Ways
Fabrication areas
Active
Inactive
Storage yards
100 (IO)
300 (30)
50 (5)c
10 (1)
Select upper level for high speed conveyor systems. For grading redwood lumber 3000 lux (30 fc) is required.
Supplementary lighting may be required in some cases.
59
Figure A2-3 Recommended Illuminance Values (maintained on the task) for Specific Industries
60
Indoors
Paper mP - preparation
Groundwood mill grinder room
Beater room
Brown stock washers
700 (70)
300 (30)
500 (50)
61
62
a Obtained with a combination of general lighting plus specialized supplementary' lighting. Care should be taken to keep within the
recommended luminance ratios (see Figure 2 in RP-7). These seeing tasks generally involve the discrimination of fine detail for long
periods of time and under conditions of poor contrast. The design and installation of the combination systemmuch not only provide a
sufficient amount of light, but also the proper direction of light, diffusion, color and eye protection. As far as possible it should
eliminate direct and reflected glare as well as objectionable shadows.
' The specular surface of the material may necessitate special consideration in selection and placement of lighting equipment, or
orientation of work.
These illuminances are not intended to be mandatory but are recommended practice to beconsidered in the design of new facilities.
For minimumlevels for safety, see section 14.2 and Figure 15 in RP-7. All illuminances are average maintained levels.
indicates vertical illuminance.
Refer to local governing body for lighting requirements.
The useof many areas in petroleumand chemical plants is often different h m what the designation may infer. Generally, the areas
are small, occupancy low (restricted to plant personnel), occupancy infrequent, and only by personnel trained to conduct themselves
safely under unusual conditions. For these reasons, illuminances may be different fromthose recommended for other industries,
commercial areas, educational facilities or public spaces.
Refer to FAA regulations for required navigational and obstruction lighting marking.
Localized general lighting.
' Obtained with a combination of general lighting plus supplementary lighting. Care should be taken to keep withiin the recommended
luminance ratios.
**
Maximumlevels - controlled system.
63
Standard and Practice ANSVIESNA RP-7-2007.)
ANNEX B
PREDICTIVE METHODS FOR DETERMINING
VISUAL COMFORT PROBABILITY (VCP) AND
UNIFIED GLARE RATING (UGR)
One of the important factors in designing a lighting
system for an Industrial Facility - or any space - is
glare control. This will have an impact on the percep-
tion of comfort within the space and the degree to
which the lighting system design is considered suc-
cessful. Usually, we think of glare as something to
be avoided in the design of a lighting system because
it creates discomfort, disability or both, for the observ-
er. There are, of course, situations in which glare is
intentionally introduced. Examples include glare from
a security lighting system, which limits the visibility of
conditions within a secured facility or glare produced
by moveable lighting equipment in theatrical peror-
mances.
When glare is to be avoided, there should be some
means of predicting, during the design phase of a pro-
ject, what the effect of glare from the lighting system
will be BEFORE the lighting equipment is installed.
There have been attempts over the past forty years to
develop systems that will predict the effect of glare on
the observer. One system for predicting glare, devel-
oped in North America, is Visual Comfort Probability
(VCP). In European countries, there have been sev-
eral systems over the last 20 to 30 years. In an
attempt to rationalize these various systems, the
Commission Internationale de IEclairage (CIE), in
1995, proposed the Unified Glare Rating (UGR) sys-
tem, which tries to incorporate the best features of the
various European national glare prediction methods
into one universal system.
At the present time, VCP and UGR seem to be the
worlds two most accepted glare prediction systems. If
UGR is to become the world standard in this area, it is
in our best interests to understand the system.
A brief description of each of these two systems fol-
lows to introduce the concepts, and limitations, of
each. The calculations used in predicting accep-
tance of a lighting system in each of the systems are
included for information only since the information
can be made available by the manufacturers of light-
ing equipment as a single rating number where it is
relevant to the applications. For those who may wish
to investigate this subject in more depth, the docu-
ments included in the References will be a good
place to start.
