Generator Paralleing Switchgear LEBW7543-02

GENERATOR PARALLELING
SWITCHGEAR

A P P L I C A T I O N A N D I N S T A L L A T I O N G U I D E

Contents
1 SWITCHGEAR................................................................... 1
1 . 1 C o d e s, S ta n d a rd s, a n d T e rm s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1 . 1 . 1 I E E E 1 5 4 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 VOLTAGE CLASSIFICATIONS ............................................. 2
3 SWITCHGEAR TYPES......................................................... 2
3 . 1 M e ta l-E n c lo se d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 . 2 M e ta l-C la d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 . 3 A rc R e sista n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 . 4 E n c lo su re R a tin g s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 . 4 . 1 N o n -H a za rd o u s L o c a tio n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 . 4 . 2 H a za rd o u s L o c a tio n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 . 4 . 3 N E M A E n c lo su re T y p e N u m b e rs v s. I E C E n c lo su re
C la ssific a tio n D e sig n a tio n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4 POWER ASSEMBLY ......................................................... 10
4 . 1 S w itch g ear v s. S w itch b o ard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0
4 . 2 S w itc h g e a r S ta n d a rd s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1
4 . 3 S w itc h g e a r D im e n sio n s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
4 . 3 . 1 M e ta l-E n c lo se d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2
4 . 3 . 2 M e ta l-C la d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3
4 . 4 S w itc h g e a r L a y o u t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3
4 . 5 B u sb a r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4
4 . 5 . 1 S k in E ffe c t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4
4 . 5 . 2 M e ta l S e le c tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5
4 . 6 Wirin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5
4 . 7 T ra n sfo rm e rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5

4 . 7 . 1 C u rre n t T ra n sfo rm e rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5
4 . 7 . 2 V o lta g e /P o te n tia l T ra n sfo rm e rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6
4 . 7 . 3 C o n tro l P o w e r T ra n sfo rm e rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7
5 CIRCUIT BREAKERS......................................................... 18
5 . 1 8 0 % v s. 1 0 0 % R a tin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0
5 . 1 . 1 N E C R e q u ire m e n ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0
5 . 2 T y p e s o f C irc u it B re a k e rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0
5 . 2 . 1 L o w V o lta g e C irc u it B re a k e rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0
5 . 2 . 1 . 1 L o w V o lta g e M o ld e d C a se . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1
5 . 2 . 1 . 2 L o w V o lta g e I n su la te d C a se . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2
5 . 2 . 2 L o w V o lta g e P o w e r B re a k e rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2
5 . 2 . 3 M e d iu m V o lta g e C irc u it B re a k e rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3
5 . 2 . 3 . 1 V a c u u m C irc u it B re a k e rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3
5 . 2 . 3 . 2 S F 6 C irc u it B re a k e rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4
5 . 3 T rip U n its. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5
5 . 3 . 1 S o lid S ta te C irc u itry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 6
5 . 3 . 2 L o n g D e la y (L ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 6
5 . 3 . 3 S h o rt D e la y (S ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 6
5 . 3 . 4 G ro u n d F a u lt (G ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7
5 . 3 . 5 A n ti-P u m p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7
5 . 4 C o m p o n e n ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8
5 . 4 . 1 S h u n t T rip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8
5 . 4 . 2 U n d e r-V o lta g e D e v ic e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8
5 . 4 . 3 A u x ilia ry C o n ta c ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8
5 . 4 . 4 M o to r O p e ra to r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8
5 . 4 . 5 M e d iu m V o lta g e C irc u it B re a k e r C o m p o n e n ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9

5 . 5 S izin g C irc u it B re a k e rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0
5 . 6 O v e rlo a d P ro te c tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0
5 . 7 S h o rt C irc u it P ro te c tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1
5 . 8 C o n tro l P o w e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2
5 . 8 . 1 B a tte rie s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2
5 . 8 . 2 B a tte ry C h a rg e rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2
6 CONTROLS..................................................................... 33
6 . 1 C o m p o n e n ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3
6 . 1 . 1 C o n tro l R e la y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3
6 . 1 . 2 P ro g ra m m a b le L o g ic C o n tro lle r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3
6 . 1 . 3 T ra n sd u c e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3
6 . 1 . 4 O p e ra to r I n te rfa c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4
6 . 2 C o m m u n ic a tio n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4
6 . 2 . 1 M o d b u s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4
6 . 2 . 2 E th e rn e t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4
6 . 2 . 3 R e m o te M o n ito rin g a n d C o n tro l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4
6 . 2 . 3 . 1 B u ild in g M a n a g e m e n t/ A u to m a tio n S y ste m . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4
6 . 2 . 3 . 2 S C A D A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5
6 . 2 . 4 H u m a n M a c h in e I n te rfa c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5
6 . 2 . 5 R e p o rtin g a n d T re n d in g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5
6 . 3 M a ste r C o n tro ls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5
6 . 3 . 1 L o a d S e n se /D e m a n d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5
6 . 3 . 2 L o a d P rio ritiza tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 6
6 . 3 . 3 L o a d S h e d /A d d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 6
6 . 3 . 4 D e a d B u s A rb itra tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7
6 . 3 . 5 S y ste m L e v e l T e stin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7

6 . 3 . 6 S y ste m L e v e l P ro te c tiv e R e la y in g a n d M e te rin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7
6 . 4 G e n e ra to r C o n tro ls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7
6 . 4 . 1 V o lta g e C o n tro l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7
6 . 4 . 1 . 1 V o lta g e R e g u la to rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7
6 . 4 . 2 S p e e d C o n tro l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 8
6 . 4 . 3 C o m m u n ic a tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 8
6 . 5 P ro te c tiv e D e v ic e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 8
6 . 5 . 1 U tility I n te rtie P ro te c tiv e R e la y s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2
6 . 5 . 1 . 1 G e n e ra to r P ro te c tiv e R e la y s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3
6 . 5 . 2 T e st B lo c k s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3
6 . 5 . 3 S u rg e P ro te c tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3
6 . 5 . 3 . 1 T ra n sie n t L o w V o lta g e S u rg e S u p p re sso r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3
6 . 5 . 3 . 2 S u rg e A rre sto rs a n d S u rg e C a p a c ito rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4
7 METERING...................................................................... 45
7 . 1 D isc re te A n a lo g v s. V irtu a l M e te rin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5
7 . 2 P h a se S e le c to r S w itc h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5
7 . 3 A m m e te r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5
7 . 4 V o ltm e te r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5
7 . 5 F re q u e n c y M e te r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5
7 . 6 Wa ttm e te r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5
7 . 7 K ilo w a tt-H o u r M e te r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5
7 . 8 P o w e r F a c to r M e te r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5
7 . 9 E la p se d T im e M e te r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5
7 . 9 . 1 D isc re te A n a lo g v s. V irtu a l M e te rin g : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 6
8 ANNUNCIATION.............................................................. 46
8 . 1 N F P A 9 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 6
8 . 2 N F P A 1 1 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 7

8 . 3 S ite S p e c ific C o m p o n e n ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 7
9 PARALLEL OPERATION.................................................... 48
9 . 1 I so c h ro n o u s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 8
9 . 2 D ro o p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 8
9 . 3 S y n c h ro n izin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 9
9 . 3 . 1 R o ta tio n o f P h a se s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 9
9 . 3 . 2 V o lta g e M a tc h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 0
9 . 3 . 3 F re q u e n c y M a tc h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1
9 . 3 . 4 P h a se A n g le M a tc h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1
9 . 4 M e th o d s o f P a ra lle lin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2
9 . 4 . 1 M a n u a l P a ra lle lin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2
9 . 4 . 2 P e rm issiv e P a ra lle lin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4
9 . 4 . 3 S e m ia u to m a tic P a ra lle lin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4
9 . 4 . 4 A u to m a tic P a ra lle lin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4
9 . 5 P a ra lle lin g C o m p o n e n ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4
9 . 5 . 1 S y n c h ro sc o p e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4
9 . 5 . 2 S y n c C h e c k R e la y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5
9 . 5 . 3 A u to m a tic S y n c h ro n ize r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5
9 . 5 . 4 L o a d S h a rin g M o d u le s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5
9 . 6 I sla n d M o d e O p e ra tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6
9 . 6 . 1 R e a l (k W) L o a d S h a rin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6
9 . 6 . 2 C irc u la tin g C u rre n ts in P a ra lle le d G e n e ra to rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 7
9 . 6 . 2 . 1 C ro ss-c u rre n t C o m p e n sa tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 8
9 . 7 U tility P a ra lle le d O p e ra tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 0
9 . 7 . 1 I n fin ite U tility B u s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 0
9 . 7 . 2 V A R /P o w e r F a c to r R e g u la tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1

10 APPLICATIONS.............................................................. 63
1 0 . 1 S ta n d b y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3
1 0 . 1 . 1 A u to m a tic T ra n sfe r S w itc h I n te g ra tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3
1 0 . 1 . 2 U n in te rru p tib le P o w e r S u p p ly I n te g ra tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 4
1 0 . 2 P a ra lle l w ith U tility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 4
1 0 . 2 . 1 B a se L o a d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 5
1 0 . 2 . 2 Z e ro I m p o rt/Z e ro E x p o rt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 5
1 0 . 2 . 3 P e a k S h a v in g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 5
1 0 . 2 . 4 Z e ro P o w e r T ra n sfe r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6
1 0 . 3 P rim e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6
11 MISCELLANEOUS.......................................................... 66
1 1 . 1 D istrib u te d G e n e ra tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6
1 1 . 2 S ite C o n d itio n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6
1 1 . 2 . 1 A ltitu d e C o rre c tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6
1 1 . 2 . 2 T e m p e ra tu re C o m p e n sa tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6
1 1 . 2 . 3 H u m id ity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 7
12 MAINTAINING SWITCHGEAR.......................................... 67
1 2 . 1 P la n n e d M a in te n a n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 7
1 2 . 2 S p a re P a rts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 8
1 2 . 3 S a fe ty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 8
1 2 . 3 . 1 N F P A 7 0 E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 8
13 GLOSSARY OF TERMS................................................... 70
14 APPENDICES................................................................. 73
1 4 . 1 A p p e n d ix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3
1 4 . 2 B ib lio g ra p h y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5

Foreword
T h is se c tio n o f th e A p p lic a tio n a n d I n sta lla tio n G u id e g e n e ra lly d e sc rib e s w id e -
ra n g in g re q u ire m e n ts a n d o p tio n s fo r S w itc h g e a r w ith a fo c u s o n G e n e ra to r
P a ra lle lin g S w itc h g e a r. A d d itio n a l e n g in e a n d g e n e ra to r sy ste m s, c o m p o n e n ts, a n d
d y n a m ic s a re c o v e re d in o th e r se c tio n s o f th is G u id e .
S y ste m s a n d c o m p o n e n ts d e sc rib e d in th is g u id e m a y n o t b e a v a ila b le o r
a p p lic a b le fo r a ll S w itc h g e a r. Wh ile m u c h o f th e c o n te n t o f th is g u id e is a p p lic a b le
to a ll sw itc h g e a r th e p rim a ry fo c u s o f th is g u id e is o n th e N o rth A m e ric a n
g e n e ra to r p a ra lle lin g sw itc h g e a r m a rk e t.

I n fo rm a tio n c o n ta in e d in th is p u b lic a tio n m a y b e c o n sid e re d c o n fid e n tia l. D isc re tio n is
re c o m m e n d e d w h e n d istrib u tin g . M a te ria ls a n d sp e c ific a tio n s a re su b je c t to c h a n g e
w ith o u t n o tic e .
C A T , C A T E R P I L L A R , th e ir re sp e c tiv e lo g o s, " C a te rp illa r Y e llo w , " th e " P o w e r E d g e " tra d e
d re ss a s w e ll a s c o rp o ra te a n d p ro d u c t id e n tity u se d h e re in , a re tra d e m a rk s o f C a te rp illa r
a n d m a y n o t b e u se d w ith o u t p e rm issio n .
G e n e ra to r P a ra lle lin g S w itc h g e a r A p p lic a tio n a n d I n sta lla tio n G u id e

2 0 1 1 C a te rp illa r
A ll rig h ts re se rv e d . P a g e 1
1 SWITCHGEAR
E lectric P o w er G en eratio n sy stem s
p ro v id e p rim ary an d b acku p electrical
p o w er in in stallatio n s aro u n d th e w o rld .
G en e rato r P arallelin g S w itch g ear is an
in teg ral co m p o n en t in m an y o f th ese
in sta lla tio n s to e n su re o p tim al p o w er
g en eratio n an d electrical d istrib u tio n
sy ste m p e rfo rm a n c e .
T h e te rm sw itc h g e a r re fe rs to th e
c o m b in a tio n o f e le c tric a l d isc o n n e c ts,
fu se s, a n d /o r c irc u it b re a k e rs u se d
to iso la te e le c tric e q u ip m e n t a n d
d istrib u te e le c tric a l p o w e r. T h e
p rim a ry fu n c tio n s o f G e n e ra to r
P a ra lle lin g S w itc h g e a r a re :
S w itch in g p o w er so u rce
to th e lo ad .
P ro tectin g th e g en erato r set.
M eterin g o u tp u t.
P ro v id in g p arallelin g an d lo ad
sh arin g cap ab ility .
O p eratin g th e g en erato r set.
1.1 Codes, Standards,
and Terms
With in th e U n ite d S ta te s, se v e ra l
o rg a n iza tio n s a re re sp o n sib le fo r
c re a tin g c o d e s a n d sta n d a rd s
re g a rd in g sw itc h g e a r c o n stru c tio n .
T h e m a in o rg a n iza tio n s a re
A m erican N atio n al S tan d ard s
In stitu te (A N S I).
In stitu te o f E lectrical an d
E lectro n ic E n g in eers (IE E E ).
U n d erw riters Lab o rato ry (U L).
N atio n al F ire P ro tectio n
A sso ciatio n (N F P A ) also
sp o n so rs th e N atio n al E lectrical
C o d e (N E C ).
N atio n al E lectrical M an u factu rers
A sso ciatio n (N E M A ).
A m erican B u reau o f S h ip p in g
(A B S ).
S w itc h g e a r in sta lla tio n s in c o u n trie s
o th e r th a n th e U S a re ty p ic a lly su b je c t
to re q u ire m e n ts o f th e I n te rn a tio n a l
E le c tro -T e c h n ic a l C o m m issio n (I E C )
o r U n d e rw rite rs L a b o ra to ry (U L ) a s
w e ll a s th e n a tio n a l a g e n c ie s o f th e
c o u n try in v o lv e d .
M a rin e in sta lla tio n s in th e U S
a re su b je c t to a n d g e n e ra lly re q u ire
a p p ro v a l o f v a rio u s m a rin e re g u la to ry
b o d ie s su c h a s th e U n ite d S ta te s
C o a st G u a rd a n d th e A m e ric a n
B u re a u o f S h ip p in g (A B S ).
M a rin e a p p lic a tio n s o fte n re q u ire
sw itc h b o a rd a n d c o m p le te sh ip b o a rd
e le c tric a l sy ste m s to b e fu rn ish e d a n d
in sta lle d a c c o rd in g to I E E E S ta n d a rd
4 5 (I E E E R e c o m m e n d e d P ra c tic e fo r
E le c tric I n sta lla tio n s o n S h ip b o a rd ).
I n te rn a tio n a l m a rin e a p p lic a tio n s
m u st c o m p ly w ith o th e r re g u la to ry
b o d ie s su c h a s L lo y d s, B u re a u o f
V e rita s, D e t N o rk V e rita s, a n d c o a st
g u a rd re q u ire m e n ts o f o th e r c o u n trie s.
1.1.1 IEEE1547
I E E E 1 5 4 7 is a stan d ard th at estab -
lish es c rite ria a n d re q u ire m e n ts fo r
in terco n n ectio n o f d istrib u ted reso u rces
w ith ele ctric p o w e r sy ste m s (E P S ).
T h is d o c u m e n t p ro v id e s a u n ifo rm
sta n d a rd fo r in te rc o n n e c tio n o f
d istrib u te d re so u rc e s w ith E P S .
I t p ro v id e s re q u ire m e n ts re le v a n t
to th e p e rfo rm a n c e , o p e ra tio n ,
te stin g , sa fe ty c o n sid e ra tio n s, a n d
m a in te n a n c e o f th e in te rc o n n e c tio n .
A p p lic a tio n a n d I n sta lla tio n G u id e G e n e ra to r P a ra lle lin g S w itc h g e a r
P a g e 2 A ll rig h ts re se rv e d .
2 VOLTAGE
CLASSIFICATIONS
S w itc h g e a r sy ste m s a re g e n e ra lly
c la ssifie d b y v o lta g e . T y p ic a l ra n g e s
o f p a ra lle lin g sw itc h g e a r v o lta g e s a re
fro m 4 8 0 V to 1 5 k V a n d m a tc h th e
v o lta g e ra n g e s o f th e g e n e ra to rs.
A sse m b lie s a re a lso ra te d a t sp e c ific
v o lta g e s (i. e . 5 k V , 1 5 k V , 2 7 k V ,
3 8 k V , e tc . ).
F ig u re 1 illu stra te s th e m o st
c o m m o n v o lta g e ra n g e s fo r
sw itc h g e a r.
C a te rp illa r I n c . d e n o te s 1 5 k V
g e n e ra to rs a s h ig h v o lta g e . T h e fo c u s
o f th is d o c u m e n ta tio n w ill b e o n th e
lo w a n d m e d iu m v o lta g e ra n g e s.
3-Wire 4-Wire
240/120 208Y/120
240 240/120
480 480Y/277
600 -
2400 4160Y/2400
4160 8320Y/4800
4800 12000Y/6930
6900 12470Y/7200
13200 13200Y/7620
13800 13800Y/7970
14400
Voltage
Class
Nominal System Voltage
Low
Voltage
(LV)
Medium
Voltage
(MV)
Figure 1 Standard Nominal System
Voltages and Voltage Ranges
(IEEE Standard 141-1993)
3 SWITCHGEAR TYPES
T h re e ty p e s o f sw itc h g e a r a re
a v a ila b le : m e ta l-e n c lo se d , m e ta l-c la d ,
a n d a rc re sista n t. M e ta l-e n c lo se d
sw itc h g e a r is p rim a rily u se d fo r lo w
v o lta g e a p p lic a tio n s w h ile m e ta l-c la d
a n d a rc re sista n t sw itc h g e a r a re m o st
o fte n u se d fo r m e d iu m v o lta g e
sw itc h g e a r.
Wh ile u n c o m m o n in N o rth A m e ric a ,
it is p o ssib le to fin d re q u ire m e n ts fo r
m e d iu m v o lta g e m e ta l-e n c lo se d
sw itc h g e a r.
3.1 Metal-Enclosed
M e ta l-e n c lo se d sw itc h g e a r is
c o m m o n ly u se d in lo w v o lta g e
a p p lic a tio n s.

Rated Maximum
Voltage (V rms)
Impulse
Withstand (kV)
254
508
635
2.2
2.2
2.2
Figure 2 LV AC Metal-Enclosed Switchgear
Voltage and Insulation Levels
(IEE C37.20.1 2002)
M e ta l-e n c lo se d sw itc h g e a r ty p ic a lly
in c lu d e s:
Lo w v o ltag e m o ld ed case o r
p o w er circu it b reakers (fu sed
o r u n fu sed ) in acco rd an ce
w ith A N S I/IE E E C 3 7 . 1 3 .
B are b u s b ars an d co n n ectio n s.
In stru m en t, co n tro l v o ltag e,
an d cu rren t tran sfo rm ers.
In stru m en ts an d m eters.
R elay s, d ig ital au to m atio n
p ro cesso rs, an d o th er lo g ic
d ev ices.

C o n tro l w irin g , fu ses, an d
term in al b lo cks.
S p eed an d v o ltag e co n tro l
co m p o n en ts fo r th e sp ecific
g en erato r set.
F eed er circu it b reakers an d p o w er
cab le co n n ectio n s.
S p eed co n tro l co m p o n en ts.
V o ltag e co n tro l co m p o n en ts.
L o w v o lta g e m o ld e d c a se o r p o w e r
c irc u it b re a k e rs a re c o n ta in e d in m e ta l
c o m p a rtm e n ts. T h e se c irc u it b re a k e rs
can b e m an u ally o p erated o r electrically
o p erated b y lo cal o r rem o te sy stem
c o n tro ls. T h e c irc u it b re a k e rs m a y b e
statio n ary o r rem o v ab le, p lu g -in fo r
m o ld ed case ty p e, an d d raw -o u t fo r
p o w e r ty p e c irc u it b re a k e rs.
Indoor Switchgear:
M e ta l-e n c lo se d sw itc h g e a r is
e n c lo se d o n a ll sid e s, in c lu d in g th e
to p , w ith sh e e t m e ta l. V e n tila tin g
o p e n in g s a n d in sp e c tio n w in d o w s a re
n o t c o v e re d . T h e e n c lo su re c o n ta in s
th e p o w e r sw itc h in g o r in te rru p tin g
d e v ic e s w ith b u se s a n d c o n n e c tio n s,
c o n tro ls, in stru m e n ta tio n , m e te rin g ,
a n d o th e r a u x ilia ry d e v ic e s. D o o rs
a n d /o r re m o v a b le c o v e rs p ro v id e
a c c e ss to th e in te rio r o f th e
e n c lo su re .
Outdoor Switchgear:
O u td o o r m e ta l-e n c lo se d sw itc h g e a r
is sim ila r to in d o o r sw itc h g e a r e x c e p t
it is a lso w e a th e rp ro o f. A w a lk -in
o u td o o r e n c lo se d sw itc h g e a r
a sse m b ly w ith a n a isle in fro n t o f
th e c irc u it b re a k e r a n d in stru m e n t
se c tio n s to p ro te c t w o rk e rs a n d
e q u ip m e n t fro m w e a th e r d u rin g
m a in te n a n c e a n d sy ste m o p e ra tio n
c a n b e p ro v id e d .
3.2 Metal-Clad
M e ta lc la d sw itc h g e a r is m o st
c o m m o n ly u se d in m e d iu m v o lta g e
a p p lic a tio n s. F ig u re 3 sh o w s th e
v a lu e s fo r ra te d m a x im u m v o lta g e
a n d im p u lse w ith sta n d fo r m e ta l-c la d
sw itc h g e a r.
Rated Maximum
Voltage (kV rms)
Impulse
Withstand (kV)
4.76
8.25
15.0
60
95
95
Figure 3 MV AC Metal-Clad Switchgear
Voltage and Insulation Levels
(ANSI/IEEE C37.20.2-1999)
M e d iu m v o lta g e m e ta l-c la d
sw itc h g e a r c o n stru c tio n d iffe rs fro m
m e ta l-e n c lo se d sw itc h g e a r in se v e ra l
w a y s. T h e fe a tu re s th a t c h a ra c te rize
m e ta l-c la d sw itc h g e a r a re su m m a rize d
in th e fo llo w in g p a ra g ra p h s.
T h e m a in sw itc h in g a n d
in te rru p tin g d e v ic e is o f th e
re m o v a b le (d ra w -o u t) ty p e
a rra n g e d w ith a m e c h a n ism fo r
m o v in g it p h y sic a lly b e tw e e n
c o n n e c te d a n d d isc o n n e c te d
p o sitio n s. I t is a lso e q u ip p e d w ith
se lf-a lig n in g a n d se lf-c o u p lin g
p rim a ry d isc o n n e c tin g d e v ic e s a n d
c o n tro l w irin g c o n n e c tio n s c a p a b le
o f b e in g d isc o n n e c te d .
M a jo r p a rts o f th e p rim a ry c irc u it,
su c h a s th e c irc u it sw itc h in g o r
in te rru p tin g d e v ic e s, b u se s,
v o lta g e tra n sfo rm e rs, a n d c o n tro l
p o w e r tra n sfo rm e rs, a re
c o m p le te ly e n c lo se d b y g ro u n d e d
m e ta l b a rrie rs th a t h a v e n o
in te n tio n a l o p e n in g s b e tw e e n
c o m p a rtm e n ts. S p e c ific a lly
in c lu d e d is a m e ta l b a rrie r in
fro n t o f o r a p a rt o f th e c irc u it
in te rru p tin g d e v ic e to in su re th a t,
w h e n in c o n n e c te d p o sitio n , n o
p rim a ry c irc u it c o m p o n e n ts a re
e x p o se d b y th e o p e n in g o f a d o o r.
A ll liv e p a rts a re e n c lo se d w ith in
g ro u n d e d m e ta l c o m p a rtm e n ts.
A u to m a tic sh u tte rs c o v e r p rim a ry
c irc u it e le m e n ts w h e n th e
re m o v a b le e le m e n t is in th e
d isc o n n e c te d , te st, o r re m o v e d
p o sitio n .
P rim a ry b u s c o n d u c to rs a n d
c o n n e c tio n s a re c o v e re d w ith
in su la tin g m a te ria l th ro u g h o u t.
M e c h a n ic a l o r e le c tric a l in te rlo c k s
a re p ro v id e d fo r p ro p e r o p e ra tin g
se q u e n c e u n d e r n o rm a l o p e ra tin g
c o n d itio n s.
With th e e x c e p tio n o f sh o rt
le n g th s o f w ire su c h a s a t
in stru m e n t tra n sfo rm e r te rm in a ls,
in stru m e n ts, m e te rs, re la y s,
se c o n d a ry c o n tro l d e v ic e s, a n d
th e ir w irin g a re iso la te d fro m a ll
p rim a ry c irc u it e le m e n ts b y
g ro u n d e d m e ta l b a rrie rs.
T h e d o o r th ro u g h w h ic h th e
c irc u it-in te rru p tin g d e v ic e is
in se rte d in to th e h o u sin g m a y
se rv e a s a n in stru m e n t o r re la y
p a n e l a n d m a y a lso p ro v id e
a c c e ss to a se c o n d a ry o r c o n tro l
c o m p a rtm e n t w ith in th e h o u sin g .
3.3 Arc Resistant
C o n v e n tio n a l m e d iu m v o lta g e m e ta l-
c la d sw itc h g e a r is n o t d e sig n e d to
w ith sta n d h ig h a rc e n e rg y fa u lts.
F a u lts d u e to d e fe c tiv e in su la tin g
m a te ria ls, im p ro p e r b u s jo in ts, p o o r
m a in te n a n c e , in c o rre c t p ro te c tiv e o r
sa fe ty d e v ic e s, h u m a n e rro r, in g re ss
o f m o istu re , a b n o rm a l se rv ic e
c o n d itio n s, e tc . c o u ld q u ic k ly d e v e lo p
in to a 3 -p h a se fa u lt. H ig h a rc e n e rg y
fa u lts c a u se ra p id te m p e ra tu re
in c re a se s o f th e su rro u n d in g a ir
a n d ra p id in c re a se s o f p re ssu re
in sid e th e e n c lo su re .
A rc re sista n t sw itc h g e a r is d e sig n e d
to p ro v id e p ro te c tio n a g a in st in te rn a l
a rc in g fa u lts. T h e fo llo w in g sa fe ty
b e n e fits c a n b e g a in e d b y u sin g a rc
re sista n t sw itc h g e a r:
E a c h c o m p a rtm e n t d o o r a n d b a rrie r
p la te is d e sig n e d to w ith sta n d
p re ssu re su rg e s d u e to in te rn a l
a rc in g .
H o t g a se s a n d m o lte n p a rtic le s
e sc a p e th ro u g h a sp e c ia lly
d e sig n e d p re ssu re re lie v e v e n t
lo c a te d o n th e ro o f o f th e
e n c lo su re a w a y fro m o p e ra tin g
p e rso n n e l.
C lo se d d o o r ra c k in g o f c irc u it
b re a k e r p ro v id e s a d d e d sa fe ty .
V ie w in g w in d o w s a llo w p e rso n n e l
to o b se rv e th e sta tu s o f th e c irc u it
b re a k e r w ith o u t o p e n in g th e d o o r.
T h e lo w v o lta g e c o m p a rtm e n t is
c o m p le te ly se g re g a te d to a v o id
p re ssu re b u ild u p .
A rc re sista n t sw itc h g e a r d e sig n
sh o u ld c o n ta in th e d a m a g e w ith in
th e fa u lty c o m p a rtm e n t, re d u c in g
d o w n tim e .
3.4 Enclosure Ratings
T h e N a tio n a l E le c tric M a n u fa c tu re rs
A sso c ia tio n (N E M A ) p ro v id e s
sta n d a rd s fo r e n c lo su re s to e n su re
sa fe o p e ra tio n u n d e r v a rio u s
c o n d itio n s. T w o m a jo r c a te g o rie s
o f c la ssific a tio n a re fo r sw itc h g e a r

in n o n -h a za rd o u s lo c a tio n s a n d th o se
in h a za rd o u s lo c a tio n s.
3.4.1 Non-Hazardous Locations
I n n o n -h a za rd o u s lo c a tio n s th e
sp e c ific e n c lo su re ty p e s, th e ir
a p p lic a tio n s, a n d th e e n v iro n m e n ta l
c o n d itio n s th e y a re d e sig n e d to
p ro te c t a g a in st, w h e n c o m p le te ly
a n d p ro p e rly in sta lle d , a re a s fo llo w s
(se e F ig u re 4 a n d F ig u re 5 ):
Type 1 E n c lo su re s c o n stru c te d
fo r in d o o r u se to p ro v id e a d e g re e o f
p ro te c tio n to p e rso n n e l a g a in st a c c e ss
to h a za rd o u s p a rts a n d to p ro v id e a
d e g re e o f p ro te c tio n to th e e q u ip m e n t
in sid e th e e n c lo su re a g a in st in g re ss o f
so lid fo re ig n o b je c ts (fa llin g d irt).
T y p e 1 A is sim ila r to T y p e 1 , b u t
a lso in c lu d e s g a sk e tin g m a te ria l. T y p e
1 A is n o t o ffic ia lly re c o g n ize d b u t is
o fte n in c lu d e d in sp e c ific a tio n s.
to h a za rd o u s p a rts; to p ro v id e a
in sid e th e e n c lo su re a g a in st in g re ss
o f so lid fo re ig n o b je c ts (fa llin g d irt);
a n d to p ro v id e a d e g re e o f p ro te c tio n
w ith re sp e c t to h a rm fu l e ffe c ts o n th e
e q u ip m e n t d u e to th e in g re ss o f w a te r
(d rip p in g a n d lig h t sp la sh in g ).
fo r e ith e r in d o o r o r o u td o o r u se to
p ro v id e a d e g re e o f p ro te c tio n to
p e rso n n e l a g a in st a c c e ss to h a za rd o u s
p a rts; to p ro v id e a d e g re e o f
p ro te c tio n to th e e q u ip m e n t in sid e
th e e n c lo su re a g a in st in g re ss o f
so lid fo re ig n o b je c ts (fa llin g d irt a n d
w in d b lo w n d u st); to p ro v id e a d e g re e
o f p ro te c tio n w ith re sp e c t to h a rm fu l
e ffe c ts o n th e e q u ip m e n t d u e to th e
in g re ss o f w a te r (ra in , sle e t, sn o w );
a n d to re m a in u n d a m a g e d b y th e
e x te rn a l fo rm a tio n o f ic e o n th e
e n c lo su re .
Type 3R I d e n tic a l to T y p e 3
e x c e p t T y p e 3 R d o e s n o t p ro te c t
a g a in st in g re ss o f so lid fo re ig n o b je c ts
a n d m a y b e v e n tila te d .
Type 3S I d e n tic a l to T y p e 3 w ith
a d d itio n a l p ro te c tio n a g a in st sle e t,
e n su rin g th e e x te rn a l m e c h a n ism (s)
re m a in o p e ra b le w h e n ic e la d e n .
Type 3X I d e n tic a l to T y p e 3
w ith a n a d d itio n a l le v e l o f p ro te c tio n
a g a in st c o rro sio n a n d a g a in st th e
e x te rn a l fo rm a tio n o f ic e o n th e
e n c lo su re .
Type 3RX Id e n tic a l to T y p e 3
e x c e p t T y p e 3 R X d o e s n o t p ro te c t
a g a in st in g re ss o f so lid fo re ig n
o b je c ts, m a y b e v e n tila te d , a n d
p ro v id e s a n a d d itio n a l le v e l o f
p ro te c tio n a g a in st c o rro sio n a n d
a g a in st th e e x te rn a l fo rm a tio n o f
ic e o n th e e n c lo su re .
Type 3SX I d e n tic a l to T y p e 3 b u t
a lso p ro v id e s a d d itio n a l p ro te c tio n
a g a in st c o rro sio n a n d sle e t, e n su rin g
th e e x te rn a l m e c h a n ism (s) re m a in
o p e ra b le w h e n ic e la d e n .
th e e n c lo su re a g a in st in g re ss o f so lid
fo re ig n o b je c ts (fa llin g d irt a n d
w in d b lo w n d u st); to p ro v id e a d e g re e
o f p ro te c tio n w ith re sp e c t to h a rm fu l
in g re ss o f w a te r (ra in , sle e t, sn o w ,
sp la sh in g w a te r, a n d h o se d ire c te d
w a te r); a n d to re m a in u n d a m a g e d b y
th e e x te rn a l fo rm a tio n o f ic e o n th e
e n c lo su re .
Type 4X I d e n tic a l to T y p e 4 b u t
a lso p ro v id e s a n a d d itio n a l le v e l o f
p ro te c tio n a g a in st c o rro sio n (u su a lly
b y in c o rp o ra tin g sta in le ss ste e l o r
n o n m e ta llic c o m p o site s) a n d a g a in st
e n c lo su re .
se ttlin g a irb o rn e d u st, lin t, fib e rs, a n d
fly in g s); a n d to p ro v id e a d e g re e o f
p ro te c tio n w ith re sp e c t to h a rm fu l
in g re ss o f w a te r (d rip p in g a n d lig h t
sp la sh in g ).
p a rts; to p ro v id e a d e g re e o f p ro te c t-
tio n to th e e q u ip m e n t in sid e th e
e n c lo su re a g a in st in g re ss o f so lid
fo re ig n o b je c ts (fa llin g d irt); to p ro v id e
a d e g re e o f p ro te c tio n w ith re sp e c t to
h a rm fu l e ffe c ts o n th e e q u ip m e n t d u e
to th e in g re ss o f w a te r (h o se -d ire c te d
w a te r a n d th e e n try o f w a te r d u rin g
o c c a sio n a l te m p o ra ry su b m e rsio n
a t a lim ite d d e p th ); a n d to re m a in
u n d a m a g e d b y th e e x te rn a l fo rm a tio n
o f ic e o n th e e n c lo su re .
Type 6P I d e n tic a l to T y p e 6 b u t
a lso p ro v id e s a n a d d itio n a l le v e l o f
p ro te c tio n a g a in st c o rro sio n , in g re ss
o f w a te r (o c c a sio n a l p ro lo n g e d
su b m e rsio n ), a n d p ro te c tio n a g a in st
e n c lo su re .
w ith o u t k n o c k o u ts fo r in d o o r u se to
th e e n c lo su re a g a in st in g re ss o f so lid
fo re ig n o b je c ts (fa llin g d irt a n d
c irc u la tin g d u st, lin t, fib e rs, a n d
fly in g s); a n d to p ro v id e a d e g re e o f
sp la sh in g ).
Type 12K I d e n tic a l to T y p e 1 2 b u t
w ith th e a d d itio n o f b e in g c o n stru c te d
w ith k n o c k o u ts.
c irc u la tin g d u st, lin t, fib e rs, a n d
fly in g s); to p ro v id e a d e g re e o f
sp la sh in g ); a n d to p ro v id e a d e g re e
o f p ro te c tio n a g a in st th e sp ra y in g ,
sp la sh in g , a n d se e p a g e o f o il a n d
n o n -c o rro siv e c o o la n ts.


