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Specific Learning Disabilities

Elizabeth Lee
Middle Georgia State College
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Description
Specific learning disabilities consist of many different aspects and are the category of
disability in which most students fall under. According to Sousa (2001), specific learning
disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in
understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect
ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations (p. 20). In
other words, a specific learning disability is a disorder in which an individual portrays difficulty
with processing, understanding, and using spoken and written language. This means that a
student with a specific learning disability can fall below average in one or two subjects, but can
be average or above average in other subjects. Socially and emotionally a specific learning
disability can affect an individuals understanding and interpreting of social interactions.
Characteristics
A specific learning disability can be considered a problem because of the way an
individual processes information, which they are sometimes hardly aware of. Children with
learning disabilities are not dumb or lazy. In fact, they usually have average or above average
intelligence. Their brains just process information differently (Winebrenner, 2011, p. 22).
Students with specific learning disabilities are said to often exhibit a wide variety of traits
ranging from cognitive difficulties, problems with motor skills, and social deficits. Not only are
the attributes different for every individual that has a specific learning disability but grade level
and gender also have an effect on it as well. There is no one sign for characteristics of a person
with specific learning disabilities, there are only certain clues that we can use to assist in our
understanding of the disability. The most prevalent sign of a learning disability is a distinct gap
between a person's level of anticipated achievement and their performance. The three main
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characteristics evident in students that have a specific learning disability are cognitive, academic,
and social/emotional.
Students with a learning disability usually display weakness in one or more areas of
cognition including; attention, perception, memory, and thinking/processing. Although attention
deficit hyperactivity disorders are fairly common among individuals with specific learning
disabilities it is important to note that not all individuals with specific learning disabilities have
ADHD.
Gargiulo (2012) research suggests: Teachers note that some pupils have difficulty staying
on task and completing assignments, following directions, or focusing their attention for a
sustained period of time they are easily distracted. In other instances, children are
perceived to be overly active and fidgety, racing from one activity to another as if driven.
(p. 210)
As Gargiulo mentions, students with learning disabilities may just have difficulty attending to
specific sources or tasks. Many students with disabilities also exhibit a perception difficulty. In
this instance perception does not pertain to whether a student sees or hears but rather his/her
brain interprets what is seen or heard and acts on it (Friend, 2006, p. 140). In addition to
problems with attention and perception some students with specific learning disabilities may
exhibit problems with memory. A student can have difficulties with short-term memory, long
term-memory, or both (Friend, 2006, p. 140). Some students with specific learning disabilities
also lack the ability to think about thinking, also known as meta-cognition.
Difficulties in academic performance characterizes individuals with specific learning
disabilities. A child with a specific learning disability can have difficulties in one or more
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content areas of school; it is common for most students to be average or above average in one or
two subjects and yet be below average in one or two other subjects. Over half of all students
identified as having specific learning disabilities display problems with reading (Gargiulo, 2012,
p. 206). Dyslexia is a common word choice when referring to difficulty reading. Common
reading problems of students with specific learning disabilities include insufficient reading
habits, errors in word recognition, and faulty comprehension. Another prevalent subject area that
students with learning disabilities struggle with is mathematics. One term frequently heard when
referring to mathematical difficulties is dyscalculia. Not all students display the same impairment
in mathematics, but some common difficulties include understanding decimals and fractions,
spatial relationships, writing numbers and copying shapes, and measuring. Two other subject
areas that students with learning disabilities exhibit deficits in are written language and spoken
language. Dysgraphia is a term frequently heard when discussing difficulties in writing. Gargiulo
found (2012), many individuals with learning disabilities exhibit deficits in written language,
including spelling, handwriting, and composition (p. 207). Persons with learning disabilities
also exhibit difficulties with oral expressions such as; problems with appropriate word choice,
understanding complex sentence structures, and responding to questions. All these difficulties
and factors can make individuals with learning disabilities struggle emotionally and socially.
Gargiulo states (2012), research suggests that some students with learning disabilities, in
comparison to their typical peers, have lower-self esteem and a poor self-concept, most likely
due to frustration with their learning difficulties (p. 210). For many, their repeated failure
despite their hard work results in a condition called learned helplessness. This poor self-
concept can lead an individual with specific learning disabilities to being outwardly directed,
which means events are beyond their control. Other social and emotional problems that
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individuals with specific learning disabilities portray are difficulty making friends and
misinterpreting the feelings and emotions of others. For instance, some individuals with specific
learning disabilities misinterpret situations due to the lack of skill in detecting subtle affective
indications. This can lead to problems in the classroom and with their peers. It is also important
to mention that individuals with specific learning disabilities do not portray any physical
characteristics that can be seen by the human eye. The only physical difference between an
individual without specific learning disabilities and one with specific learning disabilities is the
structure of the brain. Friend (2006) states, researchers have found the brains of individuals with
specific learning disabilities are symmetrical in the area known as occipital lobe, visual
processing center, whereas the brains of individuals without specific learning disabilities are
asymmetrical (p. 138). This visual processing center is important in the identification of letters,
which can be why students with dyslexia portray reading and spelling problems.