Visual Comfort Probability (VCP)
The Visual Comfort Probability system for evaluating
glare from a lighting system was developed in the
United States in the 1960s. The system was derived
by combining the photometrics of the luminaries test-
ed and the size of various rooms with the discomfort
glare evaluations from a set of observations made by
average viewers. From a large data base of observa-
tions by test subjects, a series of formulae were gen-
erated which could, with acceptable accuracy, repro-
duce the experimental results and calculate a VCP
value for a given luminaire. The VCP number deter-
mined from the calculations is intended to represent
the number of people, out of a total number of 100
(therefore, it becomes a percentage of the total), who
would consider the lighting system in the room to be
Comfortable from the standpoint of glare. It has been
concluded from experimental data that a difference in
VCP of five points or less is insignificant. Figure B-1
shows a typical set of VCP values.
Figure B-i . An example of a table of VCP values.
Room Luminaires Lengthwise Luminaires Crosswise
W L 8.5 10.0 13.0 16.0 8.5 10.0 13.0 16.0
20 20 78 82
20 30 73 76
20 40 71 73
20 60 69 71
30 20 78 82
30 30 73 75
30 40 70 72
30 60 68 69
30 80 67 69
40 20 79 82
40 30 74 76
40 40 71 72
40 60 68 69
40 80 67 68
40 100 67 68
60 30 75 76
60 40 71 72
60 60 69 69
60 80 68 68
60 100 67 67
100 40 74 75
100 60 71 71
100 80 70 70
100 100 69 68
90
82
78
74
88
80
75
71
69
87
79
74
70
68
67
79
74
69
67
66
75
71
68
66
94 77 81
88 72 75
82 70 72
78 68 70
92 77 81
85 72 74
78 69 71
74 67 69
72 67 68
92 79 82
84 73 75
77 70 71
72 68 69
70 67 68
69 67 67
83 74 76
76 71 72
71 68 69
69 67 68
67 67 67
78 74 74
72 71 71
69 70 69
67 69 68
89
81
76
73
87
79
74
70
68
87
78
73
69
67
66
78
73
68
66
65
75
70
67
66
93
86
80
76
92
84
77
73
71
91
83
76
71
69
68
82
76
70
68
66
77
72
69
67
This example is for use when the units of length and illuminance are
the foot (ft) and footcandle (fc). VCP values are identical if units of
length and illuminance are the meter (m) and the lux (l x).
Wall Reflectance, 50%; Effective Ceiling Cavity
Reflectance, 80%; Effective Floor Cavity
Reflectance, 20%; Luminaire No. 000; Workplane
Illuminance, 100 fc
64
In order to allow for a comparison of several types of
luminaries in different types of room configurations, a
set of criteria was developed and these criteria are the
only ones for which experimental data are available
and, therefore, the only ones for which it can be said,
with any certainty, that the VCP evaluation system
works. The standard conditions adopted for VCP cal-
culations are:
The initial illuminance shall be 1 O00 Ix (1 O0 fc)
Room surface reflectances shall be:
ceiling cavity 80%
floor cavity 20%
walls 50%
Mounting heights above the floor: 2.6; 3; 4; and 4.9 m
(8.5; 1 O; 13 and 16 ft.)
A range of room dimensions to include square, long
narrow and short wide rooms
A standard layout involving luminaries uniformly dis-
tributed throughout the room
An observation point 1.2 m (4 ft) from the rear wall of
the room and 1.2 m (4 ft) above the floor
A horizontal line-of-sight directly forward
A vertical limit to the field of view corresponding to an
angle of 53 above, and directly forward from, the
observer.
The system was validated using lensed, direct distrib-
ution, flat bottom fluorescent luminaries only. For this
reason, it should not be used with small source
incandescent or fluorescent, suspended HID, indirect
or luminous ceiling lighting systems.