Figure 4 Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Non-Hazardous Locations
(NEMA 250-2003)

Figure 5 Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Outdoor Non-Hazardous
Locations (NEMA 250-2003)

3.4.2 Hazardous Locations
M a n u fa c tu re rs w h o sp e c ia lize in
h a za rd o u s lo c a tio n e q u ip m e n t sh o u ld
b e u se d fo r c o n su lta tio n w h e n
se le c tin g e q u ip m e n t fo r h a za rd o u s
lo c a tio n s.
I n h azard o u s lo catio n s, w h en
co m p letely an d p ro p erly in stalled an d
m ain tain ed , T y p e 7 an d 1 0 en clo su res
are d esig n ed to co n tain an in tern al
ex p lo sio n w ith o u t cau sin g an ex tern al
h azard . T y p e 8 en clo su res are d esig n ed
to p rev en t co m b u stio n th ro u g h th e u se
o f o il-im m ersed eq u ip m en t. T y p e 9
e n c lo su re s a re d e sig n e d to p re v e n t th e
ig n itio n o f co m b u stib le d u st.
fo r in d o o r u se in h a za rd o u s (c la ssifie d )
lo c a tio n s c la ssifie d a s C la ss I , D iv isio n
1 , G ro u p s A , B , C , o r D a s d e fin e d in
N F P A 7 0 .
Type 8 E n clo su res co n stru cted fo r
eith er in d o o r o r o u td o o r u se in
h azard o u s (classified ) lo c a tio n s th a t is
classified as C lass I , D iv isio n 1 , G ro u p s
A , B , C , an d D as d efin ed in N F P A 7 0 .
Type 9 E n clo su res co n stru cted
fo r in d o o r u se in h azard o u s (classified )
lo catio n s classified as C lass II,
D iv isio n 1 , G ro u p s E , F , o r G as d efin ed
in N F P A 7 0 .
to m e e t th e re q u ire m e n ts o f th e M in e
S a fe ty a n d H e a lth A d m in istra tio n ,
3 0 C F R , P a rt 1 8 .
F ig u re 6 su m m arizes th e req u irem en ts
fo r en clo su res in h azard o u s lo catio n s.
I f th e e n c lo su re in a h a za rd o u s
lo c a tio n is to b e o u td o o rs o r a d d itio n a l
p ro te c tio n is n e e d e d fro m F ig u re 4 o r
F ig u re 5 , a c o m b in a tio n -ty p e
e n c lo su re is n e e d e d .


Figure 6 Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Hazardous Locations (NEMA
250-2003)

3.4.3 NEMA Enclosure Type Numbers
vs. IEC Enclosure Classification
Designations
I E C P u b licatio n 6 0 5 2 9 , Classification
of Degrees of Protection Provided by
Enclosures, p ro v id es a sy stem fo r
sp e c ify in g th e e n c lo su re s o f e le c tric a l
e q u ip m e n t o n th e b a sis o f th e d e g re e o f
p ro tectio n p ro v id ed b y th e en clo su re.
I E C 6 0 5 2 9 d o es n o t sp ecify d eg rees
o f p ro te c tio n a g a in st m e c h a n ic a l
d am ag e o f eq u ip m en t, risk o f
ex p lo sio n s, o r co n d itio n s su ch as
m o istu re, co rro siv e v ap o rs, fu n g u s, o r
v e rm in . T h e N E M A S ta n d a rd fo r
E n clo su res fo r E lectrical E q u ip m en t
d o e s te st fo r e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s
su ch as co rro sio n , ru st, icin g , o il, an d
co o lan ts. F o r th is reaso n an d b ecau se
th e test a n d e v alu atio n s fo r o th er
ch aracteristics are n o t id en tical, th e I E C
en clo su re classificatio n d esig n atio n s
can n o t b e ex actly eq u ated w ith th e
e n c lo su re T y p e n u m b e rs in th is
stan d ard .
T h e I E C d esig n atio n co n sists o f th e
letters IP fo llo w ed b y tw o n u m erals.
T h e first n u m e ra l in d ic a te s th e d e g re e
o f p ro tectio n p ro v id ed b y th e e n c lo su re
w ith resp ect to p erso n s an d so lid
fo reig n o b jects en terin g th e e n c lo su re .
T h e se c o n d n u m e ra l in d ic a te s th e
d eg ree o f p ro tectio n p ro v id e d b y th e
e n c lo su re w ith re sp ec t to th e h a rm fu l
in g ress o f w ater.
F ig u re 7 p ro v id e s a n e q u iv a le n t
c o n v e rsio n fro m th e e n c lo su re T y p e
n u m b e rs in th is sta n d a rd to th e I E C
e n c lo su re c la ssific a tio n d e sig n a tio n s.
T h e e n c lo su re ty p e n u m b e rs m e e t o r
e x c e e d th e te st re q u ire m e n ts fo r th e
a sso c ia te d I E C C la ssific a tio n ; fo r th is
re a so n F ig u re 7 c a n n o t b e u se d to
c o n v e rt fro m I E C c la ssific a tio n s to
e n c lo su re T y p e n u m b e rs.
P a g e 1 0 A ll rig h ts re se rv e d .

Figure 7 IEC Enclosure Classification
A sh a d e d b lo c k in th e A c o lu m n in d ic a te s th a t th e N E M A e n c lo su re ty p e
e x c e e d s th e re q u ire m e n ts fo r th e re sp e c tiv e I E C 6 0 5 2 9 I P first c h a ra c te r
d e sig n a tio n . T h e I P first c h a ra c te r d e sig n a tio n is th e p ro te c tio n a g a in st a c c e ss
to h a za rd o u s p a rts a n d so lid fo re ig n o b je c ts.
A sh a d e d b lo c k in th e B c o lu m n in d ic a te s th a t th e N E M A e n c lo su re ty p e
e x c e e d s th e re q u ire m e n ts fo r th e re sp e c tiv e I E C 6 0 5 2 9 I P se c o n d c h a ra c te r
d e sig n a tio n . T h e I P se c o n d c h a ra c te r d e sig n a tio n is th e p ro te c tio n a g a in st th e
in g re ss o f w a te r.

4 POWER ASSEMBLY
4.1 Switchgear vs.
Switchboard
T h e te rm s sw itc h g e a r a n d sw itc h -
b o ard are o ften u sed in terch an g eab ly
w h e n re fe rrin g to lo w v o lta g e c irc u it
b reaker d istrib u tio n eq u ip m en t. H o w -
e v e r, th e re a re sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s in
co m p o n en ts, stan d ard s, ap p licatio n s,
co n fig u ratio n s, selectio n criteria, an d
re lia b ility b e tw ee n th ese tw o ty p e s o f
p o w er d istrib u tio n eq u ip m en t.
T h e m a jo r d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n
sw itc h g e a r a n d sw itc h b o a rd a re th e
ty p e s o f c irc u it b re a k e rs u se d . A m o re
d e ta ile d d isc u ssio n o f c irc u it b re a k e rs
c a n b e fo u n d in S e c tio n 5 .
M o ld e d c a se c irc u it b re a k e rs a re
th e m o st c o m m o n , u se d in a ll ty p e s
o f lo w v o lta g e sw itc h b o a rd s a n d
p a n e l b o a rd s. T h e ra tin g s fo r th e se
b re a k e rs ra n g e fro m 1 5 A to 3 , 0 0 0 A .
I n su la te d c a se b re a k e rs ty p ic a lly
ra n g e fro m 4 0 0 A to 5 , 0 0 0 A . T h e se
b re a k e rs a re a v a ila b le a s o p tio n s fo r
sw itc h b o a rd s a n d c a n b e d e sig n e d
a s fix e d o r d ra w o u t sy ste m s.
P o w e r c irc u it b re a k e rs ty p ic a lly
ra n g e fro m 8 0 0 A to 5 , 0 0 0 A . T h e y a re
c o n n e c te d to th e b u s in a d ra w o u t.
S w itch g ear is larg er th an sw itch -
b o ard s an d req u ires fro n t an d rear
a c c e ss. D ra w o u t b re a k e rs in sw itc h g e a r
w ill re q u ire m o re clearan ce in th e fro n t.

A ll rig h ts re se rv e d . P a g e 1 1
F ro n t a c c e ssib le sw itc h b o a rd s h a v e th e
sm a lle st sp a c e re q u irem e n ts.
F u rth e r d e ta ils a b o u t c irc u it b re a k e rs,
sw itch b o ard , an d sw itch g ear stan d ard s
can b e fo u n d in F ig u re 9 .
Switchgear Switchboard Switchgear Switchboard

Figure 8 Switchgear and Switchboard
4.2 Switchgear Standards
T h e tw o m a in sta n d a rd s fo r lo w
v o lta g e sw itc h g e a r a re U L 1 5 5 8
a n d U L 8 9 1 ; a c o m p a riso n o f th e
sta n d a rd s is sh o w n in F ig u re 9
a n d p h o to s o f th e sw itc h b o a rd a n d
sw itc h g e a r a re sh o w n in F ig u re 8 .
Category UL 1558 UL891
Name Switchgear Switchboards
ANSI Reference
Metal-Enclosed Low-Voltage Power
Circuit Breaker Switchgear
No ANSI Standard Reference
Access Front and Rear Access
Front Access or Front and Rear
Access
Application Standards NEMA SG3, SG5, ANSI C37.20.1 NEMA PB2
Circuit Breakers Power Circuit Breakers
Molded Case or Insulated Case
Circuit Breakers
Usually Draw-Out Mounted
Fixed Mounted (Some Mains May
be Draw-Out)
Individually Mounted
Group Mounted (can be
Individually Mounted in some
cases)
Service Conditions
Ambient Air Temperatures and
Altitude Specified
Service conditions not addressed
Short Circuit Ratings
Determined by testing at 635V for 4
cycles at 60 Hz
Determined by testing at 600V for
3 cycles at 60 Hz
Short Circuit Bus Testing
Requires phase to neutral and
phase to ground
Phase to neutral only required
under certain conditions and
phase to ground not required
Enclosure Finish
Requires finish to pass 200 hour
salt spray test
Requires indoor finish to pass 24
hour salt spray test. Outdoor
finish must pass 600 hour test
Barriers
Requires barriers between breakers
and bus and between breakers
Does not require internal barriers
Service Entrance
Requires barriers isolating service
entrance bus from serviceable load
connections
requires barriers for "Line of
Sight" contact
Means of Trip
Requires Mechanical means to trip
E.O. Breakers
Does not require mechanical
tripping of E.O. breakers
Production Tests Requires 7 production tests Requires 3 Production tests
Mounting
Figure 9 UL 1558 and UL 891 Comparisons

4.3 Switchgear Dimensions
4.3.1 Metal-Enclosed
F o r sw itc h g e a r lo cated in d o o rs, th e
ro o m sh o u ld b e d esig n ed to allo w
a m p le sp a c e fo r th e sw itc h g e a r a n d
p ro v id e ad eq u ate v en tilatio n . T o
e stim a te sp a c e re q u ire m e n ts,
m an u factu rer catalo g s u su ally p ro v id e
in fo rm a tio n u se d to p la n th e la y o u t.
B reakers u p to 3 2 0 0 A fram e size w ill
b e in u n its o f 1 8 o r 2 2 in ch es w id e an d
c a n ty p ic a lly b e sta c ked fo u r u n its h ig h .
U su ally o n ly tw o 3 2 0 0 A b reakers are
p erm issib le in a u n it, alth o u g h in so m e
c ases th re e m a y b e fu rn ish e d . A lso
w ith o n e 3 2 0 0 A b reaker, tw o o r th ree
sm a lle r b re a k e rs m a y b e su p p lie d in th e
v e rtic a l se c tio n .
B re a k e rs w ith fra m e size s o f 4 0 0 0 o r
6 0 0 0 A req u ire u n its 3 6 to 4 4 in ch es
w id e, d ep en d in g o n th e m an u factu rer.
U su a lly , o n ly o n e o f th e se b re a k e rs c a n
b e fu rn ish ed w ith a u n it.

F u se d b re a k e rs in 2 2 5 , 6 0 0 , a n d
1 6 0 0 A fra m e size s a re su p p lie d in
u n its o f th e sa m e w id th a s u n u se d
b re a k e rs o f th e sa m e fra m e size .
Wh e n fu se s a re u se d in se rie s w ith
3 0 0 0 A a n d a b o v e b re a k e rs, th e y
a re o c c a sio n a lly in a se p a ra te
c o m p a rtm e n t d ire c tly a b o v e o r d ire c tly
b e lo w th e b re a k e r. H o w e v e r, a t le a st
o n e m a n u fa c tu re r c a n o ffe r 3 0 0 0 a n d
4 0 0 0 A b re a k e rs w ith in te g ra lly
m o u n te d fu se s a n d n o in c re a se in
sp a c e re q u ire m e n ts.
D e p th o f in d o o r sw itc h g e a r ra n g e s
fro m 5 4 to 9 0 in c h e s, d e p e n d in g o n
th e m a n u fa c tu re r. H o w e v e r, th is
d e p th m a y n o t a llo w e n o u g h sp a c e
fo r o u tg o in g c a b le s, so it m a y b e
n e c e ssa ry in so m e c a se s to a d d a
se c tio n o n th e re a r o f o n e o r m o re
u n its to p ro v id e su ffic ie n t sp a c e . I f
o v e rh e a d b re a k e r liftin g d e v ic e s a n d
v e n tila tio n is e x c lu d e d , th e h e ig h t o f
th e in d o o r sw itc h g e a r w ill b e
a p p ro x im a te ly 9 0 in c h e s.
D e p th o f o u td o o r sw itc h g e a r is
a p p ro x im a te ly 7 2 to 9 4 in c h e s; th e
h e ig h t o f o u td o o r g e a r is 1 1 2 in c h e s.
A ll d im e n sio n s g iv e n h e re a re to b e
u se d fo r p re lim in a ry e stim a te s o n ly .
4.3.2 Metal-Clad
I n m e d iu m v o lta g e m e ta l-c la d
sw itc h g e a r, b re a k e rs a re n o t sta c k e d
a s th e y a re in lo w v o lta g e sw itc h g e a r.
E a c h b re a k e r u n it w ill c o n ta in o n ly o n e
o r tw o b re a k e rs.
I n d o o r 5 k V m e ta l-c la d sw itc h g e a r
u n its fo r 1 2 0 0 to 2 0 0 0 A b re a k e rs a re
2 6 to 3 6 in c h e s w id e w ith h e ig h t
v a ry in g fro m 7 2 to 9 5 in c h e s,
d e p e n d in g o n su p p lie r; d e p th v a rie s
fro m 5 6 to 9 6 in c h e s. A isle d o r
A isle ss u n its m a y b e u se d . F o r a isle d
u n its a n u n o b stru c te d w o rk sp a c e
(a isle ) is re q u ire d o n th e b re a k e r
d ra w o u t sid e w id e e n o u g h to p e rm it
re m o v a l o f th e b re a k e r a n d m a y b e
fro m 2 8 to 5 0 in c h e s w id e , a n a isle
is a lso re q u ire d o n th e re a r o f th e
sw itc h g e a r fo r u se in m a in te n a n c e ;
a 3 6 in c h w id e a isle is u su a lly
re c o m m e n d e d . N E C w o rk in g
c le a ra n c e d ic ta te s w id th .
A u x ilia ry u n its a re c o m m o n ly th e
sa m e size a s b re a k e r u n its e x c e p t in
sp e c ia l situ a tio n s, su c h a s p o w e r
c o m p a n y m e te rin g u n its. Wh e n su c h
c u b ic le s a re re q u ire d , th e y sh o u ld b e
c o n stru c te d to th e p o w e r c o m p a n y s
sp e c ific a tio n s a n d d ra w in g s o f th e
u n its sh o u ld b e a p p ro v e d b y th e
p o w e r c o m p a n y b e fo re m a n u fa c tu re .
O u td o o r sw itc h g e a r u n its a re th e
sa m e w id th a s th e in d o o r u n its o f th e
sa m e ra tin g a n d th e y w ill b e
so m e w h a t ta lle r, sin c e a slo p in g ro o f
is u su a lly su p p lie d . T h e d e p th o f th e
o u td o o r u n it w ill d e p e n d o n th e w id th
o f th e sh e lte re d a isle (if a n y ) a n d
w h e th e r sta n d a rd a isle o r c o m m o n
a isle ty p e o f c o n stru c tio n is u se d .
A isle sp a c e s u su a lly ra n g e fro m
7 0 to 1 1 0 in c h e s w id e .
4.4 Switchgear Layout
T h e size o f a sw itc h g e a r g ro u p w ill
v a ry slig h tly w ith th e m a n u fa c tu re r.
Wh e n o u td o o r sw itc h g e a r is u se d ,
sp a c e is n o t o fte n th e m o st c ritic a l
c o n sid e ra tio n , so th e p ro d u c t o f a n y
m a n u fa c tu re r c a n b e u se d . H o w e v e r,
th e p a d sh o u ld n o t b e p o u re d u n til
c e rtifie d d ra w in g s h a v e b e e n re c e iv e d
fro m th e m a n u fa c tu re r to b e su re th a t
it w ill b e th e p ro p e r size a n d sh a p e .
4.5 Busbar
Wh e n se v e ra l c o n tro l p a n e ls a re
lo c a te d a d ja c e n t to o n e a n o th e r in
a flo o r-sta n d in g a sse m b ly , a se t o f
c o m m o n c o n d u c to rs is u se d o n th e
lo a d sid e o f th e c irc u it b re a k e r. T h e se
c o n d u c to rs c o n so lid a te th e o u tp u t
o f a ll th e o p e ra tin g g e n e ra to rs a n d
c o n d u c t th e to ta l o u tp u t to th e
d istrib u tio n sy ste m . T h e b u s m a y b e
c a b le s jo in in g th e re sp e c tiv e te rm in a l
lu g s o r it m a y b e rig id , b a re b a rs o f
a lu m in u m o r c o p p e r su ita b ly in su la te d
fro m th e stru c tu re o f th e sw itc h b o a rd .
T h e size o f th e b u sb a r is im p o rta n t
in d e te rm in in g th e m a x im u m a m o u n t
o f c u rre n t th a t c a n b e sa fe ly c a rrie d .
B u sb a rs a re ty p ic a lly e ith e r fla t strip s
o r h o llo w tu b e s a s th e se sh a p e s a llo w
h e a t to d issip a te m o re e ffic ie n tly d u e
to a h ig h su rfa c e a re a to c ro ss-
se c tio n a l a re a ra tio . T h e sk in e ffe c t
(se e se c tio n 4 . 5 . 1 ) m a k e s a lte rn a tin g
e le c tric c u rre n t (A C ) b u sb a rs m o re
th a n th ic k in e ffic ie n t, so h o llo w
o r fla t sh a p e s a re p re v a le n t in h ig h
c u rre n t a p p lic a tio n s. A h o llo w se c tio n
is stiffe r th a n a so lid ro d w h ic h a llo w s
fo r a g re a te r sp a n b e tw e e n b u sb a r
su p p o rts.
A b u sb a r m a y e ith e r b e su p p o rte d
o n in su la to rs o r in su la tio n m a y
c o m p le te ly su rro u n d it. B u sb a rs a re
p ro te c te d fro m a c c id e n ta l c o n ta c t b y
a m e ta l e n c lo su re o r b y e le v a tio n o u t
o f n o rm a l re a c h . P h a se b u sb a rs m a y
b e in su la te d w h ile g ro u n d b u sb a rs a re
ty p ic a lly b o lte d d ire c tly o n to a m e ta l
c h a ssis o f th e e n c lo su re .
B u sb ar in su latio n is a req u irem en t o f
m etal-clad sw itch g ear an d is p ro v id ed
to m in im ize th e p o ssib ility o f
co m m u n icatin g fau lts an d to p rev en t
d ev elo p m en t o f b u s fau lts w h ich w o u ld
re su lt if fo re ig n o b je c ts m o m e n ta rily
co n tacted th e b are b u s. F u rth er
in fo rm atio n o n b u sb ar in su latio n can b e
fo u n d in A N S I S tan d ard Z 2 4 4 . 1 .
B u sb a rs m a y b e c o n n e c te d to e a c h
o th e r a n d to e le c tric a l a p p a ra tu s b y
b o lte d o r c la m p e d c o n n e c tio n s. O fte n
jo in ts b e tw e e n h ig h -c u rre n t b u s
se c tio n s h a v e m a tc h in g silv e r-p la te d
su rfa c e s to re d u c e th e c o n ta c t
re sista n c e ; a c o n d u c tiv e jo in t
c o m p o u n d m a y a lso b e u se d to
in c re a se c o n d u c tiv ity a n d re d u c e
th e rm a l stre ss a t th e jo in t.
L o w v o lta g e sw itc h g e a r is n o t
ty p ic a lly re q u ire d to h a v e in su la te d
b u sb a rs. I f in su la tio n is re q u ire d ,
a d d itio n a l c o st w ill b e in c u rre d .
S p lic e p la te s a llo w fo r fie ld in te r-
c o n n e c tio n o f th e m a in b u s o f tw o
a d ja c e n t flo o r-sta n d in g p a n e ls. I n lo w
v o lta g e a p p lic a tio n s th e se a re ty p ic a lly
u se d w h e n a d d itio n a l stru c tu re s a re
a d d e d to a n e x istin g sw itc h g e a r lin e u p
o r to lim it m a in b u s se c tio n s to a
p ra c tic a l le n g th to a c c o m m o d a te
sh ip p in g sp lits. M e ta l-c la d m e d iu m
v o lta g e sw itc h g e a r stru c tu re s a re
m a n u fa c tu re d w ith m o d u la r m a in b u s
se c tio n s a n d n o rm a lly re q u ire sp lic e
p la te s b e tw e e n e a c h a d ja c e n t se c tio n .
4.5.1 Skin Effect
S kin effect is th e ten d en cy o f an
a lte rn a tin g e le c tric c u rre n t (A C ) to
d istrib u te itself w ith in a co n d u cto r so
th e c u rre n t d e n sity a t th e su rfa c e o f th e
co n d u cto r is g reater th an at its co re.
T h u s, th e electric cu rren t ten d s to flo w
alo n g th e skin o f th e co n d u cto r.
S ilv e r p la tin g o n b u sw o rk is u se d to
m itig a te sk in e ffe c ts a n d p ro v id e m o re
e v e n c o n d u c tiv ity .

4.5.2 Metal Selection
C o p p e r is p re fe rre d o v e r a lu m in u m ,
e x c e p t w h e re c o rro siv e a tm o sp h e re s
m a y h a v e a n a d v e rse a ffe c t o n
th e c o p p e r. C o p p e r h a s a h ig h e r
c o n d u c tiv ity th a n a lu m in u m , it is
m o re e a sily p la te d , a n d b o lte d jo in ts
a re m a d e m o re e a sily . T h e m e ltin g
p o in t o f c o p p e r is h ig h e r th a n
a lu m in u m so le ss d a m a g e is d o n e
to c o p p e r b u sse s in c a se o f a n
a rc in g fa u lt.
I n m o st c a se s, c o p p e r is a m o re
e x p e n siv e m e ta l. I f a lu m in u m is u se d ,
jo in ts m a y b e w e ld e d , m a k in g fie ld
c h a n g e s d iffic u lt. C o p p e r jo in ts m u st
b e silv e r-p la te d ; a lu m in u m b o lte d
jo in ts m a y b e silv e r-p la te d o r tin -
p la te d . Wh e re b o lte d jo in ts a re
n e c e ssa ry , a s a t sh ip p in g sp lits,
a lu m in u m m a y b e w e ld e d to c o p p e r.
B o lte d jo in ts sh o u ld b e m a d e to
m in im ize th e te n d e n c y to c o ld flo w
(p e rm a n e n tly d e fo rm d u e to c o n sta n t
stre ss) a n d to m a in ta in a tig h t c la m p
in th e c a se o f so m e c o ld flo w o r
stre tc h in g o f th e b o lt o v e r a p e rio d
o f tim e .
4.6 Wiring
Wh e n d e te rm in in g w irin g , a p p lic a b le
sta n d a rd s m u st b e u se d to d e te rm in e
th e fo llo w in g :
S ize o f w ire .
I n su la tio n m a te ria l.
T e rm in a l ty p e s.
T e rm in a l in su la tio n .
A d e ta ile d w irin g d ia g ra m is re q u ire d
to sh o w th e re la tiv e lo c a tio n o f
te rm in a ls o n v a rio u s d e v ic e s a n d
te rm in a l b lo c k s. R e fe rrin g to th is
d ia g ra m c a n id e n tify w h e n tro u b le -
sh o o tin g o r m a k in g c h a n g e s
to w irin g .
S e c o n d a ry w irin g in m e ta l-c la d
sw itc h g e a r m u st b e e n c lo se d in m e ta l
c h a n n e ls o r in c o n d u it to iso la te it
fro m th e p rim a ry c irc u its. T h e w ire
sh o u ld n o t b e sm a lle r th a n 1 6 A WG
if stra n d e d w ire is u se d . F le x ib le w ire
m u st b e u se d fo r w irin g a c ro ss a
h in g e to a p a n e l.
T h e in su la tio n o n th e w ire m u st
m e e t th e re q u ire m e n ts fo r T y p e T A ,
T B S , o r S I S a s d e sc rib e d in th e
N a tio n a l E le c tric a l C o d e .
4.7 Transformers
A tra n sfo rm e r is a d e v ic e th a t
tra n sfe rs e le c tric a l e n e rg y fro m o n e
c irc u it to a n o th e r th ro u g h a sh a re d
m a g n e tic fie ld . A c h a n g in g c u rre n t in
th e p rim a ry c irc u it c re a te s a c h a n g in g
m a g n e tic fie ld , w h ic h in d u c e s a
v o lta g e in th e se c o n d a ry c irc u it.
T h e se c o n d a ry c irc u it m im ic s th e
p rim a ry c irc u it b u t w ith d iffe re n t
c u rre n t a n d v o lta g e .
4.7.1 Current Transformers
C u rre n t tra n sfo rm e rs (C T s) a re
d e sig n e d to p ro v id e a c u rre n t in its
se c o n d a ry c o n d u c to r p ro p o rtio n a l to
th e c u rre n t flo w in g in its p rim a ry
c o n d u c to r. C u rre n t tra n sfo rm e rs c a n
sa fe ly iso la te m e a su re m e n t a n d
c o n tro l c irc u itry fro m h ig h v o lta g e s
a n d c u rre n ts p re se n t in th e c irc u it
w h ile g iv in g a n a c c u ra te m e a su re m e n t
o f th e p rim a ry c u rre n t. F ig u re 1 0
sh o w s a p ic tu re o f c u rre n t
tra n sfo rm e rs.

Figure 10 Current Transformers
T h e c u rre n t tra n sfo rm e r ra tio is
g e n e ra lly se le c te d so th e m a x im u m
lo a d c u rre n t w ill re a d a b o u t 7 0 % fu ll
sc a le o n a sta n d a rd 5 A c o il a m m e te r.
T h e re fo re , th e c u rre n t tra n sfo rm e r
p rim a ry ra tin g sh o u ld b e 1 4 0 -1 5 0 %
o f th e m a x im u m lo a d c u rre n t.
4.7.2 Voltage/Potential Transformers
V o lta g e tra n sfo rm e rs (V T s) o r
p o te n tia l tra n sfo rm e rs (P T s) a re u se d
b e tw e e n th e p h a se v o lta g e o f th e
g e n e ra to r a n d th e v a rio u s in stru m e n ts
a n d a p p a ra tu s to re d u c e th e v o lta g e
to sta n d a rd 1 2 0 V in stru m e n t v o lta g e .
A p ic tu re o f a v o lta g e tra n sfo rm e r is
sh o w n in F ig u re 1 1 .

Figure 11 Medium Voltage Switchgear
Voltage Transformer
V o lta g e tra n sfo rm e rs a re d e sig n e d
to p re se n t n e g lig ib le lo a d to th e
su p p ly b e in g m e a su re d a n d to h a v e
a p re c ise v o lta g e ra tio to a c c u ra te ly
ste p d o w n h ig h v o lta g e s so m e te rin g
a n d p ro te c tiv e re la y e q u ip m e n t c a n
b e o p e ra te d a t a lo w e r p o te n tia l.
S e le c tio n o f th e ra tio fo r th e v o lta g e
tra n sfo rm e r is se ld o m a q u e stio n sin c e
th e p rim a ry ra tin g sh o u ld b e e q u a l to
o r h ig h e r th a n th e sy ste m lin e -to -lin e
v o lta g e . T h e ty p e o f sy ste m a n d th e
re la y in g d e te rm in e s th e n u m b e r o f
p o te n tia l tra n sfo rm e rs p e r se t a n d th e
c o n n e c tio n a n d m e te rin g re q u ire d .
A 3 -p h a se , 3 -w ire sy ste m w ith 2
e le m e n t w a tt-h o u r m e te rs re q u ire s a
se t o f tw o lin e -to -lin e v o lta g e tra n s-
fo rm e rs. I f lin e -to -g ro u n d p o te n tia l is
a lso re q u ire d fo r a d ire c tio n a l g ro u n d
re la y , a se t o f th re e lin e -to -g ro u n d
v o lta g e tra n sfo rm e rs c a n b e u se d to
p ro v id e b o th lin e -to -lin e p o te n tia l fo r
th e 2 e le m e n t w a tt-h o u r m e te r a n d
lin e -to -g ro u n d p o te n tia l fo r th e
g ro u n d re la y .
A 3 -p h a se , 4 -w ire so lid ly g ro u n d e d
sy ste m u su a lly re q u ire s th re e lin e -to -
g ro u n d v o lta g e tra n sfo rm e rs fo r 2 -1 /2
o r 3 e le m e n t m e te rin g
Wh e re sy n c h ro n izin g o f g e n e ra to rs
o r sy ste m s is n e c e ssa ry , it is
re c o m m e n d e d th a t o n ly lin e -to -lin e
p o te n tia l b e u se d .


Figure 12 Open Delta Voltage
Transformer Diagram

Figure 13 Wye Voltage Transformer
Connection
4.7.3 Control Power Transformers
C o n tro l p o w e r tra n sfo rm e rs (C P T s)
a re u se d fo r a u x ilia ry p o w e r to sp a c e
h e a te rs, lig h ts, a n d re c e p ta c le s a n d
c o n tro l o f e le c tric a lly o p e ra te d
b re a k e rs w h e n e x te rn a l a u x ilia ry
p o w e r so u rc e s a re u n a v a ila b le .
C P T s, w h e n u se d fo r c o n tro l o f
e le c tric a lly o p e ra te d b re a k e rs, sh o u ld
b e c o n n e c te d o n th e so u rc e sid e o f
th e m a in b re a k e r so th e c o n tro l p o w e r
is a v a ila b le to c lo se th e m a in b re a k e r.
S o m e o f th e m a in fe a tu re s o f C P T s
a re liste d b e lo w :
S tep th e p rim ary v o ltag e d o w n to
1 2 0 /2 4 0 V A C .
P ro v id e 1 2 0 /2 4 0 V A C p o w er
fo r h eaters, lig h ts, an d b reaker
co n tro l.
M o u n ted in a d raw o u t au x iliary
d raw er u p to 1 5 kV A .
F ix m o u n ted in th e rear o f th e
stru ctu re an d p ro v id ed w ith a
d raw o u t p rim ary fu se d raw er
ab o v e 1 5 kV A .

