Geological Field Report along the Ghagra-Rangamati

road cut section of the Sitapahar anticline,

Chittagong-Tripura Fold Belt of Bengal Basin.



Report Submitted in requirement of partial fulfillment of the syllabus for
4th year B.S (Hons.), Department of Geology, University of Dhaka.







Submitted by-
Pritam Saha
Group-03
Roll- JN 030
Exam Roll- 1920


i

ABSTRACT

The Bengal Basin in the northeastern part of Indian subcontinent, between the
Indian Shield and Indo-Burman Ranges, comprises three geo-tectonic provinces
are
(1) The Stable Shelf;
(2) The Central Deep Basin (extending from the Sylhet Trough in the
northeast towards the Hatia Trough in the south); and
(3) The ChittagongTripura Fold Belt.

Due to location of the basin at the juncture of three interacting plates, viz., the
Indian, Burma and Tibetan (Eurasian) Plates, the basin-fill history of these
geotectonic provinces varied considerably. Precambrian metasediments and
PermianCarboniferous rocks have been encountered only in drill holes in the
stable shelf province. After Precambrian peneplanation of the Indian Shield,
sedimentation in the Bengal Basin started in isolated graben-controlled basins on
the basement. With the breakup of Gondwanaland in the Jurassic and Cretaceous,
and northward movement of the Indian Plate, the basin started down wraping in the
Early Cretaceous and sedimentation started on the stable shelf and deep basin; and
since then sedimentation has been continuous for most of the basin. Subsidence of
the basin can be attributed to differential adjustments of the crust, collision with
the various elements of south Asia, and uplift of the eastern Himalayas and the
Indo-Burman Ranges. Movements along several well-established faults were
initiated following the breakup of Gondwanaland and during down wraping in the
Cretaceous. By Eocene, because of a major marine transgression, the stable shelf
came under a carbonate regime, whereas the deep basinal area was dominated by
deep-water sedimentation. A major switch in sedimentation pattern over the
Bengal Basin occurred during the Middle Eocene to Early Miocene as a result of
collision of India with the Burma and Tibetan Blocks. The influx of clastic
sediment into the basin from the Himalayas to the north and the Indo-Burman
Ranges to the east rapidly increased at this time; and this was followed by an
increase in the rate of subsidence of the basin. At this stage, deep marine
sedimentation dominated in the deep basinal part, while deep to shallow marine
conditions prevailed in the eastern part of the basin. By Middle Miocene, with
continuing collision events between the plates and uplift in the Himalayas and
Indo-Burman Ranges, a huge influx of clastic sediments came into the basin from
the northeast and east. Throughout the Miocene, the depositional settings
continued to vary from deep marine in the basin to shallow and coastal marine in
the marginal parts of the basin. From Pliocene onwards, large amounts of sediment
ii

were filling the Bengal Basin from the west and northwest; and major delta
building processes continued to develop the present-day delta morphology. Since
the Cretaceous, architecture of the Bengal Basin has been changing due to the
collision pattern and movements of the major plates in the region. However, three
notable changes in basin configuration can be recognized that occurred during
Early Eocene, Middle Miocene and Plio-Pleistocene times, when both the
paleogeographic settings and source areas changed. The present basin
configuration with the GangesBrahmaputra delta system on the north and
the Bengal Deep Sea Fan on the south was established during the later part of
Pliocene and Pleistocene; and delta progradation since then has been strongly
affected by orogeny in the eastern Himalayas. Pleistocene glacial activities in the
north accompanied sea level changes in the Bay of Bengal.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Behind every successful field investigation there lies the valuable contribution of a
number of people who are to be acknowledged.
At first I take the opportunity of expressing my gratitude to the team leader Dr.
Mustafa Alam, Professor, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka for his
arrangement of the field tour and supervision in the field. We are very thankful to
him. He always made us alert for accurate investigation and was conscious for our
comfort.
My sincere appreciation goes to Dr. Subrata Kumar Saha, Associate Professor,
Department of Geology, University of Dhaka for his distinguished lectures.
My heartful thank also goes to Mr. Saiful Islam, Assistant Professor, Department
of Geology, University of Dhaka for his valuable lectures, careful guidance and
helpful manner during field trip.
I extend my deep thanks to the authority of Chittagong Hill Tracts Development
Board for the well arrangement of our accommodation and to some of the local
people who helped us in making arrangement of the transport and conducting the
field work.
I also wish to express my satisfaction to the food, committee, transport and first aid
for their great services and classmates especially my group members staff officials
for their supportiveness during field work and while preparing the report.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENT
Abstract i
Acknowledgement iii
Table of content iv
List of Figures v
List of Maps vi
1. Introduction 1
1.1 General Statement 2
1.2 Purpose and Scope 2
1.3 Location, Extent and Accessibility 3
1.4 Previous Work 4
1.5 Method of Investigation 5
1.6 Physiography 6
1.6.1 Topography and Relief 6
1.6.2 Drainage and Water Supply 9
1.6.3 Vegetation and Cultivation 10
1.6.4 Population and Culture 10
1.6.5 Climate 10
2. Structures and Tectonics 12
2.1 General Statement 13
2.2 Tectonic Frame work of Bangladesh 17
2.3 Regional Structure 21
2.3.1 Fold 21
2.3.2 Fault 21
2.3.3 Joint 22
2.3.4 Unconformity 22
3. Stratigraphy 24
3.1 General Statement 25
3.2 Criteria for identifying the bounding discontinuity 25
3.2.1 Incised Valley Floor (IVF) 25
3.2.2 Regressive Erosional Surface (RES) 26
3.2.3 Transgressive Erosional Surface (TES) 26
3.2.4 Marine Flooding Surface (MFS) 26
3.2.5 Transgressive Surface (TS) 26
3.3 Composite Stratigraphy 26
3.3.1 Composite Sequence C 27
v

3.3.2 Composite Sequence B 27
3.3.3 Composite Sequence A 27
3.4 Detail Description 28
3.4.1 Composite Sequence C 28
3.4.1.1 Sitapahar Anticline 28
3.4.1.1.1 Units Ca and Cb 28
3.4.1.1.2 Unit Cc 31
3.4.1.1.3 Unit Cd 32
3.4.1.1.4 Unit Ce 32
3.4.2 Composite Sequence B 33
3.4.2.1 Sitapahar Anticline 33
3.4.2.1.1 Sequence B1 34
3.4.2.1.2 Sequence B2 35
3.4.2.1.3 Sequence B4 36
3.4.2.1.5 Sequence B5 36
3.4.3 Composite Sequence A 39
3.4.3.1 Chittagong Group 40
3.4.3.2 Sitapahar Group (composite sequence C, equivalent to the traditional middle Surma Group) 40
3.4.3.3 Mirinja Group (composite sequence B, equivalent to the traditional upper Surma Group) 41
3.4.3.4 Kaptai Group (composite sequence A, equivalent to the traditional Tipam Group and Dupi Tila
Formation) 41
4. Geological History 42
4.1 Tectonic History 43
4.2 Depositional History 45
4.2.1 Unit C 45
4.2.1.1 Subunit C1 45
4.2.1.2 Subunit C2 46
4.2.1.2.1 Division C2a 46
4.2.1.2.2 Divisions C2b and C2c 47
5. Economic Geology 49
6. Conclusion 51
References 53
Geological Map 55

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Satellite image of investigated area 4
Figure 2: Small scale fault 22
Figure 3: Unconformity between Lower Dupitilla And Tipam 23
Figure 4: Mud Gall 23
Figure 5: Nodular Structure 29
vi

Figure 6: Onion Structure interbedded with Silty sandstone. 29
Figure 7: (a) Detailed litho-log of the upper part of unit Cb in the Sitapahar anticline; and (b) one representative
fining-upward cycle (From Gani and Alam, 1999) 30
Figure 8: Leisingang Ring Structure 31
Figure 9: Channel base 31
Figure 10: Rhythemtic Structure 32
Figure 11: Tidal Sequence 35
Figure 12: Zoophycos Trace Fossil 36
Figure 13: General litho-stratigraphic column of the lower part of the Surma Group exposed in the Sitapahar
anticline with detailed sedimentological logs of salient portions (From Gani and Alam, 1999). 38
Figure 14: Fining Upward Sequence 39
Figure 15: Schematic paleogeographic (Early Miocene) representation of the Bengal Basin and surroundings
incorporating the plate tectonic (From Gani and Alam,1999) 43
Figure 16: Conceptual Early Miocene paleogeographic model showing the sedimentation pattern (at highstand
condition) within the active margin (Gani and Alam,1999) 44
Figure 17: Details of the lithostratigraphic column of the exposed Neogene clastic succession with bounding
discontinuities and tentative regional correlation. (A) The Mirinja anticline and (B) the Sitapahar
anticline(Gani and Alam,1999) 48
Figure 18: Construction Stone (Calcareous Concretion) 50

LIST OF MAPS
Map 1: Location Map 3
Map 2: Contour Map of Bangladesh 8
Map 3: Drainage map of Rangamati 9
Map 4: Generalized tectonic map of the Bengal Basin and surrounding areas (modified from Uddin and
Lundberg, 1998). Hinge zone separates the shallow Indian platform to the northwest from the deeper
Bengal foredeep to the southeast. 15
Map 5: (a) Regional tectonic setting of the Bengal Basin showing location of the study area within the
ChittagongTripura Fold Belt(CTFB). NAP D Neogene accretion prism. The Tertiary volcanic centers are
marked by solid dots (modified from Dasgupta and Nandy, 1995, and Khan, 1991). 16
Map 6: Geological sketch map of part of the Chittagong Tripura Fold Belt (CTFB) showing the distribution of the
traditional stratigraphic units(modified from Alam et al., 1990) 17
Map 7: Tectonic Framework of Bangladesh 18
1

CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Statement
1.2 Purpose and Scope
1.3 Location, Extent and Accessibility
1.4 Previous Work
1.5 Method of Investigation
1.6 Physiography
1.6.1 Topography and relief
1.6.2 Drainage and water supply
1.6.3 Vegetation Cultivation
1.6.4 Population and Culture
1.6.5 Climate

2

1. 1 GENERAL STATEMENT
The Bengal basin covering Bangladesh and part of eastern India, is one of the least
studied and yet well-known basins in the world. The geological evolution of this
basin began in the Late Mesozoic through the breakup of the Gondwanaland and
ongoing. The greater Bengal basin is bounded by the Shillong Plateau to the north,
by exposures of the Indian craton to the west, and Indo-Burman ranges to the east.
These hills are part of the Frontal Folded Belts of Arakan-Yoma.

