1

CHAPTER I



INTRODUCTION



1.1 INTRODUCTION
Thermal cutting, i.e. gas cutting, is a wide-spread technology. In practical applications,
gases such as propane-bu- tane and acetylene prevail. Hydrogen is practically not used
due to its high production cost and its explosiveness. Oxy hydrogen welding is a gas
welding process using a combustion mixture of hydrogen and oxygen for producing a
gas welding flame. Oxy hydrogen welding is used for joining metals with low melting
points like aluminum, magnesium, etc.



Fig 1.1: Simple gas welding

Oxy-hydrogen is a mixture of hydrogen (H
2
) and oxygen (O
2
) gases. This gaseous
mixture is used for torches to process refractory materials and was the first gaseous
mixture used for welding. Theoretically, a ratio of 2:1 hydrogen: oxygen is enough to
achieve maximum efficiency; in practice a ratio 4:1 or 5:1 is needed to avoid an oxidizing
2

flame. Oxy-hydrogen will combust when brought to its auto ignition temperature. For
the stoichiometric mixture, 2:1 hydrogen: oxygen, at normal atmospheric pressure, auto
ignition occurs at about 570 C (1065 F).
[5]
The minimum energy required to ignite such
a mixture with a spark is about 20 micro joules. At standard temperature and pressure,
oxy-hydrogen can burn when it is between about 4% and 95% hydrogen by volume.


When ignited, the gas mixture converts to water vapor and releases energy, which
sustains the reaction: 241.8 kJ of energy (LHV) for every mole of H
2
burned. The amount
of heat energy released is independent of the mode of combustion, but the temperature of
the flame varies.
[6]
The maximum temperature of about 2,800 C (5,070 F) is achieved
with an exact stoichiometric mixture, about 700 C (1,292 F) hotter than a hydrogen
flame in air. When either of the gases are mixed in excess of this ratio, or when mixed
with an inert gas like nitrogen, the heat must spread throughout a greater quantity of
matter and the temperature will be lower.

1.2 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF COMBUSTION OF HYDROGEN AND
OXYGEN
Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless elementary gas. It is not poisonous. In
nature it is rarely found in its atomic form. With an atomic weight of 1,008, temperature
in hydrogen combustion in air attains 1700 C, and in oxygen 2400 C. When mixed with
air, hydrogen forms an explosive mixture (an explosive gas). Its ignition temperature is
560 C whereas its explosion range is from 4 to 75 vol. % at atmospheric pressure.

1.3 PRODUCTION
A pure stoichiometric mixture may be obtained by water electrolysis, which uses
an electric current to dissociate the water molecules:
Electrolysis: 2 H
2
O 2 H
2
+ O
2

Combustion: 2 H
2
+ O
2
2 H
2
O

3

1.4 OXY-HYDROGEN WELDING TORCH
An oxy-hydrogen torch is an oxy-gas torch, which burns hydrogen (the fuel) with oxygen
(the oxidizer). It is used for cutting and welding, metals, glass, and thermoplastics. Due to
competition from the acetylene-fueled cutting torch and from arc welding, the oxy-
hydrogen torch is seldom used today, but it remains the preferred cutting tool in some
niche applications. Oxy-hydrogen was once used in working platinum because at the time
such a torch was the only device that could attain the temperature required to melt the
metal 1,768.3 C (3,214.9 F).



Fig 1.2: Oxy hydrogen welding torch








4

CHAPTER II



ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER



2.1 INTRODUCTION
Electrolysis of water is the decomposition of water into oxygen and hydrogen gas due to
an electric current being passed through the water. An electrical power source is
connected to two electrodes, or two plates (typically made from some inert metal such
as platinum, stainless steel or iridium) which are placed in the water. Hydrogen will
appear at the cathode (the negatively charged electrode, where electrons enter the water),
and oxygen will appear at the anode (the positively charged electrode). Assuming
ideal faradaic efficiency, the amount of hydrogen generated is twice the number
of moles of oxygen, and both are proportional to the total electrical charge conducted by
the solution. However, in many cells competing side reactions dominate, resulting in
different products and less than ideal faradaic efficiency.


Electrolysis of pure water requires excess energy in the form of over potential to
overcome various activation barriers. Without the excess energy the electrolysis of
pure water occurs very slowly or not at all. This is in part due to the limited self-
ionization of water. Pure water has an electrical conductivity about one millionth that of
seawater. Many electrolytic cells may also lack the requisite electro catalysts. The
efficiency of electrolysis is increased through the addition of an electrolyte(such as a salt,
an acid or a base) and the use of electro catalysts.