Figure 14 Medium Voltage CPT
5 CIRCUIT BREAKERS
T h e c irc u it b re a k e r is a n in te g ra l
c o m p o n e n t in sw itc h g e a r, o p e n in g
a n d c lo sin g a c irc u it b y n o n -a u to m a tic
m e a n s a n d o p e n in g th e c irc u it
a u to m a tic a lly o n a p re d e te rm in e d
o v e r-c u rre n t le v e l w ith o u t d a m a g e .
C irc u it b re a k e rs a re lo c a te d b e tw e e n
th e p o w e r so u rc e a n d th e lo a d a n d
p la y a c ru c ia l ro le in tw o o f th e m a in
fu n c tio n s o f sw itc h g e a r:
S w itch in g th e lo ad to an d fro m
th e g en erato r.
P ro tectin g th e g en erato r fro m
sh o rt circu its an d o v erlo ad s.
A ll c irc u it b re a k e rs h a v e th e
fo llo w in g c o m m o n d e sig n a n d
fu n c tio n a l c h a ra c te ristic s:
F ram e.
C o n tacts an d o p eratin g
m ech an ism s.
T rip u n its.
A rc ex tin g u ish in g m eth o d s.
M o u n tin g m eth o d s.
F o r lo w v o ltag e C B s.
ap p licatio n /circu it sp ecific
stan d ard s m u st m eet th e
req u irem en ts o f U L 1 0 6 6 (u sed in
U L 1 5 5 8 sw itch g ear) o r U L 4 8 9
(u sed in U L 8 9 1 sw itch -g ear). F o r
a co m p ariso n o f U L 1 0 6 6 an d U L
4 8 9 see.
F o r m ed iu m v o ltag e C B s,
co m p lian ce to ap p licatio n /circu it
sp ecific stan d ard s d o es n o t
ap p ly . M ed iu m v o ltag e C B s can
b e rated u sin g th e A N S I C 3 7 . 0 6
ratin g stru ctu re.

Required Ratings
Name
Rated (Maximum)
Voltage
Rated Frequency
Rated Continuous
Current
Rated Short - Time
Current
Short-Circuit
Operating Duty
Mechanical
Endurance
Electrical Endurance
Continuous - Current
Test Requirements
Enclosure
Current Level
Allowable
Temperature Limits
Temp. Rise Total Temp Temp. Rise Total Temp
Internal Circuit
Breaker Contacts
85C 125C
Connections 85C 125C
At Terminal
Connection
55C 95C 50C 90C
Insulating Materials
UL 1066 UL 489
254V, 508V, 635V or 600V for integrally
fused CBs
120, 120/240, 240, 277, 347, 480Y/277,
480 600Y/347 or 600 Vac
Typically used with LV
Switchgear
Typically used for LV
Switchboards
dc, 60 Hz/ 50 Hz. dc, 50 or 60 Hz or 400 Hz
Frame sizes: 800-6000A, other ratings
are available from combinations of
sensors and trip units
Frame sizes: 15-6000A
Carry for (2) 0.5 sec. periods (1 second
withstand)
Not specified
O -15 sec. - CO
O - (2 to 60 min.) - CO
UL 489
500 Drawout Operations
e.g. 800A Frame 12,500 open/close
operations with maintenance every
1,750 operations
e.g. 4000A frame 1,500 open/close
operations
800A frame 3,500 open/close
operations
No maintenance possible
4000A frame 400 open/close operations
under load
800A frame 2,800 open/close
operations under load
4000A frame 400 open/close
operations under load
800A frame 500 open/close operations
under load
UL 1066
Limit =Insulating Materials Capability
Limit =Insulating Materials Capability
C37.13, Table 2 Table 7.1.4.1.1
Required Optional
Must carry 100% of continuous current
within enclosure (100% rated)
100% of continuous current in air. 80%
of continuous current in enclosure.
(Optionally can be 100% rated)
Figure 15 Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Standards Comparison
5.1 80% vs. 100% Rating
A ll c irc u it b re a k e rs a re te ste d
to c a rry th e ir fu ll c u rre n t ra tin g
in d e fin ite ly . H o w e v e r, th e N E C
re q u ire s th a t c irc u it b re a k e rs a n d
c irc u it c o n d u c to rs b e size d a t 1 2 5 %
o f th e ir a p p lie d , c o n tin u o u s lo a d s. T h e
p u rp o se o f th is re q u ire m e n t is to b u ild
a sa fe ty fa c to r in to in sta lla tio n s.
S ta n d a rd (8 0 % ) ra te d c irc u it b re a k e rs
are tested in o p en air at 4 0 C am b ien t
an d req u ired to carry th eir ra ted cu rren t
w ith o u t trip p in g w ith in sp ecific
o p eratin g tem p eratu re g u id elin es.
H o w e v e r, in a c tu a l in sta lla tio n s, c irc u it
b re a k e rs a re o fte n in sta lle d in
eq u ip m en t w ith little o r n o v en tilatio n .
I f th e b re a k e r c a rrie s its fu ll c u rre n t
ratin g , th e tem p eratu re in sid e th e
e q u ip m e n t (a t th e b re a k e r, a n d o n th e
co n d u cto rs) co u ld b e h ig h er th an rated
lim its. B y restrictin g th e am o u n t o f
c u rre n t flo w in g in e a c h d e v ic e , th e N E C
lim its th e h e a t to safe le v e ls.
B o th th e N E C an d U L4 8 9 (M o ld ed
C ase C ircu it B reaker T est S tan d ard )
a llo w fo r te stin g a n d u sa g e a t 1 0 0 %
c u rre n t ra tin g if th e b re a k e r, c o n d u c to rs
an d en clo su re are tested an d certifie d
to m a ke su re th a t th e te m p eratu re
in sid e th e e n c lo su re w ill n o t e x c e e d
lim its. T h e test is c o n d u c te d w ith th e
C irc u it b re a k e r in sta lle d in th e sm a lle st
e n c lo su re th e y c o u ld b e u se d in a n d th e
b re a k e r m u st c a rry 1 0 0 % ra te d c u rre n t
u n til m ax im u m tem p eratu res are
re a c h e d . T h e c irc u it b re a k e r c a n n o t trip
a n d th e te m p e ra tu re rise a t th e
cu sto m er co n n ectio n can n o t ex ceed
6 0 C ab o v e am b ien t. I f th e
tem p eratu re rise ex ceed s 5 0 C , th e
b reaker m u st b e lab e led w ith sp ecial
w irin g an d in stallatio n .
5.1.1 NEC Requirements
With re g a rd s to th e issu e o f o v e r-
c u rre n t p ro te c tio n , S e c tio n 2 1 0 . 2 0
o f th e N E C sta te s:
B ra n c h -c irc u it c o n d u c to rs a n d
e q u ip m e n t sh a ll b e p ro te c te d b y
o v e r-c u rre n t p ro te c tiv e d e v ic e s
th a t h a v e a ra tin g o r se ttin g th a t
c o m p lie s w ith 2 1 0 . 2 0 (A ) th ro u g h (D ).
(A ) C o n tin u o u s [lo a d s la stin g lo n g e r
th a n 3 h o u rs] a n d N o n -c o n tin u o u s
L o a d s. Wh e re a b ra n c h c irc u it su p p lie s
c o n tin u o u s lo a d s, o r a n y c o m b in a tio n
o f c o n tin u o u s a n d n o n -c o n tin u o u s
lo a d s, th e ra tin g o f th e o v e r-c u rre n t
d e v ic e sh a ll n o t b e le ss th a n th e n o n -
c o n tin u o u s lo a d p lu s 1 2 5 p e rc e n t o f
th e c o n tin u o u s lo a d . E x c e p tio n : Wh e re
th e a sse m b ly , in c lu d in g th e o v e r-
c u rre n t d e v ic e s p ro te c tin g th e b ra n c h
c irc u it(s), is liste d fo r o p e ra tio n a t
1 0 0 % o f its ra tin g , th e a m p e re ra tin g
o f th e o v e r-c u rre n t d e v ic e sh a ll b e
p e rm itte d to b e n o t le ss th a n th e su m
o f th e c o n tin u o u s lo a d p lu s th e n o n -
c o n tin u o u s lo a d .
I t is im p o rta n t to n o te th a t in sta llin g
a 1 0 0 % ra te d b re a k e r in a n a sse m b ly
d o e s n o t n e c e ssa rily m e a n th a t th e
e n tire a sse m b ly is 1 0 0 % ra te d . A n
a sse m b ly m a y o n ly b e liste d fo r 1 0 0 %
o p e ra tio n a fte r it h a s su c c e ssfu lly
p a sse d se p a ra te te stin g b y U L , a s
a n a sse m b ly , p e r U L re q u ire m e n ts.
5.2 Types of Circuit Breakers
5.2.1 Low Voltage Circuit Breakers
L o w v o lta g e c irc u it b re a k e rs a re
a v a ila b le in m o ld e d -c a se , in su la te d
c a se , a n d p o w e r ty p e . Wh e n
sp e c ify in g c irc u it b re a k e rs, th e
re q u ire d fra m e size a n d d e sire d trip
ra tin g m u st b e d e te rm in e d . T h e c h o ic e

m u st b e m a d e b e tw e e n d ra w -o u t a n d
sta tio n a ry , a n d m a n u a lly o p e ra te d o r
e le c tric a lly o p e ra te d . A c o m p a riso n o f
lo w v o lta g e c irc u it b re a k e r ty p e s a re
sh o w n b e lo w :

Power Circuit
Breaker
Insulated Case
Circuit Breaker
Molded Case Circuit
Breaker
Maintainability
Fully Replaceable:
- arc chutes
- contacts
- springs
Arc chutes may be
replaceable
depending on the
manufacturer
No internal maintenance
Circuit breakers are
sealed
Certification
ANSI C37.16
UL1066
UL 489
(or UL1066)
UL 489
Mounting Drawout Drawout or Fixed Fixed
Operation
Two-Step Stored
Energy
Electrically Operated
or Mechanically
Operated
Two-Step Stored
Energy
Electrically Operated
or Mechanically
Operated
Toggle
Typically Mechanically
Operated Only
Trip Unit Type Electronic Electronic
Thermal Magnetic or
Electronic
100% Rated Yes Yes
Typicallly 80% rated
100% optional with
electronic trip unit
Instantaneous
Override Trip
Optional
Yes
~13 times rating
Yes
~10 times rating
30-Cycle Withstand
Yes
Up to Full Interrupt
Rating
Yes
Less than Full
Interrupt Rating
No

Figure 16 Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Comparison

5.2.1.1 Low Voltage Molded Case
M o ld e d c a se c irc u it b re a k e rs a re a
fix ed m o u n t, co m p letely se a le d d e sig n ,
p rim a rily in te n d e d fo r w ire p ro tectio n .
M o ld e d c a se c irc u it b re a k e rs c a n b e
b o lt-o n o r p lu g -in m o u n ted .
M o ld e d c a se c irc u it b re a k e rs
ty p ic a lly h a v e a m a x im u m v o lta g e
lim it o f 6 0 0 V a n d fe a tu re th e
fo llo w in g m a in c o m p o n e n ts:
M o ld ed case - a h o u sin g
o f in su latin g m aterials.
O p eratin g m ech an ism - o p en s
an d clo ses th e b reaker.
C o n tacts carry cu rren t.
A rc ex tin g u ish ers co n fin e an d
ex tin g u ish th e arc w h ich w ill b e
d raw n b etw een co n tacts each
tim e th ey in terru p t cu rren t.
T rip elem en ts m o n ito r cu rren t
an d trip th e o p eratin g m ech an ism
an d o p en th e co n tacts in th e
ev en t o f a fau lt co n d itio n .
T erm in al co n n ecto rs - co n n ect
th e circu it b reakers to th e p o w er
so u rce an d th e lo ad .
S h o rt tim e c u rre n t ra tin g s o n m o ld e d
c a se c irc u it b re a k e rs a re m u c h lo w e r
th a n th e ir in te rru p tin g ra tin g s.
S e le c tiv e trip p in g is a v a ila b le o v e r a
sm a ll ra n g e w e ll b e lo w k A I C ra tin g s.
T h e y a re ty p ic a lly o p e ra te d v ia a
m e c h a n ic a l o v e r-c e n te r to g g le ; a d d -o n
m o to r o p e ra to rs a re a v a ila b le . L o w
v o lta g e m o ld e d c a se c irc u it b re a k e rs
e x h ib it th e fo llo w in g c h a ra c te ristic s:
M u st b e certified to th e U L 4 8 9
stan d ard .
N o in tern al m ain ten an ce req u ired
d u e to circu it b reaker b ein g
sealed .
C an b e th erm al-m ag n etically
trip p ed o r electro n ically trip p ed .
1 0 X in stan tan eo u s o v errid e trip .
V o ltag e lim it o f 6 0 0 V .

Figure 17 Molded Case Circuit Breakers
5.2.1.2 Low Voltage Insulated Case
I n su la te d c a se c irc u it b re a k e rs
e x h ib it th e fo llo w in g c h a ra c te ristic s:
M u st b e certified to th e U L 4 8 9
stan d ard .
C an b e fix ed -m o u n ted o r
d raw o u t-m o u n ted .
E lectro n ically trip p ed .
1 3 X In stan tan eo u s o v errid e trip .
3 0 -cy cle w ith stan d less th an fu ll
in terru p t ratin g .

Figure 18 Insulated Case Circuit Breaker
5.2.2 Low Voltage Power Breakers
P o w e r c irc u it b re a k e rs a re d e sig n e d to
b e co n n ected to b u sb a rs in sw itc h g e a r.
T h e y m a y b e m a n u ally o p erated o r
electrically o p erated . T h e y h av e fu lly
rep laceab le (field m ain tain ab le) arc-
ch u tes, co n tacts, an d sp rin g s. Lo w
v o lta g e p o w e r b re a k e rs e x h ib it th e
fo llo w in g ch aracteristic s:
M u st b e certified to U L 1 0 6 6
stan d ard s.
M u st b e d raw o u t m o u n ted .
E lectro n ically trip p ed .
3 0 -cy cle w ith stan d u p to fu ll
in terru p t ratin g .
P erfo rm fast re-clo su re to
m ain tain h ig h co n tin u ity o f
serv ice.
T rip u n it is in teg rally m o u n ted
o n th e circu it b reaker.
S o m e o f th e a d v a n ta g e s o f p o w e r
c irc u it b re a k e rs a re
H ig h in terru p tin g ratin g s.
H ig h sh o rt tim e ratin g s.
S p eed o f o p eratio n s:
R e m o te o p e n /c lo se
o p e ra tio n .
F a st re -c lo sin g .

T ra n sfe r lo a d s w h ile
m a in ta in in g c o n tin u ity
o f se rv ic e :
o U se d fo r p a ra lle lin g
sw itc h g e a r.
o U se d in m a in -tie -m a in
tra n sfe r sc h e m e s.
C o o rd in atio n /selectiv ity .
M ain tain ab ility .

Figure 19 Power Circuit Breakers
5.2.3 Medium Voltage Circuit
Breakers
T w o ty p e s o f m e d iu m v o lta g e c irc u it
b re a k e rs a re ty p ic a lly u se d : v a c u u m
c irc u it b re a k e rs a n d S F 6 c irc u it
b re a k e rs. I n N o rth A m e ric a v a c u u m
c irc u it b re a k e rs a re ty p ic a lly u se d ;
in te rn a tio n a lly S F 6 c irc u it b re a k e rs
a re c o m m o n ly fo u n d .
5.2.3.1 Vacuum Circuit Breakers
T h e v a c u u m in te rru p te r (F ig u re 2 0 )
is a p a ir o f se p a ra b le c o n ta c ts
e n c lo se d in a v a c u u m -tig h t e n v e lo p e .
T h e e n v e lo p e itse lf is a c e ra m ic
m a te ria l w ith a m e ta l e n d p la te b ra ze d
to e a c h e n d . T h e m e ta l p la te s se a l th e
e n d s a n d p ro v id e su p p o rt fo r th e p a rts
in sid e .

Vacuum
Interrupter
Primary
Disconnects

Figure 20 Vacuum Breaker Rear View

O f th e tw o c o n ta c ts in sid e , o n e is
fix e d a n d th e o th e r is m o v a b le
th ro u g h a b e llo w s ty p e c o n n e c tio n .
V a rio u s sh ie ld s in sid e th e e n v e lo p e
p ro v id e d iffe re n t ty p e s o f p ro te c tio n
to in te rru p te r p a rts.
Wh e n th e c irc u it b re a k e r is c lo se d ,
th e c o n ta c ts w ith in th e in te rru p te r
to u c h , a llo w in g c u rre n t to flo w .
Wh e n a fa u lt o c c u rs a n d in te rru p tio n
is re q u ire d , th e c o n ta c ts a re q u ic k ly
se p a ra te d a n d a n a rc fo rm s. A n a rc
is fo rm e d b e c a u se th e v o lta g e trie s to
k e e p th e c u rre n t m o v in g .

Figure 21 Interrupter Cut Away View
T h e a rc b u rn s in th e m e ta l v a p o r
e v a p o ra te d fro m h o t sp o ts o n th e
c o n ta c t su rfa c e s. T h is m e ta l v a p o r
c o n tin u o u sly le a v e s th e c o n ta c t re g io n
a n d re -c o n d e n se s o n th e c o n ta c t
su rfa c e s a n d su rro u n d in g m e ta l sh ie ld
w h ic h p ro te c ts th e c e ra m ic e n v e lo p e .
A t c u rre n t ze ro th e a rc e x tin g u ish e s,
c o n ta c t v a p o r p ro d u c tio n sto p s, a n d
th e o rig in a l v a c u u m c o n d itio n is
re sto re d . C u rre n t ze ro is a p o in t in th e
A C c u rre n t sin e w a v e w h e re th e v a lu e
is ze ro .
T h e v a c u u m in th e e n v e lo p e is
c o n sid e re d a d ie le c tric . T h e d ie le c tric
stre n g th is th e m a x im u m v o lta g e th e
d ie le c tric c a n w ith sta n d w ith o u t
b re a k in g d o w n . T h e tra n sie n t re c o v e ry
v o lta g e is th e m o st se v e re w a v e fo rm
th e in te rru p te r w ill h a v e to w ith sta n d .
T h is is w h y th e sp e e d o f th e d ie le c tric
re c o v e ry a n d th e stre n g th o f th e
d ie le c tric in sid e th e in te rru p te r a re
c ritic a l issu e s fo r su c c e ssfu l c irc u it
in te rru p tio n . I f th e d ie le c tric d o e s n o t
re a c h su ffic ie n t stre n g th fa st e n o u g h ,
th e a rc w ill re -ig n ite .
V a c u u m in te rru p te rs fo r c irc u it
b re a k e r d u ty m u st b e c a p a b le o f
in te rru p tin g c u rre n ts o f 1 2 -5 0 k A
a n d u p a t v o lta g e s u p to 3 8 k V .

Figure 22 Vacuum Circuit Breaker
5.2.3.2 SF6 Circuit Breakers
P o p u la r o u tsid e o f th e U n ite d S ta te s
is S F 6 te c h n o lo g y . I t is sp e c ific a lly
a sso c ia te d w ith E u ro p e a n
m a n u fa c tu re rs o f m e d iu m a n d
h ig h e r v o lta g e c irc u it b re a k e rs.

I n a n S F 6 c irc u it b re a k e r th e m a in
c o n ta c ts a re e n c lo se d in a c h a m b e r
o f S F 6 g a s, a g o o d d ie le c tric . T h e a rc
in te rru p tio n te c h n o lo g y re su lts in a rc
e n e rg y b e in g u se d a n d a b so rb e d w h ile
th e a rc is sim u lta n e o u sly c o o le d .
T h e re a re se v e ra l ty p e s o f S F 6
in te rru p te r d e sig n s; th e tw o m o st
c o m m o n ty p e s a re :
P u ffe r.
R o ta ry a rc .
Puffer:
T h e p u ffe r-ty p e in te rru p te r is m o re
c o m p lic a te d th a n th e ro ta ry a rc -ty p e .
D u rin g c u rre n t in te rru p tio n a p isto n
c o m p re sse s th e S F 6 g a s in a c y lin d e r,
a ll o f w h ic h is c o n ta in e d in a n e p o x y -
ty p e e n c lo su re . A fte r th e m a in
c u rre n t-c a rry in g c o n ta c ts se p a ra te
th e c u rre n t tra n sfe rs to th e a rc in g
c o n ta c ts. O n c e th e a rc in g c o n ta c ts
se p a ra te th e S F 6 g a s in th e
c o m p re ssio n c h a m b e r b la sts th e a rc
th ro u g h th e n o zzle . T h e h e a t c re a te d
b y th e a rc b re a k s th e S F 6 m o le c u le s
in to flu o rin e a n d su lfu r. A rc e n e rg y
is a b so rb e d a n d th e a rc is c o o le d .
A s c u rre n t ze ro is a p p ro a c h e d th e
h e a t e n e rg y su b sid e s a s m o re S F 6
g a s flo w s th ro u g h th e n o zzle a n d
e x tin g u ish e s th e a rc .
Rotary Arc:
T h e ro ta ry a rc te c h n o lo g y is le ss
c o m p lic a te d th a n th e p u ffe r ty p e ;
h o w e v e r, it is n o t e ffe c tiv e o v e r a s
w id e a ra n g e o f sh o rt c irc u it c u rre n ts
a n d v o lta g e s a s th e S F 6 p u ffe r o r
v a c u u m C B s.
A s th e c o n ta c ts se p a ra te th e a rc
tra n sfe rs fro m th e m a in c o n ta c ts to
a n a n n u la r c o n ta c t; th is c a u se s th e
c u rre n t to sw itc h in to th e c o il b e h in d
it. T h e c o ils m a g n e tic fie ld , p ro d u c e d
b y th e lo a d c u rre n t, c a u se s th e a rc to
ro ta te ra p id ly . T h e a rc is c o o le d b y
m o v in g th ro u g h th e S F 6 g a s.
T h e S F 6 g a s is n o rm a lly a t re st in sid e
th e in te rru p te r. T h e a rc s m o v e m e n t
a c ts lik e a m ix e r, m ix in g h o tte r a n d
c o o le r g a s to h e lp c o o l th e a rc .
C o n ta c t e ro sio n is a lso re d u c e d
d u e to th e ra p id a rc m o v e m e n t.
A t c u rre n t ze ro , th e a rc is c o o le d
a n d e x tin g u ish e d .
5.3 Trip Units
T rip u n its a re m o st c o m m o n ly fo u n d
o n lo w v o lta g e a p p lic a tio n s. T h e trip
u n its se rv e a s th e lo g ic c o n tro l fo r th e
b re a k e r. T h e re a re tw o ty p e s o f trip
u n its:
T h erm al m ag n etic.
E lectro n ic.
T h e rm a l m a g n e tic u n its o ffe r a
d e la y in th e e v e n t o f o v e rlo a d w h ile
re sp o n d in g q u ic k ly to e x c e ssiv e
c u rre n t. M a g n e tic -o n ly u n its a re
m a in ly u se d to p ro te c t m o to rs a n d
fire p u m p s in a h ig h -h e a t a p p lic a tio n .
E le c tro n ic trip u n its p ro v id e m o re
so p h istic a te d p ro te c tio n a n d m o n ito r-
in g b y m e a su rin g a n d c o m p a rin g
a c tu a l c u rre n t w ith a re fe re n c e ta b le
o f v a lu e s to d e te rm in e th e a p p ro p ria te
re sp o n se . A v a rie ty o f se ttin g s m a k e
it p o ssib le to a d a p t th e b re a k e r to th e
p re c ise c h a ra c te ristic s o f th e
p ro te c te d c irc u it.
I n a d d itio n , e le c tro n ic trip u n its o ffe r
c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d m o n ito rin g
c a p a b ilitie s. C u rre n t d e m a n d a n d
g ro u n d fa u lt c u rre n t c a n b e m o n ito re d
a s w e ll a s b re a k e r sta tu s, se ttin g s o f
p ro te c tio n fu n c tio n s, a n d trip h isto ry .
R e sid u a l c u rre n t d e v ic e s th a t p ro v id e
e a rth le a k a g e p ro te c tio n a re a lso
a v a ila b le , a s w e ll a s a b ro a d ra n g e
o f a c c e sso rie s.
F o u r trip u n it p ro te c tiv e fu n c tio n s
e x ist:
1 . L o n g D e la y (L ).
2 . S h o rt D e la y (S ).
3 . I n sta n ta n e o u s (I ).
4 . G ro u n d F a u lt (G ).
I n a p p lic a tio n s, th e trip fu n c tio n s
a ffo rd e d b y th e trip u n it o f th e b re a k e r
a re a b b re v ia te d in th e fo rm o f L , S , I ,
a n d G . i. e . a trip u n it w ith lo n g d e la y ,
sh o rt d e la y , a n d in sta n ta n e o u s fu n c -
tio n s w o u ld b e a b b re v ia te d a s L S I .
5.3.1 Solid State Circuitry
C o n v e n tio n a l b re a k e rs a re a v a ila b le
w ith e ith e r fix e d o r in te rc h a n g e a b le
e le c tro m e c h a n ic a l trip u n its d e p e n d in g
o n th e b re a k e r a n d fra m e size .
A lth o u g h trip u n its c a n b e c h a n g e d ,
fa ilu re to c o rre c tly tig h te n th e
e le c tric a l c o n n e c tio n s is a fre q u e n t
c a u se o f c irc u it b re a k e r p ro b le m s
in th e fie ld .
M o st m a n u fa c tu re rs o ffe r m o ld e d
c a se b re a k e rs w ith c u rre n t
tra n sfo rm e rs a n d so lid -sta te c irc u itry
in p la c e o f th e c o n v e n tio n a l th e rm a l
m a g n e tic trip u n its. T h is o ffe rs
a d v a n ta g e s in c lu d in g :
Q u ic k ly m o d ifie d o v e rlo a d
p ro te c tio n ra tin g b y c h a n g in g
a ra tin g p lu g (v e rsu s c h a n g in g
th e e n tire trip u n it).
A d ju stab le in stan tan eo u s o r sh o rt
circu it trip ratin g cap ab ility to
selectiv ely trip o th er b reakers in
th e sy stem th ro u g h in co rp o ratio n
o f a tim e d elay in th e
in stan tan eo u s o r sh o rt circu it trip .
5.3.2 Long Delay (L)
L o n g d e la y p ic k u p d e te rm in e s th e
c o n tin u o u s a m p e re ra tin g o f th e
b re a k e r. I t a lso d e te rm in e s th e a m o u n t
o f tim e th e b re a k e r w ill c a rry a lo w
le v e l o v e rlo a d b e fo re trip p in g .
T h e re a re tw o ty p e s o f re sp o n se s
in lo n g d e la y p ic k u p :
1 . l
2
t re sp o n se
a . l
2
t in : fo r c o o rd in a tio n w ith
o th e r c irc u it b re a k e rs w ith
e le c tro n ic trip d e v ic e s a n d
fo r c o o rd in a tio n w ith
th e rm a l m a g n e tic c irc u it
b re a k e rs.
2 . l
4
t re sp o n se
a . l
4
t o u t: fo r c o o rd in a tio n
w ith fu se s a n d u p stre a m
tra n sfo rm e r d a m a g e c u rv e s.
5.3.3 Short Delay (S)
S h o rt d e la y p ic k u p s d e te rm in e o r se t
th e le v e l o f fa u lt c u rre n t a t w h ic h th e
sh o rt tim e trip d e la y c o u n td o w n is
a c tu a te d . S h o rt d e la y se ts th e a m o u n t
o f tim e th e b re a k e r w ill c a rry b o th lo w
le v e l a n d h ig h fa u lt c u rre n ts b e fo re
trip p in g .
T h e re a re tw o ty p e s o f sh o rt d e la y
re sp o n se s:
1 . F la t re sp o n se
a . l
2
t o u t: fo r c o o rd in a tio n w ith
o th e r c irc u it b re a k e rs w ith
e le c tro n ic trip d e v ic e s.
2 . l
2
t re sp o n se
a . l
2
t in : fo r c o o rd in a tio n w ith
fu se s a n d th e rm a l m a g n e tic
b re a k e rs.

5.3.4 Ground Fault (G)
G ro u n d fa u lt is d e fin e d a s a n
u n in te n tio n a l e le c tric p a th b e tw e e n
a so u rc e o f c u rre n t a n d a g ro u n d e d
su rfa c e . G ro u n d fa u lts o c c u r w h e n
c u rre n t is le a k in g a n d e le c tric ity
is e sc a p in g in to th e g ro u n d .
G ro u n d fa u lts m a y b e d iv id e d in to
th re e c la sse s:
1 . A b o lte d fa u lt.
2 . F a u lts re su ltin g fro m in su la tio n
d e p re c ia tio n sta rtin g a s w h a t m a y
b e c o n sid e re d a le a k a g e fro m
1 0 to 2 5 0 m A . S u c h a b re a k d o w n
m a y b e o b se rv e d in e q u ip m e n t
su c h a s m o to rs a n d tra n sfo rm e rs.
3 . F a u lts re su ltin g fro m im m e d ia te
in su la tio n b re a k d o w n p ro d u c in g
a n a rc .
T h e N E C c re a te s sp e c ific sta n d a rd s
fo r g ro u n d fa u lt p ro te c tio n w h ic h
sh o u ld b e u se d w h e n d e sig n in g a
sy ste m .
T h e ra tin g o f th e se rv ic e d isc o n n e c t
is c o n sid e re d to b e th e ra tin g o f th e
la rg e st fu se th a t c a n b e in sta lle d o r
th e h ig h e st c o n tin u o u s c u rre n t trip
se ttin g fo r w h ic h th e a c tu a l o v e r-
c u rre n t d e v ic e in sta lle d in a c irc u it
b re a k e r is ra te d o r c a n b e a d ju ste d .
G ro u n d fa u lt trip u n its c a n b e p re -
se le c te d to e ith e r trip th e m a in
c o n ta c ts o r to le a v e th e m a in c o n ta c ts
c lo se d a n d a n n u n c ia te th e g ro u n d
fa u lt c o n d itio n .
T h e ze ro -se q u e n c e c u rre n t
tra n sfo rm e r (C T ) is u se d fo r se n sitiv e
g ro u n d fa u lt re la y in g o r se lf-b a la n c in g
p rim a ry c u rre n t ty p e m a c h in e
d iffe re n tia l p ro te c tio n . I n a ze ro -
se q u e n c e C T , th e th re e -c o re c a b le
o r th re e sin g le c o re s o f a th re e p h a se
sy ste m p a ss th ro u g h th e in n e r
d ia m e te r o f th e C T . Wh e n th e sy ste m
is fa u lt fre e , n o c u rre n t flo w s in th e
se c o n d a ry o f th e ze ro -se q u e n c e C T .
Wh e n th e re is a fa u lt, th e re sid u a l
c u rre n t o f th e sy ste m flo w s th ro u g h
th e se c o n d a ry o f th e ze ro -se q u e n c e
C T w h ic h o p e ra te s th e re la y .
T h e m in im u m n u m b e r o f c u rre n t
tra n sfo rm e rs fo r c irc u it re la y in g a n d
in stru m e n ts is th re e c u rre n t tra n s-
fo rm e rs, o n e fo r e a c h p h a se
o r 2 -p h a se c o n n e c te d c u rre n t
tra n sfo rm e rs a n d o n e ze ro -se q u e n c e
c u rre n t tra n sfo rm e r. S e p a ra te se ts o f
c u rre n t tra n sfo rm e rs a re re q u ire d
fo r d iffe re n tia l re la y s.
T h e m in im u m p ic k u p o f a g ro u n d
re la y in th e re sid u a l o f 3 -p h a se
c o n n e c te d c u rre n t tra n sfo rm e rs is
p rim a rily d e te rm in e d b y th e c u rre n t
tra n sfo rm e r ra tio . A d d in g o n e re sid u a l
c o n n e c te d a u x ilia ry c u rre n t tra n s-
fo rm e r c a n re d u c e th e re la y p ic k u p .
T h is c o n n e c tio n is d e sira b le o n m a in
in c o m in g a n d tie c irc u its o f lo w
re sista n c e g ro u n d e d c irc u its.
5.3.5 Anti-Pump
A n a n ti-p u m p is a d e v ic e th a t
p re v e n ts a c irc u it b re a k e r fro m
re p e a te d ly o p e n in g a n d c lo sin g w ith
b o th o p e n a n d c lo se d sig n a ls a p p lie d
sim u lta n e o u sly .
With o u t th e a n ti-p u m p th e b re a k e r
w o u ld b e d e stro y e d ; a s so o n a s th e
b re a k e r trip s th e m o to r o p e ra to r re -
c lo se s th e b re a k e r, th e b re a k e r
im m e d ia te ly trip s a g a in , a n d th e c y c le
o f trip p in g a n d re -c lo sin g c o n tin u e s.
5.4 Components
5.4.1 Shunt Trip
A sh u n t trip is a so le n o id d e v ic e
u se d to trip a b re a k e r fro m a re m o te
lo c a tio n .

