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DT580 MSc E-Learning

Learning Theories Paper



Submitted by Ewa Kilar Magdziarz



Student number: D13123577




Date: October 29th 2013







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An Application of Social Constructivism in Improving Language Skills for
Intermediate Students of English.

INTRODCTION
The main purpose of this paper is to analyse the existing approaches to teaching English as a
foreign language and apply social constructivism to language classes. Since for the last few
years I have been teaching students of different nationalities and I would like to focus on
Intermediate students, who tend to be the most problematic. The main issue they have with
acquiring a language is progressing to a higher level of language proficiency. In my classes I
have used a combination of all teaching techniques, mainly drilling and repetition, i.e. more
Behavioural approach, but would like to change into social constructivism or connectivism.
The paper will also analyse different levels of proficiency in languages, analyse learning
theories, communicative approach to learning English and provide suggestions for the
application of Vygotskian concepts.
Profile of my students
The students who study English in Ireland come from different countries, from almost all
continents, and different walks of life. They bring with them their cultural differences and
personal learning experience. The main goal all of them want to achieve is to be able to
communicate in the target language and assimilate with Irish society. Upon coming to
Ireland, they are faced with the Immigration Office regulating their stay, which cannot be
longer than three years to study English. Therefore, international students have limited time
to learn the language, sometimes so different from their mother tongue.
APPLICATIONS OF THEORIES TO PRACTICE
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFRL) gives an overview of
all the levels. The document was published by the Council of Europe and aimed at drafting a
unified guide for assessment, competences, and syllabi in European Union. "It describes in a
comprehensive way what language learners have to learn to do in order to use a language for
communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act
effectively." (Council of Europe, 2011 p.1) It is a great help for both learners and teachers,
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educators as it sets general standards for education. As shown in Figure 1, there are three
main broad levels, each subdivided into two. Each level can be characterised by certain
competences and what the learner can do.

Figure 1. Division into levels based on CEFRL (Council of Europe, 2011)

At each level of language proficiency we focus on two main skills: productive (speaking and
writing) and receptive (reading and listening) as well as competences. The competences can
be divided into: grammatical, lexical, semantic, phonological, orthographic and orthopaedic.
"For the realisation of communicative intentions, users/learners bring to bear their general
capacities with a more specifically language-related communicative competence." (Council
of Europe, 2011, p. 108). These competences include linguistic, pragmatic and sociolinguistic
competences. For both skills and competences can-do statements are used when referring to
learners. In this paper we will focus on language skills rather than competences.
As characterised in Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, Intermediate
students can talk about abstract and more complex topics, interact with native speakers and
produce coherent speeches, pieces of writing on different matters. (Council of Europe. 2011)
Although students can communicate at this level of proficiency, it seems to be the most
difficult, as the motivation of learners declines. They need more than traditional drilling to
advance.

A
Basic User
A1
Breakthrough/
Beginner
A2
Waystage/
Elementary
B
Independent User
B1
Threshold/ Pre-
Intermediate
B2
Vantage /
Intermediate
C
Proficient User
C1
Effective Operational
Proficiency / Upper -
Intermediate
C2
Matsery/ Advanced
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Language as a Medium of Communication

There have been different theories applied to the way we learn our mother tongue.
Behaviourism claims that we learn the language through psychological operant
reinforcement. According to Skinner, our everyday actions, including speech are a result of
positive reinforcement (Bigge and Shermis, 2004) received in childhood. If a baby wants
food, it starts crying at an early stage, then turning to words. Adults learn in a different way
than a child but still the same stimulus-response-reinforcement mechanism might be applied
to learning a language. (Harmer, 2004) A different approach to learning a language was
advocated by Chomsky, who looked at the syntax of a language and claimed that children
when acquiring a language have "open parameters that denote the key differences between
languages." (Coleman and Klapper, 2005, p. 35) He criticised behaviourism and believed that
each of us is born with "some kind of language processor - black box." ( Harmer, 2004, p. 69)
Even though, both theories have been used in teaching a second language they did not focus
on the cultural aspects of learning a language. Vygotsky, the pioneer of social constructivism,
linked language acquisition and its social importance, drafting the sociocultural theory. He
believed that "thought and speech turn out to be the key to nature of human consciousness"
(Vygotsky, 2002, p.256) and the only way to learn a new language is through cultural
interaction. He coined the terms: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO), and scaffolding. This paper looks at the application of his
concepts to teaching a second language.
Apart from Vygotsky, one of the most prominent theorists of Social Constructivism was
Bandura (Jordan,A. ,Carlile, O. & Stack, A. 2008). He focused on cognitive imitation and
concluded that observation and imitation is the key element in learning.