Signs and symptoms for individuals with specific learning disabilities vary. It is
important for teachers to realize that not all students portray the same sign or symptoms. The
most prevalent sign of a learning disability is a distinct gap between a person's level of
anticipated achievement and their performance. Some individuals will experience cognitive
difficulties, others may exhibit academic difficulties, others may have problems with motor
skills, and still others may exhibit social difficulties. This is why teachers should not assume that
students diagnosed with specific learning disabilities possess the same strengths and weaknesses.
There is no one best or correct way to teach individuals with specific learning disabilities, instead
it is suggested that teachers plan instruction according to each individuals need.

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Prevalence/ Incidence Rates
Specific learning disabilities account for a little less than half of all the individuals with
disabilities. Specific learning disabilities are more prevalent in males, vary by age, and are more
common among students living in poverty. Research by Cortiella and Horowitz (2014) supports
there are 2.4 million American public school students identified with learning disabilities under
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (p. 12). It is believed that learning disabilities
was the fastest growing category of special education between the years 1976 and 2000, but has
recently started to decline. Cortiella and Horowitz (2014) suggests the number of students
identified with a learning disability has declined by eighteen percent between 2002 and 2011,
while total special education has declined by just three percent (p. 12). The decline can be linked
to the changes made in the 2004 version of IDEA which mandates all states to create new criteria
for learning disability identification. Because of this new version states have came up with other
strategies to identify learning disabilities such as; the use of Response to Intervention otherwise
known as RTI. RTI is a research based instruction in the general education classroom that
provides struggling learners with interventions at different levels of intensity to speed up their
rate of learning, and is said to be solving the achievement gap in the most normal environment
for students that would be categorized as having a specific learning disability. One study
suggests that students with specific learning disabilities, ages six through twenty-one, in the state
of Georgia are spending more than eighty percent of their time in the least restrictive
environment known as the general education classroom (Panicali, 2013, p.4). Specific learning
disabilities are not only affected by the techniques a teacher presents to students, but with other
factors, specifically one being gender.
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Although the overall school enrollment indicates that gender is split evenly between
males and females, it is proven that males are more prevalent to be categorized as having special
learning disabilities. Research by Cortiella and Horowitz (2014) suggests two-thirds of students
identified with specific learning disabilities are males (p. 15). It is not surprising then that this
group is said to be disproportionately represented. The male students most common learning
disability is in the subject area of reading; which is what females most common learning
disability is as well. According to Brue and Wilmshurst (2010), most students with specific
learning disabilities will not be identified prior to the second or third grade because up to this
point, many children experience processing problems due to immaturity (p. 43); this is an
important factor in regards to signs or symptoms of specific learning disabilities. Another
population typically diagnosed with specific learning disabilities is students that live in poverty.
The incidence of reported specific learning disabilities is much higher among those living
in poverty compared to those who are said to live above the poverty line. Cortiella and Horowitz
(2014) suggest, this group, among all ages over 5, the rate is 2.6 percent versus 1.5 percent for
those living above the poverty line (p. 27). Living in poverty or being homeless brings up the
likelihood of poor health, insufficient resources for academic resources, and other poor outcomes
for adolescents that all factor into the learning process. It is said that students with specific
learning disabilities are also prevalent in minority groups. The two minority groups that specific
learning disabilities are most prevalent in are Hispanics and American Indians. However, after
some research it is believed that these two minority groups are overrepresented, while White and
Asian students are underrepresented. In a current study done on White students with specific
learning disabilities in Georgia, ages six through twenty-one, alone make up 41.6 percent of the
student population categorized to have a specific learning disability, while American Indians
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make up 50.4 percent and Hispanics make up 54.8 percent (Gargiulo, 2012, p.99). It is important
to note that this information is only for the state of Georgia.