Figure 23 Shunt Trip
5.4.2 Under-Voltage Device
A n u n d e r-v o lta g e d e v ic e w ill trip
th e b re a k e r w h e n th e v o lta g e fa lls
b e lo w a p re d e te rm in e d le v e l. U su a lly
m o u n te d in p la c e o f th e sh u n t trip ,
th e se u n its in c lu d e a sp rin g a n d
so le n o id .

Figure 24 Under-Voltage Device
5.4.3 Auxiliary Contacts
A n a u x ilia ry sw itc h c o n tro ls n o rm a lly
o p e n a n d /o r n o rm a lly c lo se d c o n ta c ts
w h ic h o p e n a n d c lo se w ith th e
b re a k e r. I t c a n b e u se d w ith in d ic a tin g
lig h ts to sh o w b re a k e r sta tu s.

Figure 25 - Aux Contact
5.4.4 Motor Operator
A m o to r o p e ra to r a llo w s re m o te
o p e n in g a n d c lo sin g o f th e b re a k e r.
I t c o n sists o f a n a c tu a tin g m o to r w ith
a n o p e ra tin g a rm a n d a tta c h e s to th e
b re a k e r o p e ra tin g m e c h a n ism . Wh e n
th e m o to r o p e ra to r is e n e rg ize d fro m
a re m o te lo c a tio n , th e o p e ra tin g a rm
m o v e s th e b re a k e r h a n d le to th e o n
o r o ff p o sitio n a s re q u ire d .
I t is n o t re c o m m e n d e d th a t m o to r
o p e ra to rs b e u se d fo r p a ra lle lin g
o p e ra tio n s. E le c tric a lly o p e ra te d
b re a k e rs w ith c lo sin g sp e e d s o f
a p p ro x im a te ly 5 c y c le s o r le ss a re
p re fe rre d fo r p a ra lle lin g o p e ra tio n s.

Figure 26 Motor Operator
F u n c tio n s o f th e m o to r o p e ra to r a re :
S w itch in g th e lo ad to an d fro m
th e g en erato r.
P ro tectin g th e g en erato r fro m
sh o rt circu its an d o v erlo ad s.

5.4.5 Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker
Components
T h e p rim a ry c o m p o n e n ts o f a
m e d iu m v o lta g e b re a k e r p a n
a sse m b ly (F ig u re 2 7 ) a re :
C o d e P la te s
P re v e n t in se rtio n o f a lo w e r
ra te d b re a k e r in to a h ig h e r
ra te d c e ll.
G ro u n d B a r
K e e p s th e b re a k e r g ro u n d e d
a t a ll tim e s.
L e v e rin g M e c h a n ism
U se d to ra c k th e b re a k e r
in a n d o u t.
M e c h a n ism O p e ra te d C e ll
(M O C ) S w itc h .
A u x ilia ry c o n ta c ts th a t
o p e ra te w h e n th e b re a k e r
o p e n s o r c lo se s.
T ru c k O p e ra te d C e ll (T O C )
S w itc h .
A u x ilia ry c o n ta c ts th a t
o p e ra te w h e n th e b re a k e r is
lev ered in to o r o u t o f th e cell.
Code Plates
Ground Bar
Levering Mechanism
MOC & TOC

Figure 27 Medium Voltage Breaker Pan Assembly
5.5 Sizing Circuit Breakers
A c irc u it b re a k e r is re q u ire d to
c o n n e c t o r d isc o n n e c t th e e le c tric a l
lo a d to a n d fro m th e g e n e ra to r. T o
size th e c irc u it b re a k e r a n d sw itc h g e a r
th e fo llo w in g fo rm u la sh o u ld b e u se d :
B re a k e r S ize (in a m p e re s)

Where:
kW = n et ratin g o f th e g en erato r set
V o lts = sy ste m v o lta g e , p h a se -to -
p h a se o r lin e -to -lin e
p f = p o w e r fa c to r o f th e sy ste m
lo a d
C o n sta n ts:
1 0 0 0 to c o n v e rt k W to w a tts
1 . 7 3 2 fo r th re e -p h a se sy ste m
0 . 9 te m p e ra tu re c o m p e n sa tio n
a n d o v e rlo a d m a rg in fo r th e
c irc u it b re a k e r
T h is fo rm u la can b e sim p lified to read :
B re a k e r S ize (in a m p e re s)

5.6 Overload Protection
T h o u g h c irc u it b re a k e rs a re d e sig n e d
to p ro te c t a g a in st o v e rlo a d s, th e y
sh o u ld n o t trip o p e n in sta n ta n e o u sly
w h e n c u rre n t lim its a re e x c e e d e d ;
th is w o u ld re su lt in n u isa n c e trip p in g .
B re a k e rs sh o u ld trip b e fo re th e c a b le
in su la tio n is d a m a g e d .
I n an o v erlo ad co n d itio n , h eatin g in a
c a b le is a fu n c tio n o f th e c u rre n t le v e l
an d tim e. T im e d elay o n trip p in g sh o u ld
b e q u ite lo n g fo r slig h t o v erlo ad s b u t
O h m s Law sta te s th a t th e h e a tin g
e ffe ct v a ries w ith th e sq u a re o f th e
c u rre n t, so th e d e lay m u st b e re d u c e d
rap id ly as th e o v erlo ad in creases.

Figure 28 Overload Trip Curve
U sin g a b im e ta l e le m e n t h e a te d b y
th e lo a d c u rre n t p ro v id e s o v e rlo a d o r
th erm al p ro tectio n . A b im etal elem en t is
m ad e o f tw o strip s o f m etal (e ach w ith
a d iffe re n t ra te o f th erm al ex p an sio n )
b an d ed to g eth er. H eat d u e to ex cessiv e
c u rre n t w ill c a u se th e b im e ta l to b e n d
o r d eflect; th e am o u n t o f d eflectio n is
d ep en d en t o n th e am o u n t o f h eat,
w h ich is a fu n ctio n o f cu rren t an d tim e.

Figure 29 Thermal Magnetic Breaker
O n su sta in e d o v e rlo a d , th e d e fle c te d
b im e ta l e le m e n t w ill c a u se th e
o p e ra tin g m e c h a n ism to trip .


Figure 30 Overload Protection/ Tripped
A 1 0 0 A b reaker m ig h t trip in 3 0
m in u tes w h en carry in g 1 3 5 % o f its
ra te d c u rren t, b u t m ig h t trip in ten
seco n d s w h en carry in g 5 0 0 % o f its
ratin g . U sin g th ese v a lu e s, a th e rm a l
trip cu rv e can b e co n stru cted as sh o w n
in F ig u re 3 1 .

Figure 31 Thermal Trip Curve
5.7 Short Circuit Protection
A sh o rt c irc u it is a n a c c id e n ta l o r
u n p la n n e d c o n n e c tio n o f lo w re sis-
ta n c e b e tw e e n tw o p o in ts th a t a re
n o rm a lly se p a ra te d b y a h ig h re sis-
ta n c e . I t re su lts in a n im m e d ia te flo w
o f c u rre n t a t a b n o rm a lly h ig h le v e ls.
T h e h e a t g e n e ra te d b y th is c o n d itio n
c a n c a u se se v e re d a m a g e to w irin g
a n d o th e r c o m p o n e n ts in a sh o rt
p e rio d o f tim e .
In a sh o rt circu it co n d itio n , th e sy stem
can n o t w ait fo r an elem en t to h eat u p
b efo re th e b reaker o p en s; th e b reaker
m u st o p en as q u ickly as p o ssib le. T h is is
ach iev ed b y u sin g an electro m ag n et in
series w ith th e lo ad cu rren t.

Figure 32 Short Circuit Protection/Closed
Breaker
Wh e n a sh o rt circ u it o c c u rs, th e fa u lt
c u rre n t p a ssin g th ro u g h th e circu it
e n e rg ize s th e e le c tro m a g n e t a n d c a u se s
th e trip to o p e n th e b re a k e r. T h e o n ly
d e la y in th is a c tio n is tim e re q u ire d fo r
th e b reaker co n tacts to o p en an d
ex tin g u ish th e arc, w h ic h ta k e s p la c e in
le ss th a n o n e c y c le (0 . 0 1 6 seco n d s fo r
6 0 H z, 0 . 0 2 seco n d s fo r 5 0 H z).

Figure 33 Short Circuit Protection / Open
Breaker
T h is in sta n ta n e o u s trip p in g is
illu stra te d in a ty p ic a l m a g n e tic trip
c u rv e , sh o w n in F ig u re 3 4 .

Figure 34 Magnetic Trip Curve
T h e b re a k e r w ill trip a s so o n a s th e
fa u lt c u rre n t e x c e e d s v a lu e A . T h e
m a g n e tic trip e le m e n t is o fte n a d ju st-
a b le to a llo w fo r v a ry in g th e fa u lt
cu rren t lev el at w h ich th e b reakers w ill
trip in stan tan eo u sly ; th is allo w s fo r
v ary in g m o to r startin g in ru sh cu rren t
lev els.
C o m b in in g th e fe a tu re s o f th e
th e rm a l o v e rlo a d p ro te c tio n a n d th e
m a g n e tic sh o rt c irc u it p ro te c tio n , a
ty p ic a l th e rm a l m a g n e tic c irc u it
b re a k e r c a n b e c o n stru c te d . T h e
th e rm a l a n d m a g n e tic trip c u rv e s c a n
th e n b e c o m b in e d .
I n th is ty p ic a l e x a m p le , if th e re w e re
a n o v e rlo a d o f 2 5 0 % o f th e ra te d
c u rre n t, th e b re a k e r w ill trip in
6 0 se c o n d s d u e to th e rm a l a c tio n .
I f in ste a d o f th e o v e rlo a d th e re
w e re a sh o rt c irc u it o f 4 0 tim e s th e
b re a k e r ra tin g , th e b re a k e r w o u ld trip
in a p p ro x im a te ly o n e c y c le . S o th e
th e rm a l m a g n e tic trip w ill n o t trip
im m e d ia te ly if th e o v e rlo a d is n o t
d a n g e ro u s, b u t w ill trip o n h e a v y
sh o rt c irc u it c u rre n t.
5.8 Control Power
5.8.1 Batteries
C irc u it b re a k e r c o n tro l p o w e r m a y
b e d e riv e d fro m a c o m b in a tio n o f a
sta tio n b a tte ry a n d e n g in e c ra n k in g
b a tte rie s (2 4 V D C ) c o n n e c te d
to g e th e r th ro u g h a b e st b a tte ry d io d e
c irc u it. A C p o w e r d e riv e d fro m u tility
a n d /o r g e n e ra to r so u rc e m a y a lso b e
u se d fo r c irc u it b re a k e r c o n tro l p o w e r.
T h e b e st b a tte ry d io d e c irc u it is
n e c e ssa ry to a v o id c o n n e c tin g sta rtin g
b a tte rie s d ire c tly in p a ra lle l a n d
p re v e n ts c ra n k in g th e e n g in e s w ith
th e sta tio n b a tte ry .
Wh e n d e sig n in g a b e st b a tte ry
d io d e c irc u it:
S ize d io d e s to a llo w p ro p e r
fo rw a rd c u rre n t a n d to
p re v e n t re v e rse c u rre n t.
P e a k in v e rse v o lta g e m u st b e
c o n sid e re d .

Figure 35 Best Battery Diode Circuit
5.8.2 Battery Chargers
U tility p o w e r is ty p ic a lly u se d to
rech arg e th e b atteries u sin g b attery
ch arg ers. In p u t p o w er to th e b attery
c h a rg e r is ty p ic a lly 1 2 0 V A C sin g le
p h a se .

6 CONTROLS
6.1 Components
6.1.1 Control Relay
A c o n tro l re la y is a n
e le c tro m e c h a n ic a l d e v ic e c o n sistin g o f
a c o il a n d se ts o f c o n ta c ts u se d fo r a
n u m b e r o f fu n c tio n s in c lu d in g :
C lo sin g o r trip p in g circu it
b reakers.
D iscrete statu s o f d ev ices
T u rn in g o n o r o ff o th er co n tro l
d ev ices.
C o n tro l relay s h av e o n ly tw o p o ssib le
o p eratin g states: o n an d o ff. A co n tro l
re lay is esse n tia lly a sw itc h ; c o n tro l
relay s u se o n e o r m o re p airs o f
c o n ta c ts to m a k e o r b re a k c irc u its.
M u ltip le co n tro l relay s can b e g ro u p ed
to g eth er in a lad d er lo g ic co n fig u ratio n
to acco m p lish m o re co m p lex fu n c tio n s.
P ro g ra m m a b le lo g ic c o n tro lle rs a n d
d ig ita l a u to m a tio n p ro c e sso rs h a v e fo r
th e m o st p a rt re p la c e d c o n tro l re la y s
in m o re c o m p le x c irc u itry d u e to
im p ro v e m e n ts o n sp a c e sa v in g s,
fle x ib ility , a n d sp e e d .
C o n tro l re la y s a re still a n e c e ssa ry
d e v ic e d u e to h ig h e r c u rre n t ra tin g s o f
th e ir c o n ta c ts. I n th e se in sta n c e s, th e
c o n tro l re la y w ill b e a c tin g a s a p ilo t
re la y to sw itc h h ig h e r v o lta g e a n d /o r
c u rre n t to a p a rtic u la r d e v ic e . S e e
F ig u re 3 6 .

Figure 36 PLC/Control Relay
6.1.2 Programmable Logic Controller
A p ro g ra m m a b le lo g ic c o n tro lle r
(P L C ) is a m ic ro p ro c e sso r-b a se d
e le c tro n ic d e v ic e u se d fo r a u to m a tio n .
U n lik e g e n e ra l-p u rp o se c o m p u te rs, th e
P L C is d e sig n e d fo r m u ltip le in p u ts
a n d o u tp u t a rra n g e m e n ts, e x te n d e d
te m p e ra tu re ra n g e s, im m u n ity to
e le c tric a l n o ise , a n d re sista n c e to
v ib ra tio n a n d im p a c t. P ro g ra m s to
c o n tro l m a c h in e o p e ra tio n a re ty p ic a lly
sto re d in b a tte ry -b a c k e d o r n o n -
v o la tile m e m o ry sy ste m . A P L C is a n
e x a m p le o f a re a l tim e sy ste m sin c e
o u tp u t re su lts m u st b e p ro d u c e d in
re sp o n se to in p u t c o n d itio n s w ith in a
b o u n d e d tim e , o th e rw ise u n in te n d e d
o p e ra tio n w ill re su lt.
6.1.3 Transducer
A tra n sd u c e r is a d e v ic e th a t
c o n v e rts o n e fo rm o f e n e rg y to
a n o th e r. T ra n sd u c e rs ty p ic a lly c o n v e rt:
V o ltag e.
C u rren t.
P o w er.
F req u en cy .
F u el Lev els.
T em p eratu re.
P ressu re.
T ra n sd u c e rs w ill c o n v e rt th e se
p a ra m e te rs in to sig n a l le v e l
in fo rm a tio n w h ic h c a n b e u se d b y a
P L C o r o th e r c o n tro l d e v ic e fo r
p ro c e ssin g .
6.1.4 Operator Interface
T h e o p e ra to r in te rfa c e a llo w s th e
o p e ra to r o f a m a c h in e to m o n ito r a n d
c o n tro l d e v ic e s in th e sy ste m . T h e
o p e ra to r c a n v ie w a n d a d ju st th e
fo llo w in g sy ste m p a ra m e te rs:
E lectrical m eterin g .
E n g in e m eterin g .
P ro tectiv e relay settin g s.
A n n u n ciato rs.
S y n ch ro n ize an d p arallel.
S et m o d es o f o p eratio n s.
V o ltag e an d freq u en cy
ad ju stm en ts.
6.2 Communications
6.2.1 Modbus
M o d b u s is a se ria l co m m u n icatio n s
p ro to co l p u b lish ed b y M o d ic o n fo r u se
w ith its p ro g ram m ab le lo g ic co n tro llers.
T h is p ro to co l allo w s fo r co m m u n icatio n
b etw een m u ltip le d ev ices co n n ected to
th e sa m e n e tw o rk a n d is o fte n u se d to
co n n ect a su p erv iso ry co m p u ter w ith a
rem o te term in al u n it (R T U ) in
su p erv iso ry co n tro l an d d ata acq u isitio n
(S C A D A ) sy stem s.
V e rsio n s o f th e M o d b u s p ro to c o l
e x ist fo r se ria l p o rt (e . g . M o d b u s R T U )
a n d E th e rn e t (e . g . M o d b u s T C P ).
E v e ry M o d b u s n e tw o rk c o n sists o f
o n e m a ste r d e v ic e a n d a t le a st o n e
sla v e d e v ic e . A ll d e v ic e s o n th e
n e tw o rk a re d a isy -c h a in e d u sin g a
tw iste d p a ir c a b le , w ith e a c h sla v e
d e v ic e a ssig n e d a fa c to ry d e fa u lt
u n iq u e a d d re ss fo r e a c h M o d b u s c a rd ;
th is a d d re ss e n a b le s th e m a ste r to
d istin g u ish b e tw e e n th e v a rio u s sla v e s
o n th e n e tw o rk . I t a lso a llo w s th e
m a ste r d e v ic e to se n d a q u e ry
c o m m a n d to th e a d d re sse d sla v e .
Wh e n th e a d d re sse d sla v e re c e iv e s
th is c o m m a n d it w ill se n d b a c k a n
a p p ro p ria te re sp o n se to th e m a ste r.
6.2.2 Ethernet
E th e rn e t is a la rg e , d iv e rse fa m ily
o f fra m e -b a se d c o m p u te r n e tw o rk in g
te c h n o lo g ie s th a t o p e ra te s a t m a n y
sp e e d s fo r lo c a l a re a n e tw o rk s
(L A N s). F o r sw itc h g e a r it p ro v id e s
a w a y fo r in d iv id u a ls to re m o te ly
m o n ito r a n d /o r c o n tro l th e sw itc h g e a r
w ith a c o m p u te r.
6.2.3 Remote Monitoring and Control
T h e sy ste m /g ro u p m o n ito rin g
sy ste m s m o st c o m m o n ly u se d a re th e
B u ild in g M a n a g e m e n t S y ste m (B M S ),
B u ild in g A u to m a tio n S y ste m (B A S ),
a n d S u p e rv iso ry C o n tro l a n d D a ta
A c q u isitio n (S C A D A ).
I m p le m e n tin g m o n ito rin g sy ste m s
w ith d e v ic e s th a t a re e q u ip p e d w ith
E th e rn e t o r M o d b u s c o m m u n ic a tio n
a b ilitie s e n a b le s in te g ra tio n o f th e
e le c tric p o w e r sy ste m c o n tro ls w ith
th e b u ild in g e q u ip m e n t c o n tro ls fo r a
sin g le a p p lic a tio n to c o n tro l a ll
sy ste m s w ith in a b u ild in g .
6.2.3.1 Building Management/
Automation System
A B u ild in g M an ag em en t S y stem
(B M S ) o r B u ild in g A u to m atio n S y stem
(B A S ) is a c o m p u te r so ftw a re p ro g ra m
u sed to co n tro l, m o n ito r, an d m an ag e
a ll th e e q u ip m e n t in sta lle d in th e
b u ild in g . C u sto m ers freq u en tly in teg rate
th e m o n ito rin g an d co n tro l o f th e
em erg en c y p o w er sy stem co m p o n en ts
w ith th e B M S /B A S . T h e B M S c a n a lso
b e u sed to in co rp o rate electrical,

H V A C , fire safety , elev ato r/escalato r,
e tc . in to o n e sy ste m .
T o a c c o m p lish th is in te g ra tio n , a
m e a n s b y w h ic h to c o m m u n ic a te
e le c tric p o w e r sy ste m s (E P S )
p a ra m e te rs to th e ir sy ste m is re q u ire d .
T y p ic a lly a d e d ic a te d P L C o n th e
sw itc h g e a r m a ste r c o n tro ls is u se d
fo r in te g ra tin g w ith th e B M S .
6.2.3.2 SCADA
S u p e rv iso ry C o n tro l a n d D a ta
A c q u isitio n (S C A D A ) sy ste m s a re
ty p ic a lly u se d to p e rfo rm d a ta
c o lle c tio n a n d c o n tro l a t th e
su p e rv iso ry le v e l. T h e su p e rv iso ry
c o n tro l sy ste m is a sy ste m th a t is
p la c e d o n to p o f a re a l tim e c o n tro l
sy ste m to c o n tro l a p ro c e ss e x te rn a l
to th e S C A D A sy ste m .
T h e S C A D A sy ste m c a n u tilize
e ith e r th e M o d b u s c o n n e c tio n o r th e
E th e rn e t c o n n e c tio n to m o n ito r a n d
c o n tro l th e sw itc h g e a r a n d a u to m a tic
tra n sfe r sw itc h .
6.2.4 Human Machine Interface
H u m a n m a c h in e in te rfa c e (H M I )
re fe rs to a to u c h -sc re e n u se d b y th e
o p e ra to r fo r in te rfa c in g w ith th e
p a ra lle lin g g e n e ra to r sy ste m . T h e
sy ste m p ro v id e s th e u se r a m e a n s o f:
In p u t: A llo w in g th e u sers to
m an ip u late th e sy stem .
O u tp u t: A llo w in g th e sy stem to
d isp lay th e effects o f th e u sers
m an ip u latio n .
6.2.5 Reporting and Trending
T re n d in g is th e c a p a b ility o f
re p o rtin g a se t o f g iv e n d a ta o v e r
a p e rio d o f tim e .
S w itc h g e a r c o n tro ls m a y c o n ta in
fu n c tio n s w h ic h w ill a llo w re p o rtin g
a n d tre n d in g o f d a ta su c h a s:
F req u en cy .
V o ltag e.
C u rren t.
T em p eratu res.
F u el C o n su m p tio n .
P ressu res.
T y p ically , en g in e an d g en erato r
set in fo rm atio n co m m u n icated to
th e sw itch g ear can b e tren d ed
w ith rep o rted tim e an d a d ate
d ata
6.3 Master Controls
M aster co n tro ls co n tain sy stem le v el
fu n ctio n ality n o t sp ec ific to a n y
in d iv id u al g en erato r set. T y p ic ally ,
in teg ratio n w ith o th er b u ild in g sy stem s
w ill o c c u r a t th e m a ste r c o n tro ls.
T h e y c o u ld c o n ta in a d d itio n a l
c o n tro ls fo r p a ra lle lin g w ith u tility g rid
o r o th e r sy ste m s a c ro ss a p o in t o f
c o m m o n c o u p lin g (P C C ). E x a m p le s
o f m a ste r c o n tro ls fu n c tio n a lity a re :
Lo ad sen se/d em an d .
Lo ad sh ed /ad d .
D ead b u s arb itratio n .
In teg ratio n w ith B M S .
S y stem lev el testin g .
R ep o rtin g , tren d in g , an d alarm in g .
S y stem lev el m eterin g an d
p ro tectiv e relay in g .
6.3.1 Load Sense/Demand
Lo ad sen se/d em an d , also referred
to as g en erato r d em an d p rio rity
co n tro l, b u s o p tim iza tio n , g e n e ra to r
lo ad b ased seq u en cin g , o r lo ad
d em an d sen sin g is a fe a tu re w h e re b y
th e o p tim u m n u m b er o f g en erato rs is
p aralleled , serv in g facility lo ad s to
m ain tain p eak fu el efficien cy w ith
ad eq u ate re serv e av ailab le.
L o a d se n se /d e m a n d ty p ic a lly w ill
h a v e u se r se le c te d se t p o in ts to
se t th e le v e l fo r sp in n in g re se rv e .
S p in n in g re se rv e is th e a m o u n t o f
to ta l a d d itio n a l g e n e ra to r u n u se d
c a p a c ity a v a ila b le o n th e lo a d b u s.
U p o n e n tra n c e in to a lo a d
se n se /d e m a n d m o d e o f o p e ra tio n
a ll g e n e ra to rs w ill b e sta rte d a n d
p a ra lle le d to th e b u s. A fte r a g iv e n
tim e d e la y g e n e ra to rs a re re m o v e d
fro m th e b u s a s a fu n c tio n o f a
g e n e ra to r lo a d in g p e rc e n ta g e se t
p o in t. G e n e ra to rs sh o u ld b e re m o v e d
fro m th e b u s in d e sc e n d in g p rio rity .
S h o u ld th e g e n e ra to r lo a d in g
p e rc e n ta g e in c re a se to a p re -se le c te d
g e n e ra to r a d d lim it, th e n e x t p rio rity
g e n e ra to r w ill b e sta rte d ,
sy n c h ro n ize d , a n d p a ra lle le d to th e
b u s. G e n e ra to rs sh o u ld b e a d d e d to
th e b u s in a sc e n d in g p rio rity o rd e r.
6.3.2 Load Prioritization
P rio ritiza tio n is th e p ro c e ss b y w h ic h
th e c u sto m e r id e n tifie s w h a t e le c tric a l
lo a d s a re n e e d e d a n d in w h a t p rio rity .
T h e h ig h est p rio rity lo ad s are
p o w e re d first; th e first g e n e rato r set
re a d y to a c c e p t th e lo a d tak es th e first
p rio rity lo a d s. A s c a p a c ity b e c o m e s
av aila b le, th e n ex t h ig h est p rio ritized
lo ad is p o w ered . T h is p ro cess rep eats
u n til a ll lo a d s a re a p p lie d .
S m a lle r lo a d ste p s e q u a te to sm a lle r
tra n sie n ts, w h ic h re su lt in sm o o th e r
tra n sitio n s. F o r e x a m p le , a m e d ic a l
c e n te r m ig h t p rio ritize life sa v in g
e q u ip m e n t a s th e n u m b e r o n e n e e d .
T h a t e q u ip m e n t (o r sp e c ia l o u tle ts
fo r th a t e q u ip m e n t) is th e first
su p p lie d w ith e le c tric ity fro m th e first
a v a ila b le g e n e ra to r se t. L ig h ts m a y
b e id e n tifie d a s th e se c o n d m o st
im p o rta n t n e e d a n d h a n d le d b y th e
se c o n d lo a d ste p .
Wh e n sta rtin g g e n e ra to r se ts
w ith o u t a p re fe rre d lo a d o rd e r it is
su g g e ste d th a t th e la rg e st lo a d s a re
sta rte d first.
T h e la rg e st tra n sie n t w ill o c c u r
b e fo re th e sy ste m is h e a v ily lo a d e d .
T h e se la rg e lo a d s w ill h a v e th e le a st
e ffe c t o n th e re st o f th e sy ste m .
6.3.3 Load Shed/Add
Wh e n sp e a k in g o f lo a d sh e d d in g /
a d d in g th is d o c u m e n t is re fe rrin g to
lo c a l lo a d s se rv e d b y th e sw itc h g e a r
a n d g e n e ra to r p o w e r sy ste m . T h e
u tility in d u stry u se s th e te rm lo a d
sh e d d in g to m e a n d isc o n n e c tin g th e ir
se rv ic e to u se rs a s a m e a n s to
m a n a g e c a p a c ity .
P o w er sy stem s are d esig n ed an d
o p erated so th at fo r an y n o rm al sy stem
co n d itio n , in clu d in g a d efin ed set o f
co n tin g en cy co n d itio n s, th ere are
ad eq u ate g en eratin g an d tran sm issio n
cap acities to m eet lo ad req u irem e n ts.
H o w ev er, th ere are eco n o m ic lim its o n
th e e x c e ss c a p a c ity d e sig n e d in to a
sy ste m a n d th e c o n tin g en cy o u tag es
u n d er w h ich a sy stem m ay b e d esig n ed
to o p e ra te satisfa cto rily .
F o r th o se c o n d itio n s w h e re th e
sy ste m s c a p a b ility is e x c e e d e d ,
p ro cesses m u st b e in p lace to
a u to m a tic a lly m o n ito r p o w e r sy ste m s
lo a d in g lev e ls a n d re d u c e lo a d in g w h e n

req u ired . A lo ad -sh ed sy stem
a u to m a tic a lly se n se s o v e rlo a d
co n d itio n s an d sh ed s en o u g h lo ad to
re lie v e th e o v e rlo a d ed g en erato r sets
b e fo re th e re is lo ss o f g en eratio n , lin e
trip p in g , eq u ip m en t d am ag e, o r a
ch ao tic ran d o m sh u td o w n o f th e
sy ste m .
F o r e x a m p le , in a fa c to ry a ll w e ld in g
e q u ip m e n t a n d o th e r m a c h in e s m a y
b e o p e ra te d a t c a p a c ity a t th e sa m e
tim e b e tw e e n 1 0 a m a n d 1 2 n o o n a n d
th e n a g a in b e tw e e n 1 p m a n d 3 p m .
D u rin g th e se tim e s th e lo a d to lig h ts
in th e lu n c h ro o m a n d p a rk in g lo t
w o u ld b e sh e d b e c a u se th e y a re le ss
o f a p rio rity .
C o n v e rse ly , lo a d -a d d c irc u its
se rv e to b rin g lo a d s o n lin e b a se d
o n a v a ila b le c a p a c ity o f th e p o w e r
sy ste m . P rio ritiza tio n w ill d ic ta te
th e o rd e r th e lo a d s c o m e o n lin e .
6.3.4 Dead Bus Arbitration
Wh e n m u ltip le g e n e ra to rs a re
sim u lta n e o u sly sta rte d , th e ir o u tp u ts
a re n o t sy n c h ro n ize d w h e n th e y re a c h
ra te d sp e e d a n d v o lta g e . I f m o re
th a n o n e g e n e ra to r is a llo w e d to
sim u lta n e o u sly c lo se to th e d e -
e n e rg ize d (d e a d ) b u s, a n o u t o f p h a se
p a ra lle lin g situ a tio n o c c u rs. T h e re fo re ,
o n e g e n e ra to r m u st b e se le c te d to
c lo se to th e d e a d b u s p rio r to th e
o th e r g e n e ra to rs in itia tin g
sy n c h ro n iza tio n .
F a ilu re o f th e c o n tro l sy ste m
to a llo w o n ly o n e g e n e ra to r to
e x c lu siv e ly c lo se to th e d e a d b u s
c o u ld re su lt in e x te n siv e d a m a g e
to th e g e n e ra to r se ts.
A u to m a tic c irc u it b re a k e r c lo su re is
in h ib ite d to a ll u n its e x c e p t o n e . T h e
o n e th a t is se le c te d is ty p ic a lly th e
first g e n e ra to r to re a c h ra te d sp e e d
a n d v o lta g e .
6.3.5 System Level Testing
C e rta in e m e rg e n c y p o w e r sy ste m s
a re re q u ire d to b e te ste d p e rio d ic a lly .
I t m a y b e n e c e ssa ry to p e rfo rm th e se
te sts a u to m a tic a lly . T h e m a ste r
c o n tro l m a y b e c o n fig u re d w ith a n
a u to m a tic o r m a n u a l te st sw itc h to
in itia te v a rio u s sy ste m le v e l fu n c tio n
te sts w ith o r w ith o u t lo a d . I n a d d itio n
to a n o v e ra ll sy ste m le v e l te st, th e
g e n e ra to r se ts m a y b e e x e rc ise d
p e rio d ic a lly to m a in ta in p ro p e r flu id
c irc u la tio n .
6.3.6 System Level Protective
Relaying and Metering
P ro te c tiv e re la y in g is a sy ste m o f
re la y s u se d to p ro te c t se rv ic e fro m
in te rru p tio n o r to p re v e n t o r lim it
d a m a g e to a p p a ra tu s.
S y ste m le v e l m e te rin g m a y in c lu d e :
T o talized kW m eterin g fro m
th e lo ad b u s.
kW-h r m eterin g fo r p u rp o ses
o f rev en u e m eterin g .
U tility g rad e m eterin g .
6.4 Generator Controls
6.4.1 Voltage Control
6.4.1.1 Voltage Regulators
A v o lta g e re g u la to r is a n e le c tric a l
re g u la to r d e sig n e d to a u to m a tic a lly
m a in ta in a c o n sta n t v o lta g e le v e l.
T h e v o lta g e re g u la to r m a y u se a n
e le c tro m e c h a n ic a l m e c h a n ism o r
p a ssiv e /a c tiv e e le c tro n ic c o m p o n e n ts;
it m a y b e u se d to re g u la te o n e o r
m o re A C o r D C v o lta g e s.
V o lta g e re g u la to rs (w ith th e
e x c e p tio n o f sh u n t re g u la to rs) o p e ra te
b y c o m p a rin g a c tu a l o u tp u t v o lta g e
to a n in te rn a l fix e d re fe re n c e v o lta g e .
A n y d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e v o lta g e s
is a m p lifie d a n d u se d to c o n tro l th e
re g u la tio n e le m e n t.
6.4.2 Speed Control
S p e e d is c o n tro lle d to a d ju st th e
fre q u e n c y a n d lo a d le v e l o f th e
g e n e ra to r se t. S p e e d m u st a lso b e
c o n tro lle d fo r p ro p e r sy n c h ro n iza tio n .
S p e e d is c o n tro lle d b y a d ju stin g fu e l
th ro ttle p o sitio n . F o r a d d itio n a l
in fo rm a tio n o n sp e e d c o n tro l, se e th e
G o v e rn o r S e c tio n o f E n g in e A & I G u id e .
6.4.3 Communication
C o m m u n ic a tio n is th e m e a n s b y
w h ic h sw itc h g e a r c o m m u n ic a te s w ith
th e e n g in e g e n e ra tio n se t. T h is c o u ld
in c lu d e d isc re te o u tp u ts fro m th e
g e n e ra to r se t in d ic a tin g c o m m o n
a la rm , c o m m o n sh u td o w n , e tc . I t a lso
c o u ld in c lu d e d a ta fro m th e e n g in e
g e n e ra to r se t su c h a s e n g in e
te m p e ra tu re s, p re ssu re s, fu e l
c o n su m p tio n , e tc .
6.5 Protective Devices
T h e ap p licatio n o f sw itch g ear an d /o r
sy n ch ro n o u s g en erato rs in to an y
in stallatio n req u ires at least a m in im u m
am o u n t o f p ro tectio n to p ro tect th e
g en erato r an d p rim e m o v er ag ain st
fau lts an d ab n o rm al o p eratin g
co n d itio n s. T h e cu sto m er n eed s to
b alan ce th e ex p en se o f ap p ly in g a
p articu lar p ro tectiv e d ev ice (relay ,
su rg e arresto r, etc. . . ) ag ain st th e
co n seq u en ces o f lo sin g a g en erato r o r
p rim e m o v er. Wh en co n sid erin g w h at
p ro tectiv e d ev ices to u se, th e p o ten tial
lo ss o f a g en erato r o r p rim e as w ell as
th e im p act o f lo ss o f serv ice n eed s to b e
co n sid ered . T h e ex ten t o f th e p ro tectio n
sy stem d esig n w ill d ep en d o n th e size
an d relativ e v alu e o f th e g en eratin g u n it.
T h ere is n o stan d ard so lu tio n b ased o n
th e g en erato r set p o w er ratin g , h o w ev er
larg e critical u n its ten d to h av e
ex ten siv e p ro tectio n sy stem s w ith
red u n d an cy w h ile sm aller less critical
u n its m ay h av e a su b set o f th e p rim ary
p ro tectio n p ro v id ed fo r th e larg er u n it
w ith little if an y b acku p p ro tectio n . It is
th e resp o n sib ility o f th e cu sto m er to
u n d erstan d th e site an d ap p licatio n an d
to p ro v id e th e ap p ro p riate am o u n t o f
p ro tectio n . T h is w ill req u ire an
ev alu atio n o f th e p o ten tial risks, an d a
co m m ercial ev alu atio n o f th e co st fo r
p ro tectio n d ev ices v ersu s th e co st o f
failed eq u ip m en t.
T h ere are a n u m b er o f fau lts, w h ich
co u ld h av e serio u s im p a c ts o n se rv ic e
reliab ility . T o d etect an d red u ce/
elim in ate th e im p acts o f th ese fau lts,
a v ariety o f re lay co n fig u ratio n s an d
p ro tectiv e d ev ices can b e u sed . T h is
sectio n p ro v id es d etailed d escrip tio n s
o f im p o rtan t p ro tectiv e d ev ic es. A lso ,
p o ssib le fau lts are sh o w n u n d er th e
I E E E D ev ice N u m b erin g sy stem in
A p p e n d ix A .
Reference Material
T h e fo llo w in g in fo rm a tio n is
p ro v id e d a s a d d itio n a l re fe re n c e to
su b je c ts d isc u sse d in th is se c tio n . Y o u
c a n a lso re fe re n c e th e b ib lio g ra p h y a t
th e e n d o f th is g u id e .
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P ra c tic e fo r G ro u n d in g o f I n d u stria l
a n d C o m m e rc ia l P o w e r S y ste m s
IEEE C62.92 - I E E E g u id e fo r th e
a p p lic a tio n o f n e u tra l g ro u n d in g in
e le c tric a l u tility sy ste m s. P a rt I I -