On this report it has been attempted to present an overview on the tectonic setup,
stratigraphy, drainage, geomorphology, depositional history and economic geology
of the field area, Rangamati as well as the southeastern part of Bangladesh.
1. 2 PURPOSE AND SCOPE
Field study primarily means obtaining geologic knowledge. It employs methods
and techniques to examine the structure, physical features, stratigraphy and also
materials exposed at the outcrop. The eastern and more importantly the
southeastern part of Bangladesh is much complex and exhibits much of the
tectonic evolution of the Bengal basin. The area consists one of the major tectonic
element of the Bengal basin i.e. The Frontal Fold belt. The rocks exposed here
ranges from the age of Miocene to Pliocene. On the contrary the area has the
drawback of lacking petroleum. Nonetheless the area is a paramount for geologic
study. Huge piles of sediments are exposed to be studied and enhance the
knowledge of the complexities of the nature. Our main purpose was to observe and
study the sedimentation history, structure, stratigraphy, fossils, depositional
environment, and economic geology of the area and also to make a geological map
of the studied area.

The purposes can be described briefly as
Preparation of a geological map of an area.
Determination of lithology and sedimentary structures.
Construction of stratigraphic column.
Study of formation of the column.
Study of sedimentary structures and other structural features.
Interpretation of the geologic history of the area.
Prediction of the economic importance of the area.

3

It is to be noted that, though the investigated area offered very good scope, to study
properly the time schedule was very short, very detail investigations were not
possible.
1. 3 LOCATION, EXTENT AND ACCESSIBILITY
The area is located about 75 Km northeast of Chittagong town and is situated in the
southern part of Chittagong-Tripura folded belt. The investigated area lies between
2237.315 N to 2238.077 N latitude and 9206.307' E to 9211.271 E longitude
and is included investigated area the survey of Bangladesh toposheet no. 84 B/2
and 84 B/3. It is situated about 250 km south-east of Dhaka city. The area is
connected to the Chittagong city by a metalloid road. It is also connected with
Banderban hill district by a jeepable road.

MAP 1: LOCATION MAP
4


The Sitapahar anticline is in the investigated Rangamati district. The anticline is
about 70 Km (N-S) long and 12 km (E-W) wide. It covers about 550 Sq. kms of
Rangamati district. The total extent of the investigated area is just around 840 sq.
kilometers.

Kaptai reservoir against the river Karnaphuli literally encloses the Rangamati town
as a whole, hence, the accessibility of the area is clearly easy.

FIGURE 1: SATELLITE IMAGE OF INVESTIGATED AREA
1. 4 PREVIOUS WORK
Many geologists surveyed on the Sitapahar anticline in the eastern part of
Bangladesh. Shell attempted to know about the sub-surface structural configuration
with seismic surveys. So they attempted to drill a deep exploration well on the
Sitapahar anticline which was about 1377m in depth (in 1988).

There are not many publications that presented facies analysis on these clastic
rocks exposed in southern part of CTFB (Alam, 1995; Alam and Ferdous, 1995,
5

1996; Alam and Karim, 1997; Gani and Alam, 1999). The significance of tidal
influence in shallow marine Surma Group was first discussed by Alam (1995).
Gani and Alam (1999) have suggested that the entire Surma Group succession
represents an overall basinward progradation from deep marine to coastal marine
within the active margin setting of the Indo-Burmese plate convergence. Gani and
Alam, latter in another publication (2000), have shown a detailed lithofacies
analysis and gave an interpretation about the origin of, and genetic relationships
between, individual units in response to sea-level changes.
1. 5 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Method of investigation is all the same everywhere and sometimes it is technical
and talent to determine the location, stratigraphy, lithology, environment of
deposition of different section. We used the traverse method. The whole study as
accomplished into two phases, which are field study in the field and laboratory
analysis of the samples collected from the field. The investigation in the field was
performed by adopting traverse method and the equipments used are as follows:

a. Base map (R.F scale 1:25,000).
b. Clinometer.
c. Hammer (chisel hammer).
d. Pocket lens.
e. Acid bottle with dilute HCl.
f. Sample bag.
g. Field notebook.
h. Pens, pencils, colour pencils, diagonal scale etc.
i. Camera, binocular.
j. Haver sack.

TAKING LOCATIONS AND BEARING:
The base map helped to determine the location of the suitable sections. Arial
distance was measured by taking pacing. Our instant positions were plotted on the
map by the help of the clinometer and a remarkable point on the base map. Bearing
of the section was measured by clinometer.



6

LITHOLOGIC INVESTIGATION:
The lithology of the area was studied by observing good exposures emphasizing on
the following aspects color, texture, composition and sharp contact of various rock
strata. Presence of carbonate was determined by using dil. HCl.
STRUCTURAL INVESTIGATIONS:
Attitude of the bed i.e. dip direction and amount of dip measured with the help of
clinometers. Hammer was used for cleaning and finding beds in rough, disturbed
and vegetated outcrops.
STRATIGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATIONS:
The stratigraphic succession was made by observing the position of different rock
units in the field, their lithology as well as thickness. Unconformity or time gap
between two different type of lithology is marked by erosional surface, laterite
band and soil.
COLLECTING SAMPLES:
Samples were collected in sample bags from different rock strata
of different sections with proper labeling for further study in lab.
CONSTRUCTION OF GEOLOGIC MAP:
The attitude of strata and lithology were plotted on the base map with proper
reference points in order to prepare a geological map of the area.
TAKING PHOTOGRAPHS:
Important photographs of sedimentary structure, physical feature i.e. (fossil) and
structural features (fault, unconformity, joint) of the area were taken by camera
where possible, rough sketches of rock units was also made.

1. 6 PHYSIOGRAPHY

1.6.1 TOPOGRAPHY AND RELIEF
The topography of the investigated area is rugged with elevations ranging from
16m to 493m,supported the fact that this is a hilly region. Numerous low to
7

moderately elevated hillocks are present here. Highest elevation of the hill range is
Phoromain whose elevation is 493m and minimum in the low lying lakes
surrounding Rangamati town. The relief of the area is high which decrease towards
east.
Topographically the are a is rugged terrain. Numerous hills and hillocks flourish
the surface of the field area. Most of the hills are associated with a correspondent
depressed zone or valleys.

8


MAP 2: CONTOUR MAP OF BANGLADESH


9

1.6.2 DRAINAGE AND WATER SUPPLY
Karnaphuli, the main channel of water system in the area, crosses Shubhlong range
and Silchari where it penetrates the Sitapahar range (Khan 1991). The Karnaphuli
river and its numerous tributaries and distributaries are the main components of the
drainage system in the investigated area. The Karnaphuli river originates from the
high Arakan-Yoma and cuts across the hill tracts to fall into the Bay of Bengal
(khan 1991).

MAP 3: DRAINAGE MAP OF RANGAMATI
10

There are numerous streamlets in the investigated area. The important chara or
creeps that drain the area are Shumba Chara, Shundari chara, Manikchari chara,
Ghagra chara, hatimara chara, Tippara chara etc.
Even though the investigated area is hilly terrain, groundwater prospect of the area
is fairly good. Shallow hand tube well can reach to groundwater and thus there is
no problem of drinking water. The Kaptai reservoir feeds the investigated area
throughout the season, particularly in dry season.

1.6.3 VEGETATION AND CULTIVATION
The investigated area is covered by forest with evergreen vegetation, which is due
to the good and suitable climatic condition of this region. Throughout the field area
bushes are abundant with some fruit trees like mango, jackfruit, guava are also
numerous. Besides this tall trees like Garjan, Jarul, Shal, Shegun etc are not
uncommon. The major agricultural activity of this area is shifting cultivation, they
also grow pineapple, ginger, turmeric etc. Generally, shifting cultivation is
preferred in high steep hill ranges where pineapples, ginger, turmeric etc. in low
hill ranges. Both Sedentary and Jhuming cultivations are practiced here.