By consensus, discomfort glare will not be a problem
when all of the following conditions are met by the
lighting system:
The VCP is 70 or more;
The ratio of maximum luminance (luminance of the
brightest 6.5-cm2 [l -in2]) to the average luminaire lumi-
nance does not exceed 5:l at vertical angles of 45,
55,65,75 and 85above a vertical line (nadir) through
the luminaire in both the cross-wise and the length-
wise directions;
The maximum luminances of the luminaire, in both
the cross-wise and length-wise directions, does not
exceed the following values:
VERTICAL ANGLE MAXIM UM
ABOVE NADIR LUMINANCE
(degrees) (cd/m2)
-
45
55
65
75
a5
771 O
5500
3860
2570
1695
Unified glare Rating (UGR)
In 1995, the Commission Internationale de IEclairage
(CIE) published a document with its proposed glare
rating system, the Unified Glare Rating (UGR). The
system was developed from a document published
earlier by CIE, Publication #55, in which a Glare Index
Formula was introduced. This formula was based on
a study of the then current research and practice.
There has been some difficulty in making this system
work based on the calculation procedure that was
included in CIE Publication #55. Therefore, the
process has been somewhat simplified, primarily by
the omission of reference to vertical illuminance at the
observers eye.
All of the formulae used by European members of CIE
for a glare rating technique follow roughly the same
form:
Formula 1
where:
C, =a constant determined experimentally
C, =a constant determined experimentally
fm,, =background luminance of the room
flurninaire =luminance of a luminaire
As is the case with VCP, the lighting related factors
which are prominent in the UGR formula are back-
ground luminance, average luminance of the luminar-
ies (light sources), the solid angle subtended by each
of the individual luminaries from the observers eye
and the Guth Position Index. All of these factors are
calculated the same way for either the VCP or the
UGR methods with the exception of background lumi-
nance. The UGR method uses background lumi-
nance of the room surfaces within the field of view,
excluding the luminaries, while average luminance of
the total field of view, including luminaries, is used in
the VCP calculation. This may be seen later in the cal-
culations. In addition, the luminaire and observer posi-
tions are determined in a manner very similar to the
VCP method.2
CIE believes that the current Unified Glare Rating for-
mula contains the best parts of the various systems
recently used in the European countries to predict dis-
comfort glare. The scale of the system is an interval
scale where the difference between the numbers are
glare differences which can be seen by an observer.
Therefore, in the UGR method, a difference of one
number on the scale is significant. The scale used to
indicate the level of glare determined by these formu-
lae is the same as the scale used in the British system
65
for nearly 30 years. It has been found acceptable and
there seemed to be no reason to change a working
model. The practical range of the UGR scale is
between 10 and 30. Unlike the North American VCP
scale, a lower number on the UGR scale indicates a
system with less glare. (See Figure B-2.)
RATING VALUE SUGGESTED UGR
J ust Intolerable 31
Uncomfortable 28
J ust Uncomfortable 25
Unacceptable 22
J ust Acceptable 19
Imperceptible 10
Perceptible 16
Figure B-2. Categories of discomfort glare and
equivalent UGR values from Akashi, et al?
Ageneral means of interpreting this scale has been sug-
gested using research performed in J apan (see Figure
B-2). Generally speaking, it is felt the range of accept-
able glare ratings for the UGR system is between 10
and 20 for offices with the lower numbers being more
acceptable. Figure B-2 indicates glare ratings of 1 O are
imperceptible while glare ratings of 22 are unaccept-
able. A UGR number of 20 has been determined to be
the limiting glare value for offices. The results of these
experiments suggest the number of luminaries in the
field of view may influence the ratings. Researchers also
found that untrained observers seemed to rate lighting
systems as being more glaring than trained lighting
observers. That is, they tended to assign higher UGR
number and lower VCP numbers. It should be noted
that other researchers have questioned the interpreta-
tion of the observations reported by Akashi, et a1.3
There are some limitations to the UGR system, as
there are to the VCP system. At this time, it is not
known whether the UGR system will work satisfacto-
rily for luminous ceiling or indirect lighting systems.