2.2 EQUATIONS
In pure water at the negatively charged cathode, a reduction reaction takes place, with
electrons (e

) from the cathode being given to hydrogen cations to form hydrogen gas
(the half reaction balanced with acid):
5

Reduction at cathode: 2 H
+
(aq) + 2e

H
2
(g)
At the positively charged anode, an oxidation reaction occurs, generating oxygen gas and
giving electrons to the anode to complete the circuit:
Oxidation at anode: 2 H
2
O(l) O
2
(g) + 4 H
+
(aq) + 4e

The same half reactions can also be balanced with base as listed below. Not all half
reactions must be balanced with acid or base:
Cathode (reduction): 2 H
2
O(l) + 2e

H
2
(g) + 2 OH
-
(aq)
Anode (oxidation): 4 OH
-
(aq) O
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l) + 4 e

Combining either half reaction pair yields the same overall decomposition of water into
oxygen and hydrogen:
Overall reaction: 2 H
2
O(l) 2 H
2
(g) + O
2
(g)
The number of hydrogen molecules produced is thus twice the number of oxygen
molecules. The number of electrons pushed through the water is twice the number of
generated hydrogen molecules and four times the number of generated oxygen molecules.


Fig 2.1 Simple setup for electrolysis of water





6

CHAPTER III



HHO DRY CELL



3.1 INTRODUCTION
In electrolysis, people have tried different ways to increase the output of gas while
decreasing the input of current. Some designs are more effective than others. Some
people have tried to improve the conventional way, called wet system, consisting on
plates or tubes submerged in water, while others have tried a design called dry cell
where the water run through the plate.



Fig 3.1 HHO dry cell

Dry cell designs are cheaper. This design can vary in shape or size, making in it very easy
to install anywhere. The material used for the plates is stainless steel 316, and uses
regular rubber O-rings to separate them. At the same time the amount of current input
required to produce hydrogen is small. The wet system design consists in a more
7

complicated manufactured process. This design is more expensive since the parts and the
arrangement are more likely hard to produce. This system uses two different diameters of
tubes in order to accommodate one inside the other one with different polarities, positive
the inner and negative the outer. As a container, this kit uses a material capable to satisfy
some important parameters. Resist higher temperatures, since the electrolysis process
generates a significant amount of heat. The pressure built inside, sometimes up to 60 psi.
And very important, it has to be a dielectric material in order to avoid electrolysis
between the tubes and the inner wall of the container.

3.2 THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS
In order to quantitate the process of electrolysis, we have found some equations that
relate the current needed to obtain a certain volume for a gas. The process for this
calculation at room temperature and at 1 atm is:
Cathode (reduction): 2 H
2
O(l) + 2e

H
2
(g) + 2 OH
-
(aq)
Anode (oxidation): 4 OH
-
(aq) O
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l) + 4 e


Calculation of the number of moles of electrons that were transferred:
Amperes X time = Coulombs
96,485 coulombs = 1 Faraday (F)
1 Faraday = 1 mole of electrons
Example:
60(amps) * 3600(sec) = 216000(coulombs)
216000C * (


) = 2.239 F
2.239 F * (

) = 2.239 mole

Calculation of the moles of hydrogen and oxygen produced using the number of moles of
electrons calculated and the stoichiometries from the balanced half-reactions. According
8

to the equations, 2 moles of electrons produce 2 mole of

and 4 moles of electrons

produce 1 mole of

gas:
2.239 mole

= 2.239 mole

2.239 mole

= 0.560 mole

Calculation of the volume of each gas using ideal gas law (V=nRT/P).
Where, n: number of moles.
R: Boltzmann constant = 0.08206 (L atm/mol K)
T: temperature in kelvin.
Volume of Hydrogen and oxygen gas:

(

)(

)( )

) (

)( )

These calculations have shown that for a current of 60 amps during a period of 1 hour,
the electrolysis of water yields 54.75 liters of hydrogen gas and 13.69 liters of oxygen
gas.

3.3 MAJOR COMPONENETS
The main component in a Hydrogen-on-Demand system is the HHO or Hydroxy gas
generator. This device can be a simple one cell unit or have as many cells as needed to
produce the quantity of HHO gas desired. Electrolysis is the driving force for such
generator. it separates chemically bonded compounds by passing an electric current
through them. Another component used to produce HHO is an Electrolyte. Any substance
containing free ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium. Catalyst is the
correct term because of the function it performs to speed up the production of HHO gas.
9

Another important component for regulation is the Amp Meter, this is a tool used to
measure the amperage flowing through a wire or other conductive material. It is a very
important tool when adjusting your HHO generator or Hydrogen on demand system for
maximum output.


Fig 3.2: HHO dry cell generator
3.4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND SPACING
Pure water is an insulator. It will not conduct electricity; but pure water is rare. River
water, stream water, well water, and city water all contain minerals that conduct
electricity. The higher the mineral content the better the water will conduct (pass an
electric current).
10

So what does this have to do with cell spacing? Well consider the distance between your
plates. If water is an insulator, then the more water you have between two plates, the
higher the resistance will be between the plates. If you know anything about Ohms Law,
an increase in Resistance causes electron flow to be reduced. Electron flow is the
amperage your cell is drawing. The farther apart your plates are, the less amps your cell
will draw through the water. The closer the plates are, the more amperage your cell will
draw. Amperage plays a big part in HHO production. Without it, your cell will produce
nothing.


If we add Electrolytes to the water, we will make the water conduct better by decreasing
the Resistance between the plates. A decrease in resistance allows more current to flow;
thus increasing the possibility of producing more HHO. A cell that has wide spacing can
be made to produce just as much HHO as a cell with close spacing. The difference is
going to be the amount of electrolytes added to the water. The cell with wide spacing will
need larger amounts of electrolytes.


As for plate spacing, I use 1mm. That is about as close as possible and still get good
bubble flow. Closer spacing needs fewer electrolytes. It does not produce more gas or
less gas; per say. Gas production is caused by amperage. Since water does not conduct
electricity without adding electrolytes or minerals, we will have to add electrolyte or
minerals no matter what the spacing is. Close spacing makes our cells more compact.
Sometimes spacing comes about by what we have to use as an insulator to separate the
plates. Ours is gaskets for instance. Gaskets need to be strong and pliable enough to
endure the process of taking the cell apart and putting it back together.

11



Fig 3.3: HHO dry cell spacing


3.5 DRY CELL DIGITAL PROTOTYPING
The dry cell design and animation was done in 3D Modeling software - Autodesk
Inventor. The digital prototype made our job easier to plan our sequence of operations to
be carried out to reach our goal. Though this prototype we were able to identify the
materials to be procured for the construction of the dry cell clearly. The animation video
helped us to place the power plates and neutral plates at proper position with the required
spacing.


Fig 3.4: Isometric view of digital prototype of HHO dry cell
12



Fig 3.5: front view of digital prototype of HHO dry cell























13

CHAPTER IV



CONSTRUCTION OF HHO DRY CELL



4.1 MATERIAL REMOVAL OPERATIONS

4.1.1 Drilling
We have drilled 8 holes of 12 mm diameter on the corners and 16 mm diameter holes in
the upper and lower middle areas for each metal plate and Teflon sheet.



Fig 4.1: Drilling of metal sheets on radial drilling machine


4.1.2 Grinding
To remove the burrs after the drilling of metal plates for the provision of compact sealing
of dry cell, we did the grinding of metal plates.
14



Fig 4.2: Grinding of drilled metal sheets


4.1.3 Cutting of steel studs
Since the bolts of long lengths are not available so we took long mild steel studs of 10
mm diameter and we have cut them into required pieces using hack saw.


Fig 4.3: Cutting of mild steel studs for tightening of cell


4.2 FLASH BACK ARRESTORS
We have made this flashback arrestor using a copper rod of 12 mm internal diameter and
stainless steel wool, air mesh, 2 bronze nuts of 12 mm diameter. Firstly we inserted the
15

stainless steel wool into the copper rod. Then we did counter boring on the bronze nuts
and inserted the air mesh into it perfectly. Then with the help of brazing we joined the
copper rod and bronze nuts on its both sides and made the flash back arrestor.



Fig 4.4: Construction of flash back arrestor using copper rod






16




Fig 4.5: Construction of flash back arrestor using air stone with our project guide


4.3 WATER TANK AND BUBBLER



17

Fig 4.6: water tank and bubbler
4.4 HHO DRY CELL GENERATOR
This is the HHO dry cell generator after construction. The water tank is placed above the
dry cell for the easy flow of water into the cell from tank. The water is mixed with the
KOH pallet and is sent into the dry cell from water tank through pipeline. The plates of
the cell are given the positive and the negative polarities and connected to a battery
source of 24 volts via a pulse width modulator. The hydrogen and oxygen gases are
evolved and enter into the bubbler. From there the HHO gas enters into the welding torch
after getting passed through two flashback arrestors. The gas coming out fron the nozzle
is fired using a lighter and welding of plates is done using that flame.


Fig 4.7: Finished HHO dry cell generator setup