While specific learning disabilities affect a little less than half the individuals categorized
with a disability, the percentage of students with specific learning disabilities receiving most of
their information in a general education classroom is a positive note. Even though there has been
a decline in the number of school-age children reported to have specific learning disabilities, it
still remains the main category of students that is served by special education resources by 42
percent. The prevalent gender continues to be largely male and is still said to be
disproportionately represented. Minority groups are still disproportionately represented by being
the most prevalent race/ethnicity categorized with specific learning disabilities. Students living in
poverty are still more apt to having specific learning disabilities as well as the likelihood of poor
health and insufficient ability to access academic resources outside of the school.
Potential Causes
Researchers have still not found the specific causes of specific learning disabilities. There
seems to be multiple possibilities that cause specific learning disabilities, just as there are many
different characteristics of specific learning disabilities. In fact, researchers believe that knowing
why an individual is categorized as having a specific learning disability does not mean that it
would help with instructional strategies (Gargiulo, 2012, p. 202). Specific learning disabilities
can be inherited, acquired through trauma, result from biochemical abnormalities, or result from
environmental factors.
One probing question for many years has been whether specific learning disabilities run
in families or can be inherited. Researchers believe that some learning disabilities are indeed
inherited but that others may be a cause from some other factor. Two academic subjects that
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researches believe to be inherited are reading and math disabilities. Gargiulo (2012) states that
heritability studies support the hypothesis that certain types of learning problems, including
reading and math disabilities, are more common among identical twins than fraternal twins (p.
203). This investigation supports the hypothesis that reading and math disabilities are inherited
because identical twins develop from the same egg with identical genetic characteristics. It is
important to note that this is still a hypothesis, and that other causes such as acquired trauma are
still being questioned as to being the cause of specific learning disabilities.
Acquired trauma, which is recognized as one of the causes of specific learning
disabilities, can occur before, during, or after birth. Prenatal causes could be the basis of the
mother smoking, doing illicit drugs, or using alcohol during the pregnancy. A perinatal cause,
which is during birth, include; prolonged and difficult delivery, anoxia, prematurity, or trauma
caused by medical instruments such as forceps. Postnatal causes could be linked to strokes,
concussions, meningitis, high fever, or any head injury resulting from falls or accidents. Gargiulo
(2012) states two out of ten children identified with a specific learning disability has had a prior
brain injury and eight out of ten children do not evidence brain damage (p. 202). This is evidence
that for some students a brain injury may be a valid assumption to why they have a learning
disability, but not for everyone.
For some children, it is said that biochemical conditions are the alleged cause of learning
disabilities. Feingold (1975, 1976) claimed that artificial colorings and flavorings in many of the
foods children eat can cause learning disabilities (Gargiulo, 2012, p. 204). After some research
that tested the special diet it was concluded that there was very little scientific evidence to
support Feingolds theory. It was also suggested that learning disabilities can be caused by the
inability of a childs bloodstream to synthesize a normal amount of vitamins (Gargiulo, 2012, p.
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204). After scientific research, this too failed to support the biochemical hypothesis. Today,
most professionals in learning disabilities give little credibility to biochemical abnormalities as a
considerable cause of childrens learning problems.
Environmental factors, mainly impoverished living conditions, can contribute to the
achievement deficits experienced by many children that are categorized as having a specific
learning disability. The tendency for learning disabilities to run in families suggests a parallel
between environmental influences on childrens early development and subsequent achievement
in school (Gargiulo, 2012, p. 204). Another environmental factor that is likely to contribute to
children who are categorized as having a learning disability is the quality of instruction they
receive. This cause is the most controversial, but when teachers do not consider the differences
in students cognitive level, and do not plan instruction based on students learning styles, they
can cause some students to display characteristics of learning disabilities (Friend, 2006, p. 138).
It is evident that just as the category specific learning disabilities is broad so are the
causes of the learning disabilities. Even after years of research there is still no conclusive cause
for specific learning disabilities just four categories for explaining specific learning disabilities:
acquired trauma, heredity influences, biochemical abnormalities, and environmental possibilities.
Acquired trauma and heredity influences have the most supportive research evidence.
Biochemical abnormalities, however, cannot support a hypothesis as being a cause of specific
learning disabilities due to the lack of failed treatments. As for environmental possibilities the
poverty factor still puts certain individuals at a greater risk of having learning disabilities, but the
portion that relies on the instruction of the teacher has improved, since IDEA prohibits students
who receive poor instruction from being identified as having specific learning disabilities.