g ro u n d in g o f sy n c h ro n o u s g e n e ra to r
sy ste m s
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e le c tric a l u tility sy ste m s - P a rt 1 :
in tro d u c tio n
IEEE C62.92.2 - I E E E G u id e fo r th e
A p p lic a tio n o f N e u tra l G ro u n d in g in
E le c tric a l U tility S y ste m s, P a rt I I -
G ro u n d in g o f S y n c h ro n o u s G e n e ra to r
S y ste m s
n e u tra l g ro u n d in g in e le c tric a l u tility
sy ste m s, P a rt I I I -G e n e ra to r A u x ilia ry
S y ste m s
e le c tric a l u tility sy ste m s, p a rt I V -
d istrib u tio n
IEEE C62.92.5 - A c tiv e - I E E E g u id e
fo r th e a p p lic a tio n o f n e u tra l
g ro u n d in g in e le c tric a l u tility sy ste m s,
p a rt V - tra n sm issio n sy ste m s a n d
su b tra n sm issio n sy ste m s
IEEE C37.101 - I E E E G u id e fo r
G e n e ra to r G ro u n d P ro te c tio n
IEEE C37.102 - I E E E g u id e fo r A C
g e n e ra to r p ro te c tio n
25 - T h e S y n c h C h e c k (S y n ch ro n izin g
o r S y n c h ro n ism C h e c k ) R e la y is a re la y
th at fu n ctio n s w h en tw o A C circu its
a re w ith in th e d e sire d lim its o f
freq u en cy , p h ase an g le a n d v o lta g e , to
p erm it o r to cau se th e p arallelin g o f
th e se tw o c irc u its. T h e S y n c h C h e c k
R e lay is u se d to p rev en t o u t o f p h a se
clo su re w h en p arallelin g g en erato rs to
each o th er o r w h en p arallelin g
g en erato rs to an o th er so u rce.
27 - T h e U n d e r-V o lta g e R e la y is a
d e v ic e th a t fu n c tio n s o n a g iv e n v a lu e
o f u n d e r-v o lta g e . T h is d e v ic e p ro te c ts
e q u ip m e n t th a t w o u ld o th e rw ise b e
d a m a g e d fro m o p e ra tin g a t v o lta g e s
le ss th a n w h a t is sp e c ifie d . T h e
d e v ic e a lso p ro te c ts th e g e n e ra to r
fro m o p e ra tin g a t lo w v o lta g e o u tp u t
w h ic h b y O h m s L a w w o u ld re q u ire
a h ig h e r c u rre n t o u tp u t fo r th e sa m e
p o w e r (k W) o u tp u t.
32 - T h e R e v e rse (o r D ire c tio n a l)
P o w e r R e la y is a re la y th a t fu n c tio n s
o n a d e sire d v a lu e o f p o w e r flo w in a
g iv e n d ire c tio n . T h e R e v e rse P o w e r
R e la y is u se d to p re v e n t p o w e r flo w in
th e re v e rse d ire c tio n ; th is fu n c tio n
p ro te c ts th e g e n e ra to r fro m b e c o m in g
m o to rize d a n d d a m a g in g th e p rim e
m o v e r.
32RV - T h e R e v e rse P o w e r
(re a c tiv e /k V A R ) R e la y is a re la y
th a t fu n c tio n s o n a d e sire d v a lu e
o f re a c tiv e p o w e r flo w in a g iv e n
d ire c tio n . 3 2 R V is u se d to p re v e n t
re a c tiv e p o w e r flo w in th e re v e rse
d ire c tio n . T h is p re v e n ts re v e rse
re a c tiv e p o w e r flo w to th e g e n e ra to r
th a t w o u ld c a u se e x c e ssiv e h e a t b u ild
u p a n d d a m a g e th e m a c h in e .
38 - A B e a rin g P ro te c tiv e D e v ic e is
a d e v ic e th a t fu n c tio n s o n e x c e ssiv e
b e a rin g te m p e ra tu re o r o th e r a b n o rm a l
m e c h a n ic a l c o n d itio n s a sso c ia te d w ith
th e b e a rin g , su c h a s u n d u e w e a r
w h ic h m a y e v e n tu a lly re su lt in
e x c e ssiv e b e a rin g te m p e ra tu re o r
fa ilu re . T h e rm o c o u p le o r re sistiv e
te m p e ra tu re d e v ic e se n so rs a re u se d
to d e te c t th is c o n d itio n . Wh e n a p re -
p ro g ra m m e d te m p e ra tu re lim it is
re a c h e d , th e re la y e n e rg ize s its
o u tp u t a c c o rd in g ly .
A re sistiv e te m p e ra tu re d e v ic e
(R T D ) su p p lie s a c o n sta n t c u rre n t
to a re sistiv e e le m e n t lo c a te d o n
th e b e a rin g h o u sin g a n d se n se s th e
te m p e ra tu re o f th e b e a rin g b y
m e a su rin g th e v o lta g e a c ro ss th e
re sistiv e e le m e n t.
A th e rm o c o u p le is a d e v ic e in w h ic h
th e te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n
th e e n d s o f a p a ir o f d issim ila r m e ta l
w ire s is d e d u c e d fro m a m e a su re m e n t
o f th e d iffe re n c e in th e th e rm o e le c tric
p o te n tia ls d e v e lo p e d a lo n g th e w ire s.
40 - T h e L o ss o f F ie ld R e la y is a
re la y th a t fu n c tio n s o n a g iv e n o r
a b n o rm a lly lo w v a lu e o r fa ilu re o f
m a c h in e fie ld c u rre n t, o r o n a n
e x c e ssiv e v a lu e o f th e re a c tiv e
c o m p o n e n t o f a rm a tu re c u rre n t in a n
a c m a c h in e in d ic a tin g a b n o rm a lly lo w
fie ld e x c ita tio n . L o ss o f F ie ld is u se d
to p re v e n t re v e rse re a c tiv e p o w e r
flo w to th e g e n e ra to r th a t w o u ld
c a u se e x c e ssiv e h e a t b u ild u p a n d
d a m a g e th e a lte rn a to r w in d in g s.
46 - R e v e rse P h a se o r P h a se B a la n c e
C u rre n t R e la y fu n c tio n s w h e n th e
p o ly p h a se c u rre n ts a re o f th e re v e rse
p h a se se q u e n c e , o r w h e n th e
p o ly p h a se c u rre n ts a re u n b a la n c e d
o r c o n ta in n e g a tiv e p h a se -se q u e n c e
c o m p o n e n ts a b o v e a g iv e n a m o u n t.
T h e 4 6 re sp o n d s to th e n e g a tiv e
p h a se se q u e n c e c u rre n t w h ic h flo w s
d u rin g u n b a la n c e fa u lts o r lo a d s o n
a p o w e r sy ste m ; th is w ill p ro te c t
m a c h in e s a g a in st e x c e ssiv e h e a tin g
d a m a g e d u e to p ro lo n g e d c u rre n t
u n b a la n c e .
47 - T h e P h a se S e q u e n c e V o lta g e
R e la y fu n c tio n s u p o n a p re d e te rm in e d
v a lu e o f th re e -p h a se v o lta g e in th e
d e sire d p h a se se q u e n c e . T h is re la y
is u se d to d e te c t u n d e r-v o lta g e
c o n d itio n s a n d / o r in c o rre c t p h a se
se q u e n c e o f th e in c o m in g u tility .
Wh e n th is re la y o p e ra te s it sta rts
th e p ro c e ss o f c a u sin g th e sy ste m
to e n te r E m e rg e n c y M o d e .
49 - A M a c h in e (G e n e ra to r) o r
T ra n sfo rm e r T h e rm a l R e la y is a re la y
th a t fu n c tio n s w h e n th e te m p e ra tu re
o f a m a c h in e a rm a tu re w in d in g
(sta to r) o r o th e r lo a d -c a rry in g w in d in g
o r e le m e n t o f a m a c h in e e x c e e d s a
p re d e te rm in e d v a lu e . T h e rm o c o u p le o r
R T D se n so rs fu n c tio n a s d e sc rib e d in
T y p e 3 8 .
50 - T h e I n sta n ta n e o u s O v e r-C u rre n t
R e la y fu n c tio n s in sta n ta n e o u sly o n a n
e x c e ssiv e v a lu e o f c u rre n t o r o n a n
e x c e ssiv e ra te o f c u rre n t rise , th u s
in d ic a tin g a fa u lt in th e c irc u it o r
a p p a ra tu s b e in g p ro te c te d .
51 - T h e T im e d O v e r-C u rre n t R e la y
is a re la y w ith e ith e r a d e fin ite o r
in v e rse tim e c h a ra c te ristic th a t
fu n c tio n s w h e n th e c u rre n t in a c irc u it
e x c e e d s a p re d e te rm in e d v a lu e .
T h is re la y fu n c tio n s th e sa m e a s th e
lo n g tim e trip in a b re a k e r trip u n it.
T h is re la y is c o m m o n ly u se d in
c o n ju n c tio n w ith a n e u tra l g ro u n d in g
im p e d a n c e to d e te c t e x c e ssiv e g ro u n d
c u rre n t. I n su c h c a se s it is re fe rre d to
a s d e v ic e fu n c tio n 5 1 G .
T h e ty p e (re sistiv e o r in d u c tiv e ) a n d
sizin g (lo w o r h ig h ) o f n e u tra l
g ro u n d in g im p e d a n c e is d e p e n d e n t o n
a p p lic a tio n . T h e im p e d a n c e is
c o m m o n ly size d to k e e p a n e u tra l to
g ro u n d fa u lt c u rre n t b e lo w th e fu ll
lo a d c u rre n t ra tin g o f th e g e n e ra to r.
T h e 5 1 G a n d 8 7 G p ro te c tiv e re la y
fu n c tio n s, w h e n se t-u p a p p ro p ria te ly ,
a re e ffe c tiv e a t m in im izin g d a m a g e to
g e n e ra to r sta to r w in d in g s th a t c o u ld

o c c u r d u e to m ig ra tio n o f sh o rte d
tu rn s in a sta to r slo t e v o lv in g to a
c a ta stro p h ic g ro u n d fa u lt slo t fa il th a t
c o u ld d a m a g e th e sta to r iro n .
52 - A n A C C irc u it B re a k e r is a
d e v ic e u se d to c lo se a n d in te rru p t
a n A C p o w e r c irc u it u n d e r n o rm a l
c o n d itio n s o r to in te rru p t th is c irc u it
u n d e r fa u lt o r e m e rg e n c y c o n d itio n s.
F u rth e r d e ta ils c a n b e fo u n d in
S e c tio n 5 .
59 - T h e O v e r-V o lta g e R e la y is a re la y
th at fu n ctio n s o n a g iv e n v a lu e o f o v e r-
v o ltag e. T h is p ro tec ts e q u ip m e n t fro m
b ein g d am ag ed b y lo n g -term h ig h
v o lta g e c o n d itio n s an d p ro tects th e
g en erato r w in d in g s an d field fro m
o v erh eatin g an d o v er ex citatio n .
67 - A n A C D irectio n al O v er-C u rren t
R e la y fu n c tio n s o n a d esired v alu e o f
A C o v er-c u rren t flo w in g in a p re-
d eterm in ed d irectio n . T h is is co m m o n ly
u sed acro ss th e p o in t o f co m m o n
c o u p lin g (P C C ) su c h th a t n o re a l c u rre n t
w ill b e e x p o rte d to th e g rid /u tility .
81 - T h e U n d e r/O v e r-F re q u e n c y
R e la y re sp o n d s to th e fre q u e n c y o f
a n e le c tric a l q u a n tity , o p e ra tin g w h e n
th e fre q u e n c y o r ra te o f c h a n g e o f
fre q u e n c y e x c e e d s o r is le ss th a n a
p re d e te rm in e d v a lu e .
86 - T h e L o c k o u t R e la y is a n
e le c tric a lly o p e ra te d , h a n d o r
e le c tric a lly re se t, re la y th a t fu n c tio n s
to sh u td o w n a n d h o ld s e q u ip m e n t o u t
o f se rv ic e o n th e o c c u rre n c e o f
a b n o rm a l c o n d itio n s.
87 - T h e D iffe re n tia l R e la y s h a v e
m a n y a p p lic a tio n s in p o w e r sy ste m s.
T h e b a sic p rin c ip le is th a t th e c u rre n t
flo w in g in to th e re la y m u st e q u a l th e
c u rre n t flo w in g o u t o f th e re la y . T h e
th re e ty p e s o f d iffe re n tia l re la y s a re
d e sc rib e d b e lo w .
87B - T h e D iffe re n tia l B u s R e la y
o p e ra te s o n th e sa m e p rin c ip le a s th e
G e n e ra to r D iffe re n tia l R e la y . T h e su m
o f a ll c u rre n ts e n te rin g a n d le a v in g th e
b u s m u st b e e q u a l to ze ro u n d e r
n o rm a l c o n d itio n s o r if th e fa u lt is
o u tsid e th e p ro te c te d zo n e . I f th e re is
a fa u lt o n th e b u s th e re w ill b e a n e t
flo w o f c u rre n t to th e b u s a n d th e
d iffe re n tia l re la y w ill o p e ra te .
87T - T h e 8 7 T is a T ra n sfo rm e r
D iffe re n tia l R e la y d e sig n e d a s p rim a ry
p ro te c tio n fo r p o w e r tra n sfo rm e rs
a g a in st in te rn a l fa u lts. T h is re la y
c o m p a re s th e c u rre n ts e n te rin g a n d
le a v in g th e p ro te c te d tra n sfo rm e r.
I f a n y im b a la n c e is d e te c te d th a t is
n o t a ttrib u ta b le to o th e r fa c to rs th e
re la y p ro v id e s a c o n tra c t c lo su re to
iso la te th e p o w e r tra n sfo rm e r a n d
lim it d a m a g e .

Figure 37 87T Protective Relay Scheme
87G - T h e 8 7 G is a V a ria b le
P e rc e n ta g e D iffe re n tia l R e la y d e sig n e d
to p ro v id e se le c tiv e , h ig h sp e e d ,
d iffe re n tia l p ro te c tio n fo r g e n e ra to rs.
D ifferen tial relay in g is th e m o st
sele ctiv e fo rm o f fau lt p ro tectio n
th at m ay b e ap p lied to th e in d iv id u al
elem en ts, o r zo n es, o f A C p o w er
sy ste m s. T h e selec tiv ity o f d iffe re n tia l
re la y in g is b a se d o n th e a b ility o f th e
relay to d istin g u ish b etw een an in tern al
fau lt (w ith in th e p ro tected zo n e) an d an
ex tern al fau lt. U n d er n o rm al o p eratin g
c o n d itio n s th e c u rren t in to th e
p ro tected zo n e eq u als th e c u rre n t o u t
o f th e p ro tected zo n e w ith a n e t
o p eratin g cu rren t eq u al to ze ro . I n te rn a l
fau lts u p set th is b alan c e a n d re su lt in a
d ifferen ce b etw een th e in p u t an d
o u tp u t cu rren ts. E x tern a l fa u lts h a v e
relativ ely little effec t o n th e b a la n c e ,
b e c a u se th e c u rre n t in still e q u a ls th e
cu rren t o u t o f th e p ro tected zo n e.
T h e re fo re , b y c o m p a rin g th e c u rre n ts
o n b o th sid es o f th e p ro tected elem en t
o r zo n e an d d etectin g w h en th ese
c u rre n ts a re n o t e q u a l, a d iffe re n tia l
re la y a c ts to iso la te th e e le m e n t o r zo n e
fro m th e sy ste m .
T h e 8 7 G ty p ic a lly trip s a lo c k o u t re la y
(D e v ic e n u m b e r 8 6 ) w h ic h in tu rn trip s
th e g e n e ra to r b re a k e r. F o r th e
p ro tectiv e sch em e in F ig u re 3 8 ,
6 cu rren t tran sfo rm ers are re q u ired .
3 C T s m u st b e m o u n ted o n th e
g en erato r lead s in th e g en erato r
h o u sin g an d 3 C T s m u st b e m o u n ted
o n th e lo ad sid e o f th e sw itch g ear
g en erato r circu it b reaker. I t is n ecessary
fo r th e se C T s to b e size d id e n tica lly a n d
re c o m m e n d e d th a t th e y b e so u rc e d
fro m th e sa m e m a n u fa c tu re r.

Figure 38 Typical 87G Protective Relay
Scheme
6.5.1 Utility Intertie Protective Relays
U tility I n te rtie P ro te c tiv e R e la y s a re
in te n d e d to p ro te c t th e u tility fro m
h a v in g g e n e ra to rs o p e ra tin g in a n
u n in te n tio n a l isla n d m o d e w h ile still
c o n n e c te d to th e u tility g rid a t th e
P C C . T h is p ro te c tio n is a c c o m p lish e d
b y m o n ito rin g th e in te rtie (P C C ) to th e
u tility fo r a b n o rm a l v o lta g e , a b n o rm a l
fre q u e n c y , a n d e x c e ssiv e p o w e r
im p o rt/e x p o rt, w h ic h c a n in d ic a te a
lo ss o f th e u tility su p p ly .
T h e re la y sh o u ld a lso p ro v id e
d e te c tio n o f p h a se a n d g ro u n d fa u lts
a s w e ll a s c u rre n t a n d v o lta g e
im b a la n c e o f th e u tility sy ste m .
A sy n c c h e c k fu n c tio n m a y a lso b e
a p p lie d to su p e rv ise th e c lo su re o f
th e in te rtie b re a k e r.
S e e a ty p ic a l e x a m p le o f a U tility
I n te rtie P ro te c tiv e R e la y sc h e m e in
F ig u re 3 9 .
E ith e r th e u tility o r th e a u th o rity
h a v in g ju risd ic tio n (A H J ) w ill sp e c ify
th e e x a c t site re q u ire m e n ts.


Figure 39 Utility Intertie Protective Relay
Scheme
6.5.1.1 Generator Protective Relays
G e n e ra to r p ro te c tiv e re la y in g
sc h e m e s ty p ic a lly c o n ta in th e
fo llo w in g fe a tu re s:
O v e r-v o lta g e (5 9 ).
U n d e r-v o lta g e (2 7 ).
R e v e rse p o w e r (3 2 ).
V o lta g e re stra in e d tim e o v e r
c u rre n t (5 1 V ).
U n d e r-fre q u e n c y (8 1 U ).
O v e r-fre q u e n c y (8 1 O ).
A n e x a m p le o f a G e n e ra to r
P ro te c tiv e R e la y sc h e m e is sh o w n
in F ig u re 4 0 .

Figure 40 Generator Protective Relay
Scheme
6.5.2 Test Blocks
T e st b lo c k s a re in te n d e d to sim u la te
a fa u lt c o n d itio n so it c a n te st th e
p ro te c tiv e re la y a n d its a b ility to
o p e ra te . T e st b lo c k s a re m o u n te d
o n sw itc h b o a rd p a n e ls fo r u se in
c o n ju n c tio n w ith p ro p e r te st
e q u ip m e n t to fa c ilita te te stin g o f
A C in stru m e n ts, m e te rs, a n d re la y s.
6.5.3 Surge Protection
6.5.3.1 Transient Low Voltage Surge
Suppressor
A T ra n sie n t V o lta g e S u rg e
S u p p re sso r (T V S S ) is a d e v ic e th a t
a tte n u a te s (re d u c e s in m a g n itu d e )
ra n d o m , h ig h e n e rg y , sh o rt d u ra tio n
e le c tric a l p o w e r a n o m a lie s c a u se d b y
u tilitie s, a tm o sp h e ric p h e n o m e n a , o r
in d u c tiv e lo a d s. S u c h a n o m a lie s o c c u r
in th e fo rm o f v o lta g e a n d c u rre n t
sp ik e s w ith d u ra tio n s o f le ss th a n h a lf
a n A C c y c le . T h e se h ig h -e n e rg y
p o w e r sp ik e s c a n d a m a g e se n sitiv e
e le c tro n ic e q u ip m e n t su c h a s
c o m p u te rs, in stru m e n ta tio n , a n d
p ro c e ss c o n tro lle rs.
S u rg e su p p re sso rs a re d e sig n e d to
d iv e rt h ig h -e n e rg y p o w e r a w a y fro m a
lo a d b y p ro v id in g a lo w e r im p e d a n c e
p a th to c o m m o n p o in t g ro u n d . S u rg e
su p p re sso rs u se d m o st o fte n fo r
p a n e l-b o a rd p ro te c tio n h a v e m e ta l
o x id e v a risto rs (M O V s) c o n n e c te d
in p a ra lle l.
6.5.3.2 Surge Arrestors and Surge
Capacitors
F o r m e d iu m v o lta g e a p p lic a tio n s
su rg e a rre sto rs a n d c a p a c ito rs a re u se d
fo r p ro te c tio n a g a in st sy ste m stre sse s
th a t c a n b e c a u se d b y c o n d itio n s su c h
a s lig h tn in g su rg e s, c irc u it b re a k e r
sw itc h in g tra n sie n ts, a rc in g fa u lts,
in d u c tiv e a n d /o r c a p a c itiv e lo a d
sw itc h in g . S u rg e a rre sto rs a re u se d to
lim it th e a m p litu d e o f th e v o lta g e rise
(su rg e ) a n d th e su rg e c a p a c ito r is u se d
to re d u c e th e ra te o f rise o f th e
v o lta g e . With p ro p e r sy ste m d e sig n ,
th e p ro b a b ility o f th e se su rg e s a n d
th e ir e ffe c ts c a n b e m in im ize d o r
v irtu a lly e lim in a te d . T h e m e th o d o f
re d u c in g th e risk o f d a m a g e c a u se d b y
tra n sie n t o v e r-v o lta g e s h e a v ily
d e p e n d s u p o n th e sy ste m a n d
a p p lic a tio n .
A su rg e a rre sto r is u se d to p re v e n t
la rg e su rg e s (p o w e r in c o n siste n c ie s,
lig h tn in g , e tc . ) fro m re a c h in g sy ste m
c o m p o n e n ts su c h g e n e ra to rs,
tra n sfo rm e rs, e tc a n d e n su re th e
sa fe ty o f in d iv id u a ls n e a rb y . S u rg e
a rre sto rs a re d e v ic e s th a t d issip a te
e x c e ss v o lta g e b y p ro v id in g a sh o rt
c irc u it to th e g ro u n d o n ly w h e n o v e r-
v o lta g e c o n d itio n s e x ist. S u rg e
a rre sto rs u se sp a rk g a p s o r n o n -
c o n d u c tiv e m a te ria ls to p re v e n t
re g u la r e le c tric flo w fro m b e in g
g ro u n d e d . I f a su rg e o c c u rs, th e o v e r-
v o lta g e is sa fe ly sh u n te d to th e
g ro u n d a n d th e e le c tric a l e q u ip m e n t
d o w n stre a m is p ro te c te d .
S u rg e a rre sto rs sh o u ld b e c h o se n
w ith c a re . T h e th re e c la sse s o f su rg e
a rre sto rs th a t c a n b e u tilize d a re
D istrib u tio n C la ss, I n te rm e d ia te C la ss,
a n d S ta tio n C la ss. T h e re a re m u ltip le
th in g s th a t n e e d to b e c o n sid e re d
w h e n se le c tin g w h a t c la ssific a tio n o f
a rre sto rs to u se a n d w h e re th e y n e e d
to b e lo c a te d w ith in th e sy ste m (ie .
c o st, a p p lic a tio n , g ro u n d in g m e th o d ).
F u rth e rm o re , th e le v e l o f p ro te c tio n
p ro v id e d d e p e n d s u p o n sizin g ,
p la c e m e n t a n d th e p a rtic u la r
d e v ic e s/e q u ip m e n t w ith in th e sy ste m .
S u rg e a rre sto rs fu n ctio n b est w h en
lo cated clo se to g en erato r o u tp u t lead s.
S u rg e C a p a c ito rs c a n a lso b e u se d
fo r p ro te c tio n . R e sisto r-C a p a c ito r p a irs
c a n b e a p p lie d to lim it th e ra te o f rise
o f su rg e v o lta g e s in a d d itio n to
lim itin g th e ir m a g n itu d e . S u rg e
c a p a c ito rs a re le ss e ffe c tiv e a g a in st
sh e e r v o lta g e m a g n itu d e , b u t a re m o re
e ffe c tiv e in slo w in g th e ra te o f rise . I n
a d d itio n c a b le le n g th c a n b e e x te n d e d
to lim it re fle c te d w a v e s. I n c h o o sin g
c a p a c ito rs, it is im p o rta n t to re a lize
th a t e v e ry c irc u it h a s a re so n a n t
fre q u e n c y a n d a d d in g c a p a c ita n c e w ill
c h a n g e th is fre q u e n c y .

7 METERING
I t is e sse n tia l th a t c ritic a l v a lu e s b e
m e a su re d a n d d isp la y e d fo r re fe re n c e
a n d c o n tro l p u rp o se s. F o r sw itc h g e a r
ty p ic a l m e te rin g p a ra m e te rs a re :
U tility m eterin g .
T rip u n it m eterin g .
G en erato r/g en erato r set m eterin g .
S y stem m eterin g .
R ev en u e m eterin g .
7.1 Discrete Analog vs. Virtual
Metering
V irtu al m eterin g h as p rim arily taken
th e p lace o f d iscrete an alo g m eterin g .
In stead o f h av in g n u m ero u s an alo g
m eters an o p erato r can u se th e H M I to
v iew a v ariety o f m eters o n o n e
in terface.
A n alo g m eterin g d ev ices are
ty p ically eith er + 2 % o r + 1 % ,
w h ile d ig ital m eterin g accu racies
are +1 /2 % o r +1 /4 %
7.2 Phase Selector Switch
T h e p h a se se le c to r sw itc h a llo w s o n e
m e ter to m o n ito r all th re e p h ases o f
g en erato r o u tp u t. T h e p h ase selecto r
sw itc h ca n b e set to v o ltm ete r,
a m m e te r, o r a c o m b in a tio n o f th e tw o .
7.3 Ammeter
T h e a m m e te r in d ic a te s th e e le c tric a l
c u rre n t flo w in g th ro u g h th e p h a se s
w h e re th e C T s a re lo c a te d . With A C
g e n e ra to rs th e a m m e te r u su a lly h a s a
5 A m o v e m e n t a n d m u st b e u se d w ith
a c u rre n t tra n sfo rm e r.
7.4 Voltmeter
U se d to m e a su re v o lta g e , th e
v o ltm eter is o ften d esig n ed fo r 1 2 0 V
fu ll-sc a le d e fle c tio n an d m u st b e u sed
w ith p o te n tial tra n sfo rm ers (P T s). T h e
v o ltm eter d esig n ed fo r w all-m o u n ted
sw itc h g e a r c a n ta k e th e fu ll v o lta g e o f
th e sy stem u p to an d in clu d in g 6 0 0 V .
O n flo o r-stan d in g sw itch g ear, th e
v o ltm e te r w o rk s o n fu ll v o lta g e o f
2 0 8 V m ax im u m . F o r v o ltag e b ey o n d
2 0 8 V , P T s are u sed .
7.5 Frequency Meter
T h is m o n ito rs th e fre q u e n c y o f th e
A C sin e w a v e o f th e so u rc e o r b u s.
7.6 Wattmeter
T h e w a ttm e te r in d ic a te s
in sta n ta n e o u sly th e k ilo w a tt lo a d
o f th e so u rc e , b u s, o r lo a d .
7.7 Kilowatt-Hour Meter
S im ilar to th e u n it u sed b y u tility
c o m p a n ie s, th is c o m p o n e n t m a in ta in s a
ru n n in g to tal o f th e p o w er p ro d u ced o r
c o n su m e d b y th e so u rc e o r th e lo a d .
7.8 Power Factor Meter
T h is in d ic a te s th e in sta n ta n e o u s
ra tio b e tw e e n tru e p o w e r in k ilo w a tts
(k W) to a p p a re n t p o w e r in k ilo v o lt
a m p e re s (k V A ).
7.9 Elapsed Time Meter
T h is is u se d to to ta l th e h o u rs o f
e q u ip m e n t o p e ra tio n .
7.9.1 Discrete Analog vs. Virtual
Metering:
V irtu a l m e te rin g h a s p rim a rily ta k e n
th e p la c e o f d isc re te a n a lo g m e te rin g .
I n ste a d o f h a v in g n u m e ro u s a n a lo g
m e te rs, a n o p e ra to r c a n u se th e H M I
to v ie w a v a rie ty o f m e te rs o n o n e
in te rfa c e .
A n a lo g m e te rin g d e v ic e s a re
ty p ic a lly e ith e r + 2 % o r + 1 % w h ile
d ig ita l m e te rin g a c c u ra c ie s a re
+1 /2 % o r +1 /4 % .
8 ANNUNCIATION
A n n u n c ia tio n is th e m e a n s b y w h ic h
a sy ste m n o tifie s th e u se r/o p e ra to r o f
c ritic a l sy ste m o p e ra tio n s a n d a la rm s
w h e n c o n d itio n s a re a p p ro a c h e d
w h ic h c o u ld re su lt in sy ste m fa ilu re .
I n a d d itio n to a u d ib le a la rm in g a
v a rie ty o f te c h n iq u e s a re u se d fo r
a n n u n c ia tio n in c lu d in g th e fo llo w in g :
L E D a n n u n c ia tio n .
R e m o te a la rm a n n u n c ia tio n .
L a m p d isp la y a n n u n c ia tio n .
S e v e ra l sta n d a rd s e x ist th a t re q u ire
a n n u n c ia tio n to id e n tify sp e c ifie d
sy ste m c o n d itio n s; th e m o st
c o m m o n ly u se d a re N F P A 9 9 a n d
N F P A 1 1 0 .
8.1 NFPA 99
N F P A 9 9 is th e sta n d a rd fo r h e a th
c a re fa c ilitie s. H e a lth c a re fa c ilitie s a re
d e fin e d a s b u ild in g s o r p o rtio n s o f
b u ild in g s in w h ic h m e d ic a l, d e n ta l,
p sy c h ia tric , n u rsin g , o b ste tric a l, o r
su rg ic a l c a re a re p ro v id e d . D u e to
th e c ritic a l n a tu re o f th e c a re b e in g
p ro v id e d a t th e se fa c ilitie s a n d th e ir
in c re a sin g d e p e n d e n c e o n e le c tric a l
e q u ip m e n t fo r p re se rv a tio n o f life ,
h e a lth c a re fa c ilitie s h a v e sp e c ia l
re q u ire m e n ts fo r th e d e sig n o f th e ir
e le c tric a l d istrib u tio n sy ste m s. T h e se
re q u ire m e n ts a re m u c h m o re strin g e n t
th a n c o m m e rc ia l o r in d u stria l fa c ilitie s.