More research is needed in these areas. The data
used to validate the UGR system was limited, much
as was the VCP research, to sources which have a
maximum solid angle at the observers eye of 0.1
steradian (a source of about 1 m2 viewed from a dis-
tance of 3 m). In addition, the UGR system should not
be used for the present, at least, for sources smaller
than the equivalent of an incandescent downlight.
Which System is Better?
At this time, it may be too early to tell. There are limi-
tations to both systems. The scales produced by the
two systems are opposed to each other. A high num-
ber in the VCP system indicates low glare while a low
number in the UGR scale indicates less glare.
66
Is there a correlation between the two systems?
There could be. The glare sensitivity of any given indi-
vidual is vague, at best. This is borne out by the large
standard deviations and the poor reproducibility of the
glare observations within any group.4 At least one
study has been performed which compared calcula-
tions of VCP and UGR for five lighting situations. The
result is indicated in Figure 8-3 and shows that a
curve can be generated to relate VCP to UGR. The
dotted lines on the graph indicate one set of common
points in the calculations for both VCP and UGR. As
can be seen, a VCP value of 70 translates to a UGR
value of 19. This was the case for each of the five cal-
culations made for this study and the curve shown on
the drawing is the result of those calculations. Studies
have indicated that UGR has a reasonable record of
success in predicting the sensation of glare.
VCP
Figure 8-3. The relationship between VCP and the
UGR,discomfort glare
More work is required before a correlation between
the two systems can be formalized.
VCP calculation^:^
To calculate VCP, several intermediate calculations
must be made. It is necessary to determine the position
index and the average luminance of each luminaire, the
function Q, which is determined from the solid angle of
each of the luminaries at the position of the observer,
and an index of sensation M. The Discomfort Glare
Rating (DGR) is then determined from a summation of
all of the values of M. Finally, the VCP will be.deter-
mined using the DGR. It is fairly obvious that this is not
a calculation to be entered into casually. The various
formulae are listed here only for information.
The Position Index is a value, P, determined for each
luminaire by the following formula. It is a means of
weighting each of the luminaries in the field of view to
account for the fact that not all luminaries will impact
the observer in the same way. As the luminaire is
moved further from the line of sight, the impact upon
the observers impression of glare is reduced.
-
Formula 2 (See Figure 8-5 for a description of o.)
P =exp[(35. 2-0. 31889a-1. 22e-~" 9)1~-3
+(21+ 0.26667a - 0.002963a2)1O-'2]
where:
a =angle from a vertical line directly ahead of the
viewer's line of sight and a line from the observer to
the luminaire in a plane perpendicular to the lumi-
naire. (See Figure 8-4.)
p =angle between the line of sight at the observer and
a line to the luminaire center from the observer.
Observer
Figure B-4 Geometry defining position index as used
in VCP and UGR methods.
This data is also available in the form of a table, which
would be, obviously, a much easier way to obtain
these values.
The average luminance for the entire field of view is
found from the following Formula:
Formula 3
where:
1, =average luminance of the walls (cd/m2)
L, =average luminance of the floor (cd/m2)
Lwww +L , W, +L'W' +c L, 0,
1 4
F, =
5
L, =average luminance of the ceiling (cd/m2)
L, =average luminance of the source (cd/m2)
o,= solid angle subtended at the observer by the
walls (in steradians)
of =solid angle subtended at the observer by the
floor (in steradians)
o, =solid angle subtended at the observer by the
ceiling (in steradians)
o, =solid angle subtended at the observer by the
source (in steradians)
n =the number of the source being calculated (from
n=l to n=n).
Figure B-5 Solid angle oabcdef g visible from the
observer's location includes the bottom surface, one
end and one side surface of the drop diffuser on the
fluorescent luminaire.