Social Constructivism vs. Communicative Method of Teaching Languages

Throughout years many different approaches and methods of teaching languages have been
introduced. One of them is The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). The underlying
principle of the approach is the common aim for the learners. Once that aim is set the learners
strive to achieve it through communication. Even though, the approach is based mainly on
progressivism it has a lot in common in social constructivism. Students are activated my
many methods and techniques in the classroom such as role plays, interactions and language
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games. They mainly use the information gap between them to talk and use the language
freely. As the approach made educators switch from Grammar Translation Method, focusing
on grammar as the main part of the language, to more deductive ways of exploring grammar.
The approach focused on four main skills and social interaction. It is commonly used by
many teachers and educators but still some students find it difficult to progress to a higher
level. Should we then move to Social Constructivism?

Vygotsky and His Theory

One of the terms associated with Vygotsky is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). It
originally referred to children and their ability to reach a higher level in solving problems.
The only way a child would be able to do it is with someone's assistance. It also focused on
mental age of a child and its actual age. ( Vygotsky, 2002) and drafted the differences
between them.
Figure 2 Zone of Proximal Development.

As figure 2 illustrates, the concept focuses on what a student knows, can achieve with
assistance and what he/she does not know but can aim at. In educational context, it can serve
as an intellectual space (Jordan,A. ,Carlile, O. & Stack, A. 2008) for the interaction between a
student and an educator. As Lantolf and Thorne suggest there have been various
interpretations of the Zone of Proximal Development ( Lantolf and Thorne, 2006). It is
closely related to learning with assistance of a teacher, parent, another student or just a book,
dictionary. Vygotsky referred to that concept as using the More Knowledgeable Other. This
term is interrelated with Social Scaffolding which suggests that "learners can scaffold one
another, or 'mutually construct' assistance in much the same way experts scaffold the
performance of novices."(Lantolf and Thorne, 2005. p. 282).
What a student can learn independetly
What a student can learn with the assiatnce - ZPD
What the student does not know yet
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Once a learner is confident enough, the scaffolding can be withdrawn and an individual can
perform without any help. The goal of scaffolding activities can be only achieved through
collaboration. In learning a language cultural collaboration should bring the best outcomes.
Students from different backgrounds can share and improve their skills.

ZPD in Teaching Intermediate Students of English
Zone of Proximal Development focuses on what a learner can achieve with someone's help
and it blends perfectly with the overall division into proficiency levels proposed by CEFRL.
Most commonly students' level of proficiency is measured by a placement test organised by
every institution dealing with languages. Once speaking, listening, reading, writing and
grammar is checked a student is placed in an appropriate group and can set goals for learning.
Receptive skills Productive skills
Listening Reading Speaking Writing
Pre- teaching vocabulary/grammar Role Play Layout of a written
text/ Examples of
texts
Table 1. Examples of activities based on ZPD for Intermediate students of English
As shown in Table 1, for both listening and reading, receptive skills, pre teaching vocabulary
and grammar can help the students to reach the higher level. At this level, they know
grammatical structures, but very simple, so teaching more sophisticated structures in a
context, would help them to manage more complex texts in the future. "Assistance should be
graduated - with no more help provided than necessary" (Lantolf and Thorne, 2006, p.277)
For productive skills, what is suggested is providing students with a model answer, they have
to follow. Role plays, are very often used to practice speaking as well as functional language.
First, students can be provided with a dialogue they need to practice in pairs, with teacher's
assistance, then produce their own piece independently. Providing examples would also help
students in their writing, where once they see a text, analyse it, can finally write a similar one.
Assisted Learning and Scaffolding
Even though, interaction and its role is crucial in leaning a language. (Coleman and Klapper,
2005). It can take different forms. Students can interact with a teacher or an aid e.g.
dictionary. In this constructivist context, the task-based interactions represent collaborative
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learning through social interaction." (Coleman and Klapper, 2005. p.42) As suggested in
Table 2, a glossary of terms can severe as an assistance and can be used with receptive skills.
In this way students build more confidence when reading or listening to a text. They learn
lexical items which might be problematic. Listening can be also aided with tape scripts that
can be read while listening, whereas a reading text can be cut into smaller chunks helping
students to practice before going to more elaborate pieces. For productive skills, dictionary
work is a great way to help in acquiring a higher level. Students can refer to it when needed,
and progress easily.
Receptive skills Productive skills
Listening Reading Speaking Writing
Providing a tapes
scrip for students and
glossary of terms
Using small chunks
of a text to read and
provide students
Glossary of terms
Using information
gap between students
Gapped text with
model answers /
dictionary work
Table 2. Examples of activities based on Assisted Learning and Scaffolding for Intermediate
students of English

Social Collaboration
As sociocultural theory is based on social interaction, it can be implemented in teaching
Intermediate learners of English. Using different cognitive experiences in their lives, students
can use their information gap and perform great in all skills. Vygotskian theory imposes that
all social relationships can be infused by culture and culture can be conflated with language.
(Lantolf and Thorne, 2005) For receptive skills, students can be asked to listen/read for
specific information and then share with others ( Table 3). Speaking can take any forms such
as pair, group or even class discussion. Highly beneficial for Intermediate students can be
collaborate writing, as then they can produce a piece together, they learn from each other and
even correct their own mistakes.
Receptive skills Productive skills
Listening Reading Speaking Writing
Collaborative Reading and Open class Writing a text
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listening for specific
information
processing
information
discussions together
Table 3. Examples of activities based on Social collaboration for Intermediate students of
English.
CONCLUSIONS
As shown, Vygoskian theory can be applied to teaching English at Intermediate level. What
is more, Coleman and Klapper mention that the theory proposed by Vygotsky "concerns both
classroom and online learning "(Coleman and Klapper, 2005) and can be taken further in the
future. All concepts mentioned before, i.e. ZPD, Assisted Learning and Scaffolding can be
moved into a virtual reality as "the digital age holds many exciting opportunities for learning/
teaching languages, with many developments yet not envisaged." (Starkey, L. 2012) All four
language skills can be practiced through different Web 2.0 tools e.g. podcasts, microblogging
websites, wikis and cartoon making tools. Examples of online exercises can be found in
Appendix A.












REFERENCES

Bigge, L.M & Shermis, S.S. (2004). Learning Theories for Teachers (6th ed.). New York,
USA: Person Education, Inc.
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Carlile, O & Jordan A. (2005) It Works in Practice but will it Work in Theory? The
Theoretical Underpinnings of Pedagogy, AIshe Readings.Retrieved October 9, 2013,
from http://www.aishe.org/readings/2005-1/carlile-jordan-
IT_WORKS_IN_PRACTICE_BUT_WILL_IT_WORK_IN_THEORY.html
Col eman, J.A & Klapper, J. (Eds.). Effective Learning and Teaching in Modern
Languages. New York: Routledge.
Council of Europe. (2011) The Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Harmer, J. ( 2007) How to Teach English. Harlow, England: Pearson Education Ltd.
Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Harlow, England :
Pearson Education Ltd.
Jordan,A. ,Carlile, O. & Stack, A. (2008). Approaches to Learning: A Guide for Teacher.
Berkshire: OUP & McGraw Hill Education
Lantrof, J.P., Thorne, S.T ( 2006). Sociocultural Theory and the Genesis of Second
Language Development. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Mahmud, A. (2013). Constructivism And Reflectivism As The Logical Counterparts In
Tesol: Learning Theory Versus Teaching Methodology. Teflin Journal: A Publication
On The Teaching And Learning Of English, 24(2). Retrieved October 23, 2013, from
http://journal.teflin.org/index.php/teflin/article/view/327/267
Moll, L.C. (2013). L.S. Vygotsky and Education. New York, USA: Routledge.
Richards, J.C. ( 2006). Communicative Language Teaching Today. New York, USA:
Cambridge University Press.
Starkey, L. (2012). Teaching and Learning in the Digital Age. New York, USA:
Routledge.
Vygotsky, L.S. (2002). Thought and Language (13th ed.). Massachusetts, USA:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.



Appendix A
EXAMPLES OF ONLINE EXERCISES FOR INTERMEDIATE STUDENTS OF
ENGLISH ( IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM) BROKEN INTO
SKILLS.
I. Receptive Skills
A. Listening - listening to real life conversations, speeches
Procedure:
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Introduce the subject by pre- teaching vocabulary related to it
Guiding students to http://www.betteratenglish.com/ and choosing the
adequate listening
Practise listening
Pair work/ group work related to the topic
Rationale: Using ZPD, Assisted Learning and learning a language in a cultural
context, using authentic materials

B. Reading - Reading real life texts, which are accompanied by pictures so more
motivating.
Procedure:
Students are pre- taught vocabulary items, use dictionaries online
Students exchange their views on the topic in pairs
Teacher provides students with a link to a website
http://news.yahoo.com/odd and ask the students to read the text
SS might work on the general understanding of a gist or look for specific
information
Rationale: Using ZPD, Assisted Learning and learning a language in a cultural
context


II. Productive Skills
A. Speaking - producing conversations, speeches, presentations, using functional
language for making cartoons
Procedure:
Students exchange information on a topic and compare their opinions in
pairs
Students brainstorm for expressions used in different social situations
Students go to http://goanimate.com and create a short dialogue in
collaboration in small groups or pairs
Students present to the classroom and ask for feedback
Rationale: collaboration between students, self- reflection, cultural gap
B. Writing - producing collaborative pieces of writing, using language freely in a
global context, giving instructions in English
Procedure:
Students focus on instructional language
Students go online http://www.wikihow.com and write an instruction of
their choice.
Students share and comment on their instructions
Rationale: Collaborative writing, exchanging views, using MKO and social
collaboration