H e a lth c a re e le c tric a l sy ste m s
u su a lly c o n sist o f tw o p a rts:
1 . N o n -e sse n tia l o r n o rm a l e le c tric a l
sy ste m s.
2 . E sse n tia l e le c tric a l sy ste m s.
A ll e le c tric a l p o w e r in a h e a lth c a re
fa c ility is im p o rta n t th o u g h so m e
lo a d s a re n o t c ritic a l to th e sa fe
o p e ra tio n o f th e fa c ility . N o n -e sse n tia l
lo a d s su c h a s g e n e ra l lig h tin g , g e n e ra l
la b e q u ip m e n t, n o n -c ritic a l se rv ic e
e q u ip m e n t, e tc . a re n o t re q u ire d to
b e fe d fro m a n a lte rn a te so u rc e o f
p o w e r.
N F P A 9 9 b re a k s h e a lth c a re fa c ilitie s
in to th re e ty p e s:
T y p e 1 - e sse n tia l e le c tric a l
sy ste m s.
T y p e 2 a n d ty p e 3 - ty p e 1
re q u ire m e n ts m e e t o r e x c e e d
th e re q u ire m e n ts fo r ty p e 2 a n d
ty p e 3 fa c ilitie s.
Description Definition EES Type
Hospitals
Nursing Homes
Limited Care
Facilities
NFPA 99 Chap. 13
NFPA 99 Chap. 17
NFPA 99 Chap. 18
Type 1
Type 2
Type 2
Ambulatory
Surgical Facilities
Other Health
Care Facilities
NFPA 99 Chap. 14
NFPA 99 Chap. 14
Type 3 1
Type 3 1
1) If electrical life support or critical care areas are
present, then facility is classified as type 1.
Figure 41 NFPA 99 Health Care Facility
Types
T h e N F P A 9 9 sta n d a rd sh o u ld b e
c o n su lte d fo r th e m o st u p to d a te
re q u ire m e n ts fo r sy ste m a n n u n c ia tio n .
8.2 NFPA 110
N F P A 1 1 0 is th e sta n d a rd fo r
e m e rg e n c y a n d sta n d b y p o w e r
sy ste m s. T h is sta n d a rd c o n tro ls
th e a sse m b ly , in sta lla tio n , a n d
p e rfo rm a n c e o f e le c tric a l p o w e r
sy ste m s u se d to su p p ly c ritic a l a n d
e sse n tia l n e e d s d u rin g o u ta g e s o f
th e p rim a ry p o w e r so u rc e .
T h e N F P A 1 1 0 sta n d a rd sh o u ld b e
c o n su lte d fo r th e m o st u p to d a te
re q u ire m e n ts fo r sy ste m a n n u n c ia tio n .
8.3 Site Specific Components
I n a d d itio n to th e sta n d a rd
re q u ire m e n ts th e re a re n u m b e r o f
o th e r c o m p o n e n ts th e c u sto m e r m a y
w a n t to a n n u n c ia te . T h is c o u ld
in c lu d e p a ra m e te rs o f a fu e l ta n k ,
g e n e ra to r te m p e ra tu re m e te rin g ,
re m o te c irc u it b re a k e r p o sitio n s, fire
d e te c tio n sy ste m s, a n d se c u rity
sy ste m s.
9 PARALLEL OPERATION
M a n y situ a tio n s c a n b e o p tim a lly
h a n d le d b y o p e ra tin g tw o o r m o re
g e n e ra to rs se ts in p a ra lle l o n a
c o m m o n b u s in ste a d o f d isp e rse d
m u ltip le sin g le u n its o r a c e n tra l,
la rg e r, sin g le u n it. A n e x istin g
d istrib u tio n sy ste m itse lf m a y n o t
le n d itse lf to b e in g sp lit in to se v e ra l
se c tio n s a n d h a n d le d b y se p a ra te n o n -
p a ra lle l u n its. A lso , w h e n lo a d s a re
e x p e c te d to in c re a se su b sta n tia lly ,
p ro v isio n s c a n b e m a d e to a d d m o re
g e n e ra to r se ts in p a ra lle l a s th e lo a d s
in c re a se . T h e c o st o f sw itc h g e a r fo r
p a ra lle l o p e ra tio n o f m u ltip le
g e n e ra to rs is g re a te r p e r g e n e ra to r
th a n fo r sin g le g e n e ra to rs; h o w e v e r,
a c o m m o n m a ste r se c tio n th a t w ill
a c c o m m o d a te a d d itio n a l p a ra lle l-
o p e ra te d g e n e ra to rs c a n h e lp k e e p
th e c o st d o w n fo r a d d in g g e n e ra to rs
if th e y a re in itia lly p la n n e d .
T h e m o st im p o rta n t re a so n fo r
p a ra lle lin g in a sta n d b y sy ste m is
in c re a se d re lia b ility . Wh e n a p a rt o f
th e e m e rg e n c y lo a d is d e e m e d c ritic a l
it m a y b e d e sira b le to h a v e m o re
th a n o n e g e n e ra to r c a p a b le o f b e in g
c o n n e c te d to th a t lo a d . Wh e n
th e re is a n o rm a l so u rc e o u ta g e a ll
g e n e ra to rs in th e sy ste m a re sta rte d .
T h e p ro b a b ility o f h a v in g a g e n e ra to r
se t sta rt a n d a c h ie v e n o m in a l v o lta g e
a n d fre q u e n c y is in c re a se d in
p ro p o rtio n to th e n u m b e r o f se ts
a v a ila b le . T h e first se t re a d y to h a n d le
th e e sse n tia l lo a d d o e s so . A s
a d d itio n a l g e n e ra to rs a re ru n n in g a n d
c o n n e c te d to th e b u s, th e re m a in in g
lo a d s a re c o n n e c te d in d e c lin in g o rd e r
o f p rio rity .
9.1 Isochronous
I so c h ro n o u s m e a n s h a v in g a n
e q u a l tim e d iffe re n c e o r o c c u rrin g
sim u lta n e o u sly . F o r e le c tric p o w e r
g e n e ra tio n iso c h ro n o u s is c o n sid e re d
fla t fre q u e n c y o r 0 % g e n e ra to r d ro o p .
9.2 Droop
D ro o p h a s m a n y u se s a n d
a p p lic a tio n s in th e c o n tro l o f e n g in e s.
I n n o n -iso c h ro n o u s sp e e d c o n tro l
sy ste m s, e n g in e -sp e e d c o n tro l w o u ld
b e u n sta b le w ith o u t so m e fo rm o f
d ro o p .
D ro o p is d e fin e d a s a d e c re a se in
sp e e d se ttin g a s th e lo a d in c re a se s.
D ro o p is e x p re sse d a s a p e rc e n ta g e
o f th e o rig in a l sp e e d se ttin g fro m
n o lo a d to fu ll lo a d . T h e n o rm a l
re c o m m e n d e d p e rc e n t o f d ro o p is 3 %
to 5 % ; a m in im u m o f 2 . 5 % is re q u ire d
to m a in ta in sta b ility in a sp e e d -d ro o p
g o v e rn o r. D ro o p is c a lc u la te d w ith th e
fo llo w in g fo rm u la :
100
_ _ _
_ _ _ _
% X
Speed Rated Load Full
Rated Load Full Speed Load No
Droop

=

I f, in ste a d o f a d e c re a se in sp e e d
se ttin g a n in c re a se ta k e s p la c e , th e
g o v e rn o r sh o w s n e g a tiv e d ro o p .
N e g a tiv e d ro o p w ill c a u se in sta b ility
in a g o v e rn o r.
S im p le h y d ro -m e c h a n ic a l g o v e rn o rs
h a v e th e d ro o p fu n c tio n b u ilt in a n d
a lw a y s o p e ra te in d ro o p . M o re
c o m p le x g o v e rn o rs in c lu d e te m p o ra ry
d ro o p w h ic h re tu rn s th e sp e e d se ttin g
to its o rig in a l sp e e d se ttin g a fte r th e
e n g in e h a s re c o v e re d fro m a c h a n g e
in sp e e d o r lo a d . T h e te m p o ra ry d ro o p
is k n o w n a s c o m p e n sa tio n .

Why Is Droop Necessary?
I n a sy ste m w ith o u t d ro o p , a lo a d
in c re a se w ill c a u se th e e n g in e to
slo w d o w n .
T h e g o v e rn o r w ill re sp o n d b y
in c re a sin g th e fu e l u n til th e e n g in e
sp e e d h a s re tu rn e d to th e o rig in a l
sp e e d .
D u e to th e c o m b in e d p ro p e rtie s
o f in e rtia a n d p o w e r la g , th e e n g in e
sp e e d w ill c o n tin u e to in c re a se
b e y o n d th e o rig in a l sp e e d se ttin g ,
c a u sin g a n o v e rsh o o t in sp e e d .
T h e g o v e rn o r a g a in w ill re sp o n d to
d e c re a se sp e e d to c o rre c t fo r th e
o v e rsh o o t. I t w ill o v e r-c o rre c t th e
sp e e d in th e o th e r d ire c tio n c a u sin g
u n d e rsh o o t. T h is o v e rc o rre c tio n o f
sp e e d in b o th d ire c tio n s (in sta b ility )
w ill a m p lify u n til th e e n g in e sh u ts
d o w n o n o v e r-sp e e d .
I t is im p o ssib le to h a v e sta b le
p a ra lle l o p e ra tio n if tw o o r m o re u n its
a re se t fo r iso c h ro n o u s (ze ro sp e e d
d ro o p ) o p e ra tio n , e x c e p t w ith a n
e le c tric lo a d -p ro p o rtio n in g g o v e rn o r
(se e 9 . 5 . 4 ).
9.3 Synchronizing
S y n c h ro n iza tio n , a s a p p lie d to th e
e le c tric p o w e r g e n e ra tio n , is th e
m a tc h in g o f th e o u tp u t v o lta g e
w a v e fo rm o f o n e a lte rn a tin g c u rre n t
e le c tric a l g e n e ra to r w ith th e v o lta g e
w a v e fo rm o f a n o th e r a lte rn a tin g
c u rre n t e le c tric a l sy ste m . F o r tw o
sy ste m s to b e sy n c h ro n ize d , fiv e
c o n d itio n s m u st b e m a tc h e d :
T h e d irectio n o f ro tatio n o f th ese
p h ases.
T h e v o ltag e am p litu d es o f th e
tw o sy stem s.
T h e freq u en cies o f th e tw o
sy stem s.
T h e p h ase an g le o f th e v o ltag e o f
th e tw o sy stem s.
T h e first tw o c o n d itio n s a re
d e te rm in e d w h e n th e e q u ip m e n t is
sp e c ifie d , in sta lle d , a n d w ire d . A
v o lta g e re g u la to r u su a lly c o n tro ls
th e o u tp u t v o lta g e o f a g e n e ra to r
a u to m a tic a lly . T h e la st tw o
c o n d itio n s, fre q u e n c y m a tc h in g a n d
p h a se m a tc h in g , m u st b e a c c o u n te d
fo r e a c h tim e th e tie -b re a k e r is c lo se d ,
p a ra lle lin g th e g e n e ra to r se ts o r
sy ste m s.
9.3.1 Rotation of Phases
E a c h g e n e ra to r se t o r sy ste m b e in g
p a ra lle le d m u st b e c o n n e c te d so a ll
p h a se s ro ta te in th e sa m e d ire c tio n .
I f th e p h a se ro ta tio n is n o t th e sa m e ,
n o m o re th a n o n e p h a se c a n b e
sy n c h ro n ize d (se e F ig u re 4 2 ).
120
120 120
120
120 120
GENERATOR
A
B
A
C
C
0
A
120
C
200
B

Figure 42 Phase Rotation

9.3.2 Voltage Match
T h e v o lta g e s g e n e ra te d b y g e n e ra to r
se ts o r sy ste m s b e in g p a ra lle le d m u st
b e w ith in a sm a ll p e rc e n ta g e o f th e
sa m e v a lu e , u su a lly 1 % to 5 % .
C h a n g in g th e e x c ita tio n v o lta g e c a n
c o n tro l th e o u tp u t v o lta g e o f a
sy n c h ro n o u s g e n e ra to r (n o rm a lly d o n e
b y th e v o lta g e re g u la to r. )
I f tw o sy n c h ro n o u s g e n e ra to rs o f
u n e q u a l v o lta g e a re p a ra lle le d , th e
c o m b in e d v o lta g e w ill h a v e a v a lu e
d iffe re n t fro m th e v o lta g e g e n e ra te d
b y e ith e r o f th e g e n e ra to rs. T h e
d iffe re n c e in v o lta g e s re su lts in
re a c tiv e c u rre n ts a n d lo w e re d sy ste m
e ffic ie n c y (se e F ig u re 4 3 ).
A) Generator
Resulting
B) Generator

Figure 43 Voltage Difference in Generator
to Generator
If, o n th e o th er h an d , a sy n ch ro n o u s
g en erato r is p aralleled to a larg er sy stem
su ch as a u tility , a d ifferen ce in v o ltag es
b efo re p arallelin g w ill n o t ch an g e th e
v o ltag e o f th e b u s (see F ig u re 4 4 ).
I n th is in sta n c e , th e p o w e r fa c to r o f
th e g e n e ra to r w ill b e c h a n g e d . I f th e
g e n e ra to r v o lta g e is m u c h lo w e r th a n
th e b u s v o lta g e , th e g e n e ra to r c o u ld
b e u n d e r e x c ite d c a u sin g g e n e ra to r
sta to r h e a tin g . A n in d u c tio n g e n e ra to r
n e e d s n o v o lta g e re g u la to r b e c a u se its
o u tp u t v o lta g e w ill a u to m a tic a lly
m a tc h th e v o lta g e o f th e sy ste m
su p p ly in g its fie ld v o lta g e .

Generator Voltage
Resulting Voltage
and Bus Voltage
Figure 44 Voltage Difference in Generator
to Bus
9.3.3 Frequency Match
T h e fre q u e n c y o f th e o n c o m in g
g e n e ra to r m u st b e n e a rly id e n tic a l
to th a t o f th e sy ste m it is b e in g
p a ra lle le d w ith , u su a lly w ith in 0 . 2 %
(se e F ig u re 4 5 ).
Bu
Generator
Figure 45 Frequency Difference
I f th e o n c o m in g g e n e ra to r is a
sy n c h ro n o u s ty p e , th is m a tc h is
n o rm a lly a c c o m p lish e d b y c o n tro llin g
th e sp e e d o f th e p rim e m o v e r d riv in g
th e o n c o m in g g e n e ra to r.
I f th e o n c o m in g u n it is a n in d u c tio n
g e n e ra to r, fre q u e n c y is d e te rm in e d
a u to m a tic a lly b y th e g e n e ra to r fie ld
v o lta g e . F ie ld v o lta g e is su p p lie d b y
th e sy ste m to w h ic h th e g e n e ra to r se t
is b e in g p a ra lle le d ; h o w e v e r, th e fie ld
v o lta g e is n o t a p p lie d to th e g e n e ra to r
u n til th e g e n e ra to r b re a k e r is c lo se d .
T h e g e n e ra to r m u st b e k e p t c lo se to
sy n c h ro n o u s sp e e d p rio r to b re a k e r
c lo su re . A sp e e d b e lo w sy n c h ro n o u s
w ill c a u se th e o n c o m in g g e n e ra to r to
a c t a s a m o to r a n d a sp e e d o v e r 1 . 5 %
a b o v e sy n c h ro n o u s w ill c a u se th e
in d u c tio n m a c h in e to g e n e ra te a t fu ll
c a p a c ity .
9.3.4 Phase Angle Match
T h e p h ase relatio n sh ip b etw een th e
v o ltag es o f th e sy stem s to b e p aralleled
m u st b e v ery clo se p rio r to p arallelin g .
T h is m atch u su ally is w ith in p lu s o r
m in u s 1 0 d eg rees. If th e o n co m in g
g en erato r is a sy n c h ro n o u s ty p e, p h ase
m a tc h in g , lik e fre q u e n c y m atc h in g , is
a c c o m p lish e d b y c o n tro llin g th e sp e e d
o f th e o n co m in g g en erato rs p rim e
m o v e r. If th e m a c h in e to b e p a ra lle le d
w ith th e sy ste m is a n in d u c tio n
g e n e ra to r, th e p h a se m a tc h w ill b e
a u to m a tic , sin c e th e sy ste m is
su p p ly in g th e g en erato r field v o ltag e
Bus
Generator
Figure 46 Phase Angle Match
F o r th e sy n ch ro n o u s g en erato r,
v o lta g e , sp e e d /fre q u e n c y , a n d p h a se
m u st b e m a tc h e d ea ch tim e b e fo re th e
p a ra lle lin g b re a k e rs a re c lo se d .
I f th e o n co m in g g en erato r is an
in d u ctio n -ty p e w ith th e arm atu re
ro tatin g at sy n ch ro n o u s sp eed , n o
d iffic u ltie s w ill o c c u r w h e n th e
p a ra lle lin g b re a k e rs a re c lo se d .
C u rre n tly , m o st in sta lla tio n s u se
sy n ch ro n o u s g en erato rs. T h e
ad v an tag e o f sy n ch ro n o u s o v er
in d u ctio n g en erato rs is th at
sy n ch ro n o u s sy stem s allo w
in d ep en d en t o p eratio n w ith o u t a u tility
o r o th er A C p o w er so u rce. I n d u ctio n
g en erato rs can n o t o p erate w ith o u t an
ex tern al A C so u rce.
Why Is Synchronization Important?
Wh e n tw o o r m o re e le c tric a l
g e n e ra tin g se ts o r sy ste m s a re
p aralleled to th e sam e p o w er
d istrib u tio n sy stem , th e p o w e r so u rc e s
m u st b e sy n ch ro n ize d p ro p erly . With o u t
p ro p er sy n ch ro n izatio n o f th e o n co m in g
u n it o r sy stem , p o w er su rg es an d
m ech an ical o r electrical stre ss w ill
resu lt w h en th e p arallelin g b reaker is
clo sed . U n d er th e w o rst co n d itio n s, th e
v o ltag es b etw een th e tw o sy stem s can
b e tw ic e th e p e a k o p eratin g v o ltag e o f
o n e o f th e sy stem s, o r o n e sy stem can
p lace a d ead sh o rt o n th e o th er.
E x tre m e ly h ig h c u rre n ts c a n re su lt fro m
th is, w h ich p u t stress o n b o th sy stem s.
T h e se stre sse s c a n resu lt in b e n t
d riv e sh afts o r b ro ken co u p lin g s. U n d er
so m e co n d itio n s, p o w er su rg es can b e
sta rte d w h ic h w ill b u ild o n e a c h o th e r
u n til b o th g en eratin g sy stem s are
d isab led ; th ese co n d itio n s are ex trem e.
S tre ss a n d d a m a g e c an o c c u r in v a ry in g
d e g re e s. T h e d e g ra d in g effects d ep en d
o n th e ty p e o f g en erato r, th e ty p e o f
d riv e r, th e e le c tric a l lo a d , a n d h o w
p o o rly th e sy ste m s are sy n ch ro n ized
w h e n th e b re a k e rs a re c lo se d .
M o d e rn sy ste m s o fte n su p p ly p o w e r
to so p h istic a te d a n d se n sitiv e
e le c tro n ic e q u ip m e n t. A c c u ra te
sy n c h ro n iza tio n is n e c e ssa ry to
p re v e n t e x p e n siv e d o w n tim e a n d
re p la c e m e n t c o sts.
9.4 Methods of Paralleling
Wh e re tw o g e n e ra to r se ts a re in
p a ra lle l, th e y m u st h a v e th e sa m e
v o lta g e , p h a se se q u e n c e fre q u e n c ie s,
a n d th e ir o u tp u t v o lta g e s m u st b e in
p h a se . Wh e n p a ra lle lin g is re q u ire d
a n d c u rre n t w ill e x c e e d 1 2 0 0 A , th e
flo o r-sta n d in g c o n tro l p a n e l is th e
p ro p e r sw itc h g e a r c h o ic e . F o u r
m e th o d s o f p a ra lle lin g a re a v a ila b le fo r
th e flo o r-sta n d in g p a n e l, ra n g in g fro m
c o m p le te ly m a n u a l to a u to m a tic .
9.4.1 Manual Paralleling
T h is sy ste m c o n sists o f a g o v e rn o r
sp e e d to g g le sw itc h (o n u n its
e q u ip p e d w ith sy n c h ro n izin g m o to rs),
tw o sy n c h ro n izin g la m p s, a n o n /o ff
to g g le sw itc h , a n d re v e rse p o w e r
re la y .
A s sta te d in th e sy n c h ro n iza tio n
se c tio n fo r p ro p e r p a ra lle lin g :
1 . P h a se se q u e n c e m u st b e th e sa m e .
2 . F re q u e n c ie s m u st b e th e sa m e .
3 . V o lta g e s m u st b e th e sa m e .
E n g in e g o v ern o rs m u st h av e sp eed
d ro o p o f w h ich o n e can b e
iso ch ro n o u s. T h e ex cep tio n to th is is
electro n ic lo ad sh arin g g o v ern o rs.
4 . G en erato rs m u st h av e v o ltag e d ro o p
o r c ro ss-c u rre n t c o m p e n sa tio n .
T h e co n d itio n o f th e u n its b ein g
co rrectly p h ased o r o p eratin g w ith
v o lta g e s in p h a se m ea n s th a t th e
in d iv id u al sin e w av es ap p ear in
se q u e n c e . V o lta g e s m u st b e c a p a b le o f
b ein g su p erim p o sed so in stan tan eo u s
v o ltag e d ifferen ces d o n o t ex ist in th e
sam e p h ase o f u n its b ein g p aralleled .

T o m e e t th e se c o n d a n d fo u rth
c o n d itio n s th e e n g in e g o v e rn o rs m u st
b e a d ju ste d to g iv e sim ila r fre q u e n c y
u n d e r c o n d itio n s o f p ro p o rtio n a te lo a d
sh a rin g . I f o n e se t is try in g to o p e ra te
a t a lo w e r fre q u e n c y th a n th e o th e rs
th e a c tiv e o r k W lo a d w ill n o t b e
p ro p o rtio n a te ly sh a re d a n d m o to rin g
c u rre n t w ill flo w to th e lo w e r
fre q u e n c y m a c h in e to m a k e it
ru n a t sy n c h ro n o u s sp e e d .
T h e re a re m a n y m a n u a l-p a ra lle lin g
m e th o d s in u se ; a c o m m o n m e th o d o f
m a n u a l p a ra lle lin g is th ro u g h th e u se
o f sy n c h ro n izin g la m p s.
T o p arallel a g en erato r set w ith o n e o r
m o re g e n e ra to r se ts a lre a d y o n th e lin e ,
th e first th re e c o n d itio n s m u st first b e
m e t. If th e re is a d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n
th e fre q u en c ie s o r v o lta g e s o f th e
g e n e ra to rs b e in g p a ra lle le d th e re w ill b e
an u n d esirab le lin e v o ltag e d istu rb an ce
w h e n th e in c o m in g g e n e ra to r c irc u it
b reaker is clo sed . E x ten siv e d am ag e
m a y re su lt if g e n e ra to rs a re p a ra lle le d
w h ile th e v o lta g e s a re o u t o f p h a se . I n
o rd er to m an u ally p arallel g en erato r
se ts, it is n e c e ssa ry to u se o n e o f tw o
m eth o d s: (1 ) sy n ch ro n izin g lam p s o r (2 )
a sy n ch ro sco p e.
Example Synchronizing Lamps:
T h e d a rk la m p m e th o d is m o st
c o m m o n ly u se d a s th e in d ic a to r o f
w h e n to c lo se th e in c o m in g c irc u it
b re a k e r. T h is m e th o d lig h ts th e
sy n c h ro n izin g la m p s w h e n th e re is a
p o te n tia l b e tw e e n th e p h a se s o f th e
in c o m in g a n d th e o n lin e g e n e ra to rs.
T h is m e a n s th a t w h e n a ll th e la m p s
a re d a rk th e g e n e ra to rs a re
sy n c h ro n ize d . S te p s fo r sy n c h ro n izin g
a n o fflin e u n it w ith a n o n lin e
g e n e ra to r a re sh o w n b e lo w .

Figure 47 Synchronizing Lights
1 . T h e o n lin e c irc u it b re a k e r sh o u ld
b e c lo se d a n d th e o fflin e
(in c o m in g ) c irc u it b re a k e r sh o u ld
b e o p e n .
2 . With th e in c o m in g u n it g o v e rn o r
c o n tro l le v e r in th e fu ll-g o v e rn e d
sp e e d p o sitio n , tu rn o n th e
sy n c h ro n izin g la m p s sw itc h
a n d o b se rv e th e la m p s fo r th e
fre q u e n c y a t w h ic h th e y fla sh .
B y m e a n s o f th e g o v e rn o r c o n tro l
v a ry th e in c o m in g e n g in e sp e e d
u n til th e sy n c h ro n izin g la m p s
c o m e o n a n d fa d e o u t a b o u t six
to te n tim e s a m in u te . A lw a y s
h a v e th e in c o m in g g e n e ra to r
in itia lly slig h tly h ig h e r in
fre q u e n c y ; d o in g th is w ill a ssu re
th a t th e in c o m in g g e n e ra to r se t
w ill a b so rb a sm a ll a m o u n t o f
lo a d in ste a d o f c o n su m in g p o w e r
w h e n in itia lly c o n n e c te d to th e
b u s.
3 . T o p u t th e g e n e ra to r se t o n lin e
a n d in -sy n c w ith th e o n lin e
so u rc e w a it u n til th e la m p s a re
d a rk a n d th e n v e ry q u ic k ly , w h ile
th e la m p s a re still d a rk , c lo se th e
c irc u it b re a k e r. T h e in c o m in g
g e n e ra to r is n o w in p a ra lle l w ith
th e b u s a n d o n lin e g e n e ra to r.
9.4.2 Permissive Paralleling
T h is o p tio n in c lu d e s m a n u a l
p a ra lle lin g , a sy n c h ro n izin g c h e c k
re la y , a n u n d e r-v o lta g e trip o n th e
b re a k e r (in ste a d o f a sh u n t trip ),
a n d a re a d y -to -c lo se in d ic a tin g la m p .
T h is a tta c h m e n t a llo w s
in e x p e rie n c e d o p e ra to rs to p a ra lle l
g e n e ra to r se ts o n ly w h e n th e
in c o m in g g e n e ra to r a n d th e liv e b u s
a re w ith in p re d e te rm in e d lim its. T h e
in c o m in g g e n e ra to r se t is sta rte d b y
a n o p e ra to r a n d b ro u g h t u p to
o p e ra tin g fre q u e n c y a n d v o lta g e a s
d e te rm in e d b y th e p a n e l m e te rs.
T h e o p e ra to r th e n p la c e s th e
sy n c h ro n izin g sw itc h in its o n
p o sitio n , e n e rg izin g th e sy n c h ro n izin g
re la y a n d th e sy n c h ro n izin g la m p s.
T h e sy n c h ro n izin g re la y c o m p a re s
v o lta g e , fre q u e n c y , a n d th e p h a se
a n g le o f th e in c o m in g g e n e ra to r se t
w ith th e liv e b u s. I t a lso p ro v id e s a
sig n a l to illu m in a te th e re a d y -to -c lo se
la m p a n d e n e rg ize th e c irc u it b re a k e r
u n d e r-v o lta g e d e v ic e to p re v e n t th e
c irc u it b re a k e r fro m trip p in g o p e n .
9.4.3 Semiautomatic Paralleling
T h is g ro u p in c lu d e s a ll th e
e q u ip m e n t fo u n d in th e m a n u a l
p a ra lle lin g o p tio n p lu s a sy n c h ro n izin g
c h e c k re la y , c irc u it b re a k e r p o sitio n
in d ic a tin g la m p s, e le c tric m o to r
o p e ra to r o n th e m o ld e d c a se c irc u it
b re a k e r (w ith p o w e r p ro v id e d fro m
th e g e n e ra to r p o te n tia l), a n d c irc u it
b re a k e r o p e n /c lo se to g g le .
T h e se m ia u to m a tic p a ra lle lin g
fu n c tio n s a re e sse n tia lly th e sa m e a s
p e rm issiv e p a ra lle lin g . With e le c tric
m o to r o p e ra te d b re a k e rs th e o p e ra to r
p la c e s th e c irc u it b re a k e r c o n tro l
sw itc h in its c lo se d p o sitio n . Wh e n
c o n d itio n s fo r p a ra lle lin g a re v e rifie d
th e sy n c h ro n izin g c h e c k re la y p ro v id e s
a sig n a l c a u sin g th e c irc u it b re a k e r to
a u to m a tic a lly c lo se .
9.4.4 Automatic Paralleling
A u to m a tic p a ra lle lin g c o m b in e s th e
fu n c tio n s d e sc rib e d in se c tio n s 9 . 4 . 1 ,
9 . 4 . 2 , a n d 9 . 4 . 3 a n d a c c o m p lish e s
th e m w ith o u t o p e ra to r in te rv e n tio n .
T h is is a c c o m p lish e d th ro u g h th e u se
o f a u to m a tic sy n c h ro n izin g d e v ic e s.
9.5 Paralleling Components
9.5.1 Synchroscope
A sy n ch ro sco p e (sh o w n in F ig u re 4 8 )
is a n in stru m e n t u sed fo r in d icatin g
w h eth er tw o A C g en erato rs o r o th er
A C v o ltag e so u rces are sy n ch ro n ized in
tim e p h ase w ith each o th er. T h e
in d ica to r is ty p ic ally a ro tatin g p o in ter
d ev ice o n a 3 6 0 d eg ree scale. T h e
d irectio n th e p o in ter ro tates in d ic a tes
w h eth er th e freq u en cy o f th e in c o m in g
g en erato r is slo w er o r faste r th an th e
freq u en cy o f th e o n lin e g en erato r.
S im ila rly , th e fre q u e n c y a t w h ich th e
p o in ter ro tates in d icates th e m ag n itu d e
o f d ifferen ce in sp eed b etw een th e
g en erato r sets. F o r p arallelin g , en g in e
sp eed is ch an g ed u n til th e
sy n ch ro sco p e p o in ter ro tates v ery
slo w ly (less th an 1 0 rp m ), ag ain
k e e p in g th e in c o m in g g e n e ra to r se t
faste r th a n th e o n lin e g e n e rato r se t.
Wh en th e p o in ter is at th e 0 p o sitio n ,
th e c irc u it b re a k e r c a n b e c lo se d (th e
u n its are sy n ch ro n ized ).


Figure 48 Synchroscope
R o ta tio n o f th e in d ic a to r in th e slo w
(c o u n te rc lo c k w ise ) d ire c tio n in d ic a te s
th e o n c o m in g g e n e ra to r se t is a t a
lo w e r fre q u e n c y th a n th e o n lin e
su p p ly . I f th e in d ic a to r is ro ta tin g
in th e fa st (c lo c k w ise ) d ire c tio n it
in d ic a te s th e o n c o m in g (p a ra lle lin g )
g e n e ra to r se t is a t a h ig h e r fre q u e n c y
th a n th e o n lin e su p p ly .
9.5.2 Sync Check Relay
A sy n c c h e c k re la y m o n ito rs v o lta g e
o n b o th sid e s o f a c irc u it b re a k e r a n d
d e te rm in e s th a t p ro p e r p h a se a n g le
a n d v o lta g e e x ist p rio r to c lo sin g
th e c irc u it b re a k e r.
S y n c c h e c k re la y s w ill o n ly a llo w
c irc u it b re a k e rs to c lo se o n c e
sp e c ifie d p h a se a n g le c o n d itio n s h a v e
b e e n sa tisfie d fo r a se t p e rio d o f tim e .
9.5.3 Automatic Synchronizer
A n a u to m a tic sy n c h ro n ize r c lo se s
th e g e n e ra to r b re a k e r a t th e p o in t o f
sy n c h ro n ism . I t in itia te s th e c lo se
c o m m a n d in a d v a n c e o f p h a se
c o in c id e n c e u sin g b re a k e r c lo sin g
tim e a n d slip fre q u e n c y .
9.5.4 Load Sharing Modules
T h e fu n c tio n o f a lo a d -sh a rin g
m o d u le is to p ro p o rtio n a lly sh a re re a l
lo a d b e tw e e n tw o o r m o re g e n e ra to r
se ts w h ile th e sy ste m fre q u e n c y is
h e ld c o n sta n t. T h e lo a d -sh a rin g
m o d u le p ro v id e s iso c h ro n o u s a n d
d ro o p lo a d -sh a rin g c a p a b ility fo r
e n g in e s in a g e n e ra to r se t a p p lic a tio n .