The average luminance in this formula, F,, is called L,
in some other formulae, including the UGR formula,
which follows later in this Annex.
A function Q has been developed which is used in the
calculation of VCP:
Formula 4
Q =20.40,, +1.520:'~- 0.075
where:
o, =the solid angle subtended at the observer by the
source (in steradians). The solid angle is equal to the
area of the luminaire (source) in m2 (ft2) divided by the
square of the distance from the observers eye to the
center of the luminaire (source) in m2 (ft').
After making these calculations, the values of P, F,
and Q are used to calculate the Index of Sensation, M
for each of the luminaries in the field of view:
Formula 5
0.50L,vQ
P,,Fv".44
M, =
where Ls is the average luminance of the source (or
luminaire) being calculated in the direction of the
observer. The factor 0.50 in the numerator of the pre-
ceding Formula allows for the use of the units indicat-
ed in these calculations.
From the above information, a Discomfort Glare
Rating (DGR) can be calculated using the following:
Formula 6
67
where: Formula 10*
n =the number of luminaries in the field of view
M, = index of sensation for the 7th source (with the
last source being equal to n).
The calculation for the summation (C) of all of the
Indices of Sensation(M,) requires a separate calcu-
lation for the Index of Sensation for each of the lumi-
naries in the field of view.
Finally, we are ready to make the calculation of VCP
using the following formula:
Formula 7
VCP =- e
UGR Calculations:
As will be remembered, the background luminance in
the VCP calculation is the value F, and it includes the
luminance of each of the luminaries. In the UGR for-
mula, the background luminance of the space is
determined by the formula:
Formula 8
*There are many forms of this formula in print today.
This one has been selected for use here because it
seems to speak with the most authority for the CIE.
References:
I. CIE Publication #I 17-1 995., 1995, Discomfort
Glare in Interior Lighting, Vienna, Austria:CIE
2. van Bommel, Ir. W.J.M, A new international sys-
tem for glare evaluation for interior lighting.
3. Mistrick, R., and Choi, A-S., A Comparison of the
Visual Comfort Probability and Unified Glare Rating
Systems, J. of the /ES 28 (no2) 94-101
4. Einhorn, H., Unified glare rating (UGR): Merits and
application to multiple sources, CIBSE, London,
Lighting Research and Technology, 1998
5. IESNA, 2000, IESNA Lighting Handbook, 9lh
Edition, Chap 3, New York, NY
L -1 E
?T
6. 1991, 1 st International Symposium on Glare,
Symposium Proceedings, Lighting Research Off ice
(formerly Lighting Research Institute), Electric Power
Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA.
h -
where E, is the indirect illuminance at the eye of the
observer.
In the CIE method for UGR, Ei may be determined in
several ways, but a simplified approach is to assume
the indirect illuminance (E,) at the observers eye will
be equal to the indirect illuminance on the walls of the
room. This method seems to work well for general
lighting systems with a uniform layout of luminaries. It
is unclear whether this will be true for non-uniform
luminaire layouts.
The calculation of the luminaire luminance divides the
average luminous intensity in the direction of the
observers eye by the area of the luminaire, A, :
Formula 9
Using these calculations, the values for and the Guth
Position Index P as determined earlier, the UGR may
be calculated by use of the formula:
68
Standard and Practice ANSI/IESNA RP-7-01.)
ANNEX C
AVERAGE ILLUMINANCE CALCULATION: THE
LUMEN METHOD
Choosing a Calculation Method
Lighting calculations are performed during the design
process to obtain information about lighting system
performance. A designer can use the results of calcu-
lations to choose between design alternatives or to
refine a particular design. Lighting calculations are
mathematical models of the complex physical
processes that occur within a lighted space. Since
these models can never be accurate in every detail,
the computations are approximations of real situa-
tions.