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Assistive Technology
Specific learning disabilities cannot be cured or fixed, but with technology it can reduce
the stress that students with learning disabilities often feel. Gargiulo (2012) states, the
enactment of PL 105-17 and IDEA 2004, educators are now required to consider the
appropriateness of assistive technology as a tool or intervention for every student with an IEP
(p.231). This law holds teachers to be accountable for effective teaching, and enables students
with specific learning disabilities to be more independent learners. The use of technology can
assist with difficulties in reading, writing, math, organization, socialization, behavior and
memory. In 2014 teachers benefit from identifying resources for: Inspiration Concept Map, free-
form databases, optical character recognition, Write: Out Loud, and applications through the
google.com search engine.
Students with a specific learning disability that struggle with organization can use a
technology device known as Inspiration Concept Map to help be better organized. The
Inspiration Concept Map is accessible through multiple options found with the online
google.com search engine. This device can help assist students in creating webs or concept maps
that can help them see a visual organization of the information they are learning (Friend, 2006, p.
153). For students these maps or webs help organize the new information in a chronological
order that they themselves cant do within their minds. Memory is also an issue that assistive
technology can assist with especially in note taking. A software program known as free-form
databases enables a student to type and save notes into the computer, as well as retrieve
important information through typing in any prior information. Free-form data bases are
accessible through a google.com search that will pose multiple program options. These two
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assistive technologies address cognitive development an area where assistive technology is
needed.
Academic technology assistance for students diagnosed with specific learning disabilities
assist with making the learning process for each student more independent. For reading, one easy
and somewhat inexpensive source of technology that can assist with difficulties is a tape
recorder. The student with the disability can use their listening skills to learn the information
whether it be a book, newspaper, or an article. A more expensive source of technology for a
student with a reading disability is called an optical character recognition (OCR) system. An
OCR system is a tool that allows students to directly enter hard copy text into a computer, and
then it reads the text back out loud. Multiple options can be found with google.com search for
many different programs that support the OCR system. As for writing, there are many assistive
technology tools available. The most widely used assistive technology for writing difficulties is a
computer-based writing system called word processor. The program is easy to use when needing
to add or remove sentences, and also has a spell checker. Another helpful resource for students
who struggle in writing is called a Write: Out Loud. Friend (2006) states, as the student types, it
can say each letter, word, or sentence, thus providing constant feedback about what is being
written, and the program also has a talking spell checker (p. 153). Both of these tools allows for
a student with a writing disability to feel more independent, and also allows them to improve
their accuracy. Mathematics is another academic subject that some students with learning
disabilities exhibit difficulties in. Gargiulo (2012) states, researchers have found that the use of
hypermedia, interactive computer programs, enhances the mathematical problem-solving
abilities of students with learning disabilities (p.231). While this tool might work for some
students that display a learning disability in math, something just as simple as a calculator might
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help another student that exhibits a learning disability in mathematics. Choosing the right
assistive technology depends on the individual student and setting.
A social setting is another area that some students with specific learning disabilities
portray difficulties in. Applications are said to be the most useful source of technology to inform
students how to act in public places. Model Me Going Places 2 is a great visual app for
informing students what appropriate behavior is throughout the community. Another app that can
help students, specifically in middle school when socialization is a priority for development, in
understanding the challenges of making friends is Middle School Confidential 2. This app, which
is also available as a book, gives situations that can inform students who exhibit social
difficulties real world examples of what real friends act like and what fake friends act like.
While some students with learning disabilities have difficulties in social situations others have
difficulties with behavior. There is also an app that works well with teaching students how to
notice and control their behavior when getting angry. The app that is recommended for managing
emotions is called Angry Octopus. Many apps are available that can be effective for each
individuals need or situation.
Assistive technology allows for students to work around problems by focusing on their
strengths rather than their weaknesses. Common technology tools such as, calculators for
mathematics, and more high-tech tools such as, the OCR system that assists with reading
disabilities, are both great examples of assistive technology used in different instances based on a
students needs. The 21
st
century students and individuals are fortunate enough to have so many
different assistive technology resources available to help with individuals specific learning
disabilities. It is important to understand that not all technologies are appropriate for all students,
so it is vital to know students strengths and weaknesses and plan accordingly.
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Community Resources
Students with learning disabilities may exhibit problems in cognition, one or more
academic areas, social or emotional, and behavior. The broad field of specific learning
disabilities has access to many resources that inform parents, teachers, and other professionals on
the best strategies, trending theories, and other great information on this particular disability.
Resources can be found through the local, state, and national communities that provide
information on specific learning disabilities. These resources are important in finding tools that
will help in developing a better understanding of specific learning disabilities and how to
navigate life with the disability.