1.6.4 POPULATION AND CULTURE
The area is sparsely populated and presents and interesting disparity with the
general demographic picture in Rangamati. The people live on the top of the hills
and also on foot of the hills. The life is very hard in the investigated area as the
major part of the population of the area live mostly along the foot hills and most of
the tribal people live on the hilly region.
Total population of the Rangamati district is about 400000. Population density is
about 6000 per sq. km. Most of the people are poor and maintain their lives by
handicrafts and also cutting woods.

1.6.5 CLIMATE
The area can be characterized by tropical to sub-tropical climatic condition. The
temperature of the area ranges from 90F to 65F. Three distinct seasons are felt in
Rangamati and adjoining areas. (i) The summer starts from march and with high
temperature and moderate precipitation, it lasts till May, (ii) In June the monsoon
begins and continue up to October, with dark cloud in sky and heavy rainfall with
11

dusty wind and often cyclonic storm, (iii) Characterized by pleasant cool and dry
weather begins from November and ends in February.

12

CHAPTER 2
2. STRUCTURES AND TECTONICS
2.1 General Statement
2.2 Tectonic Frame work of Bangladesh
2.3 Regional Structure
2.3.1 Fold
2.3.2 Fault
2.3.3 Joint
2.3.4 Unconformity

13

2. 1 GENERAL STATEMENT
The Bengal Basin, covering Bangladesh and part of eastern India, is one of the
least studied and known basins in the world. The geological evolution of the basin
began in the late Mesozoic with the break-up of Gondwanaland and is ongoing
(Alam, 1989). The greater Bengal Basin is bounded by the Shillong Plateau, the
northeastern wedge of the Indian craton, to the north; by exposures of the Indian
craton to the west; and by the Indoburman Ranges to the east. The basin extends
southward into the Bay of Bengal. The Bengal Basin is well known for the
development of one of the thickest (about 20 km) sedimentary successions in the
world.

A considerable thickness of the Neogene clastic strata is exposed in the
Chittagong Tripura Fold Belt (CTFB) along the eastern margin of the basin.
However, only few publications have presented facies analysis of these clastic
rocks exposed in the southern part of the CTFB (Alam, 1995; Alam and Ferdous,
1995, 1996; Alam and Karim, 1997; Gani and Alam, 1999). The significance of
tidal influence in the shallow marine Surma Group was first discussed by Alam
(1995). More recently Gani and Alam (1999) have suggested that the entire Surma
Group succession represents an overall basinward progradation from deep marine
to coastal marine within the active margin setting of the Indo-Burmese plate
convergence. This study is a follow-up of the work of Gani (1999) and Gani and
Alam (1999), and has six main objectives:
(1) to carry out a detailed lithofacies analysis and palaeoenvironmental
reconstruction of the Neogene clastics (focusing on the traditional Surma Group)
exposed in the southeastern fold belt;
(2) to provide a full record of the entire exposed succession for continuous tracking
of the basin-fill history from oldest to youngest;
(3) to divide the rock record on the basis of bounding discontinuities using the
conceptual framework of high-resolution sequence stratigraphy;
(4) to interpret the origin of, and genetic relationships between, individual units in
response to relative sea-level changes;
(5) to present a regional correlation (depositional-strike parallel) of the identified
bounding discontinuities between the two studied anticlines; and
(6) to propose a tentative revised stratigraphic framework for the CTFB. These
objectives imply that this study is significant in terms of local as well as
international perspective.
For example, the study may shed light on the tidal deposits of regressive shelves
that are yet to be well documented and modeled. The anatomy of the sand bodies
presented here can be valuable to international oil companies for accurate
14

stratigraphic prediction of reservoir facies and trapping styles. Furthermore, the
revised stratigraphic scheme proposed in this study can be significant for a better
understanding of the sedimentary evolution of the CTFB region. Fieldwork was
carried out in the anticlinal structure within the CTFB, namely, the Sitapahar
anticline of the Rangamati area. Rocks exposed in various creeks along the
Matamuhari River and on the eastern flank of the structure have also been studied
for crosschecking. The Sitapahar structure, about 40 km in length, is a doubly
plunging, elongated asym- metric anticline with an axial trend of N20WS20E and
a plunge of about 4 degree. The gentler eastern flank of the structure has dips
varying from 10 degree to 45 degree and the steeper western flank dips at angles
varying from 15 degree to 70 degree (Ferdous, 1990). Fieldwork was carried out
along the RangamatiChittagong road section that transversely cuts the northern
part of the anticline, and the greater than 3-km-thick Neogene succession exposed
on the eastern flank has been described in detail.

15


MAP 4: GENERALIZED TECTONIC MAP OF THE BENGAL BASIN AND SURROUNDING AREAS (MODIFIED FROM
UDDIN AND LUNDBERG, 1998). HINGE ZONE SEPARATES THE SHALLOW INDIAN PLATFORM TO THE
NORTHWEST FROM THE DEEPER BENGAL FOREDEEP TO THE SOUTHEAST.

16


MAP 5: (A) REGIONAL TECTONIC SETTING OF THE BENGAL BASIN SHOWING LOCATION OF THE STUDY
AREA WITHIN THE CHITTAGONGTRIPURA FOLD BELT(CTFB). NAP D NEOGENE ACCRETION PRISM. THE
TERTIARY VOLCANIC CENTERS ARE MARKED BY SOLID DOTS (MODIFIED FROM DASGUPTA AND NANDY,
1995, AND KHAN, 1991). THE BATHYMETRIC CONTOURS OF THE BAY OF BENGAL ARE SHOWN IN METERS.
17


MAP 6: GEOLOGICAL SKETCH MAP OF PART OF THE CHITTAGONG TRIPURA FOLD BELT (CTFB) SHOWING
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRADITIONAL STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS(MODIFIED FROM ALAM ET AL., 1990)
2. 2 TECTONIC FRAME WORK OF BANGLADESH
Tectonic Framework refers to the basic structural frame on which Bangladesh
stands. It is essential to have a clear conception about the tectonic framework of
Bangladesh in order to evaluate the prospect of Mineral Resources including oil
and Natural Gas.
18


MAP 7: TECTONIC FRAMEWORK OF BANGLADESH
Bangladesh is divided into two major tectonic units: i) Stable Pre-Cambrian
Platform in the northwest, and ii) Geosynclinal basin in the southeast. A third unit,
a narrow northeast-southwest trending zone called the hinge zone separates the
above two units almost through the middle of the country. This hinge zone is
currently known as palaeo continental slope. [Sifatul Quader Chowdhury]
Stable Pre-Cambrian Platform in Bangladesh, Stable Pre-Cambrian Platform
refers to the stable shelf of the Bengal Basin. It is the part of the basin that lies on
the west and northwest of the line joining Calcutta and Mymensingh. Rangpur
Saddle represents Indian Platform and connects the Indian Shield with the Shillong
Massif and the Mikir Hills. Shillong Massif is a large thrust block of the Indian
19

Shield. In Rangpur Saddle the basement is the most uplifted and is covered with
thin sedimentary deposits. In Madhyapara area of Dinajpur the basement is only
130m deep from the ground surface and is overlain by Dupi Tila Sandstone and
Madhupur Clay of Plio-Pliestocene age. Rangpur Saddle can be divided into 3
parts- Rangpur Saddle, Northern Slope of Rangpur Saddle and Southern Slope of
Rangpur Saddle.
Bogra Shelf represents the southern slope of Rangpur Saddle which is a regional
monocline plunging towards southeast gently to Hinge Zone. This zone marks the
transition between the Rangpur Saddle and the Bengal Foredeep from depositional
as well as structural point of view.
Calcutta-Mymensingh Gravity High reflects a tectonic element known as Hinge
Zone and more recently as palaeo continental slope in the framework of
Bangladesh. The Hinge Zone is a narrow strip of about 25 km wide complex
flexure zone, which separates the Bengal Foredeep from the shelf zone. It trends
approximately N 30 E along the Calcutta-Pabna-Mymensingh gravity high and
extends upto the western tip of Dauki fault. Hinge Zone is connected with Bengal
Foredeep by deep basement faults that probably started with the breakup of
Gondwanaland. Since then they have been repeatedly reactivated. In the northeast
of Bangladesh the Hinge Zone turns to the east and seems to be connected with the
Dauki Fault, probably by a series of east-west trending faults. [ASM
Woobaidullah]
Geosynclinal Basin the geosynclinal basin in the southeast is characterised by the
huge thickness (maximum of about 20 km near the basin centre) of clastic
sedimentary rocks, mostly sandstone and shale of Tertiary age. It occupies the
greater Dhaka-Faridpur-Noakhali-Sylhet [Silet]-Comilla [Kumilla]-Chittagong
areas. The huge thickness of sediments in the basin is a result of tectonic mobility
or instability of the areas causing rapid subsidence and sedimentation in a
relatively short span of geologic time. The geosynclinal basin is subdivided into
two parts ie fold belt in the east and a foredeep to the west.
Bengal Foredeep occupies the vast area between Hinge Line and Arakan Yoma
Folded System and plays the most important role in the tectonic history of Bengal
Basin. Tectonically, Bengal Foredeep can be divided into two major regions- (a)
Western Platform Flank and (b) Eastern Folded Flank. The Western Platform flank
is further subdivided into (a) Faridpur Trough (b) Barisal-Chandpur High (c)
Hatiya Trough (d) Madhupur High and (e) Sylhet Trough.
20

Sylhet Trough situated on the southern side of the Shillong Massif and
corresponds to the vast low lands of Surma Valley with numerous swamps (haors)
where absolute elevation marks even below the sea level. It is a sub-basin of the
Bengal Foredeep in the northeastern part of Bangladesh and is characterised by a
very pronounced, vast, closed negative gravity anomaly up to 84 mgl (Milligal).
Shillong Massif forms the northern boundary of Sylhet Trough while the great
Dauki Fault separates the trough from the Massif. The Trough is bounded on the
east and southeast by the sub-meridional trending folded belt of Assam and Tripura
as the frontal deformation zone of Indo-Burman Ranges.
Indian Platform bounds the trough from the west while it is open in the southwest
to the main part of Bengal Basin. It is an oval shaped trough about 130 km long
and 60 km wide. Sub-meridional trending anticlinal folds of Chittagong-Tripura
Folded Belt gradually plunge northward to the Sylhet Trough. In cross-section the
Sylhet Trough is sharply asymmetrical with comparatively gentle southern and
steep faulted northern slope. Dauki Fault with 5 km wide fault zone forms the
contact between Shillong Massif and Sylhet Trough. The evolution of Sylhet
Trough includes (i) a passive continental margin (Pre-Oligocene) to (ii) a foreland
basin linked to the Indo-Burman Ranges (Oligocene and Miolene) to (iii) a
foreland basin linked to south-directed over thrusting of Shillong Plateau
(Pliocene-Holocene). The anticlinal folds of Habiganj, Rashidpur, Bibiana, Maulvi
Bazar, Katalkandi, Fenchuganj, Harargaj, Patharia, Beani Bazar (Mama Bhagna)
and Kailas Tila, which occupy the southern rim of Sylhet Trough have sub-
meridional trend in contrast to sub- latitudinal trending Chhatak, Jalalabad, Sylhet,
Dupi Tila and Jatinga structures. These two structural trends form a syntaxial
pattern at the northeastern tip of Sylhet Trough. The Neogene sediments have
excellent development in Sylhet Trough while the Paleogenes are at greater depths.
Folded Belt represents the most prominent tectonic element of Bengal Foredeep
with general sub-meridional trending hills parallel to the Arakan Yoma Folded
System. Folded belt extends within Bangladesh for 450 km (N-S) and about 150
km wide covering an area of 35,000 sq km of on-shore area. A large number of
narrow, elongated N-S trending folds of the eastern part of Bangladesh (Sylhet and
Chittagong Divisions), Tripura, southern part of Assam, Mizoram and Myanmar
territory adjacent to S-E of the Chittagong Hill Tracts occupy the Folded Belt west
of the Arakan Yoma Folded System. The folds are characterised by ridge forming,
box-like in cross section, high amplitude with variable width and lie en-echelon
with the adjacent structures. The elevation of these elongated anticlinal folds in
Bangladesh ranges from 100 -1,000m. Some of the structures are faulted and
thrusted and the intensity of folding increases gradually from west to east.
21

Consequently, the structures of the eastern part are tightly folded, faulted and
thrusted with narrower synclines between them.
The Neogene sedimentary sequence developed here are largely unfossiliferous and
consists mainly of the alteration of shales, clays, claystones, siltstones and
sandstones with occasional intra-formational conglomerates which can be
subdivided into nine formations on the basis of lithology.
It is recently reported that turbidity facies assemblage have been recorded in
Bhuban rocks in Sitapahar anticline representing Bouma sequence with 5 well
defined cycles which need confirmation by extensive further investigation.
2. 3 REGIONAL STRUCTURE
2.3.1 FOLD
The Sitapahar anticline is the most prominent structure of the investigated area
which axis is trending NNW-SSE direction along the main structure of the
Chittagong Tripura Folded Belt (CTFB). This doubly plunging anticlinal structure
is about 400km long and 12-15 km wide and major part of the western flank is
more steeper than the eastern flank.The western flank dips in an angle ranging
from 40
0
to85
0
and the eastern flank shows dip ranging from 4-85

which indicate
that the anticline is an asymmetric anticline. From the attitude of the beds the
anticline is suspected as a plunging anticline.
2.3.2 FAULT
A regional fault is believed to run along the axis of the structure which trend is
North direction. The eastern side of the fault is acted as foot wall and the western
part acts as a hanging wall which indicate the presence of reserve fault at Manik
Chari (Ferdouse 1999) which is at a few kilometer east of Ghagra. A normal fault
is found at Sundari Chara. The indication of the regional fault are characterized by
the following terms:
1. Satellite image
2. Steep dip
3. Associate with drag fault
4. Thickness variation
5. Lithologic similarity
22


FIGURE 2: SMALL SCALE FAULT

2.3.3 JOINT
Joints are the very common structural features in the investigated area. These are
widely distributed in the area. Joints are well developed in relatively resistant
rocks. Vertical joints are the prominent structural features.
2.3.4 UNCONFORMITY
Unconformity is an erosion and non- depositional surface. A regional
unconformity is present in between Surma group and Tipam Sandstone , which is
an angular unconformity. It is located in Ghagra. A local unconformity also found
in Surma group.
23


FIGURE 3: UNCONFORMITY BETWEEN LOWER DUPITILLA AND TIPAM

FIGURE 4: MUD GALL

24

CHAPTER 3
3. STRATIGRAPHY
3.1 General Statement
3.2 Criteria for identifying the bounding discontinuity
3.2.1 Incised Valley Floor
3.2.2 Regressive Erosional Surface
3.2.3 Transgressive Erosional Surface
3.2.4 Marine Flooding Surface
3.2.5 Transgressive Surface
3.3 Composite Stratigraphy
3.3.1 Composite Sequence C
3.3.2 Composite Sequence B
3.3.3 Composite Sequence A
3.4 Detail Description
3.4.1 Composite Sequence C
3.4.1.1 Sitapahar Anticline
3.4.1.1.1 Units Ca and Cb
3.4.1.1.2 Unit Cc
3.4.1.1.3 Unit Cd
3.4.1.1.4 Unit Ce
3.4.2 Composite Sequence B
3.4.2.1 Sitapahar Anticline
3.4.2.1.1 Sequence B1
3.4.2.1.2 Sequence B2
3.4.2.1.3 Sequence B4
3.4.2.1.5 Sequence B5
3.4.3 Composite Sequence A
3.4.3.1 Chittagong Group
3.4.3.2 Sitapahar Group
3.4.3.3 Mirinja Group
3.4.3.4 Kaptai Group

25

3. 1 GENERAL STATEMENT
The exposed Neogene succession represents an overall basinward progradation
from deep marine through shallow marine to continentalfluvial environments.
Based on regionally correlatable erosion surfaces the entire succession (3000+ m
thick) has been grouped into three composite sequences C, B and A, from oldest to
youngest. (1) Unit C (lower unit, 71 m thick) is characterized by several thin
packets of turbidites and slumped beds contained within a muddy sequence. The
unit is thought to have been deposited in a setting not far basinward from the base-
of-slope. (2) Unit B (middle unit, 291 m thick) is a monotonous muddy slope
deposit that contains some localized zones of very thin-bedded turbidites. (3) Unit
A (upper unit, 208 m thick) represents the progradation of the first shoreface sand
body on a 176-m-thick shelfal mud. Detailed bed by bed measurements have been
carried out in all these units. A general litho-stratigraphic column of the lower part
of the Surma Group exposed in the Sitapahar anticline have been given in Fig 8.

On the basis of the overall regional tectonic setting discussed in Section 2, it is
assumed that the trend of paleo-coastline in the CTFB was oriented north south.
Alam (1995) documented a similar paleo-coastline trend from paleocurrent analysis
of the Surma Group in the Sitapahar Anticline. The measured current directions
represent landward (eastward) and basinward (westward) directions.

3. 2 CRITERIA FOR IDENTIFYING THE BOUNDING DISCONTINUITY
Detailed sedimentological logging of the exposed sections permits identification of
the facies types and bounding discontinuities within the Neogene clastic succession
in the studied anticlines. The criteria for identifying the bounding discontinuities
are primarily based on the principles of high-resolution sequence stratigraphy, and
are briefly discussed here first.
3.2.1 INCISED VALLEY FLOOR (IVF)
This surface erodes the upper part of a progradational succession at best, and
shelfal mud at worst; and the lag deposits indicative of channel erosion
characteristically overlie it. The succession overlying this surface reveals
deepeningupward (transgressive) trend, in which typical estuarine facies can be
identified. The above criteria suggest that this bounding discontinuity most
26

probably developed as a result of channel incision at the time of sealevel low; and
hence is called an IVF.
3.2.2 REGRESSIVE EROSIONAL SURFACE (RES)
It is developed erosionally on shelfal mud and is overlain by shallowing- upward
shoreface deposits. This type of bottomtruncated progradational shoreface deposits
indicates that the surface lying below has been generated because of submarine
erosion during the fall of relative sea level; and hence the surface is designated as a
RES.
3.2.3 TRANSGRESSIVE EROSIONAL SURFACE (TES)
This surface exclusively develops on valley-fill deposits experiencing sea-level
rise. It is overlain by either thin (515- cm-thick) pebble horizon or 510-m-thick
shoreface sandbody before passing upward into shelfal mud. The above criteria
suggest that this surface has been developed because of submarine erosion during
the rise of relative sea level; and hence can be called a TES.
3.2.4 MARINE FLOODING SURFACE (MFS)
This type of bounding discontinuity is formed when shelfal mud abruptly overlies
a shallowing-upward shoreface succession. Therefore, it is the result of a short-
term sealevel rise; and hence is called a MFS.
3.2.5 TRANSGRESSIVE SURFACE (TS)
This surface is similar to the TES except that it is non-erosional and is directly
overlain by shelfal mud. It should be noted that subtle TSs are inferred to exist at
the contact between the fluvial and estuarine deposits within a valley-fill
succession. These will be discussed later in the text.
3. 3 COMPOSITE STRATIGRAPHY
On the basis of the earlier works (Alam, 1995; Alam and Ferdous, 1995, 1996;
Gani, 1999; Gani and Alam, 1999), it can be concluded that the exposed Neogene
succession in the CTFB represents a basinward progradation from deep marine
base-of-slope through shallow marine coastal to continentalfluvial deposits; and
that the entire succession may be divided into three broad groups. These composite
sequences, designated as C, B, and A, from oldest to youngest, represent three
27

stages of basin evolution each having its own sedimentation pattern and basin-fill
architecture. A comparison of the three composite sequences with the traditional
stratigraphic nomenclature is shown.
3.3.1 COMPOSITE SEQUENCE C
The basal composite sequence is conspicuously mud dominated with minimal
development of intervening erosion surfaces. It begins with deep-water base-
ofslope clastics, encountered only in the Sitapahar anticline, that grade upward into
shallow marine and nearshore deposits. Prograding parasequences separated by
MFSs characterize this composite sequence in the Sitapahar anticline, whereas in
the Mirinja anticline submarine channel deposits are conspicuous. The top of C is
demarcated by a pronounced erosion surface indicating a lowstand of sea level.
3.3.2 COMPOSITE SEQUENCE B
The middle composite sequence is sand dominated and has several distinct and
regionally traceable erosion surfaces. It is abbreviated in the Sitapahar anticline
due to truncation by the Manikchari fault. Tide dominated open marine shelfal to
coastal depositional settings under the control of cyclic relative sea-level rise and
fall typifies this composite sequence, where several incised valley-fill deposits are
prominent. The top of B is also a pronounced erosion surface of low stand sea
level.
3.3.3 COMPOSITE SEQUENCE A
The upper composite sequence represents the final phase M. Royhan Gani, M.
Mustafa Alam / Sedimentary Geology 155 (2003) 227270 233 of basin-filling
history with the establishment of continentalfluvial depositional systems. Low-
sinuosity braided to high-sinuosity meandering fluvial deposits characterizes a
considerable portion of this composite sequence. On the basis of the overall
regional tectonic setting discussed in Section 2, it is assumed that the trend of
paleo-coastline in the CTFB was oriented north south. Alam (1995) documented a
similar paleo-coastline trend from paleocurrent analysis of the Surma Group in the
Sitapahar anticline. In the lithostratigraphic columns we have shown the sequences
of different hierarchies. Within a composite sequence individual sequences
represent a single sea-level cycle (fallrisefall). As a result, either IVF or RES
bound them (both below and on top). When completely developed and/or
preserved they show all the three systems tractslowstand, transgressive and
28

highstandof an ideal sequence. Each sequence is further subdivided into units
based on TES/TS and MFS. A unit therefore, in most cases, represents a systems
tract (separated by TES/TS) or a parasequence (separated by a MFS).
3. 4 DETAIL DESCRIPTION
3.4.1 COMPOSITE SEQUENCE C
The lower composite sequence represents a basinward progradation from deep
marine (base-of-slope deposits) to shallow marine clastics. The base-ofslope
deposits are observed only in the Sitapahar anticline.
3.4.1.1 SITAPAHAR ANTICLINE
In the Sitapahar anticline there is also no identifiable erosional sequence boundary
within the composite sequence C. A distinct progradation from base-ofslope deep-
sea clastics to shallow marine clastics is reflected by the rock succession of this
composite sequence. Gani and Alam (1999) gave a detailed description of the
facies types and depositional environments represented by units Ca and Cb. Only a
brief interpretation of the depositional scenario of these two units is presented
below.
3.4.1.1.1 UNITS CA AND CB
Thin packages of turbidites (mostly partial Bouma sequences), together with some
slump and debris-flow deposits contained within thicker intervals of hemipelagic
mudstone, characterize the base-of-slope deposits of unit Ca. Small-scale
submarine lobe, channellevee complex and debrismass complex represent some
of the architectural elements within this unit. The deposits of the unit can
tentatively be assigned to the slope fan element of lowstand systems tract in the
sense of Van Wagoner et al. (1988). However, at present there is no conclusive
evidence for this interpretation; and the unit may well be a part of the highstand
systems tract continuous with the overlying systems. The lower half of unit Cb is
composed of monotonously muddy slope deposits that contain some localized
intervals of very thin-bedded turbidites. The upper half of the unit represents
shoaling-upward shallow marine sedimentation with thicker shelfal mudstone
passing stratigraphically upward into distinct tidal ridge progradation followed by
a coastal deposit. This coastal deposit mainly reflects progradation and
retrogradation of tidal flat strata coupled with some ripple cross-laminated to
29

structureless (may be stormreworked), fine-grained sandstone intervals. The top of
the unit is marked by a distinct MFS. Flame Structure is observed in this unit.

FIGURE 5: NODULAR STRUCTURE

FIGURE 6: ONION STRUCTURE INTERBEDDED WITH SILTY SANDSTONE.
30


FIGURE 7: (A) DETAILED LITHO-LOG OF THE UPPER PART OF UNIT CB IN THE SITAPAHAR ANTICLINE; AND
(B) ONE REPRESENTATIVE FINING-UPWARD CYCLE (FROM GANI AND ALAM, 1999)


31

3.4.1.1.2 UNIT CC
This is a 34-m-thick unit characterized by a
coarsening-then fining-upward trend. The
lower part consists of interlaminated very
fine sandstone and mudstone that are
gradationaly overlain by structureless (to
bedded) fine sandstone. The top 10 m of the
unit reveals a muddier-upward trend with
interlaminated very fine sandstone and
mudstone, passing upward into laminated
mudstone. Although the sedimentary
structures within sandstone are not very clear,
the sedimentation pattern of this unit may be
explained by progradation of a sand bar
(tidal?) on shelfal mud followed by
transgression without any development of
nearshore deposits. Since the top part of unit
Cc indicates a deepening-upward trend the
upper boundary of this unit is interpreted as a
MFS.

FIGURE 9: CHANNEL BASE

FIGURE 8: LEISINGANG RING STRUCTURE
32

3.4.1.1.3 UNIT CD
Thick laminated mudstone with occasional sandstone beds (a few centimeters
thick) characterize the lower 90 m of this unit, which passes upsequence into a 72-
m-thick interval of monotonously repetitive alternations of thin bedded sandstone
and mudstone. The two end-member
interbeds are ripple laminated very fine
sandstone 510 cm thick and laminated
mudstone 23 cm thick that are
gradational into each other through a 3
5-cm-thick wavy silt-mud interval. This
type of sedimentation pattern distinctly
reflects cyclic variation in sandmud
content within the deposit. The top 20
m of unit Cd reflects a muddier upward
trend with the cyclic pattern gradually
disappearing upward. A subtle MFS
can be recognized at the top. The
monotonous alternation of mudstone
and sandstone in the upper part of this
unit is interpreted as tidal rythmites in
which the cyclic variation of lithology
is due to the neap-spring variation in
tidal cycle in the distal offshore setting.
Although similar types of tidal
rythmites are common in near shore
deposits, they have rarely been described from a distal offshore depositional setting
(e.g. Williams, 1989).
3.4.1.1.4 UNIT CE
The lower part of this unit consists of monotonous laminated mudstone with
sporadic silt laminae, lenses, and a few sharp-based fine sandstone beds (10 cm
thick). In the upper part, laminated mudstone gradually passes upward into
interbedded very fine sandstone 25 cm thick and mudstone 24 cm thick. This
succession is overlain by repeated fining-upward cycles, and is ultimately
truncated by an erosion surface. The individual fining-upward cycles (< 20 cm
thick) belong to the continuum of flaser-wavy-lenticular association (Reineck and
Wunderlich, 1968). The nature of the laminated mudstones at the lower part of Ce
indicates that they are shelfal muds, which are overlain by a coarsening-upward
FIGURE 10: RHYTHEMTIC STRUCTURE
33

facies succession. Although the sedimentary structures within the sandstone beds
of this succession are not discernable, the rhythmic alteration of thin mudstone
beds suggests that the succession may reflect tidal ridge progradation on a
regressive shelf (e.g. Meckel, 1975; Dalrymple, 1992). The sedimentary structures
within the fining-upward cycles overlying this shallowing-upward succession
justify tidal flat progradation (e.g. Weimer et al., 1982; Alam, 1995). This
complete progradational succession of unit Ce is erosionally overlain by an upward
fining facies succession with granule to pebble-sized mud intraclasts at the base.
The lower 8 m of this succession shows structureless medium (to coarse) sandstone
with thin mud inter laminae, whereas the upper 28 m is characterized by an
alternation of 1020-cm-thick very fine sandstone beds and 5-cm-thick mudstone
beds. This fining-upward succession is again truncated by a 3-m-thick erosionally
based upward fining deposit of fine sandstone with mud intercalation. A
considerable thickness of this deposit may have been eroded by the incised valley
of the next sequence. These two fining-upward successions (at the top part of unit
Ce) with heterolithic facies, erosional bases, and basal lags give evidence for tidal
channel deposition (Shanmugam et al., 2000). It may be argued that these deposits
have been generated by auto-cyclic lateral migration of tidal channels (cf. Kumar
and Sanders, 1974) on the coastal plain at the final phase of gradual marine
regression. The upper part of unit Cb and units Cc, Cd and Ce represent
progradational and shallowing-upward successions each separated by a MFS.
These deposits are attributed to a single highstand parasequence set consisting of
four parasequences (sensu Van Wagoner, 1985; Van Wagoner et al., 1988).
3.4.2 COMPOSITE SEQUENCE B
This composite sequence develops five sequences bounded by erosional surfaces
(IVF or RES) of predicted relative sea-level fall. The depositional environments
vary from shallow marine shelfal to coastal settings punctuated by cyclic marine
regression and transgression. Each sequence is divided into units on the basis of
bounding discontinuities of relative sea-level rise.
3.4.2.1 SITAPAHAR ANTICLINE
The facies analysis of composite sequence B in the Sitapahar anticline has been
done mainly to compare the nature of sequences already established in the Mirinja
anticline. Therefore, rather than detailing out the facies types and their
interpretation we will highlight the gross depositional scenario and bounding
discontinuities of composite sequence B in the Sitapahar anticline to give a
34

tentative correlation with their counterparts in the Mirinja anticline described
earlier.
3.4.2.1.1 SEQUENCE B1
The base of sequence B1 is an IVF that can be correlated with the RES at the base
of sequence B1 in the Mirinja anticline. Both of these surfaces indicate a fall in
relative sea level. It is worth noting that since two other channelized erosion
surfaces exist below sequence B1 (at the top part of unit Ce) in the Sitapahar
anticline some degree of caution has been practised (as hinted by MacEachern and
Pemberton, 1994) to choose a correct IVF, i.e. a sequence boundary. It seems
reasonable to us that the erosion surface at the base of unit B1a is a genuine
lowstand-induced surface to be considered as sequence boundary. Unit B1a is
interpreted as inner estuary fluvial channel-fill facies which begins with a distinct
5-mthick conglomerate bed passing upward into a very thick, fine to medium,
structureless sand interval with occasional thin mudstone interlaminae. The top
part of the channel-fill reflects a rapid deepening, indicated by the appearance of
thicker laminated mud intervals within sandstone, culminating at the top by TS.
The lower part of unit B1a is thought to represent lowstand systems tract and the
rest is transgressive systems tract. However, no distinct boundary has been
identified between these two systems tracts. The remaining part of sequence B1 is
a highstand systems tract consisting of two parasequences that are represented by
units B1b and B1c. Unit B1b is thought to represent a tide-influenced shoreline
progradation on shelf mudstone. Two hummocky crossstratified sandstone beds 30
cm thick have been encountered within the offshore mud. Progradational shoreline
facies at the upper part of the unit are characterized by sandier upward trends in
which sand bar/dune cross-bedded facies is absent. Bipolar ripple cross-lamination
with flaser bedding indicates tide influence. The top of unit B1b is regarded as a
MFS because the unit is abruptly overlain by shelfal mudstone of the next
parasequence. Unit B1c is again a progradational shoreline parasequence that is
also interestingly devoid of any cross-bedded facies. Wavy-lenticular sandmud
facies, typical upward fining (1550-cm-thick) tidal flat facies, massive channel (?)
sand facies, are rather randomly associated (like in unit B1b of the Mirinja
anticline) under slowly shifting coastline. It should be noted that the speculated
RES at the lower part of unit B1b in the Mirinja anticline is not represented in the
Sitapahar anticline.
35


FIGURE 11: TIDAL SEQUENCE
3.4.2.1.2 SEQUENCE B2
The base of sequence B2 is an IVF correlatable with the IVF at the base of the
same sequence in the Mirinja anticline. The incised valley fill of unit B2a is very
thin compared to its counterpart in the Mirinja anticline. This thin valley-fill passes
upward from intraformational lags to structureless fine to very fine sand with some
parallel lamination. This part is overlain by a heterolithic very fine sandmud
interval. Tidal activity (with the gradual rise of relative sea level) is reflected by
the development of typical wavy (tidal) bedding. Mid-estuary sand flat or estuary
mouth complex is not developed or is reworked by the development of TES at the
middle of unit B2a. The deposits above the TES are fine to medium sandstone with
dispersed mud clasts. Since the shelfal mud of unit B2b abruptly overlies this unit,
the top of unit B2a is interpreted as a maximum MFS. Above the shelfal mud of
B2b the remaining part of the unit is a sandier upward succession interpreted as
tide-dominated shoreline progradation developed at the time of highstand
condition. It is important to note that the upper part of sequence B2, sequence B3,
36

and the lower part of sequence B4 are missing because of the stratigraphic break at
the Manikchari fault.
3.4.2.1.3 SEQUENCE B4
Above the fault only the upper part of sequence B4 is observed that reflects a
sandier upward trend. Rizocorallium and Zoophycos trace makers are present in
the offshore mudstone. The sedimentary structures in the lower shoreline muddy
sandstone are obliterated by extensive burrowing that renders this rock a churned
appearance.

FIGURE 12: ZOOPHYCOS TRACE FOSSIL
3.4.2.1.5 SEQUENCE B5
The lower boundary of this sequence is an IVF similar to that in the Mirinja
anticline. The lower part of unit B5a is interpreted as an incised fluvial channel
deposits containing 4-m-thick basal lags of mud clasts (up to 60 cm long), sand
pebbles and quartz pebbles. The valley-fill distinctly fines upward from coarse
sandstone to very fine sandstone with large- to small-scale trough cross-
stratification. Bidirectional trough cross-bedding at the top part of this fill records
evidence for tidal activity resulting from the initial phase of sea-level rise, and
gradually passes upward into 10-m-thick silty mudstone. This succession is
erosionally truncated by another small (10 m thick) channel speculated to be an
inner estuary tidal meander although no sedimentary structure except some parallel
lamination is observed within the medium sandstone of the channel-fill. The top of
unit B5a is interpreted as TS. The rest of sequence B5 is a highstand systems tract
consisting of three parasequences - units B5b, B5c, and B5d. Units B5b and B5c
37

are very thin and characteristically sharp-based on offshore mudstone indicating
that high-frequency relative sea-level falls during the overall rise. Therefore, the
parasequence designation of these two units may not be appropriate in a strict
sense. The uppermost unit B5d is a distinct shoaling/coarseningupward tide-
dominated shoreline progradation. The offshore facies characteristically consists of
a thick interval of interlaminated siltstone and mudstone with delicate parallel-,
wavy-, to ripple-lamination. Shoreface facies shows several meter-thick upward
coarsening successions each containing laminated mud grading up into bipolar
ripple cross-laminated fine sand. These successions are thought to represent the
progradation of several small-scale bars. The topmost part of unit B5d develops a
typical wavy-lenticular tidal bedding of intertidal deposits. The top of sequence B5
is a pronounced erosion surface indicating a large fall of relative sea level.

38


FIGURE 13: GENERAL LITHO-STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN OF THE LOWER PART OF THE SURMA GROUP
EXPOSED IN THE SITAPAHAR ANTICLINE WITH DETAILED SEDIMENTOLOGICAL LOGS OF SALIENT
PORTIONS (FROM GANI AND ALAM, 1999).
39


3.4.3 COMPOSITE SEQUENCE A
This upper composite sequence of the Neogene clastic succession in the CTFB
represents the final stage of progradational basin-fill history. The entire sequence,
essentially fluvial deposits, is exclusively sandstone dominated with a
characteristic yellowish-brown color. A detailed account of the litho-facies types
with their depositional connotation was given by Alam (1996) and Alam and
Ferdous (1995). Only a brief description of the composite sequence A is presented
below.
The sequence begins on a pronounced erosion surface interpreted as an IVF
overlain by a 25-mthick characteristic conglomerate bed consisting of mud clasts
(up to 15 cm long) with some quartz pebbles. The lowermost 4050 m of the
composite sequence indicates an upward fining single channel cycle that quickly
evolves into an estuary channel within a few meters up-sequence because of the
rise of relative sea level. The lower portion of this cycle contains parallel to
bidirectional cross-bedded medium sandstone with some mud-draped foresets. In
the upper part, sandstone is ripple cross-laminated with thin wavy mud laminae,
the frequency of which increases upward. The channel-fill culminates with meter-
thick laminated mudstone. Mud drapes, frequent wavy mud interlaminae, and
bipolar current directions within dunes and ripples indicate the influence of tides in
the upper part of the channel deposits. Most of the remaining parts of the
composite sequence
consist of monotonous
medium sandstone
characterized by trough
cross-, planar cross-, and
parallel-bedding with some
ripple cross-lamination and
mud interlaminae, thought
to represent various types
of channel bar deposits of
a large-scale braided river
system. Sandmud ratios
decrease at the uppermost
part of composite sequence
A indicating a probable
FIGURE 14: FINING UPWARD SEQUENCE
40

transition into a meandering channel system. It is noteworthy that the pronounced
erosion surface at the base of composite sequence A represents a large fall of
relative sea level speculated to be the final phase of marine regression from the
entire CTFB most probably associated with a tectonic upheaval. An
allostratigraphic framework has been adopted, giving emphasis on bounding
discontinuities, to analyze the sedimentation and basin-fill history of the Neogene
clastic succession. It has been recognized that allostratigraphic units are more
natural subdivisions of the rock record than conventional lithostratigraphic units
(Walker, 1990; Miall, 1997). Therefore the allostratigraphic scheme formally
adopted by the North American Commission of Stratigraphic Nomenclature North
American Commission on stratigraphic Nomenclature (NACSN), 1983) has been
incorporated in establishing a separate stratigraphy for the CTFB. Table 3 shows
such a tentative stratigraphic classification for the CTFB that recognizes four
Groups (more precisely allogroups) equivalent to the composite sequences.

3.4.3.1 CHITTAGONG GROUP
The group is speculated to exist in the subsurface and has not yet been reported
from the outcrop. The Group is thought to represent largescale submarine fan
complex as envisioned by Gani and Alam (1999) and to exist beneath the slope
apron deposits of the composite sequence C. The Group probably ranges in age
from the Eocene (?) or Oligocene to the Early Miocene and is equivalent to the
traditional Barail Group and the lower part of the Surma Group.
3.4.3.2 SITAPAHAR GROUP (COMPOSITE SEQUENCE C, EQUIVALENT TO THE
TRADITIONAL MIDDLE SURMA GROUP)
It is probably Middle Miocene in age and ranges in thickness from 1000 m to 1500
m. However, recent study based on Dinoflagellates (Uddin and Uddin, 2001)
indicates that the exposed sediments of the CTFB are probably not older than Late
Miocene/ Early Pliocene. The RangamatiChittagong road section of the Sitapahar
anticline could be the type section for this Group. In the type section it is
represented by the oldest 1128+ m of the rock succession (composite sequence C)
exposed in the eastern flank of the anticline (Gani and Alam, this volume). This
Group represents a progressive basin filling from deep marine slope apron to
shallow marine nearshore deposits, and would represent the period of closing of
the suture between the Bengal Basin and the subduction zone lying off the Burma
Block. No major erosion surface of sea level lowstand condition has been
encountered within this Group, in which a low sand/shale ratio indicates that the
basin was accommodation-dominated during this time. The Sitapahar Group may
41

be further divided into several alloformations depending on the bounding
discontinuities (mainly the marine flooding surfaces).
3.4.3.3 MIRINJA GROUP (COMPOSITE SEQUENCE B, EQUIVALENT TO THE TRADITIONAL
UPPER SURMA GROUP)
It is probably Late Miocene in age and ranges in thickness from 1200 to 1600 m.
The LamaFashiakhali road section of the Mirinja anticline could be the type
section for this Group. In the type section the Group is represented by the 1293 m
thick shelfal to coastal succession (composite sequence B) exposed in the western
flank of the anticline (Gani and Alam, this volume). The Group may conveniently
be divided into several alloformations corresponding to the individual sequences,
which in turn can be divided further into allomembers depending on the
transgressive erosion surface and transgressive surface/marine-flooding surface.
The high sand/shale ratio of this Group indicates that the basin was supply-
dominated during this period.
3.4.3.4 KAPTAI GROUP (COMPOSITE SEQUENCE A, EQUIVALENT TO THE TRADITIONAL
TIPAM GROUP AND DUPI TILA FORMATION)
It is probably Plio-Pleistocene in age and ranges in thickness form 1100 to 1600 m.
The stratigraphic succession in the western flank of the Sitapahar anticline along
the KaptaiChandraghona road section could tentatively serve as a type section for
this Group. The lower part of the Group represents braided stream coastal to fluvial
deposits, whereas the uppermost part represents deposits of meandering river
system. A 100200 m thick and rather patchy clay deposits (traditional Girujan
Clay) sometimes divides the Group into the above-mentioned traditional units.


42

CHAPTER 4
4. GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
4.1 Tectonic History
4.2 Depositional History
4.2.1 Unit C
4.2.1.1 Subunit C1
4.2.1.2 Subunit C2
4.2.1.2.1 Division C2a
4.2.1.2.2 Divisions C2b and C2c




43

4. 1 TECTONIC HISTORY
One of the serious misconceptions about the basin evolution has arisen from the
fact that the entire Bengal Basin has been indiscriminately designated as a foreland
basin. It is important to realize that the present-day Bengal Basin occupies at least
three different tectonic provinces
(i) Passive to extensional cratonic margin in the west,
(ii) Collision related orogeny in the northeast, and
(iii) subduction related orogeny in the east (CTFB region).
These tectonic provinces have given rise to much complexity in the evolution of
the Bengal Basin (for an overview, see Alam et al., 2003). Gani and Alam (1999)
have presented a somewhat refined tectonic evolution for the eastern Bengal Basin,
and suggested a subduction related (oblique subduction) active margin setting for
the CTFB, which is probably related more to the evolutionary history of the
western margin of the Burmese plate than to the eastern margin of the Indian plate.

FIGURE 15: SCHEMATIC PALEOGEOGRAPHIC (EARLY MIOCENE) REPRESENTATION OF THE BENGAL BASIN
AND SURROUNDINGS INCORPORATING THE PLATE TECTONIC (FROM GANI AND ALAM, 1999)

Since the present study deals with the Neogene rock succession of the CTFB, and
the sedimentation and tectonics are very much interrelated, it is important to
44

understand the early Neogene palaeogeography of this part of the basin. During the
very Early Miocene the paleogeographic setting of the CTFB included the
westward migrating trench-slope bathymetry, and the sediment source was largely
from the newly uplifted Indo-Burman subduction complex to the east. The
schematic palaeogeographic (Early Miocene) map of the Bengal Basin and its
surroundings indicates that the tectonic setting of the CTFB was different from
other parts of the basin. The remnant ocean basin had been closing from northeast
to southwest because of oblique subduction. As a result, the trench-slope
bathymetry of the subduction zone had also been smoothing out toward the south.
It is notable that the slope apron deposit at the lowest part of the studied rock
succession was developed on a late-stage trench-slope bathymetry (Gani and Alam,
1999), and that the deep-water embayment has been smoothed to shallow water
conditions probably sometime in the Late Miocene. The block diagram represents
the gross sedimentation pattern in the CTFB during the Early Miocene.

FIGURE 16: CONCEPTUAL EARLY MIOCENE PALEOGEOGRAPHIC MODEL SHOWING THE SEDIMENTATION
PATTERN (AT HIGHSTAND CONDITION) WITHIN THE ACTIVE MARGIN (GANI AND ALAM,1999)
The basic sequence model of Exxon was originally developed in a passive to
extensional plate margin setting, and should be used with caution in case of active
margin setting (e.g. Miall, 1997) similar to the CTFB overlying the zone of
convergence. In an active margin setting several distinct processes, of which
tectonic basin subsidence and source-area uplift are most important, lead to local
and regional changes in relative sea level and thereby control the architecture of
the basin fill (e.g. Fulford and Busby, 1993). Large differences in the thickness and
facies of the same sequence (within composite sequences C and B) in the two
anticlines that are aligned along the strike are believed to be due to these processes
45

within the active margin setting. The nature of sea-level change (e.g. either eustatic
or relative), which has given rise to several regional bounding discontinuities in the
studied rock succession, and also the chronological nature of these discontinuities
(i.e. either synchronous or diachronous) remain unsolved, and will require further
research. It is to be noted that the coupled regressive/transgressive cycles of
sequences B2, B3 and B4 in the Mirinja anticline are similar to the coupled uplift-
ollapse cycles over relatively short periods within the subduction zone described
by Flint et al. (1991).

4. 2 DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY
An overview of depositional environment of the investigated area is described
below
4.2.1 UNIT C
The overall sandshale ratio of this unit is 30:70. For the convenience of
discussion the unit is further divided into two subunits which are discussed below
in stratigraphic order.
4.2.1.1 SUBUNIT C1
At the base of this subunit there exists a 1.5-m-thick slump bed with isolated and
enclosed slump blocks (up to 1 m long) within a muddy matrix of distorted nature.
The lower part of this subunit is not organized and develops two Bouma sequences
of the types Tab and Tac. The upper part shows repetitive occurrence of eleven
medium-bedded Bouma Tabd sequences. Thickness of individual beds varies from
12 to 50 cm. The base of the Ta division (fine sand) is sharp to slightly erosional
with associated rip-up mud clasts and some micro-loading. Almost all the Td
divisions characteristically show convolution and micro-injection structures. The
uppermost two sand beds are amalgamated along an erosional surface. The beds of
this overall thickening-upward subunit C1 show onlap termination onto local basin
relief in the southwards direction. The subunit C1 shows no evidence of major
channeling and is interpreted here as a small-scale depositional lobe in which the
thickening-upward trend results from a compensation cycle (Mutti and Sorrino,
1981) due to the progressive smoothing of subtle depositional relief or the
progressive lateral shifting of the turbidity current axis. The same types of small-
scale (5 to 25 m thick) thickening-upward depositional sandstone lobes with onlap
46

termination within an active margin setting have also been described from the
geological record (Cazzola et al.,)
4.2.1.2 SUBUNIT C2
This subunit is further divided into three divisions: C2a, C2b and C2c.
4.2.1.2.1 DIVISION C2A
This division begins with an even larger (nearly 7 m thick) slump bed containing
dispersed slump blocks within mud. The lower part of this slump bed contains
large blocks (>1 m), some with preserved bedding characteristics, whereas the
upper part (Fig. 4b) is more muddy, enclosing a few small channelized sand bodies
(85 cm long, 20 cm thick) that nearly retain their original attitude. These
channelized sand bodies are filled with very fine to coarse sand with some mud
clasts and coal streaks, and both their lower and upper boundaries are concave with
abrupt thinning of channel margins. The top 2.5 m of division C2a is characterized
by the alternation of massive sandstone beds, with normal grading in the
lowermost sand bed, and wavylenticular fine sandmud beds. This upper part of
C2a (above the slump bed) begins with a distinct scoured base containing
numerous rip-up mud clasts. It contains three sand beds that show an overall
fining- and thinning-upward trend. Two alternative explanations can be offered for
the generation of these wavylenticular beds (mentioned above), which does not
accord with the divisions of the Bouma sequence. The origin of these beds can be
easily comprehended when the top part of division C2a is interpreted as a small
channel levee system. A similar small-scale (6 m thick) association of massive
sand beds and wavylenticular beds from the lower part of the Halifax Formation,
Nova Scotia, has been interpreted as a channellevee system (Stow et al., 1984).
The structural scheme of some parts of the wavylenticular (rarely flaser) beds is
thought to match with the fine-grained turbidite model of Stow and Shanmugam
(1980). Alternatively, some of the tractional characteristics of ripple cross-
lamination (coupled with? bi-directional cross-lamination observed in one
dislocated block) of the wavylenticular beds suggest similarities with the variant
model (bottom-current-reworked turbidite) suggested by Stanley (1987). It is to be
noted that the paleo-Bengal Basin was a deep-water embayment opening to the
south (see tectonic discussion). In this type of basin internal waves and tides
commonly play a major role in bottom-current reworking processes (e.g. McCave
et al., 1980).

47

4.2.1.2.2 DIVISIONS C2B AND C2C
These divisions are self-explanatory in the graphic log (Fig. 3). The random
association of Bouma sequences Ta, Tabc and Tc with debris-flow (mostly mud-
flow and rarely grain-flow types) deposits characterizes these divisions. Two small
channels (50 cm wide, 15 cm deep) with conglomeratic fill were encountered in
division C2b. The orientations of the channel walls are eastwest. Pebbly
mudstone beds in division C2c, formed by cohesive freezing, contain large (up to
40 cm) rolled-up sandstone clasts, and show considerable flowage of matrix mud.
Ta divisions in C2b and C2c are frequently load-casted with some dish structures
and vertical water escape pipes. The sand beds in division C2c pinch out laterally
after about 150 m in a northwards direction. Division C2b is characteristically
dominated by highly carbonaceous, massive, homogeneous, nonburrowed, and
grayish black mudstones of hemipelagic origin. This thick sequence of
hemipelagite indicates basin starvation, probably due to a short-term sea-level rise.
The turbidite beds within the divisions C2b and C2c are thought to be mainly of
unconfined sheet-flow origin. Two down-to-basin synsedimentary, high-angle
normal faults with sand intrusion along the fault planes appear to have affected
parts of divisions C2a and C2b.
48


FIGURE 17: DETAILS OF THE LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN OF THE EXPOSED NEOGENE CLASTIC
SUCCESSION WITH BOUNDING DISCONTINUITIES AND TENTATIVE REGIONAL CORRELATION. (A) THE
MIRINJA ANTICLINE AND (B) THE SITAPAHAR ANTICLINE(GANI AND ALAM,1999)

49

CHAPTER 5
5. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

50

Except the Chittagong hill tract concretions, the economic importance of the
respected area is not mentionable.

FIGURE 18: CONSTRUCTION STONE (CALCAREOUS CONCRETION)
Ferruginous and calcareous concretions, used as construction material, are
available in the investigated area. The boulders are used as raw material for river
bank protection. A large amount is exported to Chittagong port for construction
Sitapahar structure has an excellent possibility to be a hydrocarbon reservoir but
need a detail exploration. Hydrocarbon prospect of the area is yet to be assessed.

51

CHAPTER 6
6. CONCLUSION

52

The Neogene clastic succession (3000+ m thick) as exposed in the CTFB
represents an overall basinward progradation from deep marine through shallow
marine to continentalfluvial environments deposited within the subduction-related
(oblique subduction) active margin setting of the Indo-Burmese plate convergence.
A high-resolution sequence stratigraphic framework has been adopted to interpret
the basin-fill history in response to relative sea-level changes, and to subdivide the
rock record into several sequences and units (systems tracts and parasequences)
based on the identified bounding discontinuities, including transgressive erosion
surface (TES), regressive erosion surface (RES), transgressive surface (TS),
marine flooding surface (MFS), and incised valley floor (IVF).
The entire succession can be broadly divided into three composite sequencesC,
B and A, from oldest to youngest, on the basis of two regionally correlatable
pronounced lowstand erosion surfaces.
In composite sequence C, slope apron deep-sea clastics shoals upward into shallow
marine and near-M. Royhan Gani, M. Mustafa Alam / Sedimentary Geology 155
(2003) 227270 267 shore clastics through a thick zone of slope mudstone.
Composite sequence B characteristically depicts tide-dominated open-marine to
coastal depositional systems with repetitive occurrences of incised valley, tidal
inlet, tidal ridge/shoal, and tidal flat deposits that are separated by shelfal mudstone
under the control of cyclic fall and rise of relative sea level. At the final phase of
marine regression, composite sequence A gradually establishes coastal plain
through alluvial plain fluvial depositional systems characterized by stacked braided
river sand bars that pass upsequence into meandering river deposits.
The bounding discontinuities identified within the rock succession provide an
insight into the exploration and exploitation strategies for hydrocarbons both in
terms of location and geometry of stratigraphic traps, outlining seal architecture
and flow units.
A tentative stratigraphic scheme incorporating the concept of allostratigraphy is
followed.
53

REFERENCES
Alam, M.M., 1991. Paleoenvironmental study of the Barail succession
exposed in northeastern Sylhet, Bangladesh. Bangladesh J.Sci. Res. 9, 25
32.
Alam, M.M.,Gani,M.R.,2004. Fluvial facies architecture in small-scale river
systems in the Upper DupiTila Formation, northeast Bengal Basin,
Bangladesh. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 24 (2004) 225236
Alam, M., Alam, M.M., Curray, J.R., Chowdhury, M.L.R., Gani, M.R.,2003.
An overview of the sedimentary geology of the Bengal Basin in relation to
the regional tectonic framework and basin-ll history.Sedimentary Geology
155, 179208.
Boggs.S.,1995,Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy,Prentice
Hall,Inc,Englewood cliffs,New jersey,774p.
Billings,M.P.,1997,Structural geology,3rdedition,Prentice-Hall,India,606p.
Evans, P., 1932. Tertiary succession in Assam. Trans. Min. Geol.Inst. India
27, 155 260.
Folk,R.L.,1971,Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks,Hemphills Book
Store,Austin,Texas,170p.
Hiller, K., Elahi, M., 1988. Structural growth and hydrocarbon entrapment in
the Surma basin, Bangladesh. Circum Pacific Council for Energy and
Mineral Resources Earth Sci.Series, vol. 10, 657669.
Holtrop, J.F., Keizer, J., 1970. Some aspects of the stratigraphy and
correlation of the Surma Basin wells, East Pakistan. ECAFE Miner. Res.
Dev. Ser. 36, 143154.
Imam,B.,2005,Energy Resources of Bangladesh,University Grant
Commission of Bangladesh,Dhaka,280p.
Johnson, S.Y., Alam, A.M.N., 1991. Sedimentation and tectonics of the
Sylhet trough, Bangladesh. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 103,15131527.
Khan, M.R., Muminullah, M., 1980. Stratigraphy of Bangladesh.Petroleum
and Mineral Resources of Bangladesh. Seminar and Exhibition, Dhaka, pp.
35 40.
Khan, F.H., 1991. Geology of Bangladesh. The Univ. Press, 207 pp
Pettijohn,F.J.,1984,Sedimentary Rocks,1stIndian edition,CBS publishers and
distributors,New Delhi,India,628p.
54

Rahman,J.J.,Faupl,P.,2003. The composition of the subsurface Neogene
shales of the Surmagroup from the Sylhet Trough, Bengal Basin,
Bangladesh. Sedimentary Geology 155 (2003) 407417
Saha,S.K.,2008. A study on Microfossils from Eocene sediments of Sylhet
trough,North-eastern Bengal Basin, Bangladesh. Dhaka Univ.J.Sci.
56(2):231-236(2008) July

55

GEOLOGICAL MAP