The simplest lighting calculation can be performed by
hand, whereas the more advanced methods require
the use of a computer. More advanced methods gen-
erally provide more accurate information. (Accuracy is
defined here as the degree to which the calculations
agree with reality.)
The type of information that is desired about a lighting
system and the complexity of the lighting condition
being analyzed determine which calculation method is
best applied to the problem. The aspects that must be
evaluated in determining the lighting analysis model
to use are the following:
Information desired
Equipment choice
Equipment number and placement
Space characteristics
It is the responsibility of the designer to determine and
use the most appropriate calculation methods for an
application, either a simple average illuminance
method or a more complex method to calculate illumi-
nance at a specific point.
The Lumen Method
The Lumen Method described here is the simple aver-
age illuminance calculation method, which can be
applied to interior spaces where a general uniform
lighting system is required. It is a useful tool in two
ways; it allows the calculation of the average illumi-
nance when given the number of luminaries to be
used in the space, or it can be used to find the num-
ber of luminaries required, given the desired average
illuminance.
The method does have limitations. The illuminance
computed is an average value that is representative
only if the luminaries are spaced to obtain reasonably
uniform illuminance. The average illuminance deter-
mined by the method is defined to be the total lumens
reaching the horizontal workplane divided by the area
of the workplane. The average value determined this
way might vary considerably from that obtained by
averaging discrete values of illuminance at several
points. The method assumes that room surfaces are
diffuse, the illuminance on each surface is uniformly
distributed over that surface and that the room is
empty.
The workplane is positioned at the height of the visu-
al task. For example, for desk tasks the height is typ-
ically assumed to be 0.76 m (2.5 ft.) above the floor.
In a space such as a jet aircraft factory, it might be
placed at the wing height of the aircraft.
Average Illuminance Equation
The equation for the illuminance in a space is:
@(roTa,) x CU x LLF
E , =
A v
where:
E, =average maintained illuminance
on the workplane
@(TOTAL) =total system lamp lumen output
CU =luminaire coefficient of utilization
LLF =light loss factor
A, =area of the workplane
These terms will be explored in more detail. See also
the calculation worksheet, Figure C-1 .
Workplane illuminance (,)i s the average main-
tained luminous flux striking the workplane per unit
area of workplane.
Total System Lamp Lumen Output (@,,,)-refers to
the number of initial lumens produced by all lamps
within the luminaries that are lighting the space. The
lamp manufacturers published lumen rating is used
for this calculation.
For example, an application is using 10 recessed flu-
orescent luminaries. Each luminaire has three 32W
T8 lamps. The manufacturers data on the lamp
shows that the initial lumen output of the lamp is 2900
lumens. Thus, the total lamp lumen output ((I ) in
the space is
( @, , , , , ) =10 luminaries x 3 lamps/luminaire x 2900
IumensAamp =87,000 lumens
69
Step 1 : Fill in sketch at right
Step 2: Determine Cavity Ratios
* e--%
Room Cavity Ratio, RCR =
Ceiling Cavity Ratio, CCR =
-- WORK-PLANE-- -
es-% ,e-%
Floor Cavity Ratio, FCR =
GENERAL INFORMATION
-T
hCCJ-
-T 1=
-4-
RC =-
w- -
hFC O-
A
Project identification:
(Give name of area and/or building and roomnumber)
Average maintained illuminance for design:- lux or Lamp data:
Luminaire data:
:- footcandles
Type and color:
Number per luminaire:
Total lumens per luminaire:
Manufacturer:
Catalog number:
SELECTION OF COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION
Step 3: Obtain Effective Ceiling Cavity Reflectance @=) pcc= -
-
Step 4: Obtain Effective Floor Cavity Reflectance (pFc) PFC e
Step 5: Obtain Coefficient of Utilization (CU) from Manufacturers Data CU= -
SELECTION OF LIGHT LOSS FACTORS
Nonrecoverable Factors
Luminaire Ambienttemperature factor
Heatextraction thermal factor
Voltage to luminaire factor
Ballast factor (BF)
Ballast lamp photometer factor
Equipmentoperating factor
Lamp position (tilt) factor
Luminaire surface depreciation factor
Recoverable Factors
Lamp lumen depreciation factor (LLD)
Luminaire dirt depreciation factor (LLD)
Room surface dirt depreciation factor (RSDD)
Lamp burnout factor (LBO)
Total light loss factor, LLF (product of individual factors above) =
-
CALCULATIONS
(Average Maintained Illuminance)
(Illuminance) x (Area)
(Lumens per Luminaire) x (CU) x (LLF)
Number of Luminaires =
(Number of Luminaires) x (Lumens per Luminaire) x (CU) X (LLF)
(Area)
Illuminance =
Calculated by: Date:
Fia. 9-20. Avernnn illiiminnnrin calci ilntinn shed
Figure C-l . Average illuminance calculation worksheet.