A local resource that is available to students with specific learning disabilities in Macon
is known as the Sylvan Learning Center. This center has helped more than millions of students
learn how to read, write, calculate, and organize information in order to reach the students
potential desired. Sylvan Learning Center is located at 3312 Northside Dr. Unite A 115, Macon,
GA 31210. They can be contacted at (478) 257 1001, and are open Monday through Thursday
from 9:00 A.M. to 7:30 P.M., Fridays from 9:00 A.M. to 12:00 P.M., Saturdays from 9:30 A.M.
to 2:30 P.M., and closed Sundays. Additional information can also be accessed at
http://tutoring.sylvanlearning.com/centers/31210/index.cfm .
Georgia Military College in Warner Robins, Georgia offers learning disability resources
and services for the students that are enrolled at that college in our local community. The
accommodations range from books on tape to having access to a reading machine. The learning
center at Georgia Military College also offers Learning Disability Specialists and peer tutors.
The learning support services are located at 801 Duke Avenue Warner Robins, GA 31093, and
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can be contacted at (478) 225 0183 via Dr. Brenda Davis. Additional information can also be
accessed through http://robins.gmc.cc.ga.us/page.php?page_id=1855 .
Another local resource available for students with learning disabilities in and around the
middle Georgia area is The Handle Institute. Sharron Dugan owns this local business located at
103 Governors Walk Kathleen, GA 31047. A practitioner will evaluate individuals ages three
and older believed to have learning disabilities in order to learn that person's functional patterns
and to design a program that fits to that individuals needs. This resource can be accessible
through http://www.handle.org/index.html or contacted at (478) 988 0583.
The state of Georgia offers a Parent Training Information Center located at 3070
Presidential Parkway, Suite 130, Atlanta, Georgia 30340. This center serves not only families
with an individual that has specific learning disabilities but families with an individual
containing a full range of disabilities. They help families learn what their rights and
responsibilities are through IDEA, and they work with them in helping them set up early
intervention, education, and transition services. The services provided at this center are free of
charge. Additional information can be accessed at http://p2pga.org .
The state of Georgia also offers Georgias Assistive Technology Act Program which
provides assistive technology devices to students in Georgia of all ages with disabilities. The
Assistive Technology is any piece of equipment that is used to amplify, preserve or advance the
functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities in all parts of life, including at school, at
work, at home and in the community. This office is located at 512 Means Street , Suite 250
Atlanta, GA 30318 and can be contacted via (404) 894 0541. Additional information can be
access at http://www.gatfl.org .
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A valuable resource for teachers to reach the needs of students with specific learning
disabilities through Georgia is the Teacher Resource Link. This link can be accessed via the
Georgia Department of Education at http://www.gadoe.org/Technology-
Services/SLDS/Pages/Teacher-Resource-Link.aspx . This link gives teachers access to content
and digital resources for students with specific learning disabilities that are aligned with
Common Core Georgia Performance Standards. This helpful resource also allows teacher to save
resources from year to year and school to school. Although this website is not built for students,
it directly affects the way in which they receive instructional information.
The National Center for Learning Disabilities is a website that can be accessed at
http://www.ncld.org . This website provides information on specific learning disabilities for
teachers, parents, and other professionals. This website provides additional services and ways for
parents to become involved in knowing and understanding their rights and laws pertaining to
disabilities. It also provides multiple resources about instructional strategies for teachers to
enable that students with specific learning disabilities are getting an appropriate education.
Another important national resource for students with specific learning disabilities is the
Learning Disability Association of America (LDA). The learning Disability Associate of
America resource can be accessed at http://ldaamerica.org . This resource provides supports for
parents, teachers, and other professionals through the most current information and solutions
pertaining to specific learning disabilities. This website offers access to experts and professionals
that can give information on what a specific learning disability is, and how to make life for the
individual with the specific learning disability as independent as possible.
Misunderstood Minds is a website that provides parents expert advice on specific
learning disabilities and explains the science behind it. Information on Misunderstood Minds can
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be accessed at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/misunderstoodminds . This website was designed with
parents in mind to provide them information on what the characteristics of specific learning
disabilities look like, a look at the difficulties associated with the disability, and strategies to help
manage the disability. This website also offers auditory options for blind and low-vision users.
From local resources, to state resources, to national resources parents and students with
specific learning disabilities do not have to take on the task of understanding the disability and
gathering the best strategies to deal with the disability alone. The resources listed above all
provide tools that will help in developing a better understanding of specific learning disabilities
and how to navigate life with the disability. It is important to note that the three resources listed
for local, state and national are just a few of the resources out there available for parents and
students. However, all the resources have one thing in common and that is to provide
information to parents and students that will help the individual with specific learning disabilities
know more about the disability, and be able to learn strategies that will help with everyday life
situations.