Figure 49 Typical System Using a Load Sharing Module

9.6 Island Mode Operation
Wh e n m u ltip le g e n e ra to rs a re
p a ra lle le d o n a c o m m o n b u s a n d
iso la te d fro m th e u tility , th e in d iv id u a l
e n g in e g o v e rn o rs a re ta sk e d w ith
m a in ta in in g sy ste m fre q u e n c y w h ile
th e in d iv id u a l g e n e ra to r v o lta g e
re g u la to rs a re ta sk e d w ith m a in ta in in g
sy ste m v o lta g e .
T h is is d iffe re n t fro m th e sc e n a rio
w h e re th e g e n e ra to rs a re p a ra lle le d to
a n in fin ite b u s (se e S e c tio n 9 . 7 . 1 ) in
w h ic h th e u tility g rid se ts sy ste m
fre q u e n c y a n d v o lta g e .
I n a sy ste m w ith m u ltip le p a ra lle le d
g e n e ra to rs th e in d e p e n d e n t c o n tro ls
fo r sp e e d a n d v o lta g e w o u ld
c o u n te ra c t e a c h o th e r a n d d e c re a se
sy ste m sta b ility so a re a l (k W) a n d
re a c tiv e (k V A R ) lo a d sh a rin g c o n tro l
sy ste m m u st b e u se d .
9.6.1 Real (kW) Load Sharing
T h e c o n tro l sy ste m re c e iv e s in p u t
fro m c u rre n t tra n sfo rm e rs (C T s) a n d
p o te n tia l tra n sfo rm e rs (P T s) to
c a lc u la te re a l (k W) p o w e r o u tp u t fro m
th e g e n e ra to r.
A s lo a d is a p p lie d to th e g e n e ra to r
a lte rn a tin g c u rre n t flo w s th ro u g h th e
g e n e ra to r c a b le s a n d in d u c e s c u rre n t
in to th e C T s. T h e c u rre n t in th e C T s
in c re a se s p ro p o rtio n a lly w ith th e lo a d
o n th e g e n e ra to r (se e F ig u re 5 0 ). T h e
g e n e ra to r v o lta g e re g u la to r m a in ta in s
c o n sta n t v o lta g e th ro u g h o u t th e lo a d
ra n g e .

Load on Generator 0 100%
Current
From
CTS
5 Amps

Figure 50 Current Sensing
T h e c o n tro l sy ste m g e n e ra te s a n
o u tp u t w h ic h b ia se s th e sp e e d
c o n tro l. T h e b ia s sig n a l is fe d in to th e
c lo se d lo o p g o v e rn o r sp e e d c o n tro l to
b a la n c e re a l p o w e r p ro p o rtio n a lly
a m o n g a ll p a ra lle le d g e n e ra to rs.
9.6.2 Circulating Currents in Paralleled
Generators
C irc u la tin g c u rre n ts e x ist in
p a ra lle le d g e n e ra to rs w h e n m u ltip le
g e n e ra to rs a re a tte m p tin g to o p e ra te
a t d iffe re n t v o lta g e s a lth o u g h th e y a re
c o n n e c te d th ro u g h th e c o m m o n b u s.
T h is c u rre n t w ill e x ist w h e n th e
in te rn a l e x c ita tio n v o lta g e p ro d u c e d
b y e a c h g e n e ra to r is slig h tly d iffe re n t
b u t th e te rm in a l o r b u s v o lta g e is th e
sa m e . T h e se c irc u la tin g c u rre n ts
re d u c e th e e ffe c tiv e e x c ita tio n o f o n e
o r m o re g e n e ra to rs a n d in c re a se th e
e ffe c tiv e e x c ita tio n o f o th e rs.
G e n e ra to r v o lta g e is d ire c tly re la te d
to e x c ite r o u tp u t; h e n c e a n a tte m p te d
g e n e ra to r v o lta g e d iffe re n c e is th e
re su lt o f d iffe re n t e x c ite r o u tp u t.
T h e v o lta g e re g u la to r c o n tro ls e x c ite r
o u tp u t. C o n tro l o f c irc u la tin g c u rre n ts
is a c c o m p lish e d b y b ia sin g th e v o lta g e
re g u la to r.
A n e x a m p le to illu stra te th e e ffe c t o f
th e v o lta g e re g u la to r o n th e g e n e ra to r
sy ste m c a n b e se e n u sin g tw o
g e n e ra to rs a n d a lo a d . I f th e o p e n
c irc u it v o lta g e is e x a c tly th e sa m e o n
b o th g e n e ra to rs th e y w ill d iv id e th e
lo a d e q u a lly w h e n th e y a re p a ra lle le d
(F ig u re 5 1 ). D iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n o p e n
c irc u it g e n e ra to r v o lta g e s w ill, u p o n
p a ra lle lin g , re su lt in c irc u la tin g
c u rre n ts (F ig u re 5 2 ).
Generator
G1
480 Volts
Load
1 MW
Generator
G2
480 Volts
I
2
=50A
I
L
=100A
I
1
=50A

Figure 51 Paralleled Generators
Balanced Voltage
Generator
G1
479 Volts
Load
1 MW
Generator
G2
481 Volts
I
2
=150A
I
3
=100A
I
1
=50A

Unbalanced Voltage
I n p ra c tic e th e m a n u a l, p re c ise
m a tc h in g o f v o lta g e s is n o t p o ssib le .
S o m e m e a n s m u st b e p ro v id e d to
m a k e lo a d sh a rin g b e tw e e n p a ra lle le d
g e n e ra to rs sim p le to c o n tro l.
B e c a u se c irc u la tin g c u rre n t o r lo a d
u n b a la n c e is th e re su lt o f v o lta g e
m ism a tc h , th e v o lta g e re g u la to r w ill
a c t a s th e c o n tro l sy ste m u sin g
p a ra lle lin g c o m p e n sa tio n c irc u its
c a lle d re a c tiv e d ro o p c o m p e n sa tio n o r
re a c tiv e c ro ss-c u rre n t c o m p e n sa tio n .
T h e p rin c ip le o f o p e ra tio n o f th e
re a c tiv e d ro o p c irc u it c a n b e d e sc rib e d
b y th e c u rv e in F ig u re 5 3 .

Figure 53 Reactive Droop Curves
U sin g a re g u la to r d e sig n e d to
m a in ta in p re c ise v o lta g e re g u la tio n a
c irc u it is a d d e d th a t a c c e p ts a c u rre n t
sig n a l d e riv e d fro m th e g e n e ra to rs
o u tp u t. T h is c u rre n t sig n a l is
c o m b in e d w ith th e g e n e ra to rs
se n sin g v o lta g e sig n a l to d e v e lo p a
v e c to r-su m m e d v o lta g e p ro p o rtio n a l
to re a c tiv e lo a d .
F o r e x a m p le , if v o lta g e d e c re a se s
fro m 4 8 0 V to 4 5 8 V fro m n o lo a d
to ra te d re a c tiv e (k V A R ) lo a d , th e
v o lta g e d ro o p is 4 . 3 % d ro o p . I f tw o
g e n e ra to rs a re o p e ra te d in p a ra lle l
w ith th e ir d ro o p c u rv e s se t th e sa m e
a n d th e ir v o lta g e se t p o in ts a d ju ste d
to p ro p o rtio n a lly sh a re th e re a c tiv e
lo a d , a n y u n b a la n c e th a t w o u ld
in c re a se th e lo a d o n o n e m a c h in e a n d
d e c re a se th e lo a d o n th e o th e r w o u ld
c a u se th e d ro o p c irc u its to c h a n g e th e
v o lta g e se t p o in ts in a d ire c tio n to
b rin g th e lo a d b a c k in to b a la n c e .
With d ro o p c o m p e n sa tio n , th e b u s
v o lta g e w ill d ro o p w ith c h a n g in g
re a c tiv e lo a d .
B y b u ild in g th is c h a ra c te ristic in to
th e re g u la to r o f e a c h g e n e ra to r
o p e ra tin g in p a ra lle l, sh a rin g o f th e
lo a d is c o n tro lla b le .
T o p a ra lle l tw o g e n e ra to rs v o lta g e
sh o u ld b e m a tc h e d p rio r to c lo sin g th e
b re a k e r to m in im ize th e c u rre n t su rg e
a t b re a k e r c lo sin g .
Generator
G1
480 Volts
Load
100 A
Generator
G2
480 Volts
I
2
=50A
I
L
=100A
I
1
=50A

Balanced Voltage
With v o lta g e s b a la n c e d (F ig u re 5 4 )
a n d 1 0 0 A lo a d , e a c h g e n e ra to r w ill
su p p ly its sh a re o f th e lo a d . I f G 2
v o lta g e is in c re a se d its o u tp u t c u rre n t
w ill try to in c re a se . T h is in c re a se
w ill c a u se a v o lta g e d ro o p w h ic h
c o u n te ra c ts th e v o lta g e in c re a se .
G 1 w ill se e its o u tp u t c u rre n t
d e c re a se re su ltin g in a d ro o p c irc u it
a c tio n to in c re a se v o lta g e . T h e re su lt
is a lo a d b a la n c e c o n tro l a c tio n th a t
w o rk s to h o ld lo a d in g b a la n c e d w h e n
tw o o r m o re g e n e ra to rs a re o p e ra tin g
in p a ra lle l.
9.6.2.1 Cross-current Compensation
C ro ss-c u rre n t c o m p e n sa tio n is a
m e th o d o f c o n tro llin g th e re a c tiv e
p o w e r su p p lie d b y A C g e n e ra to rs in a
p a ra lle lin g sy ste m so th e y sh a re
e q u a lly th e to ta l re a c tiv e lo a d o n th e
b u s w ith o u t sig n ific a n t v o lta g e d ro o p .
F o r d ro o p o p e ra tio n , th e d ro o p
a d ju stm e n t is u se d so e a c h g e n e ra to r
d ro o p s sim ila r a m o u n ts a t its ra te d
lo a d ; th e n th e g e n e ra to rs c a n b e
p a ra lle le d a n d e a c h g e n e ra to r c a n b e
a d ju ste d to c a rry its p ro p o rtio n a l sh a re
o f th e re a c tiv e lo a d .

F o r g e n e ra to rs p a ra lle le d w ith
re a c tiv e d iffe re n tia l c o m p e n sa tio n ,
e q u a l c u rre n ts a re n e e d e d to c a n c e l
o p p o site c u rre n ts so th a t n o d ro o p in
th e g e n e ra tin g sy ste m is p re se n t.
T h e u n e q u a l c u rre n ts p re se n te d b y
th e c u rre n t tra n sfo rm e rs w ill fo rc e th e
c ro ss-c u rre n t lo o p to o p e ra te a t a n
im b a la n c e a n d m a in ta in c irc u la tin g
c u rre n ts. T o d e c re a se th e im b a la n c e
o f c u rre n t th ro u g h th e c ro ss-c u rre n t
lo o p , a ll b u rd e n re sisto rs sh o u ld b e se t
a t m a x im u m re sista n c e ; th e b u rd e n
re sisto r a c ro ss th e c u rre n t tra n sfo rm e r
w ith th e sm a lle st se c o n d a ry c u rre n t
sh o u ld b e a d ju ste d fo r a sm a lle r
re sista n c e so m o re c u rre n t c a n flo w
th ro u g h th e re sisto r. T h e b u rd e n
re sisto r sh o u ld o n ly b e a d ju ste d fo r
a sm a ll a m o u n t.
D e c re a sin g th e b u rd e n re sista n c e
c a u se s th e re sp o n se o f th e g e n e ra to r
to b e le ss se n sitiv e to im b a la n c e s in
th e lo o p d u e to re a c tiv e lo a d in g .
T h e b u rd e n re sisto r sh o u ld o n ly b e
a d ju ste d a sm a ll a m o u n t so a s to
m a in ta in p ro p e r c o n tro l o f c irc u la tin g
c u rre n ts a n d a lso to d e c re a se th e
c u rre n t im b a la n c e o f th e lo o p d u e
to th e c u rre n t tra n sfo rm e rs.

Figure 55 Cross-Current Compensation
9.7 Utility Paralleled Operation
9.7.1 Infinite Utility Bus
O n e w a y to sim p lify th e a n a ly sis o f
u tility p a ra lle l o p e ra tio n is to a d o p t th e
c o n c e p t o f a n in fin ite b u s fo r th e
u tility g rid . T h is a ssu m p tio n c a n b e
u se d if th e c a p a c ity o f th e u tility g rid
a t a p o in t o f in te rc o n n e c tio n is a t
le a st 1 0 tim e s g re a te r th a n th e
c a p a c ity o f e q u ip m e n t c o n n e c te d a t
P C C . T h e c o n c e p t h o ld s tru e w h e n
th e u tility v o lta g e a n d fre q u e n c y a re
n o t c h a n g e d w h e n re a l a n d re a c tiv e
c u rre n ts c h a n g e a t th e P C C .
A n e x a m p le is a g e n e ra to r c o n n e c te d
to a u tility g rid w ith a g en erato r size o f
1 0 0 kW an d th e co n n ectio n p o in t b ein g
an in d u strial p lan t se rv e d b y a 1 0 M V A
tra n sfo rm er. With th e tra n sfo rm e r b e in g
fe d fro m a lin e h a v in g a c a p a c ity o f
1 5 0 M V A an y ch an g es in lo ad flo w
c a u se d b y fu e l o r e x c ita tio n c h a n g e s a t

th e 1 0 0 kW g en erato r w ill h av e n o
m e a su ra b le e ffe c t o n th e v o lta g e a n d
fre q u e n cy o f th e tra n sfo rm e r
seco n d ary . T h is is also referred to as
th e stiffn ess o f th e g rid .
9.7.2 VAR/Power Factor Regulation
Wh en sy n ch ro n o u s g en erato rs are
tie d to a u tility b u s c o n d itio n s m a y
o c c u r w h e re th e tra n sm issio n o r
d istrib u tio n v o ltag e m a y b e se n sitiv e to
lo c a l lo a d flu c tu a tio n s. T h e b u s v o lta g e
m ay b e n o rm al in th e early m o rn in g b u t
th en d ro p s p ro g ressiv ely th ro u g h th e
d ay as sy stem lo ad in g in creases. I n
o th er cases h ig h re a c ta n c e in th e
tran sm issio n an d d istrib u tio n lin e can
cau se u n d esirab le v o ltag e d ro p s w ith
in c re a se d sy ste m lo a d in g . T h is red u c e s
th e a v a ila b le v o lta g e a t th e lo a d fo rc in g
lo cal area g en erato rs to su p p ly m o re
V A R s in to th e u tility b u s to m e et th e
d em an d s o f th e sy stem . D ep en d in g
u p o n th e im p ed an ce o f th e
tran sm issio n o r d istrib u tio n lin e at th e
area o f th e lo cal g en eratin g statio n an d
th e v o ltag e reg u latio n o f th e sy stem
b u s, a sm alle r g e n e ra to r tie d in to th e
u tility b u s c a n b eco m e sev erely
o v erlo ad ed o r u n d er ex cited . T h e
sev erity d ep en d s u p o n th e m ag n itu d e
a n d d ire c tio n o f th e sy ste m v o lta g e
ch an g e.
T h e re g u la to rs a b ility to
c o m p e n sa te fo r la rg e c h a n g e s in
b u s v o lta g e c a n b e e x c e e d e d .
T w o e x a m p le s se rv e to illu stra te
ty p ic a l p ro b le m a re a s:
1 . A g e n e ra to r e q u ip p e d w ith a
v o lta g e re g u la to r a d ju ste d fo r 4 %
d ro o p c a n h a v e a v a ria tio n in V A R
(v o lt a m p e re s re a c tiv e ) lo a d fro m
0 to 1 0 0 % w ith a 4 % d e c re a se in
b u s v o lta g e . F u rth e r d e c re a se s in
b u s v o lta g e w o u ld o v e rlo a d th e
g e n e ra to r.
2 . A n in c re a se in b u s v o lta g e c a n
c a u se le a d in g p o w e r fa c to r
c o n d itio n s w ith th e a sso c ia te d
d a n g e r o f th e m a c h in e p u llin g o u t
o f sy n c h ro n iza tio n .
T o m in im ize th e p o ssib ility o f e ith e r
sc e n a rio o c c u rrin g , th e v o lta g e
re g u la to r is o fte n a d ju ste d fo r
o p e ra tio n in a sa fe re g io n ra th e r
th a n a re g io n th a t u tilizin g th e
g e n e ra to r' s fu ll k V A c a p a b ility .
V A R /p o w e r fa c to r (P F ) c o n tro lle rs
re g u la te V A R flo w o r p o w e r fa c to r
w h e n o p e ra tin g in p a ra lle l w ith
a n o th e r p o w e r sy ste m . T h e e x c ita tio n
is a d ju ste d a u to m a tic a lly to
c o m p e n sa te fo r b u s v o lta g e c h a n g e s.
T h e V A R /P F c o n tro lle r se n se s
g e n e ra to r o u tp u t v o lta g e a n d c u rre n t
a n d p ro v id e s a n o u tp u t sig n a l th a t is
e le c tro n ic a lly in je c te d in to th e v o lta g e
re g u la to r.
T h e V A R /P F c o n tro lle r h a s tw o
m o d e s o f o p e ra tio n :
V A R m o d e .
P o w e r F a c to r m o d e .
Wh e n V A R s a re c o n tro lle d th e
v o lta g e re g u la to r c h a n g e s its o u tp u t
u n til th e p ro g ra m m e d re a c tiv e lo a d
c u rre n t is a tta in e d . Wh e n th e p o w e r
fa c to r is c o n tro lle d , th e re g u la to r
c h a n g e s th e e x c ita tio n u n til th e
se le c te d p o w e r fa c to r is o b ta in e d .
A sa m p le g e n e ra to r c a p a b ility
(re a c tiv e c a p a b ility ) c u rv e sh o w in g
th e e n g in e lim its w ith re la tio n to
V A R a n d P F is sh o w n in F ig u re 5 6 .

Figure 56 Generator Capability Curve

10 APPLICATIONS
10.1 Standby
S ta n d b y sw itc h g e a r is u se d fo r
b a c k u p p o w e r g e n e ra tio n . I n th e e v e n t
o f a p o w e r o u ta g e , th e sta n d b y
sw itc h g e a r e ffe c tiv e ly sw itc h e s fro m
u tility p o w e r to g e n e ra to r p o w e r.
S ta n d b y g e n e ra to rs a re ty p ic a lly
o p e ra te d iso c h ro n o u sly .

Figure 57 Typical Emergency Power System with ATS & UPS

10.1.1 Automatic Transfer Switch
Integration
T h e a u to m a tic tra n sfe r sw itc h (A T S )
is a d e v ic e th a t tra n sfe rs e le c tric a l
lo a d s b e tw e e n tw o in d e p e n d e n t
so u rc e s o f p o w e r b y u sin g e ith e r
a u to m a tic o r m a n u a l c o n tro ls.
T h e A T S in clu d es sen sin g circu its to
d etect w h en a failu re o f th e n o rm al
p o w er so u rce o ccu rs. T h e A T S c o n tro ls
in c lu d e a c o n ta c t u se d to sta rt th e
en g in e w h en th e em erg en cy p o w er
so u rce is an en g in e g e n erato r. Wh en
th e g e n e ra to r re a c h e s th e ra te d v o lta g e
a n d fre q u e n c y th e A T S sw itc h e s its
m ain co n tacts fro m th e n o rm al so u rce
to th e e m e rg e n c y so u rc e . Wh e n th e
n o rm a l so u rc e is re sto re d th e A T S re -
tra n sfe rs th e lo a d c irc u its b a c k to th e
n o rm al so u rce.
A n A T S m a y in c lu d e d isc re te o r d a ta
c o m m u n ic a tio n s to th e sw itc h g e a r fo r
a n n u n c ia tio n o f sta tu s a n d in te g ra tio n
o f c o n tro l in c lu d in g :
T im er settin g s.
P icku p /d ro p o u t settin g s.
T estin g fu n ctio n s.
A larm fu n ctio n s.
T ran sfer-in h ib it co n tro l.
10.1.2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
Integration
A n u n in terru p tib le p o w er su p p ly
(U P S ) sy stem is an assem b ly o f
e q u ip m e n t u se d w ith e le c tric a l lo a d s
se n sitiv e to p o w e r so u rce d istu rb an ces
o r th a t re q u ire a b so lu te c o n tin u ity o f
p o w e r. T h e U P S c a n sto re e n e rg y fo r a
p erio d o f tim e d u rin g p o w er o u tag es.
T h e U P S c o n tin u a lly c o n d itio n s p o w e r
a n d if th e n o rm a l p o w er so u rce is n o t
a v a ila b le th e U P S p ro v id e s p o w e r to th e
critical lo ad u n til th e sta n d b y p o w e r
g en eratio n can co m e o n lin e. T h e
g en erato r set sh o u ld b e sized to th e
U P S ratin g , n o t th e lo ad .
C o n tin u ity a n d iso la tio n fro m p o w e r
so u rc e d istu rb a n c e s c a n b e a ssu re d
b y u sin g e ith e r a ro ta ry o r a sta tic
U P S sy ste m .
R o ta ry sy ste m s u se a m o to r-g e n e ra to r
set to iso late th e c ritic a l lo a d c o m b in e d
w ith k in e tic in e rtia sto ra g e te c h n iq u e o r
b a tte rie s to c a rry th e c ritic a l lo a d w h ile
cran kin g a d iesel en g in e.
S ta tic sy ste m s iso la te c ritic a l lo a d
th ro u g h so lid -sta te d e v ic e s w h ic h u se
b a tte rie s to b rid g e p o w e r in te rru p tio n s
u n til a g e n e ra to r se t is a v a ila b le to
p o w e r th e sy ste m .
U P S s c a n a lso b e u se d to p e rfo rm
a n o rd e rly e n g in e sh u td o w n to
m in im ize re sta rt d a m a g e .
S ta tic U P S sy ste m s u se sta tic
c o m p o n e n ts to p ro v id e q u a lity p o w e r
to c ritic a l e q u ip m e n t in d e p e n d e n t o f
th e q u a lity o r a v a ila b ility o f th e n o rm a l
p o w e r so u rc e . T h e sim p le st sy ste m s
c o n sist o f a re c tifie r (c o n v e rte r), a D C
sto ra g e b a tte ry b a n k , a n d a n in v e rte r.
T h e re c tifie r, so m e tim e s c a lle d a
c o n v e rte r, is a d e v ic e th a t c o n v e rts
A C c u rre n t to D C c u rre n t.
T h e in v e rte r u se s so lid sta te
te c h n o lo g y to c o n v e rt D C to a
w a v e fo rm th a t is th e n filte re d so it is
su ita b le fo r p o w e rin g th e c ritic a l lo a d .
A b a n k o f sto ra g e b a tte rie s flo a ts
o n lin e to p ro v id e se a m le ss D C p o w e r
to th e in v e rte r in th e e v e n t o f p o w e r
so u rc e lo ss to th e re c tifie r. T h e
b a tte rie s g e t th e ir re sto rin g c h a rg e
a n d sta n d b y flo a t c h a rg e fro m th e
re c tifie rs D C o u tp u t.
T h e D C o u tp u t o f th e re c tifie r
p ro v id e s tw o fu n c tio n s d u rin g th e
tim e w h e n a n A C p o w e r so u rc e is
a v a ila b le a t its te rm in a ls:
I t p ro v id e s re g u la te d D C to
th e in v e rte r fo r p o w e rin g th e
c ritic a l lo a d .
I t m a in ta in s th e sta te o f
c h a rg e o n th e b a n k o f D C
b a tte rie s, in c lu d in g re c h a rg in g
if th e sta te o f c h a rg e h a s
b e e n d e p le te d b y a re c e n t
n o rm a l p o w e r o u ta g e .
10.2 Parallel with Utility
P a ra lle lin g g e n e ra to rs w ith th e g rid
is ty p ic a lly d o n e fo r e c o n o m ic

re a so n s. P a ra lle le d g e n e ra to rs c a n
a lso b e u se d a s sta n d b y .
C o m m o n a p p lic a tio n s/m o d e s o f
o p e ra tio n in c lu d e :
B ase lo ad .
Im p o rt/ex p o rt.
P eak sh av in g .
Z ero p o w er tran sfer.
10.2.1 Base Load
T h e le a st d e m a n d in g p o w e r m a n a g e -
m e n t ty p e o n a n e n g in e is b a se
lo a d in g . T h e g e n e ra to r o p e ra te s a t a
c o n sta n t lo a d a n d th e u tility im p o rts
p o w e r w h e n th e lo a d e x c e e d s th e
g e n e ra to r o u tp u t. T h e u se r c a n a lso
e x p o rt p o w e r to th e u tility if th e lo a d
is b e lo w th e o u tp u t o f th e g e n e ra to r.
F ig u re 5 8 sh o w s a b a se lo a d in g
sy ste m a n d in d ic a te s w h e n p o w e r
w o u ld b e im p o rte d o r e x p o rte d .
S in c e o v e rlo a d s a re h a n d le d b y th e
u tility a n d th e g e n e ra to r se t is
o p e ra tin g a t a c o n sta n t lo a d , size a n d
e n g in e re sp o n se tim e a re n o t a s
c ru c ia l a s in p e a k sh a v in g .

Figure 58 Base Loading
10.2.2 Zero Import/Zero Export
T h e lo a d m a n a g e m e n t ty p e (in
w h ic h th e c u sto m e r su p p lie s a ll th e
e le c tric a l n e e d s to th e fa c ility ), w h ile
still p a ra lle lin g w ith th e u tility , is
c a lle d ze ro im p o rt/ze ro e x p o rt
c o n tro l o r im p o rt tra c k in g . R e fe r
to F ig u re 5 9 fo r a n illu stra tio n o f th is
c o n tro l. I f th e p o w e r re q u ire m e n ts
flu c tu a te w id e ly a se rie s o f g e n e ra to r
se ts c a n b e u se d a n d b ro u g h t o n lin e
a s re q u ire d . S in c e th e c u sto m e r
re m a in s p a ra lle le d to th e u tility th e
d e m a n d s m a d e o n th e e n g in e s fo r
th is ty p e a re sim ila r to b a se lo a d in g .
R e lia b ility is th e c h ie f c o n c e rn fo r
th e se c u sto m e rs; u tilitie s w ill o fte n
in v o k e d e m a n d c h a rg e p e n a ltie s e a c h
tim e th e y a re c a lle d u p o n to su p p ly
p o w e r.

Figure 59 Zero Import/Zero Export Control
10.2.3 Peak Shaving
F ig u re 6 0 sh o w s h o w a u tility
c u sto m e r c a n q u a lify fo r a d isc o u n te d
ra te b y n o t a llo w in g th e p o w e r
d e m a n d to b e a b o v e 5 0 0 k W. A n y
p o w e r g e n e ra te d o v e r 5 0 0 k W is
su p p lie d b y th e c u sto m e rs g e n e ra to r.
T h u s, th e c u sto m e r sh a v e s th e
p e a k s fro m th e u tilitie s re sp o n sib ility .
P e a k sh a v in g c a n b e v e ry d e m a n d in g
o n a n e n g in e ; it m u st b e a b le to sta rt
q u ic k ly a n d a u to m a tic a lly p a ra lle l to
th e u tility . T h e re sp o n se tim e o f th e
e n g in e is c ru c ia l b e c a u se o f th e lo a d
flu c tu a tio n s.

Figure 60 Peak Shaving
10.2.4 Zero Power Transfer
Z e ro p o w e r tra n sfe r is th e a c tio n o f
o p e n in g th e p o in t o f c o m m o n c o u p lin g
w ith n o p o w e r flo w g o in g th ro u g h it.
T h e e n tire lo a d is tra n sfe rre d fro m o n e
p o w e r so u rc e to th e o th e r: sta n d b y to
n o rm a l o r n o rm a l to sta n d b y .
10.3 Prime
I n a p rim e p o w e r a p p lic a tio n w h e re
th e re is n o o th e r so u rc e o f p o w e r
a v a ila b le , th e g e n e ra to r se ts a re th e
o n ly so u rc e o f p o w e r. G e n e ra to rs a re
o p e ra te d iso c h ro n o u sly .
11 MISCELLANEOUS
11.1 Distributed Generation
D istrib u te d g e n e ra tio n p ro d u c e s
e le c tric ity fro m m a n y sm a ll e n e rg y
so u rc e s. I t h a s a lso b e e n c a lle d o n site
g e n e ra tio n , d isp e rse d g e n e ra tio n ,
e m b e d d e d g e n e ra tio n , d e c e n tra lize d
g e n e ra tio n , d e c e n tra lize d e n e rg y , o r
d istrib u te d e n e rg y .
D istrib u te d g e n e ra tio n re d u c e s th e
a m o u n t o f e n e rg y lo st in tra n sm ittin g
e le c tric ity b e c a u se th e e le c tric ity is
g e n e ra te d v e ry n e a r w h e re it is u se d ,
p e rh a p s e v e n in th e sa m e b u ild in g .
T y p ic a l d istrib u te d p o w e r so u rc e s
h a v e lo w m a in te n a n c e , lo w p o llu tio n
a n d h ig h e ffic ie n c ie s.
11.2 Site Conditions
11.2.1 Altitude Correction
A b o v e 3 0 0 0 fe e t b o th in su la tio n a n d
c u rre n t c a rry in g c a p a c ity a re a ffe c te d .
F o r su c h a p p lic a tio n s, th e p u b lish e d
ra tin g s o f c irc u it b re a k e rs a re
m o d ifie d b y u sin g fa c to rs fo u n d
in m a n u fa c tu re rs te c h n ic a l
sp e c ific a tio n s o r in N E M A sta n d a rd s.
11.2.2 Temperature Compensation
T e m p e ra tu re a ffe c ts th e p o in t a t
w h ic h th e th e rm a l-ty p e c irc u it b re a k e r
trip s o n o v e rlo a d th e h ig h e r th e
a m b ie n t te m p e ra tu re th e lo w e r th e
c u rre n t a t w h ic h th e b re a k e r trip s.
E x tre m e ly h ig h te m p e ra tu re s c a n
a lso d a m a g e th e c o n tro l p a n e ls.
V a rio u s m a n u fa c tu re rs m a rk e t
in su la tin g sp ra y s to p re v e n t c o rro sio n
a n d o th e r sp ra y s to re m o v e m o istu re
a n d te rm in a ls.

11.2.3 Humidity
H ig h h u m id ity h a s a d e te rio ra tin g
e ffe c t o n in stru m e n ts, a p p a ra tu s, a n d
in su la tio n in g e n e ra to r c o n tro l p a n e ls.
A s m e n tio n e d a b o v e , in su la tin g sp ra y s
a re a v a ila b le fro m th e fa c to ry to
re m o v e m o istu re a n d p ro te c t
sw itc h g e a r e q u ip m e n t.
I n a d d itio n to in su la tin g sp ra y s,
sp a c e h e a te rs a re o fte n u se d to
re d u c e m o istu re in sid e g e n e ra to rs,
sw itc h g e a r, a n d c o n tro l p a n e ls.
T h e se sp a c e h e a te rs c o m m o n ly
u se th e rm o sta ts o r h u m id ista ts to
a u to m a tic a lly re d u c e m o istu re a n d
a re ty p ic a lly c o n n e c te d to th e
n o rm a l A C p o w e r so u rc e .
12 MAINTAINING
SWITCHGEAR
T o e n su re tro u b le fre e a n d re lia b le
o p e ra tio n , sw itc h g e a r sh o u ld b e g iv e n
c a re , a n d a re g u la r m a in te n a n c e
p ro g ra m sh o u ld b e e sta b lish e d p e r
m a n u fa c tu re rs' m a in te n a n c e
sc h e d u le s a n d p ro c e d u re s.
12.1 Planned Maintenance
F re q u e n cy o f m a in ten an ce o p eratio n s
w ill d e p e n d o n th e lo c a tio n a n d th e
freq u en cy o f o p eratio n o f th e circu it
b re a k e rs. In e x tre m e ly d irty a tm o s-
p h eres it m ay b e ad v isab le to clean an d
in sp ect th e eq u ip m en t ev ery o n e to tw o
m o n th s. U n d er n o rm al co n d itio n s a
sem i-an n u al in sp ectio n o f th e eq u ip -
m en t is satisfacto ry alth o u g h if th e
c irc u it b re a k e rs a re o p e ra te d fre q u e n tly
it m ay b e ad v isa b le to in sp ec t a n d
serv ice th em m o re freq u en tly .
R o u tin e m a in te n a n c e o f th e
sw itc h g e a r sh o u ld in v o lv e c le a n in g
o f th e stru c tu re a n d e sp e c ia lly th e
in su la tin g su p p o rts fo r th e b u s.
A ll e le c tric a l c o n n e c tio n s sh o u ld
b e c h e c k e d to m a k e su re th a t b o lts
a n d te rm in a l sc re w s a re tig h t.
R e la y s sh o u ld b e te ste d in
a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e
m a n u fa c tu re rs in stru c tio n s.
M e g o h m e te r te sts m a y b e m a d e to
c h e c k th e in su la tio n o f b o th th e
p rim a ry c irc u its a n d th e c o n tro l
c irc u its. R e c o rd s o f th e se re a d in g s
sh o u ld b e k e p t; a lo w m e g o h m e te r
re a d in g m a y n o t in d ic a te tro u b le
b u t a re a d in g w h ic h h a s b e e n
fa llin g ste a d ily o v e r a p e rio d o f
tim e in d ic a te s th a t tro u b le is
d e v e lo p in g a n d c o rre c tiv e a c tio n
sh o u ld b e ta k e n .
C a re o f th e c irc u it b re a k e rs in v o lv e s
p e rio d ic in sp e c tio n , c le a n in g , a n d
lu b ric a tio n . F re q u e n c y o f se rv ic in g
w ill d e p e n d o n c o n d itio n s o f th e
a tm o sp h e re a n d fre q u e n c y o f
o p e ra tio n . B re a k e rs, w h ic h a re
o p e ra te d se v e ra l tim e s d a ily , sh o u ld
b e se rv ic e d m o re fre q u e n tly .
H o w e v e r, b re a k e rs w h ic h a re n o t
re q u ire d to b e o p e ra te d fo r lo n g
p e rio d s o f tim e sh o u ld b e o p e n e d a n d
c lo se d se v e ra l tim e s e v e ry tw o o r
th re e w e e k s to b u rn ish th e c o n ta c ts
a n d m a k e su re th a t a ll m o v in g p a rts
o p e ra te fre e ly . Wh e n se rv ic in g , m a k e
su re a ll b o lts a re tig h t.
Wh e n p o ssib le , c h e c k th e o v e r-
c u rre n t trip d e v ic e s to b e su re th e y
a re o p e ra tin g p ro p e rly . With sta tic trip
d e v ic e s, a fu n c tio n te st o f th e o v e r-
c u rre n t trip d e v ic e c a n b e m a d e w ith
v e ry little e q u ip m e n t. D e v ic e s a re
a v a ila b le fro m m a n u fa c tu re rs w h ic h
c a n a lso b e u se d to c h e c k c a lib ra tio n
a n d tim in g ; th e se d e v ic e s a re
re la tiv e ly in e x p e n siv e . E q u ip m e n t fo r
te stin g m a g n e tic a lly o p e ra te d trip
d e v ic e s is m u c h m o re e x p e n siv e . F o r
th is re a so n , te stin g o f th e se m a g n e tic
trip d e v ic e s o fte n is n o t p ra c tic a l;
h o w e v e r, th e y sh o u ld b e in sp e c te d
to se e th a t p a rts m o v e fre e ly .
Wh e re d a sh p o ts a re u se d fo r tim in g ,
th e y sh o u ld b e in sp e c te d to b e su re
th a t th e o il is c le a n a n d it flo w s fre e ly
th ro u g h th e o rific e .
12.2 Spare Parts
D e p e n d in g o n th e c ritic a lity o f th e
a p p lic a tio n , a m p le su p p ly o f sp a re
p a rts m a y b e re c o m m e n d e d .
12.3 Safety
S a fe ty is o n e o f th e m o st im p o rta n t
c o n sid e ra tio n s w ith sw itc h g e a r
p la n n in g a n d m a in te n a n c e . I t re q u ire s
a p e rio d ic re v ie w o f a ll e q u ip m e n t
a n d o p e ra tio n s b y a q u a lifie d , sa fe ty -
m in d e d , a n d tra in e d te a m . T h e te a m
m u st k n o w a n d b e fa m ilia r w ith a ll o f
th e e q u ip m e n t th e y o p e ra te .
Wh e th e r h ig h -v o lta g e lin e s o r fe e d e rs
sh o u ld b e g ro u n d ed after b ein g d e-
en erg ized so th at m en can safely w o rk
o n th em d ep en d s u p o n th e q u alifica-
tio n s o f th e m e n d o in g th e g ro u n d in g ,
sin c e it is n e c e ssa ry fo r th e lin e to b e
d e a d b e fo re it is g ro u n d ed . T h e h azard s
a re g re a t a n d th e c o n se q u e n c e s a re
v ery serio u s if en erg ized .
12.3.1 NFPA 70E
N F P A 7 0 E is th e S ta n d a rd fo r
E le c tric a l S a fe ty R e q u ire m e n ts fo r
E m p lo y e e Wo rk p la c e s. T h is sta n d a rd
g iv e s g u id e lin e s, w h ic h sh o u ld b e
u se d to p ro te c t w o rk p e rso n n e l fro m
sh o c k a n d a rc fla sh /b la st.
Shock:
S h o c k c a n c a u se im m e d ia te :
M u sc le c o n tra c tio n .
T in g lin g .
P a in .
D iffic u lty in b re a th in g .
D izzin e ss.
S u rfa c e b u rn s.
I n te rn a l tissu e b u rn s.
S h o c k c a n a lso c a u se lo n g te rm :
M e m o ry lo ss.
N e rv o u s d iso rd e rs.
C h e m ic a l im b a la n c e s.
D a m a g e to v ita l o rg a n s.

S u rfa c e b u rn s a re c a u se d b y
e n tra n c e a n d e x it o f e le c tric a l c u rre n ts
th ro u g h th e b o d y re su ltin g in 1
st
to 3
rd

d e g re e b u rn s. I n te rn a l tissu e b u rn s a re
3
rd
d e g re e b u rn s c a u se d b y c u rre n t, in
e x c e ss o f 1 . 5 a m p s, flo w in g th ro u g h
o rg a n s o f th e b o d y . T h is a ffe c ts th e
in te rn a l o rg a n s a n d is ty p ic a lly fa ta l.
T h e p rim a ry m e a n s N F P A 7 0 E u se s
to p re v e n t sh o c k is:
1 . P la c in g c irc u its in e le c tric a lly
sa fe w o rk in g c o n d itio n s b y
lo c k in g o u t a n d ta g g in g o u t
a ll so u rc e s
2 . V e rify in g th a t n o e le c tric a l
en erg y is p resen t in th e circu its.
Arc Flash/Blast:
A rc fla sh /b la st o c c u rs w h e n
in su la tio n o r iso la tio n b e tw e e n
e le c tric a l c o n d u c to rs is b re a c h e d a n d
c a n n o lo n g e r w ith sta n d th e a p p lie d
v o lta g e . A s p e rso n n e l w o rk o n o r n e a r
e n e rg ize d c o n d u c to rs o r c irc u its,
m o v e m e n t n e a r, o r c o n ta c t w ith
th e e q u ip m e n t, o r a fa ilu re o f th e
e q u ip m e n t m a y c a u se a p h a se -to -
g ro u n d a n d /o r a p h a se -to -p h a se fa u lt.
A rc te m p e ra tu re s c a n re a c h u p to
3 5 , 0 0 0 F . A ffe c ts o f a rc fla sh o n
p e rso n n e l c a n b e :
R a d ia tio n b u rn s.
A rc e y e .
H e a rin g /b ra in fu n c tio n d a m a g e .
S h ra p n e l in ju rie s.
N F P A 7 0 E is d e sig n e d to p ro te c t
p e rso n n e l w h e n e q u ip m e n t is u n d e r
n o rm a l c o n d itio n s:
1 . P a n e l c o v e rs a re in p la c e .
2 . E q u ip m e n t p lu g g e d in n o rm a lly .
3 . D e sig n e d p ro te c tio n in p la c e .
N F P A 7 0 E d efin es b o u n d aries aro u n d
e q u ip m e n t w ith p e rso n n e l re stric tio n s
fo r e a c h le v e l o f b o u n d a rie s. T h e
b o u n d a rie s d e fin e d a re :
1 . L im ite d a p p ro a c h b o u n d a ry .
a . E n te re d o n ly b y q u a lifie d
p e rso n s o r u n q u a lifie d
p e rso n s th a t h a v e b e e n
a d v ise d a n d a re e sc o rte d b y
a q u a lifie d p e rso n
2 . R e stric te d a p p ro a c h b o u n d a ry .
p e rso n s re q u ire d to u se
sh o c k p ro te c tio n te c h n iq u e s
a n d p e rso n n e l p ro te c tiv e
e q u ip m e n t (P P E ).
3 . P ro h ib ite d a p p ro a c h b o u n d a ry .
p e rso n s re q u irin g sa m e
p ro te c tio n a s if d ire c t
c o n ta c t w ith liv e p a rt.
4 . F la sh p ro te c tio n b o u n d a ry .
a . L in e a r d ista n c e to p re v e n t
a n y m o re th a n 2
n d
d e g re e
b u rn s fro m a p o te n tia l
a rc -fla sh .
F o r c o m p lia n c e w ith N F P A 7 0 E ,
fla sh h a za rd a n a ly sis m u st b e
c o n d u c te d o n th e sy ste m . T h e
a n a ly sis sh a ll d e te rm in e o p e ra tin g
v o lta g e , p e rso n n e l p ro te c tiv e
e q u ip m e n t, a n d th e sh o c k p ro te c tio n
b o u n d a rie s b y u sin g ta b le s w ith in th e
sta n d a rd .
O th e r im p o rta n t sta n d a rd s o u tlin e d
in N F P A 7 0 E a re :
1 . L a b e lin g e q u ip m e n t.
2 . E q u ip m e n t d e -e n e rg iza tio n .
3 . P e rso n n e l p ro te c tio n
sa fe g u a rd s.
13 GLOSSARY
OF TERMS
Alternator:
A device for converting mechanical
energy into alternating current
electrical energy; it may also be called
an AC or synchronous generator.
Arc Extinguishers:
Confine and extinguish the arc which
will be drawn between contacts each
time they interrupt current.
ATS (Automatic Transfer Switch)
A switch designed to sense the loss
of one power source and
automatically transfer the load
to another source of power.
Bias Control:
Bias is direct current (DC) signal
applied between two points for the
purpose of controlling engine speed
or generator voltage.
Circuit Breaker:
A mechanical switching device
capable of making, carrying, and
breaking currents under normal circuit
conditions. It is also capable of
making and carrying for a specified
time and breaking currents under
specified abnormal circuit conditions
such as those of a short circuit.
Closed-Transition Transfer (Make-
Before-Break):
A transfer between sources that
provides momentary paralleling of both
power sources during a transfer in
either direction. This results in no
interruption of power to the loads
during the transfer. The closed
transition transfer is only possible when
the sources are properly synchronized
and interfaced. The duration of the two
sources being in parallel is typically less
than 100 milliseconds.
DGPS (Distributed Generation
Power System):
Typically a local engine generator
set and automation connected to the
utility system to peak shave or export
power.
EPS (Emergency Power System):
Provides emergency power sources
and emergency distribution to down-
stream loads.
Emergency Standby Power
Application:
Typical usage is 50 hours per year
with a maximum of 200 hours per
year. Generators can be applied at
their standby rating with a typical
variable load factor of 70%.
Feeder Breaker Controls:
Automation controls to allow control
of the distribution feeder devices for
load shed/load add control and
monitoring.
Generator:
A machine for converting
mechanical energy into electrical
energy. The electrical energy may
be direct current (DC) or alternating
current (AC).
Generator Demand Priority:
These controls automatically match
the online engine generator capacity
to the load to avoid unnecessary
engine generator set operation when
loads are low. This is alternatively
called Load Sense Load Demand.
Governor:
A device that regulates prime mover
speed by adjusting the fuel input to
maintain constant speed.

HMI Human Machine Interface:
Typically a touch-screen used by
the operator for interfacing with
the paralleling generator system.
Impulse Withstand:
An impulse-withstand voltage
assigned by the manufacturer to the
equipment, or to a part of it, character-
izing the specified withstand capability
of its insulation against over-voltages.
Interrupting Capacity:
The maximum short circuit current
that the breaker can safely interrupt.
Load Shed/Load Add:
Automated controls for distribution
devices when only partial emergency
engine generator sets are available for
duty. The task is typically accomplished
by assigning priority levels to each
controlled distribution device.
Master Controls:
All processors, HMI, and
programming to implement the
desired modes of operation of
engine generator sets in a paralleling
switchgear system.
Molded Case:
A housing of insulating materials
NFPA 70:
A US standard for the safe installation
of electrical wiring and equipment.
NFPA 99:
Requirements for emergency systems
in health care facilities.
NFPA 110:
Standard for the assembly,
installation, and performance of
electrical power systems to supply
critical and essential needs during
outages of the primary power source.
NPS (Normal Power System):
Normal power system. The utility
service entrance equipment and
distribution circuits to downstream
loads.
Operating Mechanism:
Opens and closes the breaker.
Over-currents:
Any current in excess of the rated
current of the equipment or the amp
capacity of a conductor.
Paralleling:
The procedure of connecting two
or more generators or other power
sources of the same phase, voltage,
and frequency characteristics that
supply the same load.
Peak Shaving:
Process by which the utility
customer minimizes utility charges
by either a) generating power and
eliminating excessive demand
charges or b) by shedding load.
Point of Common Coupling (PCC):
Used to refer to the point where the
electrical facilities or conductors of
the wire owner are connected to the
power producers facilities or
conductors, and where any transfer
of electric power between the power
producer and the wire owner takes
place.
Prime Power Application:
Unlimited hours of usage. Requires
generators to be applied at their prime
power rating with a typical load factor
of 70%.
Processor:
A specially configured logic
controller with appropriate input-
output capability and programming.
Shore Power:
Typically used to reference utility
power.
Short-time Rating (aka Withstand
Rating):
Defines the ability of the breaker
to remain closed when a high fault
current exists.
Station Battery:
A power supply utilized for control
of switchgear.
Synchronizer:
A device which will synchronize an
oncoming electric generator set with
the bus or another electric generator
set and allows multiple power sources
in be connected in parallel.
Synchroscope:
This instrument provides a visual
indication of proper closing time for
the breaker when manually
synchronizing generators to connect
them in parallel with another source.
Terminal Connectors:
Used to connect the circuit breaker
to the power source and the load.
Tie Breaker:
A breaker that is used to connect or
separate/isolate between two different
generation systems.
Trip Elements:
Monitor current, trip the operating
mechanism, and open the contacts in
event of a fault connection
Utility Protection:
A collection of protective relays or
a multi-function relay required by the
utility to detect abnormal conditions
and open the utility breaker.
VARs:
The combination of volts and amps
acting in a reactive circuit; that is, one
that is either inductive, as in the case
of a motor load, or capacitive, as in the
case of some forms of electronic loads.
VARs are like kilowatts but since the
volts and amps are out of phase, the
product of the two is not the same as if
they were acting on a non reactive
circuit.

14 APPENDICES
14.1 Appendix A
D ev ice N u m b er F u n ctio n an d
D esc rip tio n
1 M A S T E R E L E M E N T is th e in itiatin g
d e v ic e , su c h a s a c o n tro l sw itc h ,
v o lta g e re la y , flo a t sw itc h , e tc .
w h ich serv es eith er d irectly o r
th ro u g h su ch p erm issiv e d e v ic e s a s
p ro tectiv e an d tim e -d elay relay s to
p lace a p iece o f eq u ip m en t in o r o u t
o f o p eratio n .
2 T I M E -D E L A Y S T A R T I N G O R
C L O S I N G R E L A Y is a d e v ic e
w h ic h fu n c tio n s to g iv e a d e sire d
a m o u n t o f tim e d e la y b e fo re o r
a fte r a n y p o in t o f o p e ra tio n in a
sw itc h in g se q u e n c e o r p ro te c tiv e
re la y sy ste m , e x c e p t a s
sp e c ific a lly p ro v id e d b y d e v ic e
fu n c tio n s 4 8 , 6 2 , a n d 7 9 .
A lso k n o w n a s a T im e r.
1 2 O V E R -S P E E D D E V IC E is u su ally
a d ire c t-c o n n e c te d sp e e d sw itc h
w h ich fu n ctio n s o n m ach in e o v er-
sp eed . G en e rally co v ered w ith in th e
p ro tectiv e sch em e o f th e g en erato r
co n tro ller o r en g in e co n tro ller
d e v ic e .
1 5 S P E E D O R F R E Q U E N C Y
M A T C H IN G D E V I C E is a d ev ic e
th at fu n ctio n s to m atch an d h o ld
th e sp e e d o r fre q u e n c y o f a
m a c h in e o r o f a sy stem eq u al to , o r
ap p ro x im ate to , th at o f an o th er
m a c h in e so u rc e o r sy ste m . A lso
kn o w n as a S y n ch ro n izer.
2 1 D I S T A N C E R E L A Y is a re la y
th a t fu n c tio n s w h e n th e c irc u it
a d m itta n c e , im p e d a n c e , o r
re a c ta n c e in c re a se s o r d e c re a se s
b e y o n d p re -d e te rm in e d lim its.
2 5 S Y N C H R O N I Z IN G O R
S Y N C H R O N I Z M -C H E C K D E V I C E is
a d ev ice th at o p erates w h en tw o
A C c irc u its a re w ith in th e d e sire d
lim its o f fre q u e n c y , p h ase an g le, o r
v o lta g e to p e rm it o r to c a u se th e
p arallelin g o f th ese tw o circu its.
2 7 U N D E R -V O L T A G E R E L A Y is a
d e v ic e th a t fu n c tio n s o n a g iv e n
v a lu e o f u n d e r-v o lta g e .
3 2 D I R E C T I O N A L P O WE R R E L A Y is a
d e v ic e th a t fu n c tio n s o n a d e sire d
v a lu e o f p o w e r flo w in a g iv e n
d ire c tio n o r u p o n re v e rse p o w e r.
3 8 B E A R I N G P R O T E C T I V E D E V I C E
is a d ev ice th at fu n ctio n s o n
ex cessiv e b earin g tem p eratu re
o r o n o th er ab n o rm al m ech an ical
c o n d itio n s a sso c ia te d w ith th e
b e a rin g su c h a s u n d u e w ear, w h ich
m ay ev en tu ally resu lt in ex cessiv e
b earin g tem p eratu re o r failu re.
3 9 M E C H A N I C A L C O N D I T I O N
M O N I T O R is a d e v ic e th a t
fu n c tio n s u p o n th e o c c u rre n c e o f
a n a b n o rm a l m e c h a n ic a l c o n d itio n
(e x c e p t th o se a sso c ia te d w ith
b e a rin g s a s c o v e re d u n d e r d e v ic e
fu n c tio n 3 8 ) su c h a s e x c e ssiv e
v ib ra tio n , e c c e n tric ity , e x p a n sio n ,
sh o c k , tiltin g o r se a l fa ilu re .
4 0 F I E L D R E L A Y is a re la y th a t fu n c -
tio n s o n a g iv e n o r a b n o rm a lly lo w
v a lu e o r fa ilu re o f m a c h in e fie ld
c u rre n t, o r o n a n e x c e ssiv e v a lu e
o f th e re a c tiv e c o m p o n e n t o f th e
a rm a tu re c u rre n t in a n A C
m a c h in e in d ic a tin g a b n o rm a lly lo w
fie ld e x c ita tio n .
4 1 F I E L D C I R C U I T B R E A K E R is a
d e v ic e th a t fu n c tio n s to a p p ly
o r re m o v e th e fie ld e x c ita tio n
o f a m a c h in e .
4 3 M A N U A L T R A N S F E R O R
S E L E C T O R D E V I C E is a m a n u a lly
o p e ra te d d e v ic e th a t tra n sfe rs th e
c o n tro l c irc u its in o rd e r to m o d ify
th e p la n o f o p e ra tio n o f sw itc h in g
e q u ip m e n t o r o f so m e o f th e
d e v ic e s.
4 6 R E V E R S E -P H A S E O R P H A S E -
B A L A N C E C U R R E N T R E L A Y is
a re la y th a t fu n c tio n s w h e n th e
p o ly p h a se c u rre n ts a re o f th e
re v e rse p h a se se q u e n c e , o r w h e n
th e p o ly p h a se c u rre n ts a re
u n b a la n c e d o r c o n ta in n e g a tiv e
p h a se -se q u e n c e c o m p o n e n ts
a b o v e a g iv e n a m o u n t.
4 7 P H A S E -S E Q U E N C E V O L T A G E
R E L A Y is a re la y th a t fu n c tio n s
u p o n a p re d e te rm in e d v a lu e o f
p o ly p h a se v o lta g e in th e d e sire d
se q u e n c e .
4 9 M A C H I N E O R T R A N S F O R M E R
T H E R M A L R E L A Y is a re la y th a t
fu n c tio n s w h e n th e te m p e ra tu re
o f a m a c h in e a rm a tu re w in d in g o r
o th e r lo a d -c a rry in g w in d in g o r
e le m e n t o f a m a c h in e o r p o w e r
tra n sfo rm e r e x c e e d s a
5 0 I N S T A N T A N E O U S O V E R -
C U R R E N T O R R A T E -O F -R I S E
R E L A Y is a re la y th a t fu n c tio n s
in sta n ta n e o u sly o n a n e x c e ssiv e
v a lu e o f c u rre n t o r w h e n a n
e x c e ssiv e ra te o f c u rre n t in a n A C
c irc u it e x c e e d s a p re d e te rm in e d
v a lu e .
5 1 A C T I M E O V E R -C U R R E N T R E L A Y
is a re la y w ith e ith e r a d e fin ite o r
in v e rse tim e c h a ra c te ristic th a t
fu n c tio n s w h e n th e c u rre n t in a n
A C c irc u it e x c e e d s a
5 2 A C C IR C U IT B R E A K E R is a d ev ice
th at is u sed to clo se an d in terru p t an
A C p o w er circu it u n d er n o rm al
co n d itio n s o r to in terru p t th is circu it
u n d er fau lt o r em erg en cy co n d itio n s.
5 9 O V E R -V O L T A G E R E L A Y is a re la y
th a t fu n c tio n s o n a g iv e n v a lu e o f
o v e r-v o lta g e .
6 0 V O L T A G E O R C U R R E N T
B A L A N C E R E L A Y is a re la y th a t
o p e ra te s o n a g iv e n d iffe re n c e in
v o lta g e , o r c u rre n t in p u t o r
o u tp u t, o f tw o c irc u its.
6 2 T I M E -D E LA Y S T O P P I N G O R
O P E N IN G R E L A Y is a tim e -d e la y
relay th at serv es in co n ju n ctio n
w ith th e d ev ice th a t in itia tes th e
sh u td o w n , sto p p in g o r o p en in g
o p eratio n in an au to m atic seq u en ce
o r p ro tectiv e relay sy stem .
6 4 G R O U N D P R O T E C T I V E R E L A Y is
a re la y th a t fu n c tio n s o n fa ilu re o f
th e in su la tio n o f a m a c h in e ,
tra n sfo rm e r, o r o th e r a p p a ra tu s
to g ro u n d , o r o n fla sh o v e r o f a
D C m a c h in e to g ro u n d .
Note: T h is fu n ctio n is a ssig n e d o n ly to
a re la y th at d e tec ts th e flo w o f
c u rre n t fro m th e fra m e o f a
m a c h in e o r e n c lo sin g c a se o r
stru c tu re o f a p ie c e o f a p p a ra tu s to
g ro u n d , o r d etects a g ro u n d o n a
n o rm ally u n -g ro u n d ed w in d in g o r
circu it. It is n o t ap p lied to a d ev ice
co n n ected in th e seco n d ary circu it
o f a c u rre n t tra n sfo rm e r, o r in th e
seco n d ary n eu tral o f cu rren t

tra n sfo rm e rs, co n n ected in th e
p o w er circu it o f a n o rm a lly
g ro u n d ed sy stem .
6 5 G O V E R N O R is th e a sse m b ly o f
flu id , e le c tric a l, o r m e c h a n ic a l
c o n tro l e q u ip m e n t u se d fo r reg u lat-
in g th e flo w o f w ater, steam , o r
o th e r m e d iu m to th e p rim e m o v e r
fo r su c h p u rp o se s a s sta rtin g ,
h o ld in g sp e e d o r lo a d , o r sto p p in g .
6 7 A C D I R E C T I O N A L O V E R -
C U R R E N T R E L A Y is a re la y th a t
fu n c tio n s o n a d e sire d v a lu e o f
A C o v e r-c u rre n t flo w in g in a
p re d e te rm in e d d ire c tio n .
7 9 A C R E -C L O S I N G R E L A Y is a re la y
th a t c o n tro ls th e a u to m a tic re -
c lo sin g a n d lo c k in g o u t o f a n A C
c irc u it in te rru p te r.
8 1 F R E Q U E N C Y R E L A Y is a re la y th a t
o p e ra te s o n a p re d e te rm in e d v a lu e
o f fre q u e n c y (e ith e r u n d e r o r o v e r
o r o n n o rm a l sy ste m fre q u e n c y ) o r
ra te o f c h a n g e o f fre q u e n c y .
8 6 L O C K I N G -O U T R E L A Y is a n
e le c tric a lly o p e ra te d h a n d , re se t
re la y o r d e v ic e th a t fu n c tio n s to
sh u td o w n o r h o ld e q u ip m e n t o u t
o f se rv ic e (o r b o th ), w h e n
a b n o rm a l c o n d itio n s o c c u r.
8 7 D I F F E R E N T I A L P R O T E C T I V E
R E L A Y is p ro te c tiv e re la y th a t
fu n c tio n s o n a p e rc e n ta g e o r
p h a se a n g le o r o th e r q u a n tita tiv e
d iffe re n c e o f tw o c u rre n ts o r o f
so m e o th e r e le c tric a l q u a n titie s.
S U F F IX L E T T E R S p e rm it a m a n ifo ld
m u ltip licatio n o f av ailab le fu n ctio n
d esig n atio n s fo r th e larg e n u m b er
an d v ariety o f d ev ices u sed in th e
m an y ty p es o f eq u ip m en t. T h ey
m a y also se rv e to d e n o te in d iv id u a l
o r sp ecific p arts o r au x iliary co n -
ta cts o f th ese d ev ices o r certain
d istin g u ish in g featu res, ch aracter-
istics, o r co n d itio n s w h ic h d e sc rib e
th e u se o f th e d e v ic e o r its
c o n ta c ts in th e e q u ip m e n t.
Letter su ffix es sh o u ld , h o w ev er, b e
u se d o n ly w h e n th e y a c c o m p lish a u se -
fu l p u rp o se. F o r ex am p le, w h en all o f
th e d ev ices in eq u ip m en t are asso ciated
w ith o n ly o n e kin d o f a p p a ratu s, su c h
a s a fe e d e r o r m o to r o r g e n e ra to r, it is
co m m o n p ractice, in o rd er to re tain
m a x im u m sim p lic ity in d e v ic e fu n c tio n
id en tificatio n , n o t to ad d th e resp ectiv e
su ffix le tter F o r M o r G to a n y o f th e
d ev ice fu n ctio n n u m b ers.
S o m e c o m m o n ly u tilize d su ffix
d e sig n a tio n s a re th e fo llo w in g :
A A U T O M A T I C
M M A N U A L
2 7 R V O L T A G E R E S T R A I N T
2 7 C V O L T A G E C O N T R O L L E D
R R E V E R S E
R V R E V E R S E V A R S
G G E N E R A T O R O R G R O U N D
T T R A N S F O R M E R
14.2 Bibliography
1 . O n -S ite P o w e r G e n e ra tio n : A
R eferen ce B o o k, E lectrical
G e n e ratin g S y ste m s A sso c iatio n ,
1 9 9 0 .
2 . S m e a to n , R o b e rt W. , S w itc h g e a r
a n d C o n tro l H a n d b o o k , M c G ra w
H ill B o o k , F irst E d itio n .
3 . 2 0 0 6 C o n su ltin g A p p licatio n
G u id e, C u tler-H am m er, J u n e 2 0 0 6 .
4 . A m e ric a n N a tio n a l S ta n d a rd fo r
S w itch g ear M ed iu m V o ltag e
M etal-C lad A ssem b lies
C o n fo rm an ce T est P ro ced u res,
A N S I C 3 7 . 5 5 -2 0 0 2 .
5 . R e c o m m e n d e d P ra c tic e fo r
P ro te c tio n a n d C o o rd in a tio n o f
I n d u stria l a n d C o m m e rc ia l P o w e r
S y ste m s, I E E E B u ff B o o k ,
S ta n d a rd 2 4 2 -1 9 7 5 .
E m e rg e n c y a n d S ta n d b y P o w e r
S y ste m s fo r I n d u stria l a n d
C o m m e rc ia l A p p lic a tio n s,
I E E E O ra n g e B o o k , A N S I /I E E E
S ta n d a rd 4 4 6 -1 9 8 0 .
E le c tric S y ste m s in H e a lth C a re
F a c ilitie s, I E E E Wh ite B o o k ,
I E E E S ta n d a rd 6 0 2 -1 9 8 6 .
8 . S tan d ard fo r S afety , T ran sfer
S w itch E q u ip m en t, U n d erw riters
Lab o rato ries, I n c. , F ifth E d itio n ,
1 9 9 6 .
9 . E n c lo su re s fo r E le c tric a l
E q u ip m e n t, N a tio n a l E le c tric a l
M a n u fa c tu re rs A sso c ia tio n ,
N E M A S ta n d a rd 2 5 0 -2 0 0 3 .
1 0 . M o to rs a n d G e n e ra to rs, N a tio n a l
E le c tric a l M a n u fa c tu re rs
A sso c ia tio n , N E M A S ta n d a rd
M G 1 -1 9 9 8 .
1 1 . S tan d ard fo r A C H ig h -V o ltag e
C irc u it B re a k e rs o n a S y m m e tric a l
C u rre n t B a sis-P re fe rred R a tin g s
an d R elated R eq u ired C ap ab ilities,
T h e I n stitu te o f E le c tric a l a n d
E lectro n ics E n g in eers, I n c. , I E E E
C 3 7 . 0 6 -2 0 0 0 .
1 2 . S ta n d a rd fo r M e ta l-E n c lo se d
L o w -V o lta g e P o w e r C irc u it
B re a k e r S w itc h g e a r, T h e I n stitu te
o f E le c tric a l a n d E le c tro n ic s
E n g in e e rs, I n c . , I E E E C 3 7 . 2 0 . 1 -
1 9 9 3 .
1 3 . S tan d ard fo r M etal-C lad
S w itch g ear, T h e In stitu te o f
E lectrical an d E lectro n ics E n g in eers,
In c. , IE E E C 3 7 . 2 0 . 2 -1 9 9 9 .
1 4 . S ta n d a rd fo r H e a lth C a re
F a c ilitie s, N a tio n a l F ire P ro te c tio n
A sso c ia tio n , N F P A 9 9 , 2 0 0 5 .
1 5 . S ta n d a rd fo r E m e rg e n c y a n d
S ta n d b y P o w e r S y ste m s,
N a tio n a l F ire P ro te c tio n
A sso c ia tio n N F P A 1 1 0 , 2 0 0 5 .
1 6 . A m erican N atio n al S tan d ard
fo r P erso n n el P ro tectio n
Lo cko u t/tag o u t o f E n erg y S o u rces
M in im u m S afety R eq u irem en ts,
A m e ric a n N a tio n a l S ta n d a rd s
I n stitu te, A N S I Z 2 4 4 . 1 .
1 7 . G o v ern in g F u n d am en tals an d
P o w er M an ag em en t, Wo o d w ard
2 0 0 4 .
1 8 . E b e rly , T h o m a s W. a n d S c h a e fe r,
R ic h a rd C . , V o lta g e v e rsu s
V A R /P o w e r F a c to r R e g u la tio n o n
S y n c h ro n o u s G e n e ra to rs, B a sle r
E le c tric C o m p a n y .
1 9 . H o ra k , J o h n a n d D a lk e , G e ra ld ,
B re a k e r M o n ito rin g w ith N u m b e r
R e la y s, B a sle r E le c tric C o m p a n y ,
2 0 0 5 .
2 0 . H o rn a k , D o n a ld L . a n d C h a u ,
N . H . , D istrib u te d G e n e ra tio n
I n te rc o n n e c tio n s: P ro te c tio n ,
M o n ito rin g , a n d C o n tro l
O p p o rtu n itie s, B a sle r E le c tric
C o m p a n y .
2 1 . R o c k e fe lle r, G e o rg e , G e n e ra to r
P ro te c tio n A p p lic a tio n G u id e ,
B a sle r E le c tric C o m p a n y , 2 0 0 1 .
2 2 . I n tro d u c tio n to S y n c h ro n izin g ,
A u to m a tic S y n c h ro n izin g
C o n sid e ra tio n s a n d A p p lic a tio n s,
B a sle r E le c tric C o m p a n y .

2 3 . F in ley , D av id J . an d H o rak, J o h n ,
Lo ad S h ed d in g fo r U tility an d
In d u strial P o w er S y stem R eliab ility ,
B asler E lectric C o m p an y .
2 4 . P a ra lle l O p e ra tio n w ith a N e tw o rk
S y ste m , B a sle r E le c tric C o m p a n y .
2 5 . V o lta g e R e g u la to r a n d P a ra lle l
O p e ra tio n , B a sle r E le c tric
C o m p a n y .
2 6 . G h a rp u re , V a su d e v , S h u lim , B o ris
a n d H o ra k , J o h n . B u s P ro te c tiv e
R e la y in g , M e th o d s a n d
A p p lic a tio n , B a sle r E le c tric
C o m p a n y , 2 0 0 5

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