70
Recoverable Factors
Lamp lumen depreciation factor (LLD)
Luminaire dirt demeciation factor LDD)
Luminaire Coefficient of Utilization (CU)-gives the
fraction of lumens that reach the workplane, directly
from the light sources and from interreflections. The
CU takes into account the efficiency of the luminaire
and the impact of the luminaire distribution and the
Floor Cavity Height x ( Length +Width)
Length x Width
FCR =5
Nonrecoverable Factors
Luminaire ambient temperature factor
Heat extraction thermal factor
Ceiling Caviy Height x (Length +(Width)
Length x Width
CCR =5
room surfaces in its derivation. Thus, the number of
lumens produced by the lamps, multiplied by the CU,
determines the number of lumens that reach the
workplane. Four factors influence the CU:
Lamp burnout factor (LBO)
The efficiency of the luminaire
(b) The luminaire distribution
(c) The geometry of the space
(d) The reflectances of room surfaces
Ballast factor (BF)
Ballast lamp photometer factor
Equipment operating factor
Lamp position (tilt) factor
Luminaire surface depreciation factor
CU values are listed in tables for different room
geometries and room surface reflectances. Each
luminaire has its own CU table specific to that lumi-
naires light distribution and efficiency. Factors (a) and
(b) are, therefore, included in all values found in a CU
table. Their values are tabulated for various surface
reflectances and room cavity ratios (RCRs). The RCR
is five (5) times the ratio of total vertical surface area
to total horizontal surface area within the room cavity
and therefore indicates the relative space proportions.
To find the RCR, either of the following equations can
be used:
where:
VSA =the sum of the vertical surfaces within the room
cavity. This is the sum of the wall areas above the
working plane and below the luminaries.
HSA =the sum of the working plane and the luminaire
plane areas
Or:
The areas in the first equation are the total vertical
and horizontal surface areas within the room cavity,
which is the space between the luminaries and the
workplane. A room may have up to three different cav-
ities (see Figure C-2). The portion of the room that is
above the luminaries is called the ceiling cavity, and
that portion below the workplane is the floor cavity.
Luminaire plane Luminaire piane J
Figure C-2. The space may be divided into as many
as three cavities.
If the luminaries are recessed or surface mounted,
there is no ceiling cavity. if the workplane is at the floor
level there isno floor cavity.
It is critical to consider only the wall surface area that
iswithin the room cavity as the vertical surface area in
determining the RCR. The horizontal surface area
refers to the area of the workplane and the luminaire
plane and is the same as two times the floor area.
The only other room parameters that are needed to
obtain a CU value are the room cavity reflectances,
which may not be equal to the actual room surface
reflectances. Since the Lumen Method considers
what occurs only within the room cavity, the ceiling
and floor cavities are replaced with their effective
reflectances. Effective reflectances model the manner
in which these cavities reflect light.