Accommodations/Modifications/Strategies
Students with specific learning disabilities can be taught in a range of settings. However,
federal law does outline that all students with a disability be in the least restrictive environment
based on the students needs. Friend (2006) states, approximately forty-eight percent of todays
students with specific learning disabilities are in general education settings (p. 152). This statistic
does not adequately portray the environment for students with specific learning disabilities in
need of services. Individual student accommodations, modifications, and learning strategies are
just a glimpse of the effective services that allow students with specific learning disabilities to
obtain an appropriate education.
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An accommodation provides access to a task in a different way that a person otherwise
wouldnt have, but does not alter the content. An IEP will have the accommodations necessary
for each individual student that has been identified to have a specific learning disability. Some
possible categories for accommodations on an IEP for students with specific learning disabilities
include; presentation, response, setting, timing, and test scheduling. Some examples of
accommodations presentation are; provide audio tape, provide material in large print, reduce the
number of items per page or line, provide a designated reader, and/or present instructions orally
(The National Center for Learning Disabilities [NCLD], 2014). The category for responsibility
on an IEP can cover anything from allowing a student to submit answers through a computer to
allowing that student to put his/her answers in the test booklet. An IEP will also have a setting
category that will be specific to each students needs in a sense that it may include having the
teacher provide a space with minimal distractions, or even require that a student be administered
a test in a private room or different test site. Test scheduling is an important aspect of
accommodations for some students because it can provide for specific ways a student needs to be
tested. Some test scheduling accommodations include that a test be administered in several timed
sessions over several days, allow subtests to be taken in a different order, and that a test can be
administered at a particular time of day (NCLD, 2014). A students IEP can contain
modifications as well as accommodations. All of these accommodations do not alter the
assignment presented, or the required expectations. Accommodations presents students with
specific learning disabilities an opportunity for success.
Modifications are a change in assignments or curriculum content that will allow a student
to demonstrate what he or she knows or can do (NCLD, 2014). In other words, it lowers the
performance expectations based on the students individual capabilities. Some assignment
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modifications may allow a student to complete fewer or different homework problems than
peers, while another modification could be to allow a student to complete an alternative project
or assignment to better test or demonstrate their knowledge. As for curriculum modifications,
some may allow a student to learn different material than what is being taught to the other
students, and other modifications could allow for a student to be excluded from particular
projects. It is important to note that just because students need modifications does not mean that
they should be removed from the general education class. Another way to assist students with
specific learning disabilities could be through other strategies.
There is no single best or correct strategy to use when teaching individuals with specific
learning disabilities. Researchers have found that some successful strategies in teaching students
with learning disabilities are direct instruction and the learning strategy approach. Gargiulo
(2012) states, Direct Instruction focuses on the characteristics or components of the task or
concept to be learned (p. 219). In other words, Direct Instruction is teacher guided, incorporates
clear instructions of new material in small segments, and gives immediate positive and corrective
feedback to students on their work. As for helping students become more actively engaged and
involved in their own learning, the learning strategies approach is said to be affective. According
to Gargiulo (2012), learning strategies focus on teaching students how to learn by meaningfully
involving them in the instructional process (p. 220). This strategy allows for students with
specific learning disabilities to learn techniques in facilitating and retrieving information. The
main goal for both of these models is to engage the student with a learning disability in active
involvement in the instructional and learning process, which creates more independent learners.
Determining what services a student with specific learning disabilities should receive is
based upon the needs of each individual student. No one accommodation, modification, or
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strategy can meet the vast and complex needs of all individuals with learning disabilities.
Gargiulo (2012) recommends that teachers have an array of accommodations, modifications, and
strategies at their disposal (p.221). The main goal is to help students with learning disabilities
become as independent as possible whether it is through their learning process or other life skills.












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References
Brue, A. and Wilmshurst, L. (2010). Specifics About Specific Disabilities. The complete guide
to special education (2
nd
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Cortiella, Candace and Horowitz, Sheldon H. The State of Learning Disabilities: Facts, Trends
and Emerging Issues. New York: National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2014.
Retrieved from
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FINAL%20FOR%20RELEASE.pdf
Electric Eggplant. (2013). Middle School Confidential 2 (Version 1.3.1) [Mobile Application
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