I Room surface dirt demeciation factor RSDD I Voltage to luminaire factor I
71
For example, in an industrial application where the
luminaries are suspended from the ceiling, the space
between the luminaries and the ceiling is the ceiling
cavity. Because light that enters the ceiling cavity may
reflect off more than one surface before exiting the
cavity, the effective reflectance of the ceiling cavity is
generally lower than the actual ceiling reflectance. For
a floor cavity, where the walls are usually of higher
reflectance than the floor, the effective reflectance
may be higher or lower than the actual floor
reflectance, depending on the space dimensions.
To find the effective reflectance of a floor or ceiling
cavity, it is necessary to first find the floor cavity ratio
(FCR) or ceiling cavity ratio (CCR). The equations are
identical to that for the room cavity ratio, except that
the height of the walls within the cavity is used as the
cavity height.
The only other information necessary to find the effec-
tive cavity reflectances are the cavity surface
reflectances. The surface that is opposite the opening
to the cavity is called the cavity base. The base
reflectance, the wall reflectances, and the cavity ratio
determine the effective cavity reflectance. Knowing
these pieces of information it is possible to find the cav-
ity reflectance (see IESNA Lighting Handbook, 9th
Edition, for detailed information on cavity reflectances.)
Light Loss Factor (LL,-Since the design objective
usually is maintained illuminance, a light loss factor
must be applied to allow for the estimated depreciation
in lamp lumens over time, the estimated losses from
dirt collection on the luminaire surfaces (including
lamps), and other factors that affect luminaire lumen
output over time. Some differences prevail from initial
operation of the system; others change with time. It is
important to consider these losses to accurately reflect
the systems performance in the real environment.
operating factor Lamp position (tilt) factor Luminaire
surface depreciation factor
A total light loss factor of 0.75 might be applied to
many well-maintained commercial buildings having a
clean environment. This means that 25 percent (100
minus 75 percent) of the luminous flux that might oth-
erwise reach the workplane is lost due to ballast fac-
tor, dirty luminaries, rooms surfaces, and aged lamps.
In a dirty manufacturing facility the percentage lost
would be higher.
Area of Workplane ( A w p ) I s the area of the entire
workplane, which is typically the same as the floor
area. The Lumen Method computes an average illu-
minance over the entire area of the space. In reality,
the illuminance will be greatest near the center of the
area and slightly less toward the walls for a given uni-
form layout of luminaries.
Light loss factors are divided into two groups: recover-
able and non-recoverable. (See Figure C-3.)
Recoverable factors can be affected by maintenance,
such as cleaning and relamping luminaries, or by clean-
ing or painting room surfaces. Nonrecoverable factors
are those attributed to equipment and site conditions
and cannot be changed with normal maintenance. The
total LLF is simply the product of the individual factors.
For more information on the various factors, see the
IESNA Lighting Handbook, 9th Edition, 2000.
Calculating the Number of Luminaries
It is important to know not only how to calculate the
illuminance from a specific number of luminaries in a
space, but also how to determine the required number
of luminaries to meet a desired illuminance. The num-
ber of luminaries required is calculated by rearranging
the Lumen Method equation.
Number of Luminaires =
4, x E,,
lumens i lampx lampshminairesx CU x LLq,,,,,)
Recoverable Factors Nonrecoverable Factors
Lamp lumen depreciation factor (LLD) Luminaire
ambient temperature factor Luminaire dirt deprecia-
tion factor (LDD) Heat extraction thermal factor Room
surface dirt depreciation factor (RSDD) Voltage to
luminaire factor Lamp burnout factor (LBO) Ballast
factor (BF) Ballast lamp photometer factor Equipment
72
IFS
Il l umi nat i ng Engi neer i ng Soci et y of North Ameri ca
120 Wall St. 17th Floor New York, NY 10005
http:/lwww.iesna.org
$40.00 Order #RP-7-01
ISBN #0-87995-1 76-1
i
,

Ies RP 7 2001

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Ies RP 7 2001

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

RP-7-01 ERRATA

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen