Note TSL 1054t

1
RANCANGAN PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN SEMESTER

KURIKULUM
SEMESTER DUA TAHUN 2013

Jabatan/Unit : Bahasa / Unit Bahasa Inggeris
Kursus : Language Development II (Pembangunan Bahasa II)
Kod Kursus : TSL1054
Kredit : 4(4+0)

Minggu/
Tarikh
Topik/Tajuk
Jam
Interaksi
(Seminggu)
Catatan
M1

1. Developing lexical resource
1.1. Lexical resource in context
Vocabulary development
4
M2

Diction authors word choice
Connotation and denotation

4

M3

2. Reading and reviewing critically
2.1. Types of texts
Problem, Process and Solution

4

M4

2.1. Types of texts
Cause and Effect
Compare and Contrast

4

M5

3. Analysing features of different texts
3.1. Types of texts
4
M6

3.1. Types of texts
Cause and Effect
4
M7

4. Writing summaries
4.1 Steps to writing a summary
Writing a thesis statement
Organising and outlining ideas
Paraphrasing the ideas
Revising the summary
4
M8

4

M9

5. Report Writing
5.1. The Report Style
Purpose and audience
Features of a good report
5.2. Guidelines
title
abstract
introduction
subject, purpose,scope and organisation
4
2

style and length
format
organisation of report
citation of references
style and content
writers checklist

5.3. Stages in Report Writing
Gathering the Data
Analysing and Sorting the Results
Outlining the Report

M10

5. Report Writing
Writing the Draft
Revising the Draft
4

M11

6. Writing an academic paper
6.1. Academic paper
Examine the characteristics of a good academic
paper
- Synthesise
- Evaluate
4

M12

6.1. Academic paper
Writing an academic paper
- Select a topic
- Background reading
- Draft the academic paper
4

M13
6.1 Academic paper
- Revise the paper
- Write the final draft

4

M14
7. Oral Presentation of the academic paper
7.1. Oral Presentation
Present the academic paper
Reflect on the paper presented

4

M15

4

3

Vocabulary development
Diction authors word choice
Connotation and denotation
2.1. Types of texts
2.1. Types of texts
Cause and Effect
3.1. Types of texts
3.1. Types of texts
Cause and Effect
5. Report Writing
5.1. The Report Style
Purpose and audience
Features of a good report
5.2. Guidelines
title
abstract
introduction
subject, purpose,scope and organisation
style and length
format
organisation of report
citation of references
style and content
writers checklist

Gathering the Data
Analysing and Sorting the Results
4

5. Report Writing
Writing the Draft
Revising the Draft
6.1. Academic paper
Examine the characteristics of a good academic paper
- Synthesise
- Evaluate
6.1. Academic paper
Writing an academic paper
- Select a topic
- Background reading
- Draft the academic paper
6.1 Academic paper
- Revise the paper
- Write the final draft



5

The Effects of Living in a Foreign Country
Living away from your country can be a really interesting and unforgettable experience, but at
the same time it has very important effects on one's life. The purpose of this essay is to discuss
the three main effects that living in another country can produce in your personal life.
The major effect, and also a very common one, is that once you start a regular life away from
home, you miss everything. This fact doesn't mean that you are unhappy but that you are aware
of being on your own. Missing your family and the attention they all paid to you is a very usual
thing to do. Little details like sitting on a Sunday morning watching TV alone instead of helping
your dad organizing his things or having a nice chat with your mom makes you realize how
valuable your family really is. It is also completely acceptable to miss all the facilities you used
to have back at home, like your house, your car, your bed, and your bathroom. It's obvious then
that you have started to appreciate everything you had back where you belong.
The second main effect would be learning how to accept another type of society and culture into
your daily life. Since you are living in a place with different customs and traditions from yours,
you have to be able to develop yourself in unknown conditions. This means making new friends,
learning other points of view, accepting different opinions and values, and seizing every
opportunity you have to go to new places. Therefore, you'll be able to achieve true knowledge.
Suggesting to change your mind totally or to be square minded would be foolish; the best thing
to do would be to stick to your most important values and, according to them, change those that
you believe could be improved.
The most significant effect of living away from home is the independent behavior that grows
inside of you. Living on your own far from your family gives you a lot of experiences toward
organizing your life. Since it is up to you and no one else to go to school, clean your room, wash
your clothes, and organize your expenses, it is predictable that you will have a good and strong
meaning of responsibility. Being independent and responsible will help you get through life
every goal you want to achieve.
Living far from home, even for a short period of time, can be really hard at the beginning. We
have to remember that all changes are difficult, but they are necessary to go through them to
build character. Most important of all, it helps us appreciate everything we have. Not realizing
how lucky we are can be a really bad mistake because things don't last forever and we have to
make the best out of them.
http://eslbee.com/effects_of_living_in_a_foreign_country.htm

6

A collocation is a combination of words that are commonly used together; the simplest way of
describing collocations is to say that they just sound right to native English speakers. Other
combinations that may mean the same thing would seem unnatural. Collocations include noun
phrases likestiff windandweapons of mass destruction, phrasal verbs such asto get
togetherand other stock phrases such asthe rich and famous
It is important to learn collocations, because they are important for the naturalisation of ones
speech. Besides, they broaden ones scope for expression.
Here is a list of collocations to help you get started:
Collocations starting with the verb do
Do me a favour
Do the cooking
Do the housework
Do the shopping
Do the washing up
Do your best
Do your hair
Collocations with the verb have
Have a good time
Have a bath
Have a drink
Have a haircut
Have a holiday
Have a problem
Have a relationship
Have lunch
Have sympathy
Collocations with the verb break
Break the law
7

Break a leg
Break a promise
Break a record
Break someone's heart
Break the ice
Break the news to someone
Break the rules
Collocations with the verb take
Take a break
Take a chance
Take a look
Take a rest
Take a seat
Take a taxi
Take an exam
Take notes
Take someone's place
Collocations with the verb make
Make a difference
Make a mess
Make a mistake
Make a noise
Make an effort
Make money
Make progress
Make room
Make trouble
Collocations with the verb catch
Catch the bus
Catch a ball
Catch a cold
Catch a thief
Catch fire
Catch sight of
Catch someone's attention
Catch someone's eye
Catch the flu
8

Collocations with the verb pay
Pay respect
Pay a fine
Pay attention
Pay by credit card
Pay cash
Pay interest
Pay someone a visit
Pay the bill
Pay the price
Collocations with the verb keep
Keep the change
Keep a promise
Keep a secret
Keep an appointment
Keep calm
Keep in touch
Keep quiet
Keep someone's place
Collocations with the verb save
Save yourself the trouble
Save electricity
Save energy
Save money
Save someone a seat
Save someone's life
Save something to a disk
Save time
Collocations with the verb go
Go bald
Go abroad
Go astray
Go bad
Go bankrupt
Go blind
9

Go crazy
Go fishing
Go mad
Go missing
Go online
Go out of business
Go overseas
Go quiet
Go sailing
Go to war
Collocations with the verb come
Come under attack
Come close
Come direct
Come early
Come first
Come into view
Come last
Come late
Come on time
Come prepared
Come right back
Come to a decision
Come to an agreement
Come to an end
Come to a standstill
Come to terms with
Come to a total of
Collocations with the verb get
Get the sack
Get a life
Get a job
Get a shock
Get angry
Get divorced
Get drunk
Get frightened
Get home
10

Get lost
Get married
Get permission
Get ready
Get started
Get the impression
Get upset
Get wet
Get worried
Collocations related to time
Bang on time
Dead on time
Free time
From dawn till dusk
Great deal of time
Early/late 15th century
Make time for
Next few days
Past few weeks
Right on time
Run out of time
Time goes by
Time passes
Waste time
Collocations related to business English
Annual turnover
Keep in mind
Break off negotiations
Close a deal
Close a meeting
Come to the point
Dismiss an offer
Draw a conclusion
Draw your attention to
Launch a new product
Go bankrupt
Go into partnership
Make a profit/loss

11

dic tion
noun \dik-shn\
: the clearness of a person's speech
: the way in which words are used in speech or writing
Full Definition of DI CTI ON
1
obsolete : verbal description
2
: choice of words especially with regard to correctness, clearness, or effectiveness
3
a : vocal expression : enunciation
b : pronunciation and enunciation of words in singing
dic tion al adjective
dic tion al ly adverb
See diction
defined for English-language learners
See diction defined for kids
Examples of DI CTI ON
1. The actor's diction was so poor I could hardly understand what he was saying.
2. The student's essay was full of careless diction.
3. He has wisely chosen to render almost all the material in what novelists and writers of
creative nonfiction like to call close third person, approximating the diction and
consciousness of his characters but retaining the freedom to wander into the bigger
picture. Thomas Mallon, New York Times Book Review, 22 Feb. 2009
4. [+]more

12

Origin of DI CTI ON
Latin diction-, dictio speaking, style, from dicere to say; akin to Old English ton to accuse,
Latin dicare to proclaim, dedicate, Greek deiknynai to show, dik judgment, right
First Known Use: 1581
Related to DI CTI ON
Synonyms
articulation, enunciation
Related Words
elocution, expression, utterance; speech, wording
more
Rhymes with DI CTI ON
fiction, friction, stiction
Learn More About DI CTI ON
Thesaurus: All synonyms and antonyms for "diction"
Spanish Central Translation: "diction" in Spanish
Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about "diction"
Browse
Next Word in the Dictionary: dictionary
Previous Word in the Dictionary: dictiest
All Words Near: diction
Seen & Heard
What made you want to look up diction? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the
quote, if possible).
View Seen & Heard highlights from around the site

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13

Diction (/dk()n/; Latin: dictionem (nom. dictio), "a saying, expression, word"
[1]
) in its
original, primary meaning, refers to the writer's or the speaker's distinctive vocabulary choices
and style of expression in a poem or story.
[2][3]
A secondary, common meaning of "diction"
means the distinctiveness of speech,
[3][4][5]
the art of speaking so that each word is clearly heard
and understood to its fullest complexity and extremity, and concerns pronunciation and tone,
rather than word choice and style. This secondary sense is more precisely and commonly
expressed with the term enunciation, or with its synonym articulation.
[6]

Diction has multiple concerns; registerwords being either formal or informal in social
contextis foremost. Literary diction analysis reveals how a passage establishes tone and
characterization, e.g. a preponderance of verbs relating physical movement suggests an active
character, while a preponderance of verbs relating states of mind portrays an introspective
character. Diction also has an impact upon word choice and syntax.
Diction comprises eight elements: Phoneme, Syllable, Conjunction, Connective, Noun, Verb,
Inflection, and Utterance.
Contents
1 In Literature
2 See also
3 Notes
o 3.1 Further reading
4 External links
In Literature
Diction is understood to be the distinctive tone or tenor of an author's writings that becomes
immediately synonymous with his/her name. Diction is usually judged with reference to the
prevailing standards of proper writing and speech and is seen as the mark of quality of the
writing. It is also understood as the selection of certain words or phrases that become peculiar to
a writer.
Example
Certain writers in the modern day and age use archaic terms such as "thy", "thee", and
"wherefore" to imbue a Shakespearean mood to their work.
14

Forms of diction include: Archaic Diction (diction that is antique, that is rarely used), High
Diction (lofty sounding language), and Low Diction (everyday language). Each of these forms
are to enhance the meaning or artistry of an authors work.

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Synonyms for diction
noun style of speech; articulation
eloquence star
fluency star
inflection star
intonation star
phrasing star
pronunciation star
wording star
delivery star
elocution star
enunciation star
expression star
language star
line star
lingo star
locution star
oratory star
parlance star
phrase star
phraseology star
rhetoric star
usage star
verbalism star
verbiage star
vocabulary star
command of language star
gift of gab star
wordage star
Antonyms for diction
15

conciseness
Roget's 21st Century Thesaurus, Third Edition Copyright 2013 by the Philip Lief Group.
Cite This Source
More words related to diction
articulation
noun. clear, coherent speech
delivery
diction
enunciation
expression
pronunciation
saying
speaking
statement
talking
utterance
verbalization
vocalization
voicing
cant
noun. jargon
argot
dialect
diction
idiom
language
lingo
patois
patter
phraseology
slang
vernacular
vocabulary
16

delivery
noun. articulation of message
accent
diction
elocution
emphasis
enunciation
inflection
intonation
modulation
pronunciation
speech
utterance
elocution
noun. articulation
declamation
delivery
diction
dramatic
eloquence
enunciation
expression
locution
oratory
pronunciation
public speaking
reading
rhetoric
speech
speechcraft
speechmaking
utterance
voice culture
voice production
eloquence
17

noun. skillful way with words
ability
appeal
articulation
command of language
delivery
diction
dramatic
expression
expressiveness
expressivity
facility
fervor
flow
fluency
force
forcefulness
gift of gab
grandiloquence
loquacity
meaningfulness
mellifluousness
oration
oratory
passion
persuasiveness
poise
power
rhetoric
spirit
style
vigor
vivacity
volubility
wit
wittiness
expression
noun. verbalization
announcement
18

argument
articulation
assertion
asseveration
choice of words
commentary
communication
declaration
definition
delivery
diction
elucidation
emphasis
enunciation
execution
explanation
exposition
formulation
idiom
interpretation
intonation
issue
language
locution
mention
narration
phrase
phraseology
phrasing
pronouncement
remark
rendition
set phrase
speaking
speech
statement
style
term
turn of phrase
utterance
vent
voice
19

voicing
word
writ

Diction (/dk()n/; Latin: dictionem (nom. dictio), "a saying, expression, word"
[1]
) in its
original, primary meaning, refers to the writer's or the speaker's distinctive vocabulary choices
and style of expression in a poem or story.
[2][3]
A secondary, common meaning of "diction"
means the distinctiveness of speech,
[3][4][5]
the art of speaking so that each word is clearly heard
and understood to its fullest complexity and extremity, and concerns pronunciation and tone,
rather than word choice and style. This secondary sense is more precisely and commonly
expressed with the term enunciation, or with its synonym articulation.
[6]

Diction has multiple concerns; registerwords being either formal or informal in social
contextis foremost. Literary diction analysis reveals how a passage establishes tone and
characterization, e.g. a preponderance of verbs relating physical movement suggests an active
character, while a preponderance of verbs relating states of mind portrays an introspective
character. Diction also has an impact upon word choice and syntax.
Diction comprises eight elements: Phoneme, Syllable, Conjunction, Connective, Noun, Verb,
Inflection, and Utterance.
Contents
1 In Literature
2 See also
3 Notes
o 3.1 Further reading
4 External links
In Literature
Diction is understood to be the distinctive tone or tenor of an author's writings that becomes
immediately synonymous with his/her name. Diction is usually judged with reference to the
prevailing standards of proper writing and speech and is seen as the mark of quality of the
writing. It is also understood as the selection of certain words or phrases that become peculiar to
a writer.
20

Example
Certain writers in the modern day and age use archaic terms such as "thy", "thee", and
"wherefore" to imbue a Shakespearean mood to their work.
Forms of diction include: Archaic Diction (diction that is antique, that is rarely used), High
Diction (lofty sounding language), and Low Diction (everyday language). Each of these forms
are to enhance the meaning or artistry of an authors work.

Diction Exercises
- to make sure they get your message
Why should you do diction exercises?
Because your speech content may be great, you may look fantastic but unless your audience can
UNDERSTAND what you're saying, your message is lost.

21

Diction exercises will help you learn how to speak clearly. An athlete does warm-ups and
stretches before an event: a singer does likewise.
These exercises are the speaker's warm-up equivalent. They prepare and train you to speak with
ease.
The specific benefits of diction/articulation exercises are:
strengthening and stretching the muscles involved in speech
bringing to your attention habitual speech patterns which may be less than perfect.
Good diction is NOT about changing your accent or making you 'talk posh'.
It is about clarity - making sure what you say is heard.
The most commonly known and used diction exercises are Tongue Twisters.
There are literally squillions of them, each focusing on either a single letter, or a letter
combination. Often they're complete nonsense - phrases and word combinations chosen purely
for the way they make you work to say them clearly.
Tongue twisters have long been an integral part of a public speaker's tool kit. As well as being
fun, they are extremely effective.

22

Diction Exercises: Tips & Tongue Twisters
Beginners' tips
Start slowly and carefully.
Make sure the start and end of each
word is crisp.
Repeat the phrase, getting faster and
faster while maintaining clarity. If you
trip over words, stop and start again.
As an additional exercise for improving
your tongue's flexibility and agility add
"Mrs Tongue Does Her Housework"
to your practice session. These stretches
will help enormously.

Are you turning people's ears off
through mispronunciation?
Get them tuned in.
Find out how to pronounce words
properly.
Diction Exercises for 'B' words:

Betty bought a bit of butter, but she found the butter bitter, so Betty bought a bit of better butter
to make the bitter butter better.

Bill had a billboard.
Bill also had a board bill.
The board bill bored Bill,
So Bill sold his billboard
And paid his board bill.
Then the board bill
No longer bored Bill,
But though he had no board bill,
Neither did he have his billboard!
For 'D' words try:
23

Did Doug dig David's garden or did David dig Doug's garden?
Do drop in at the Dewdrop Inn

Diction Exercises for 'F' words:

Four furious friends fought for the phone
Five flippant Frenchmen fly from France for fashions

For 'H' words try:

How was Harry hastened so hurriedly from the hunt?
In Hertford,Hereford and Hampshire hurricanes hardly ever happen

Diction Exercises for 'J' words:
24

James just jostled Jean gently.
Jack the jailbird jacked a jeep.

Diction Exercises for 'K' words:

Kiss her quick, kiss her quicker, kiss her quickest.
My cutlery cuts keenly and cleanly.

Diction Exercises for 'L' words:

Literally literary.
Larry sent the latter a letter later.
Lucy lingered, looking longingly for her lost lap-dog.

Diction Exercise for 'N' and 'U' sounds:
25

You know New York,
You need New York,
You know you need unique New York.
Diction Exercises for 'P' words:

Peter piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
If Peter piper picked a peck of pickled peppers,
Where's the peck of pickled peppers that Peter Piper picked?

Pearls, please, pretty Penelope,
Pretty Penelope, pretty Penelope,
Pearls, please, pretty Penelope,
Pretty Penelope Pring.
For 'Q' words:

Quick kiss. Quicker kiss. Quickest kiss.
Quickly, quickly, quickly, quickly, quickly...

For 'R' words:
26

Round the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran.
Reading and writing are richly rewarding.

Exercises for 'S' words:

Six thick thistle sticks
Theophilus Thistler, the thistle sifter, in sifting a sieve of unsifted thistles, thrust three thousand
thistles through the thick of his thumb.
The shrewd shrew sold Sarah seven sliver fish slices.
Sister Susie sat on the sea shore sewing shirts for sailors
Moses supposes his toeses are roses,
But Moses supposes erroneously,
For nobody's toeses are posies of roses
As Moses supposes his toeses to be.
(Pronounce the word 'toeses' to rhyme with 'Moses'.)
For 'T' words:

Ten tame tadpoles tucked tightly in a thin tall tin.
27

Two toads, totally tired, trying to trot to Tewkesbury.

For 'V' words:

Vincent vowed vengeance very vehemently.
Vera valued the valley violets.

And lastly, two especially for your tongue
Red leather, yellow leather...
Red lorry, yellow lorry...
And then, one more for good measure!

This comes from Gilbert and Sullivan's light opera 'The Pirates of Penzance'.
It's guaranteed to make you work as it's the tongue's equivalent of a triathlon!
It includes many difficult combinations impossible to get right unless you articulate clearly.
Have fun with it.

28

'I am the very pattern of a modern Major-General;
I've information vegetable, animal, and mineral;
I know the Kings of England, and I quote the fights historical,
From Marathon to Waterloo, in order categorical;
I'm very well acquainted too with matters mathematical,
I understand equations, both simple and quadratical,
About binomial theorem I'm teeming with a lot o' news,
With many cheerful facts about the square of the hypotenuse.
I'm very good at integral and differential calculus,
I know the scientific names of beings animalculous,
In short, in matters vegetable, animal, and mineral,
I am the very model of a modern Major-General.'
Would you like to listen to it?
This is me, Susan, having fun.
<="" embed="" align="left" height="40" width="250">

Now that the 'tip of your tongue, the teeth and the lips' have had a thorough work-out be sure to
stop by the other EXTRA ESSENTIAL TIP pages.
You'll find information on:
developing vocal variety (particularly important if you're a Monotone Martha or
Martin')
using flexible speech rates (great for slowing a motor-mouth)
the secrets of using silence effectively
and breathing exercises especially designed to overcome the anxiety of public speaking
while strengthening your lung power!
Your mouth utters the words but do you know what secrets your body language is giving
away? Click the link to teach yourself body language basics and perfectly align your
message.
Make sure they're laughing WITH you, not AT you! Find out how to use humor
effectively. Get all the benefits of using humor effectively: relax your audience ...
Or maybe you are looking for great free word games to help develop confidence, creativity,
spontaneity and fluency in your speaking? These are proven, effective and fun. Use them with
small or large groups.

29

If you lead a public speaking group and
you're always on the look-out for activities ....
You'll love my book!
28 public speaking games (with many more
variations and extensions), full instructions,
PLUS printable topic, tongue twister, poem and
image sheets.
A complete one-stop-select-print-go public
speaking resource for busy people.
Find out more

Return to top of diction exercises page
Return to write-out-loud.com homepage
- See more at: http://www.write-out-loud.com/dictionexercises.html#sthash.veLcuEDq.dpuf

Diction Exercises & Tongue-Twisters

Exercises for Consonants
High roller, low roller, lower roller.
I need a box of biscuits, a box of mixed biscuits, and a biscuit mixer.
Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
A peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked.
30

If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers,
Where's the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked?
He thrusts his fists against the posts and still insists he sees the ghosts.
Friday's Five Fresh Fish Specials.
Imagine an imaginary menagerie manager imagining managing an imaginary
menagerie.
The Leith police dismisseth us.
Twixt this and six thick thistle sticks.
Red leather, yellow leather.
She sells seashells by the seashore, and the shells she sells are seashells.
The sixth Sikh Sheik's sixth sheep's sick.
Three free thugs set three thugs free.
Charles deftly switched straight flange strips.
Gwen glowered and grimaced at Glen's gleaming greens.

Exercises for Vowels
Fancy! That fascinating character Harry McCann married Anne Hammond.
(Be sure you are pronouncing all the "short a" sounds identically.)
Lot lost his hot chocolate at the loft.
Snoring Norris was marring the aria.

Exercises for Everything
Eleven benevolent elephants.
Girl gargoyle, guy gargoyle.
She stood on the balcony inexplicably mimicking him hiccupping and amicably
welcoming him in.
Six sick slick slim sycamore saplings.

Repeaters
These tongue twisters become more challenging the more you say them. So if you
don't find each one "hard to say" at first, just keep repeating it until you do!

You know you need unique New York.
Toy boat.
Lemon liniment.
Three free throws.
Blue black bugs blood.
Red lorry, yellow lorry.
Giggle gaggle gurgle.

31

Meaning: Denotation and Connotation
Definitions and Concepts in Critical Thinking
By Austin Cline
See More About
logic & arguments
logic & fallacies
See More About
logic & arguments
logic & fallacies
Understanding the difference between denotation and connotation is important to understanding
definitions and how concepts are used. Unfortunately, that is complicated by the fact that these
terms can be used in two different ways: grammatical and logical. Even worse, both uses are
worth keeping in mind and both uses are relevant to project of logical, critical thinking.
In grammar, a words denotation is whatever the word directly refers to, roughly equivalent to its
lexical definition. Thus, the word atheist denotes a person who disbelieves in or denies the
existence of gods. A words connotation refers to any subtle nuances that might or might not be
intended by its use. For example, one possible connotation for the word atheist might be
someone who is immoral and wicked, depending upon who is doing the speaking or listening.
Separating grammatical denotation from connotation is important because while one might
assume that a words denotation is fully intended, whether a words connotations are intended is
much more difficult to determine. Connotations are often emotional in nature, and thus if they
are intended, it may be for the purpose of swaying a persons emotional reactions rather than the
logical evaluation of an argument.
If there are misunderstandings about how a person is using a word in a particular debate, a
primary source of that misunderstanding might lie in the words connotations: people might be
seeing something not intended or the speaker may be intending something people dont see. In
constructing your own arguments, its a good idea not merely to look at what your words denote,
but also what they connote.
32

In logic, the uses of denotation and connotation are very different. The denotation, or extension,
of a term is the list of a class of objects referred to by the word (think of it as how far does this
word extend?). Thus the word planet denotes specific objects such as Venus, Earth, Jupiter,
and Neptune. Whether it also denotes an object like Pluto is a matter of some debate among
astronomers for reasons I will explain shortly.
The connotation, or intension, of a word is the list of attributes shared by all members of the
class named by the word (think of it as by using this word, what do I intend?). Thus the word
planet connotes certain characteristics which astronomers have decided differentiate certain
objects from other objects like comets, stars, and asteroids. The debate over whether the word
planet denotes Pluto is due to the fact that astronomers disagree on what sorts of attributes
are connoted by the word planet, and hence whether Pluto has the right attributes to qualify
as a planet.

Definitions and Concepts in Critical Thinking
Connotation vs. Denotation: Which Comes First?
By Austin Cline
See More About
logic & arguments
logic & fallacies
See More About
logic & arguments
logic & fallacies
(Continued from Page 1)
The debate over the status of Pluto indicates that whereas the extension of a word is determined
by its intension, the reverse is not also true. Put more simply, the list of objects covered by a
word is determined by the list of characteristics that word is thought to describe; on the other
hand, the list of characteristics described by a word is not determined by the list of things
covered by that word. The objects covered by the word planet are determined by what
characteristics the word planet is supposed to describe, but not the other way around.
33

At least, thats what some philosophers argue. Others disagree and argue the contrary: that a
word is used to first describe a list of objects thought to be similar in some important ways and
then, once this denotation of the word is established, the connotation is developed by teasing out
a set of reasonable characteristics from the list of objects. Thus, the connotation is determined by
the denotation.
Who is right? Perhaps they both are. An example of how difficult it is to determine this might be
the word tree. Did people first create a list of tree-like qualities and then later decide which
objects go in the list of trees, or did people first start calling certain objects trees and only
later decide what tree-like qualities justified inclusion in the list of trees? In logic, science, and
philosophy basically, in any field where very careful thought is required intension should
determine extension. In casual usage, however, it may well be that as a practical matter extension
can determine intension.

Meanings Change
The meaning of words can change over time because people will simply use them in different
ways, but any change in meaning might represent an extensional change (in what the word
denotes), an intensional change (in what the word connotes), or both. For example, the word
marriage doesnt currently denote (for most people) any unions between two members of the
same sex. If we started to denote such unions by marriage, would that require a change in
connotation (what characteristics the word intends) or not?
This is, in fact, a key element in the debate over gay marriage. When people disagree over
whether gays should be allowed to marry, they are disagreeing in part over the proper intension
of the term marriage. Unless they come to some sort of agreement over the terms intension,
they will never see eye-to-eye over its extension.
Naturally, if someone is asked for a definition of a word, they can provide vastly different
answers based upon whether an extensional or intentional definition is offered. An extensional
definition is basically a list of the entities covered by the term for example listing the planets
when asked what a planet is or listing poem, play, novel, or short story as a definition of a
fictional work. Such a definition has advantages because it necessarily contains hard examples
of what is being discussed.
An intensional definition, however, lists the attributes or characteristics of the concept for
example, listing the qualities that an object must have in order to qualify as a planet instead of an
asteroid. For obvious reasons, this is often easier than an extensional definition because there is
no need to list a long series of examples a list of attributes is always shorter and quicker.
...........................................

34

denotation
By Richard Nordquist
See More About
grammatical and rhetorical terms

Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms (Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1984)
Definition:
The direct or dictionary meaning of a word, in contrast to its figurative or associated meanings
(connotations). Adjective: denotative.
See also:
Choosing the Best Words: Denotations and Connotations
Commonly Confused Words: Connote and Denote
Connotation
Definition
Distinctio
I'm Firm, You're Obstinate . . .
Lexical Ambiguity
Literal
"The Meaning of Home," by John Berger
Nikki Giovanni's "View of Home"
Polysemy
Reflected Meaning
Synonymy
Word Choice
Writers on Writing: Ten Tips for Finding the Right Words
Etymology:
From the Latin, "mark"
Examples and Observations:
Vizzini: He didn't fall? Inconceivable.
Inigo Montoya: You keep using that word. I do not think it means what you think it means.
(The Princess Bride, 1987)

35

"You know a phrase I never understood? King size. It's used to denote something larger, but
most of the kings you see are short. You ever notice that? Usually a king is a short little fat guy."
(George Carlin, Napalm & Silly Putty, 2001)

Wally: I can't believe I fell for counterfeit Superbowl tickets. The guys will be crestfallen when
they find out.
Homer: Yes, if by "crestfallen" you mean they're going to kill us.
("Sunday, Cruddy Sunday," The Simpsons)

Denotation and Connotation: "House" and "Home"
"[T]he denotation of a word is its primary signification or reference; its connotation is the range
of secondary or associated significations and feelings which it commonly suggests or implies.
Thus 'home' denotes the house where one lives, but connotes privacy, intimacy, and coziness;
that is the reason real estate agents like to use 'home' instead of 'house' in their
advertisements."
(M.H. Abrams and Geoffrey Galt Harpham, A Glossary of Literary Terms, 9th ed. Wadsworth,
2009)

"The denotation of a term is its exact and literal meaning. Consider the word home. Its
denotation, or precise meaning, is 'residence or fixed dwelling place.' The denotation of the
word city is 'center of population and commerce.'

"A word's connotation, on the other hand, consists of its emotive value. For example,
connotations of the word home might be refuge, resting place, even boring or predictable
habitation. The word city might connote place of excitement, energy, danger, or even sin. . . .

"Think of denotation as the dictionary definition of a word, using the d as a mnemonic device. A
connotation is the subjective, personal, even poetic interpretation of a word."
(Chrysti M. Smith, Verbivore's Feast: A Banquet of Word & Phrase Origins. Farcountry Press,
2004)

Denotation and Connotation in a Poem by William Wordsworth
A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal
by William Wordsworth (1880)

A slumber did my spirit seal;
I had no human fears--
She seemed a thing that could not feel
The touch of earthly years.
36

No motion has she now, no force;
She neither hears nor sees;
Roll'd round in earth's diurnal course
With rocks, and stones, and trees.
"In order to create the stark contrast between the active, airy girl of the first stanza with the
inert, dead girl of the second, Wordsworth relies partly on the connotative effect of the last line.
We know the denotative meaning of 'rocks, and stones, and trees,' but in this context the
emotional or connotative meaning is unpleasant and grating. Rocks and stones are inanimate,
cold, cutting, impersonal. And although we usually think of trees as beautiful and majestic, here
the association of trees with rocks and stones makes us think of tree roots, of dirt, and thus of
the girl's burial."
(Kelley Griffith, Writing Essays about Literature: A Guide and Style Sheet, 8th ed. Wadsworth,
2011)

Poetic Language vs. Legal and Scientific Language
"It is characteristic of poetic language that it gives us not simply the denotation of a word (what
it refers to), but a whole cluster of connotations or associated meanings. It differs in this respect
from legal or scientific language, which seeks to pare away surplus connotations in the name of
rigorous denotation. By and large, legal and scientific language aims to constrict meaning,
whereas poetic language seeks to proliferate it."
(Terry Eagleton, How to Read a Poem. Blackwell, 2007)

Denotation and Connotation in a Poem by E.A. Robinson
In the following poem by Edwin Arlington Robinson, distinguish between the denotative and
connotative meanings of the words in italics.
Richard Cory (1897)

Whenever Richard Cory went down town,
We people on the pavement looked at him:
He was a gentleman from sole to crown,
Clean favored, and imperially slim.

And he was always quietly arrayed,
And he was always human when he talked;
But still he fluttered pulses when he said,
"Good-morning," and he glittered when he walked.
37

And he was rich--yes, richer than a king,
And admirably schooled in every grace:
In fine, we thought that he was everything
To make us wish that we were in his place.

So on we worked, and waited for the light,
And went without the meat, and cursed the bread;
And Richard Cory, one calm summer night,
Went home and put a bullet through his head.
"Language is only the instrument of science, and words are but the signs of ideas: I wish,
however, that the instrument might be less apt to decay, and that signs might be permanent,
like the things they denote."
(Samuel Johnson, Preface to Dictionary, 1755)
Pronunciation: DEE-no-TAY-shun
Also Known As: cognitive meaning

........................................

hoosing the Best Words: Denotations and
Connotations
Exercise in Using Connotative Language
See More About
language
See More About
38

language
Careful writers choose words both for what they mean (that is, their dictionary meanings, or
denotations) and for what they suggest (their connotations, or emotional associations). For
instance, "slim," "scrawny," and "svelte" all have related denotative meanings (thin, let's say) but
different connotative meanings. And if we're trying to pay someone a compliment, we better get
the connotation right.
Here's another example. The following words and phrases all refer to "a young person," but their
connotations may be quite different depending, in part, on the context in which they appear:
youngster, child, kid, little one, small fry, brat, urchin, juvenile, minor. Some of these words tend
to carry favorable connotations (little one), others unfavorable (brat), and still others fairly
neutral connotations (child). But referring to an adult as a child can be insulting, while calling a
young person a brat lets our readers know at once how we feel about the rotten kid.
Working with the three passages below will help make you more aware of the importance of
choosing words carefully for what they imply or suggest as well as for what they mean according
to the dictionary.
Instructions:
Each of the short passages below (in italics) is fairly objective and colorless, using words with
neutral connotations. Your job is to write two new versions of each passage: first, using words
with positive connotations to show the subject in an attractive light; second, using words with
negative connotations to describe the same subject in a less favorable way. The guidelines
following each passage should help you focus your revisions.
A. Gus cooked dinner for Merdine. He prepared some meat and vegetables and a special
dessert.
(1) Describe the meal that Gus prepared, making it sound appetizing by using words with
favorable connotations.
(2) Describe the meal again, this time using words with negative connotations to make it sound
quite unappealing.
B. The person did not weigh very much. The person had brown hair and a small nose. The
person wore informal clothing.
(1) Identify and describe this particularly attractive person.
(2) Identify and describe this particularly unattractive person.
C. Douglas was careful with his money. He kept his money in a safe place. He bought only the
necessities of life. He never borrowed or lent money.
(1) Choose words that show how impressed you are by Douglas's sense of thrift.
(2) Choose words that make fun of Douglas or pass scorn on him for being such a tightwad.

39

..............................................

Denotation and Connotation Exercise
Practice in Using Words With Positive and Negative
Connotations
This exercise will help you distinguish between the denotative and connotative meanings of
words. In addition to reviewing the glossary entries for denotation and connotation, you may
find it helpful to read the introduction to Choosing the Best Words: Denotations and
Connotations.
Instructions:
In each of the following sentences, the italicized word has a fairly neutral connotation. For each
word in italics, list two synonyms (words with similar denotations): one with a negative
connotation and the other with a positive connotation.
Example:
Sometimes my thin friend annoys me.
negative connotation: scrawny
positive connotation: slim
When you have completed the exercise, compare your answers with the sample responses on
page two.
1. I recognized the familiar smell of my roommate's cooking.

2. Scrapple is an inexpensive meal.

3. Kevin's interest in model cars has turned into a hobby.

4. Uncle Henry lives in a hut deep in the woods.
40

5. Phileas Fogg was an adventurous traveler.

6. We stopped for lunch at a diner in West Virginia.

7. My parents are committed conservationists.

8. My old laptop has finally died.

9. In a quiet and stealthy way, Bartleby moved into the lawyer's chambers.

10. The teacher was mildly intimidated by Merdine's assertive behavior.

................................

Denotation and Connotation Exercise
Sample Responses to the Exercise
(Continued from Page 1)
Sample Responses to the Denotation and Connotation Exercise
1. I recognized the familiar smell of my roommate's cooking.
negative connotation: stench
positive connotation: aroma
41

2. Scrapple is an inexpensive meal.
negative connotation: cheap
positive connotation: thrifty

3. Kevin's interest in model cars has turned into a hobby.
negative connotation: obsession
positive connotation: avocation

4. Uncle Henry lives in a hut deep in the woods.
negative connotation: shack
positive connotation: cabin

5. Phileas Fogg was an adventurous traveler.
negative connotation: foolhardy
positive connotation: courageous

6. We stopped for lunch at a diner in West Virginia.
negative connotation: greasy spoon
positive connotation: caf or bistro

7. My parents are committed conservationists.
negative connotation: tree huggers
positive connotation: environmentalists

8. My old laptop has finally died.
negative connotation: decrepit
positive connotation: venerable

42

9. In a quiet and stealthy way, Bartleby moved into the lawyer's chambers.
negative connotation: sneaky
positive connotation: cunning

10. The teacher was mildly intimated by Merdine's assertive behavior.
negative connotation: bossy
positive connotation: confident

Words exist on two or more levels the literal or dictionary definition and the figurative
or suggested meaning. The former is the denotative meaning and the later is the
connotative.
We all know what is a poet. That is we know the word in its denotative context. However,
there may be as many connotative meanings as there are poets or people who read poetry. Here are
two:
A poet is a tall scholarly man with a slight stoop and an air of abstraction. He is
diffident, and at cocktail parties, may be found in another room reading his hosts books.
A poet is a slim youthful man with a sensitive, slightly haggard face. He is given to
velvet lapels and extravagant neckwear and attends salonswhere he reads his own
versesand has innocuous conversations with middle-aged women.

43

Exercise 1: Below are some examples of connotation. Write out your ideas of the
connotation of each of the words in two of the groups below.

Proud Obese Ugly
High and mighty Corpulent Homely
Overbearing Overweight Plain
High-hat Comfortable Hideous
Supercilious Plump Revolting

Spy Snooty Spinster
Agent Arrogant Old maid
Counter-espionage man Conceited Maiden lady
Secret service man Vain Bachelor girl
Undercover man Egotistical Career woman

Mansion Friendly
Home Sociable
Dwelling Approachable
Residence Genial
Domicile Palsy-walsy

44

Exercise 2. Describe the scene the poet is depicting here. Comment on the vines that
round the thatch-eaves run, the mossed cottage Comment on bosom-friend, maturing,
bless. Discuss any other words that seem to contribute to the mood? What is the mood
of the poem? Comment on the poets use of detail to achieve mood. What is the speakers
attitude?

Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness,
Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;
Conspiring with him how to load and bless
With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eaves run;
To bend with apples the mossed cottage-trees,
And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;
To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel-shells
With a sweet kernel; to set budding more
And still more, later flowers for the bees,
Until they think warm days will never cease,
For summer has oer brimmed their clammy cells.

45

Suggested Answer:
This is a stanza from Keats ode To Autumn. The poet is depicting a small English country
village whose cottages have thatched roofs and small gardens, in which the apple trees are so old
they are covered with moss, and where vines (perhaps grapevines) grow up the cottage walls and
round the windows. The gardens contain gourds and probably beehives, although of course the bees
could be wild, but the other details suggest domestic cultivation. The setting for this poem is the
country; not the open fields, but life in a small village. There are no people in this stanza, but there
is a sense of human activity all around. The poet seems to be writing about autumn and its blessings
for man, especially the country villager, who would live closer to Nature in all its aspects than the
townsmen.
Autumn is personified here as a bosom-friend. Autumn is on terms of great intimacy with
the sun, and together the two conspirators hatch their benign plot: how to increase the yield of all
the crops of the season. The sun of early fall, the time of last growth before harvest, is a maturing
sun: it has made the season warm and dry at the right time for ripening. The atmosphere is one of
contentment and fulfillment, when each plant prospers the gourds swell, the hazelnuts become
plump and meaty inside the shells; frost has not yet come, so that the honey-flow continues much
longer than usual. The mood of richness, of luxuriance and prosperity, is shown also in load and
bless with fruit, bend with apples, ripeness to the core.
To achieve his effect the poet appeals constantly to the senses. His mention of mists,
together with the later reference to maturing sun makes one think of a typical fall day, misty and
chilly in the morning, but comfortably warm and mellow as the sun comes up. The vines, the bent-
over trees, the gourds, nuts and flowers appeal to the sense of sight, but also to the sense of taste.
The words swell, plump, and sweet, give a sense of almost cloying richness. The repetition of fruit
and fruitfulness and the references to vines and apples and ripeness almost make the mouth water,
but the most striking detail is the climactic lines about the bees:
46

For summer has obrimmed their clammy cells.
Clammy, as a word descriptive of the cool stickiness of honey, has a great impact, and summarizes
the richness of the other pictures in this stanza, most of which are fairly conventional. The first
nine lines establish an atmosphere that is strengthened by the vivid details of clammy cells.

Exercise 3: The following passage is the opening paragraph of a short story. Read it
carefully and answer the following questions.
1. What can you deduce about Midge and Annabel?
2 Would the author have enjoyed their usual lunch? What words or phrases led you
to your conclusion, and why?
3. What is the attitude of the author of this passage towards both the girls and the
food? How did you arrive at it?

Annabel and Midge came out of the tearoom with the arrogant slow gait of the leisured, for their
Saturday afternoon stretched ahead of them. They had lunched, as was their wont, on sugar,
starches, oils and butterfats. Usually they ate sandwiches of spongy new white bread greased with
butter and mayonnaise; they ate thick wedges of cake lying wet beneath ice cream and whipped
cream and melted chocolate gritty with nuts. As alternates, they ate patties, sweating beads of
inferior oil, containing bits of bland meat bogged in pale, stiffening sauce; they ate pastries limber
under rigid icing, filled with an indeterminate yellow sweet stuff, not still solid, not yet liquid, like
salve that has been left in the sun. They chose not other food, nor did they consider it. And their
skin was like the petals of wood anemones, and their bellies were as flat and their flanks as lean as
those of young Indian braves.

Suggested Answer:
Midge and Annabel are coming out of a tearoom after lunch, with the arrogant slow gait of the
leisured, for their Saturday afternoon stretched in front of them. If they feel so leisured
just because they have the afternoon off, they are probably office workers or schoolgirls
people who do work quite hard the rest of the week. They are obviously quite young, since they
habitually eat a lunch loaded with calories, mainly carbohydrates and fats, and yet their skin is
like the petals of wood anemones, and they are slender, almost thin, like young Indian braves.
The author is revolted by what they eat. Bread greased with butter . . . patties,
sweating beads of inferior oil . . . bland meat bogged in . . . sauce and the pastries with sweet
stuff . . . like salve that has been left in the sun. The words greased, gritty, sweating,
bogged, and stiffening have strong overtones of distaste, even disgust. One feels that one
bite of the girls diet would have been too much for the author. She dislikes the diet partly for
its texture and appearance, partly for its taste, but largely for its excessive richness and
gooeyness.
The author laughs at Midge and Annabel a little for their arrogant, slow gait. Perhaps
they are pretending to be very grand and that they never work at all. The author understands
the feeling of how much a day off means when you are young and working. The author also feels
47

that the girls have horrible taste in food, but she admires their appearance, and is probably a
little envious of anyone who can eat such rich food with no ill effects. The emotional feelings
the author displays about the food and the obvious admiration for their metabolism, suggests
that the author is a person who could never eat what the girls had without suffering for it.
There is a distinct note of envy in the last sentence. The girls are not only slender and clear-
skinned; they have delicate fresh complexions like wood anemones, and really fit, healthy
bodies like Indian braves. Envy of this sort suggests that the author is herself a woman. She
is obviously a good deal older that Midge and Annabel, for her attitude is patronizing or
superior at times. She looks down on the girls for their horrible taste in food; she laughs at
their childish behavior in the first sentence 4. This attitude of amused scorn (tolerant
amusement, amused superiority) suggests that she is a good deal more sophisticated than Midge
and Annabel.

Exercise 4: Read the two passages below carefully. Both are pictures of a New
England scene in winter; show how the tone of the second is quite different from that of
the first. Discuss what words the respective authors use to establish the tone and mood
of the two works. Make specific references and provide explanations.

Abreast of the schoolhouse the road forked, and we dipped down a lane to the left,
between hemlock boughs bent inward to their trunks by the weight of the snow. I had
often walked that way on Sundays, and know that the solitary roof showing through bare
branches near the bottom of the hill was that of Fromes sawmill. It looked exanimate
1

enough, with its idle wheel looming above the black stream dashed with yellow-white spume
and its cluster of sheds sagging under their white load. Frome did not even turn his head
as we drove by, and still in silence we began to mount the next slope. About a mile farther,
on a road I had never traveled, we came to an orchard of starved apple-trees writhing
over a hillside among outcroppings of slate that nuzzled up through the snow like animals
pushing out their noses to breathe. Beyond the orchard lay a field or two, their
boundaries lost under drifts; and above the fields, huddled against the white immensities
of land and sky, one of those lonely New England farm-houses that make the landscape
lonelier.
1. deprived of life

They drove slowly down the road between fields glistening under the pale sun, and
then bent to the right down a land edged with spruce and larch. Ahead of them, a long way
off, a range of hills, stained by mottlings of black forest, flowed away in round white
48

curves against the sky. The lane passed into a pinewood with boles reddening in the
afternoon sun and a warm stillness seemed to drop from the branches with the dropping
needles. Here the snow was so pure that the tiny tracks of wood-animals had left on it
intricate lace-like patterns, and the bluish cones caught in its surface stood out like
ornaments of bronze.
1. the trunk of a tree or red clay

Suggested Answers:
These two passages deal with winter in New England, but from very different
perspectives. In the first passage winter is depicted as stark and cruel, something to be
endured, where survival is the ultimate goal. The hemlock boughs are bent inward by the
weight of the snow that is heavy and burdensome, and hemlock is a plant that is poisonous,
thus carrying negative connotations. The sawmill is solitary, the branches are bare, the
mill-wheel is idle, and the shed roofs are sagging under a white load. The landscape is
harsh, bleak, cold, figuratively as well as literally. Frome seems in keeping with the
landscape and with his solitary mill; the people drive in silence, with no companionable
conversation; Frome does not even turn his head as they pass by the mill.
Nothing is warm or friendly. The total effect is of lifelessness, or rather of
suspension of life. The idle water-wheel, so busy in the summer, the examinate scene,
and even the motionless Frome adds to the impression that all life has come to a standstill.
On a strange road the narrator sees an apple-orchard personified in its struggle
against murderous winter. The apple-trees are starved, and they are writhing, in
agony, presumably, among outcroppings of slate, which are depicted as animals suffocating
under the snow. Winter is painful, isolating; it deprives everything of food and
companionship. The final scene of the huddled fields and the lone farmhouse that makes
the landscape lonelier emphasizes the bleakness and depression of the whole. The passage
is loaded with emotionally connotative words, all suggesting unpleasant emotional states.
Solitary, bare, idle, looming, starved, writhing, lost, huddled, immensities,
lonely, all contribute to the total effect of life overwhelmed by a murderous unfeeling
power. The use of imagery that is angled and planed lends harshness to the overall scene.
In the second passage the tone is one of delight in a beautiful scene, of enjoyment
of a pleasurable experience. Winter here is safe, cozy and secure, with the snow
protecting the ground, deadening sound and creating a scene of beauty. The fields
49

glisten under the pale sun. The distant hills, on which the forest is merely a stain or
mottling . . . flowed in round white curves against the sky, instead of being an inimical
presence like the writhing trees in the first passage, the view is attractive both in the
distance and nearby. The pinewood is not bleak but warm-colored, with the tree-boles
reddening in the afternoon sun, and delicate blue shadows on the snow. Inside, the
wood seems a magical place, still, warm, pure and quiet, with tiny tracks of wood animals
making intricate lace-like patterns and cones like ornaments of bronze. With its
roundness and curves, it is a kinder, more inviting scene.
The first passage is emotional in its hatred of one aspect of winter. The colors are
stark black and white, relieved only by the yellow-white spume of the water wheel.
There is no sun. The scene is like an abandoned world.
The second passage is more impersonal in tone admiring, in detail, such things as
the lace-like tracks and the ornaments of bronze, enjoying the delicate curves of the
scenery, the glowing colors, the sensation of safety within the wood, and the sense of
awakening animal life all around. The colors in the second passage are varied. As well as
black and white there is red, blue, and bronze.

Exercise 5: Discuss the choice of words and how the connotative values of these words
add to the theme and emotional impression of the work

On First Looking into Chapmans
1
Homer
Much have I travelld in the realms of gold,
And many goodly states and kingdoms seen;
Round many western islands have I been
Which bards in fealty to Apollo
2
hold.
Oft of one wide expanse had I been told
That deep-browd Homer ruld as his demesne;
3

Yet did I never breathe its pure serene
50

Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold:
Then felt I like some watcher of the skies
When a new planet swims into his ken;
4

Or like a stout Cortez when with eagle eyes
He stard at the Pacific and all his men
Lookd at each other with a wild surmise
Silent, upon a peak in Darien
.5

_______

1
early translator of Homer
2
god, among other things, of poetry
3
lords estate
4
knowledge
5
the Isthmus of Panama

Suggested answers:

Realms of gold suggests a distant, magical, unreal country. Realm, unlike country
or kingdom, is a medieval word, giving connotations of chivalry and romance. Gold brings
associations of the Golden Age of Greece. The juxtaposition of gold and realms
suggests that this is not a literal kingdom.
Western islands gives the connotations that go with all the literature connected
with islands: the ideas of solitude, romance, exotic splendor, and adventure. The word
islands may have other, quite different connotations, but the romantic mood is set by
other words and phrases, such as realms of gold. Western has often been the
51

direction of adventure and exploration, and of opportunity. It may also be connected on
the poets mind with Arthurs misty isle of Avalon, or perhaps the Never-Never Land of Tir
nan Og of the Celts. The underlying meaning, of course, is works of Western authors.
Fealty, like realms, adds to the medieval atmosphere, as this is a technical term
from the feudal period. There is also the image of the poets (bards) swearing homage to
Apollo as to a feudal lord.
Deep-browd might suggest that Homer had a noble face, or it might refer to
Homers insight as a poet, or both.
Demesne again connotes the Middle Ages the lands belonging to a lord. Homer is
her the feudal lord.
It might have been clearer if Keats had written air serene, but it would not have
entirely expressed his meaning, because he is saying that what the poet is breathing is
both pure and serene. By substituting "air for pure, serene becomes an adjective
instead of a noun, and the emphasis is changed. The words as the poet uses them indicate
that he is speaking metaphorically, not of actual air, nor of an actual place, but of a mental
experience.
The word swim, suggests that the planet might swing back again, and is perhaps
more appropriate to a comet than a planet. Glides, suggests a bird and a wavy flight
through the air, rather than a steady course. It also suggests speed. Might swims, then
suggest a fish? Perhaps Keats chose this word because of its alliterative connection with
watcher.
Cortez might seem to be more interesting, exciting, and romantic than Balboa.
Since Keats is not writing about real places but about regions of the mind, the connotative
value of Cortez the conquistador is more important than strict accuracy.
By his use of the words realms, bards, fealty, and demesne, the poet has
established an atmosphere of medieval times particularly with regard to land and its
ownership; and by introducing the bards as the holders of the land, he has established
his real subject to be poetry, and the material with which it deals. With his reference to
Apollo, the Greek motif is introduced, and with it all the resources of Greek Mythology.
The medieval atmosphere of the first four lines suggests all the glamour of chivalry
and sets the mood of the poem. The effect, which his first introduction to the world of
Homer had upon him, he expresses in two word-pictures, both continuing the metaphor of
52

physical exploration with which he began. The watcher of the skies discovers a New
World in the heavens. Cortez also discovers a New World a new hemisphere at any rate.
The emotion throughout is one of astonishment, almost shock. The emotional climax in the
sestet suggests that, as well as the distance in time and space provided by the medieval
and Greek connotations, by the image of the astronomer, and of the Spanish conqueror, a
basic ingredient of romanticism is strong emotion.

Exercise 6: In paragraph one the writer tells about his young sons typical days while he
was attending a private school. Paragraph two is a summary of paragraph one. Read the
two paragraphs and analyze the connotations of the words, the tone of the passage, the
rhetorical strategies, and the attitude of the speaker.

Paragraph 1
His days were rich in formal experience. Wearing overalls and an old sweater (the accepted
uniform of the private seminary), he sallied forth at morn accompanied by a nurse or parent and
walked (or was pulled) two blocks to a corner where the school bus made a flag stop. This flashy
vehicle was as punctual as death; seeing him waiting at the curb, it would sweep to a halt, open its
mouth, suck the boy in, and spring away with an angry growl. It was a good deal like a train picking
up a bag of mail. At school the scholar was worked on for six or seven hours by half a dozen
teachers and a nurse, and was revived with orange juice in midmorning. In a cinder court, he played
games supervised by an athletic instructor, and in a cafeteria he ate lunch worked out by a
dietician.

Paragraph 2
His days followed a set routine. He wore overalls and an old sweater, as everyone else did
in his school. In the morning a parent or nurse walked the two blocks with him to the
corner where he met the school bus. The bus was always on time. During the six or seven
hours of the school day, he had six teachers. The school also employed a nurse and a
dietitian. Games were supervised. The children ate in the cafeteria. Orange juice was
served during the morning session.

53

Suggested answers:
The two paragraphs are studies in contrast: one is an example of minimal expression using
passive voice and the other a vivid depiction using figurative language and active voice.

Paragraph two is a sterile summary of the events in the day of a small boy at a private
seminary school. He wears overalls and an old sweater, as everyone else did in his school.
This introduces the impersonal atmosphere along with the idea of his total lack of control.
It has some active verbs at the beginning of the text but lapses into passive voice after
the first three sentences. The bus was always on time . . . Games were supervised . . .
Orange juice was served . . .. The adjectives are as bland as the description of the day.
There is little figurative language such as personification, similes, or irony. The passage is
mechanical, straightforward, terse, and without life. The second paragraph is more
general and much less specific than the first. It is primarily denotative, conveying facts
with little emotion or subjectivity.

Paragraph one gives the overall impression that the boy is an inanimate object and that
the people, environment, and objects in his day are animated and have total control over
him. His world is cold and mechanical, even machine-like. Even though he sallied forth, a
phrase which has myriad meanings such as to emerge spiritually from a resting place or to
set out on a trip or excursion, it may be used ironically here to suggest that young scholars
often begin their academic journeys with great enthusiasm and expectations but are often
stifled and beaten down by the rigid formality of modern educational systems. The first
statement indicating that his days were rich in formal experience introduces the idea of
rigidity of his day, the lack of control, and the rote routine aspect of his days. The word
rich may be used either ironically in regards to his education or to connote the material
holdings of his family. Even the prescribed, overalls and an old sweater, clothing that
many would envy as comfortable, everyday wear, function to take away his individuality and
make him just one of the mass of students. Ironically, one expects a tidy uniform at a
seminary school. Perhaps the warm, comfortable clothing provides a protection against the
cold, impersonal environment of the private school. The child is most likely young, since he
is accompanied by a nurse or a parent, a pairing of nouns which may indicate that there is
little difference between his parents and the hired help who walk him to the bus, thus
adding to the impersonal aspect of his day. Next, the speaker indicates that the boy
54

walked or was pulled) two blocks, suggesting a tinge of reluctance on his part to being
submitted to another day in a sterile vacuum, an image which is reinforced in the following
lines: The school bus makes a flag stop suggestive perhaps of a pit stop made by a race
car driver and is as punctual as death an interesting simile that may be indicative of the
sterile educational environment that kills any creative urges or enthusiasm the young
scholar may still possess. It stops at the cold curb an image suggesting both the
coldness and indifference of the school and the curb, an impediment at the edge of a path,
that
restricts movement or forward progress. The bus sweeps to a halt an expression
connoting cleaning (reinforcing the vacuum image) as well as sterility and stopping (again
perhaps his creative talents?) The boy is sucked [ed] into the mechanical bus and -
Eureka! - is on his way to the vacuous, mechanical, educational institution. The bus is
personified as spring[ing] away with an angry growl. This language suggests the
aggressive, intimidating aspect of the institutions and its instructors. The fact that the
boy is compared to a bag of mail reinforces the image of his being a passive, almost non-
human object with the potential to communicate, but at this stage in life, is merely being
moved from one station to the next. At school the scholar, a word used perhaps
ironically, is worked on for six or seven hours by half a dozen teachers and a nurse . . ..
making even more evident his passive, unavoidable subjection to the impersonal machine-
like forces of the private seminary. The fact that he is revived with juice in midmorning
is anagalous to the refueling of a car with petrol. The cinder court, a hard, man-made
surface, continues the image of a hard, cold, unyielding environment. The final portion of
the paragraph reinforces the images of control. . . . Games were supervised by an athletic
instructor . . . and he ate lunch worked out by a dietician. The little boy never has a
choice, never has control, never has an outlet for his own desires, and is too small and
helpless to resist an overpowering, mechanized, impersonal system.

Keogh, Conal Patrick. Comprehension Analysis Style Expression Book of
Self-Timed Exercises. New York: Longman, 1970.

S. Counsil
55

.............................................................................................................................................

Week 3:

Sample essay
Essay Topics with Sample Essays
Solving Social Problems

Motorcyclists. Should there be helmet laws to prevent injuries and death?
Source: VirginiaLynne, CC-BY, via HubPages
What is a Problem Solution Essay?
Problem Solution Essays:
describe a problem vividly
propose a solution
argue that the solution is practical, feasible, cost-effective and workable
explain why this solution is better than other solutions
Still struggling about a topic? Scan the lists below of topic ideas my college students have
written about. Remember that you can adapt these general ideas to fit your own school, town or
situation.
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Pick a couple of topics you are interested in and then look at Problem Solution Essay Guide for
ideas on to develop that topic.
Also see: How to Write a Problem Solution Essay: Step by Step Instructions.
If you are teaching Problem Solution essays, or want some other insights, you might want to
look at my article How to Teach a Problem Solution Essay.

Solving Problems
What type of problem are you most interested in solving?
Social Problems
Relationship Problems
Sports and Entertainment Problems
Family Problems
Education problems
Other--tell us in the comments below!
See results without voting
Relationship Problem Solution Essay Topics
1. How can we prevent social media bullying?
2. What is the best way to help someone who is depressed?
3. How can you deal with manipulative and domineering people?
4. How can you help a friend or roommate who is making poor life choices?
5. How can you get out of a bad relationship?
6. How can you move out of the "friend zone"?
7. What is the best way for a woman to show a man she is interested? Should she ask him out?
8. How has texting affected face to face relationships? What can be done to make sure that people
today actually know how to have "real" relationships?
9. How can we get away from stereotypes and racism? What steps can we take as a society? What
steps can we take personally?
10. How can we learn to understand people who are different from us culturally, racially or social
class? How can we break down barriers between people groups?
Social Issues for Problem Solution Essays
1. How can we help homeless people in our community?
2. How can we prevent people from dropping out of high school?
3. What is the best way to prevent teen pregnancy?
4. How can kids be best convinced not to experiment with drugs?
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5. What is the best solution to preventing deaths from drunk driving?
6. How can teenagers be convinced to drive more safely?
7. What can be done to prevent divorce?
8. How can kids whose parents have been divorced be helped to do well in school, have good
relationships and successful lives and marriages?
9. What can be done to eliminate or prevent racism?
10. What is the best way to help people who are victims of family violence?
11. How can we change welfare to help people escape generational poverty?
12. How can we deal with the problem of illegal immigration?
13. What should we do about the increase in gun violence?
14. How can we best rehabilitate prisoners so that they can be productive members of society?
15. How can health care be given more equally around the world?
16. How can we improve literacy?
17. What can be done to prevent human trafficking?
18. How can we prevent children from being negatively influenced by violence and pornography in
media such as video games, movies and the Internet?
19. How can we persuade people to make healthy lifestyle choices like not smoking, exercising and
keeping a correct BMI?
20. How can we balance the right for free speech with the right to not be insulted or abused?
21. Choose a city you know. How can that city be made more bicycle and pedestrian friendly?
22. How can we best reduce the problem of terrorism?
23. Should there be controls on the media in the way they portray celebrities?
24. How can we handle the problem of data mining, or the fact that our social profile is being used
by businesses and colleges?
25. What should we do to help people get jobs?
Solving Problems by Working Backwards
Sports Solution Papers

Swim team. Should schools offer more non-traditional sports?
58

Sample Problem Solution Essays
Solving the Problem of the "Freshman 15"
How to Solve the Problem of Dirty Dorm Showers
Solving the Problem of Media Trials
Solving Room Mate Troubles

Problem Solution Essays about Sports
1. How can steroid use be limited in sports (or pick a particular sport to talk about)?
2. Should college athletes be paid? How can colleges handle the combination of athletics, college
educations and business better?
3. Do kids train too hard in athletics at young ages? What is the best way for a young athlete to
learn a sport? (You might want to talk about a particular sport you know well).
4. How can coaches best encourage their athletes to do their best?
5. Think about your local sports team. What can be done to make that team more effective? How
can the fans be made to support the team more?
6. Pick your favorite sport. How can someone best prepare themselves to be excellent at that
sport?
7. How can sports media be more effective at covering a sport you like to watch? Should the
announcers be biased or not? Which games should be covered? What types of interviews and
special features make the sport more interesting to watch.
8. How should a coach or player handle media interviews when they lose a big game?
9. How can players prepare themselves for the inevitable loss in sports?
10. What should professional players do to prepare themselves for retirement or injury?
11. Pick your favorite sport. How much should players get paid? Should there be salary caps? How
should money be divided?
12. Think about your favorite venue to watch sports live. What could be done to make that venue a
better place to watch the sport?

59

College Solution Ideas

College class: Should college professors be required to use formats other than lecturing?
Source: By Koonwoop (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)
Education Problem Solution Essay Topics
When you do a Problem Solution Essay topic about education, you can narrow your paper topic
to talk just about your own state, or even your own school.
1. How can we make education better for kids who have trouble in school?
2. How can schools help the problem of childhood obesity?
3. How can schools best educate special education students?
4. How can schools better allocate money and resources for sports, fine arts and other special
programs?
5. What should be done about misbehaving and disrupting students?
6. What should be done to make Gifted and Talented education programs effective?
7. How can we help kids who are in failing schools?
8. How can home schooled kids be helped to be ready for college?
9. What can be done to stop bullying, teasing and violence in schools?
10. How can we be sure that students are learning what they need to know? Is a nationalized test
the answer? How should testing in schools be handled?
11. How can cheating in school be best handled? What can teachers do? What should students do?
12. Should all students be required to to learn a foreign language? Should we start teaching
languages like Chinese or Arabic more?
13. Should schools move to all digital textbooks? Is it a good idea to give every child an iPad or
laptop? How can schools adapt to changing technology?
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14. Should schools have a common core curriculum? If so, what should that be like? What does
every student need to know?
15. Would the United States benefit from changing to a more European style education system?
16. Should schools require more physical education? How can schools help develop a healthier
society?
College Life Problem Solution Topics
1. How can college be made more affordable?
2. How can college students study effectively to make better grades?
3. How can a student avoid procrastinating?
4. How can college students avoid the "Freshman 15" and eat healthy in college?
5. How can college students keep in shape and work out when they aren't in sports like they were
in high school?
6. What is the best way for college students to balance work, studying, classes and social life?
7. How can college students handle problems with room mates?
8. How can college students ask parents for more money effectively?
9. How can parents of college students let go?
10. What is the best way for college students to convince their parents to let them be independent?
11. What should you do about loud neighbors in your dorm or apartment?
12. How can you handle a long distance relationship in college?
13. What can college students do when they have a suicidal friend?
14. How can college students decide on a major?
15. How should you decide what college to attend?
16. What should you do if you don't get something you had expected and hoped for like a
scholarship, college admission, or acceptance into a special program?
17. How can students learn to be better test takers?
18. How should college instructors handle attendance in class?
19. What can be done to make college students more active participants in politics and elections?
20. How can colleges be made more safe?
21. Should parents be allowed to know the grades of their students in college? How can colleges
help students who are failing get back on track?
22. What can be done to help relieve stress in college?
23. How can students solve the problem of not being able to pay attention in class?
24. How can college students overcome homesickness?
25. How can college students manage their money effectively?
26. What can be done to make college more affordable? Should the government support college
education more?
27. How should a student decide whether to rush a sorority or fraternity?
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Essay Topics about Children

Kids Playing Outside. How can parents encourage children to spend more time outside playing?
Parenting and Family Life Problem Solution Topics
1. How can parents handle their child's cell phone and social media use appropriately?
2. Should parents be held responsible for the obesity of their children? (and perhaps be removed
from the home?).
3. How can parents help their children have a correct body image and avoid eating disorders?
4. What can be done about parents who push too hard for their children to achieve in sports,
academics, fine arts or another area?
5. What can be done to increase the number of children who are adopted? To prevent people
from aging out of the child welfare system without a family who cares for them?
6. What is the best way to help families who have a child with mental illness?
7. How can parents teach their children about money management?
8. What is the best way for parents to discipline their children?
9. How can parents encourage their children to be honest?
10. What is the importance of a religious education? How should parents handle teaching faith to
their children?
62

How to Solve Problems by Inventing
Solving Issues about Driving

Teen Driver: How can beginning drivers be trained better?
Problem Solution Topics about Driving
1. What should be done about the problem of texting and driving?
2. How can parking be handled better on your college campus (or other busy area you know where
it is difficult to park)?
3. What is the best way for students to be trained to be good drivers? Should there be any changes
to the current laws of your state?
4. How can traffic movement around your town be changed so that driving is easier and less
stressful?
5. How can people be encouraged to take public transportation? What needs to be done to make
public transportation an effective possibility for more people in your town?
6. How should we encourage people to be better drivers?
7. What should the speed limits be? Are there any changes in the traffic laws that would make
driving better?
8. What is the best way to find the route to some place you've not been before? GPS? Google
Maps? Directions from a friend? How can beginning drivers be helped best?
9. What are the worst traffic violations? How can these be prevented?
10. Is the current driver's education in your state effective? What can be done to improve it?
11. What is the best way to prevent DUI and deaths due to drunk driving?
100 Problem Solution Essay Topics with Sample Essays
http://virginialynne.hubpages.com/hub/100-Problem-Solution-Essay-Topics-with-Sample-Essays

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Problem Solution Essay Questions:
_______________________________________________
Overpopulation of urban areas has led to numerous problems.
Identify one or two serious ones and suggest ways that governments and individuals can tackle
these problems.
_______________________________________________
Nowadays many people have access to computers on a wide basis and a large number of
children play computer games.
What are the negative impacts of playing computer games and what can be done to minimize the
bad effects?
_______________________________________________
The internet has transformed the way information is shared and consumed, but it has also
created problems that did not exist before.
What are the most serious problems associated with the internet and what solutions can you
suggest?
_______________________________________________
In the developed world, average life expectancy is increasing.
What problems will this cause for individuals and society?
Suggest some measures that could be taken to reduce the impact of ageing populations.
_______________________________________________
An important note. Some essays ask for reasons and solutions, not problems and solutions.
Writing about a reason (or cause) is not the same as writing about a problem.
Check these model essays to see the difference.

Problem Solution Example Essay
In order to understand these types of problem solution essays further and how to organize your
writing, we'll look at a problem solution example essay:
64

The internet has transformed the way information is shared and
consumed, but it has also created problems that did not exist before.
What are the most serious problems associated with the internet
and what solutions can you suggest?
The enormous growth in the use of the internet over the last decade has led to radical changes to
the way that people consume and share information. Although serious problems have arisen as a
result of this, there are solutions.
One of the first problems of the internet is the ease with which children can access potentially
dangerous sites. For example, pornography sites are easily accessible to them because they can
register with a site and claim to be an adult. There is no doubt that this affects their thoughts and
development, which is a negative impact for the children and for society. Another major problem
is the growth of online fraud and hacking. These days, there are constant news stories about
government and company websites that have been hacked, resulting in sensitive information
falling into the hands of criminals.
It is important that action is taken to combat these problems. Governments should ensure that
adequate legislation and controls are in place that will prevent young people from accessing
dangerous sites, such as requiring more than simply confirming that you are an adult to view a
site. Parents also have a part to play. They need to closely monitor the activities of their children
and restrict their access to certain sites, which can now be done through various computer
programs. Companies must also improve their onsite IT security systems to make fraud and
hacking much more difficult by undertaking thorough reviews of their current systems for
weaknesses.
To conclude, the internet is an amazing technological innovation that has transformed peoples
lives, but not without negative impacts. However, with the right action by individuals,
governments and businesses, it can be made a safe place for everyone.
(285 words)

Writing about Problems
From the problem solution essay, look at the problems paragraph, and answer the following
questions (then click on the link below to see the answers):
1. How many problems are discussed?
2. What are they?
3. What expressions are used to introduce the problems?
4. How are the problems illustrated further?
5. What results are discussed for each problem?
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Show / hide answers
1) How many problems are discussed?
2
2) What are they?
children can access potentially dangerous sites
growth of online fraud and hacking
3) What expressions are used to introduce the problems?
One of the first problems of the internet is...
Another major problem is...
4) How are the problems illustrated further?
For example, pornography sites are easily accessible to them because they can register with a
site and claim to be an adult.
These days, there are constant news stories about government and company websites that have
been hacked.
5) What results are discussed for each problem?
There is no doubt that this affects their thoughts and development, which is a negative impact for
the children and for society.
...resulting in sensitive information falling into the hands of criminals.

Your answers to these questions should tell you a lot about how to plan and organize a problem
paragraph.
You only need two or three problems as remember you do not have much time and you need to
explain the problems.
When you brainstorm your ideas for problem solution essays, think about (a) what the problem is
(b) how you will explain it (c) and what the effect is. Your paragraph will then follow this
pattern.
Here is an example of the brainstorming for this paragraph:
66

Problem 1: children can access potentially dangerous sites
Explanation / Example: Pornography sites
Result: Affects thought & development - negative for children & society
Problem 2: growth of online fraud and hacking
Explanation / Example: Evident from the constant news stories
Result: Criminals get sensitive information

Here they are illustrated in the paragraph, with the introductory expressions underlined:
One of the first problems of the internet is the ease with which children can access potentially
dangerous sites. For example, pornography sites are easily accessible to them because they
can register with a site and claim to be an adult. There is no doubt that this affects their
thoughts and development, which is a negative impact for the children and for society. Another
major problem is the growth of online fraud and hacking. These days, there are constant news
stories about government and company websites that have been hacked, resulting in
sensitive information falling into the hands of criminals.

Writing about Solutions
Answer the following questions about the solutions paragraph:
1. How many solutions are given?
2. What are they?
3. What three different groups of people does the writer say are responsble for these solutions?
4. How would the solutions be implemented?
5. What three modal verb structures are used to make the suggestions?
Show / hide answers
1) How many solutions are given?
3
2) What are they?
adequate legislation and controls
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monitor the activities of children / restrict access
improve company IT security systems
3) What three different groups of people does the writer say are responsble for these
solutions?
Governments
Parents
Companies
4) How would the solutions be implemented?
Stricter criteria for accessing sites
Using computer programs
Reviewing current IT systems for weaknesses
5) What three modal verb structures are used to make the suggestions?
should
need to
must
Your answers to these questions provides you with some key tips on writing a solutions
paragraph. Some of these points are now explained further.
a) The people involved
When you come to brainstorm your solutions, think of the key 'actors' who are involved. It is
usually governments and individuals in some way or another.
There may be another group specifically realted to the topic. For example, in this case it is
companies and parents. If you are discussing crime it could be the police. If it is violence on TV
it could be TV and film producers.
You can then brainstorm your ideas under each 'group' and organize them in the same way.
b) Developing your solutions
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Also, try to make sure your solutions are not too simplistic. It's all too easy to make sweeping
generalizations about what people can do. For example, look at this idea:
The government should introduce stricter laws.
It it common to see such statements in IELTS problem solution essays with no further
explantion. Give more detail about how or why this would work. For example:
Governments should ensure that adequate legislation and controls are in place that will prevent
young people from accessing dangerous sites, such as requiring more than simply confirming
that you are an adult to view a site.
Some specific detail has now been given on how this solution could work.
b) Modal Verbs
Modal verbs can be used to make suggestions in problem solution essays. These are usually
found in solutions paragraphs.
Check out this grammar lesson if you are unsure how to use modal verbs.
Here again is a plan for the problem solution essay for the solutions paragraph:
Solution 1: Governments
Idea: Adequate legislation and controls for young people
How: More complex website access criteria
Solution 2: Parents
Idea: Monitor children and restrict access
How: Use a computer program
Solution 3: Companies
Idea: I mprove I T security systems
How: Review current systems in place
Here is the paragraph again. Note how it follows the plan and the clear topic sentence that tells
the reader the essay is moving on to discuss solutions (modals verbs are underlined):
69

I t is important that action is taken to combat these problems. Governments should ensure that
adequate legislation and controls are in place that will prevent young people from accessing
dangerous sites, such as requiring more than simply confirming that you are an adult to view a
site. Parents also have a part to play. They need to closely monitor the activities of their
children and restrict their access to certain sites, which can now be done through various
computer programs. Companies must also improve their onsite I T security systems to make
fraud and hacking much more difficult by undertaking thorough reviews of their current
systems for weaknesses.

...................................................

The Question
What is your approach to problem-solving, and how does it work for you? Use specific details to
support your response.
Sample Essay 1
Everybody faces different problems everyday. Therefore, everyone has a different approach to
problem-solving. While some prefer to procrastinate, not to think of the problem, or even to
pretend there's no problem at all, I prefer to look for the most effective and easy way to solve it.
For me there are two main ways to find a solution for a problem. The first one, which I mostly
use, is to try to imagine the consequences of different possible solutions. That helps me compare
some of them and eventually make a desicion what to make. Moreover, this method helps me
finding how can I turn a difficult situation in my favor.
The second approach to problem-solving for me is the so called brain-storming. When I choose
this method, I write down everything that crosses my mind. Although it doesn't sound very
useful, sometimes great ideas appear. Therefore, I think that this method is also useful.
To give an example how these methods work for me, I'll describe a recent problem. Last week,
there was a big party which I wanted to visit, but my mother didn't let me go, because of my
unsatisfactory performance in school. I was really disappointed, so I began writing down
everything that crossed my mind. After some inacceptable ideas I came to the conclusion that the
best solution for this problem would be to talk to my mother. I spoke to her and promise her that
I'll become more studious at school. She agreed with me and I went to that party. Moreover, I
already improved my performance in school. In the end, everyone is happy, which means that I
chose the best solution.
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In conclusion, my approach to problem-solving is brain-storming and trying to imagine the
outcome of the situation. These two methods work good for me, I already solved many problems
using them and that's why I'll continue to use them when I need them.
Tutor Comments
You've used a different type of organization here - intro - reason 1 - reason 2 - explanation -
conclusion - but it works. I recommend the simpler intro - reason 1 - reason 2 - conclusion
format but use whatever works for you.
Here are a few general notes:
1. You should say "solution TO a problem" instead of "FOR a problem"
2. "and eventually decide what decision to make"
3. "helps me find how I can turn a difficult situation..."
4. You don't need to say "so called" brainstorming. Brainstorming is a known thing. It isn't "so
called."
5. Don't need the comma before "because" in your fourth paragraph.
6. "unacceptable," not "inacceptable." The latter is NOT a word.
7. "promised" not "promise." Likewise... "everyone WAS happy." Remember that you're talking
about the past.
8. Start a new sentence with "I already solved many problems."
That list of corrections is not comprehensive, but it should highlight enough to be useful.
Overall this is really great work. Keep it up.

Sample TOEFL Essays - Approach to Problem Solving

http://www.toeflresources.com/index.php?id=sample-toefl-essays-x
...........................................................................
71

Sample Harvard essay

A major change that has occurred in the Western family is an increased incidence in divorce.
Whereas in the past, divorce was a relatively rare occurrence, in recent times it has become quite
commonplace. This change is borne out clearly in census figures. For example thirty years ago in
Australia, only one marriage in ten ended in divorce; nowadays the figure is more than one in
three (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1996: p.45). A consequence of this change has been a
substantial increase in the number of single parent families and the attendant problems that this
brings (Kilmartin, 1997).

An important issue for sociologists, and indeed for all of society, is why these changes in marital
patterns have occurred. In this essay I will seek to critically examine a number of sociological
explanations for the 'divorce phenomenon' and also consider the social policy implications that
each explanation carries with it. It will be argued that the best explanations are to be found
within a broad socio-economic framework.

One type of explanation for rising divorce has focused on changes in laws relating to marriage.
For example, Bilton, Bonnett and Jones (1987) argue that increased rates of divorce do not
necessarily indicate that families are now more unstable. It is possible, they claim, that there has
always been a degree of marital instability. They suggest that changes in the law have been
significant, because they have provided unhappily married couples with 'access to a legal
solution to pre-existent marital problems' (p.301). Bilton et al. therefore believe that changes in
divorce rates can be best explained in terms of changes in the legal system. The problem with
this type of explanation however, is that it does not consider why these laws have changed in the
first place. It could be argued that reforms to family law, as well as the increased rate of divorce
that has accompanied them, are the product of more fundamental changes in society.

Another type of explanation is one that focuses precisely on these broad societal changes. For
example, Nicky Hart (cited in Haralambos, 1995) argues that increases in divorce and marital
breakdown are the result of economic changes that have affected the family. One example of
these changes is the raised material aspirations of families, which Hart suggests has put pressure
on both spouses to become wage earners. Women as a result have been forced to become both
homemakers and economic providers. According to Hart, the contradiction of these two roles has
lead to conflict and this is the main cause of marital breakdown. It would appear that Hart's
explanation cannot account for all cases of divorce - for example, marital breakdown is liable to
occur in families where only the husband is working. Nevertheless, her approach, which is to
relate changes in family relations to broader social forces, would seem to be more probing than
one that looks only at legislative change.
72

The two explanations described above have very different implications for social policy,
especially in relation to how the problem of increasing marital instability might be dealt with.
Bilton et al. (1995) offer a legal explanation and hence would see the solutions also being
determined in this domain. If rises in divorce are thought to be the consequence of liberal divorce
laws, the obvious way to stem this rise is to make them less obtainable. This approach, one
imagines, would lead to a reduction in divorce statistics; however, it cannot really be held up as a
genuine solution to the problems of marital stress and breakdown in society. Indeed it would
seem to be a solution directed more at symptoms than addressing fundamental causes.
Furthermore, the experience of social workers, working in the area of family welfare suggests
that restricting a couple's access to divorce would in some cases serve only to exacerbate existing
marital problems (Johnson, 1981). In those cases where violence is involved, the consequences
could be tragic. Apart from all this, returning to more restrictive divorce laws seems to be a
solution little favoured by Australians. (Harrison, 1990).

Hart (cited in Haralambos, 1995), writing from a Marxist-feminist position, traces marital
conflict to changes in the capitalist economic system and their resultant effect on the roles of
men and women. It is difficult to know however, how such an analysis might be translated into
practical social policies. This is because the Hart program would appear to require in the first
place a radical restructuring of the economic system. Whilst this may be desirable for some, it is
not achievable in the present political climate. Hart is right however, to suggest that much
marital conflict can be linked in some way to the economic circumstances of families. This is
borne out in many statistical surveys which show consistently that rates of divorce are higher
among socially disadvantaged families (McDonald, 1993). This situation suggests then that
social policies need to be geared to providing support and security for these types of families. It
is little cause for optimism however, that in recent years governments of all persuasions have
shown an increasing reluctance to fund social welfare programs of this kind.

It is difficult to offer a comprehensive explanation for the growing trend of marital breakdown;
and it is even more difficult to find solutions that might ameliorate the problems created by it.
Clearly though, as I have argued in this essay, the most useful answers are to be found not within
a narrow legal framework, but within a broader socio-economic one.

Finally, it is worth pointing out that, whilst we may appear to be living in a time of increased
family instability, research suggests that historically, instability may have been the norm rather
than the exception. As Bell and Zajdow (1997) point out, in the past, single parent and step
families were more common than is assumed - although the disruptive influence then was not
divorce, but the premature death of one or both parents. This situation suggests that in studying
73

the modern family, one needs to employ a historical perspective, including the possibility of
looking to the past in searching for ways of dealing with problems in the present.
References

Australian Bureau of Statistics (1996). Divorces, Australia. Canberra: Australian Government
Printing Service.

Bell, R. and G. Zajdow (1997) Family and household. In R. Jureidini, S. Kenny and M. Poole
(eds). Sociology: Australian Connections. St Leonards. NSW: Allen and Unwin

Bilton, T., K. Bonnett and P. Jones (1987). Introductory Sociology, 2nd edition. London:
MacMillan.

Haralambos, M. (1995). Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, 3rd edition. London: Bell and
Hyman.

Harrison, M. (1995). Grounds for divorce. Family Matters. No 42 pp 34-35.

Johnson, V. (1981). The Last Resort: A Women's Refuge. Ringwood: Penguin.

Kilmartin, C. (1997). Children divorce and one-parent families. Family Matters. No. 48. (
Available On-line Opens in a new window)

McDonald, P. (1993). Family Trends and Structure in Australia. Australian Family Briefings No
3. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.

74

http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/general/essay/analysing-citations/2.xml

Report writing

There are many different types of reports - scientific lab reports, business reports, systems
analysis reports, management case study reports, feasibility studies, client case work reports. All
of these different reports have their own formats and conventions.

In this tutorial you can examine a sample first-year management case study report. The report
received a grade of High Distinction. Comment is made by the subject lecturer and Language
and Learning staff on the structure, presentation, and expression used in the report, and
improvements are suggested.

In your field of study, you will need to find out exactly what the accepted report conventions are.
Note that these conventions may vary from one subject to the next.

http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/general/report/index.xml

75

.....................................................................................................

Sample Oxford essay
Topic

The Ned Kelly saga was more than a story about a single outlaw; rather it needs to be seen as a
social phenomenon involving the participation of a large number of supporters and sympathisers.
What explanations can be given for the 'Kelly outbreak'?
Essay

The Kelly outbreak is a famous phenomenon in Australia's colonial history. Whilst some people
prefer to see the outbreak as a simple criminal incident between an outlaw and the police, most
historians view it as a broader sociological phenomenon, involving conflict between a larger
rural community and the colonial authorities.

An important issue for historians has been to understand the underlying causes of this criminal
outbreak, whether it was mainly due to personal, ethnic or socio-economic factors. This essay
will critically examine each of these explanations and argue that the actions of the Kellys and
their supporters, and the reactions of the police can best be understood in terms of broad socio-
economic developments in rural Victoria at the time.

In his article, Ned Kelly's Sympathisers, Doug Morrissey suggests that Kelly's Irish heritage was
largely responsible for the Kelly outbreak 1. To support his claim, he points to the intense
emotional relationships in the Quinn/Kelly clan and the high percentage of Irish sympathisers
among Ned's supporters 2.

Ned Kelly was clearly imbued with a sense of his Irish heritage, but the evidence does not
suggest that this was a major contributing factor in the outbreak. Public sympathy, it seemed,
crossed social and ethnic barriers 3 and was quite widespread, especially after the Euroa National
Bank robbery, where the efficiency, lack of violence and manner of the gang were well noted 4.
Furthermore, Ned once stated that he considered himself an Australian rather than an Irishman,
76

and his lifestyle, and his concern with local issues shown in his letters lend credence to this
statement 5.

Angus McIntyre, another Kelly historian, suggests two causes for the outbreak: vengeance for
the harsh sentence given to Ned's mother on a charge of aiding and abetting an attempted
murder, and Ned's self-centredness 6. According to McIntyre, Ned had delusions of grandeur and
considered himself capable of any feat. McIntyr attributes the great loyalties Ned inspired as well
as his eventual downfall to this 'grandiose' image he had of himself 7.

There appears to be some merit in this interpretation. After his father's death in 1866, Ned Kelly
became the male head of the family, at the age of twelve 8. He would surely have had a great
understanding of his mother's problems in coping with a large and poor family, and this may
explain his reverence for her. The Kelly brothers were also members of the Greta Mob. The
mobs were gangs of native-born youths from various areas in the north-east region, most of
whom migrated seasonally to the Riverina, earning good money from shearing. They were,
according to contemporary observers, 'flash', 'larrikin' and 'displayed a disregard for authority' 9.
Ned Kelly was held in high esteem by his fellows as he excelled in most of their activities -
marksmanship, bushcraft, fighting and perhaps the most important pursuit of all lampooning
authority. This may have been the basis for Ned's alleged 'elevated conception of his powers' 10.

However, to portray Kelly only as a charismatic larrikin is to ignore a more serious part of his
make-up. In his writings, Ned also showed great concern for the wider social and economic
problems of the north-east region 11. I am not sure that the man Dr. McIntyre describes would
have shown such concern. Mrs. Kelly's arrest, conviction and sentence - based on, at best very
confusing evidence - may have provided the impetus for the outbreak, but there appear to be
more substantial reasons why a significant part of the community lent its support to the Kelly
cause. McIntyre's analysis may help to explain why it was Ned himself who led the uprising -
and not somebody else - but fails to take account of the fact that it was such a widespread social
phenomenon.

John McQuilton argues that the outbreak was the result of economic and social ills prevalent in
the region and that given such conditions was virtually inevitable 12. In particular McQuilton
focuses on the dramatic changes in technology, in land use systems and in social systems that
occurred during this period. These changes, he argues, could not fail to produce 'profound
results', one of which was an outbreak of social banditry 13 . Evidence from the period strongly
supports such a view.

77

The region was first occupied by squatters during the late 1830s and 1840s, and was largely
settled by 1847. By 1850, several villages were established, there were good seasons and high
wool prices .... 14

Between 1860 and 1880 several land reform laws were introduced, intended to halt the
monopoly of the squatters by creating a new rural class from the diggers - now experiencing
diminishing returns on the goldfields. These laws made available small freeholds of pastoral land
for 'selection' by any man or (single) woman over the age of eighteen.... 15

This effort to make land available to the new rural classes proved a failure however. The
government's and the selectors' knowledge of agriculture, shaped by the European experience,
proved largely to be inapplicable to Australia .. 16

In addition, selection was opposed and obstructed by the squatters who used their superior
knowledge of land conditions, political and financial influence, and evasion of certain
regulations of the Land Acts to amass large holdings of premium land, leaving poorer land to
selectors. ... 17

This situation caused hardship and poverty among selectors, and stock theft became an
increasing problem as the selectors sought to supplement meagre food supplies and income with
stock stolen from squatters ...

Police inefficiency, corruption and harassment of selectors, and harsh treatment from
magistrates, who were often themselves squatters heightened the antagonism ... 18

The social atmosphere in the district at the time of the Kelly outbreak was one of bitternes and
turbulence ... As McQuilton 19 argues, the outbreak needs to be seen as an extreme
manifestation of the squatter/selector conflict based on unequal distribution of rural resources. ...

To conclude, the Kelly outbreak cannot be understood without examining the social and political
events which preceded it. The land acts of the 1860s, the reaction of the squatters, the
Government's and selectors' ignorance of the regional landscape caused widespread poverty
78

among the selectors. The new set of mores that emerged, in which the stealing and borrowing of
squatters' stock was accepted and even condoned, brought the selectors into direct conflict with
the police, who often acted as the squatters' men. This produced a social structure in which the
squatters and selectors were directly opposed. These events can be seen as the underlying cause
of the Kelly outbreak.

1Doug Morrisey: 'Ned Kelly's Sympathisers', Historical Studies, Vol 18, no 71 October 1978, pp.
290- 291.
2Ibid, p.295
3The Age , 19 November, 1878.
4McQuilton, J. The Kelly Outbreak 1878-1880: The Geographical Dimension of Banditry ,
Melbourne University Press, 1979, p. 188.
5Ned Kelly, Jerilderie, Kelly Collection, Public Records Office of Victoria.
6Angus McIntyre, 'Ned Kelly, A Folk Hero', in John Carroll, ed. Intruders in the Bush,
Melbourne, Oxford University Press. 1982, pp 38-53.
7Ibid, p. 38.
8McQuilton, op. cit. p. 75.
9Ibid, p55.
10McIntyre, op.cit. p38.
11Ned Kelly, Jerilderie, Kelly Collection, Public Records Office of Victoria.
12McQuilton, op.cit.
13Ibid, p. 4.
14Ibid p. 11.
15Geoffrey Searle, The Golden Age, Melbourne University Press 1963, ch. 9.
16I.D. McNaughton, 'Colonial Liberalism 1852-92', in Gordon Greenwood, ed. Austral , Angus
and Robertson, Sydney., 1955, pp 118-119.
17Searle op.cit. ch. 10.
79

18McQuilton, op. cit. ch. 3
19Ibid

................................................................................................

Sample essay

The remainder of this essay writing tutorial is based on a short sample 'divorce essay' (about
1,000 words).

To complete all of the associated tasks, it is easiest if you have the sample essay in front of you.

A major change that has occurred in the Western family is an increased incidence in divorce.
Whereas in the past, divorce was a relatively rare occurrence, in recent times it has become quite
commonplace. This change is borne out clearly in census figures. For example thirty years ago in
Australia, only one marriage in ten ended in divorce; nowadays the figure is more than one in
three (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1996: p.45). A consequence of this change has been a
substantial increase in the number of single parent families and the attendant problems that this
brings (Kilmartin, 1997).

An important issue for sociologists, and indeed for all of society, is why these changes in marital
patterns have occurred. In this essay I will seek to critically examine a number of sociological
explanations for the 'divorce phenomenon' and also consider the social policy implications that
each explanation carries with it. It will be argued that the best explanations are to be found
within a broad socio-economic framework.

One type of explanation for rising divorce has focused on changes in laws relating to marriage.
For example, Bilton, Bonnett and Jones (1987) argue that increased rates of divorce do not
necessarily indicate that families are now more unstable. It is possible, they claim, that there has
80

always been a degree of marital instability. They suggest that changes in the law have been
significant, because they have provided unhappily married couples with 'access to a legal
solution to pre-existent marital problems' (p.301). Bilton et al. therefore believe that changes in
divorce rates can be best explained in terms of changes in the legal system. The problem with
this type of explanation however, is that it does not consider why these laws have changed in the
first place. It could be argued that reforms to family law, as well as the increased rate of divorce
that has accompanied them, are the product of more fundamental changes in society.

Another type of explanation is one that focuses precisely on these broad societal changes. For
example, Nicky Hart (cited in Haralambos, 1995) argues that increases in divorce and marital
breakdown are the result of economic changes that have affected the family. One example of
these changes is the raised material aspirations of families, which Hart suggests has put pressure
on both spouses to become wage earners. Women as a result have been forced to become both
homemakers and economic providers. According to Hart, the contradiction of these two roles has
lead to conflict and this is the main cause of marital breakdown. It would appear that Hart's
explanation cannot account for all cases of divorce - for example, marital breakdown is liable to
occur in families where only the husband is working. Nevertheless, her approach, which is to
relate changes in family relations to broader social forces, would seem to be more probing than
one that looks only at legislative change.

The two explanations described above have very different implications for social policy,
especially in relation to how the problem of increasing marital instability might be dealt with.
Bilton et al. (1995) offer a legal explanation and hence would see the solutions also being
determined in this domain. If rises in divorce are thought to be the consequence of liberal divorce
laws, the obvious way to stem this rise is to make them less obtainable. This approach, one
imagines, would lead to a reduction in divorce statistics; however, it cannot really be held up as a
genuine solution to the problems of marital stress and breakdown in society. Indeed it would
seem to be a solution directed more at symptoms than addressing fundamental causes.
Furthermore, the experience of social workers, working in the area of family welfare suggests
that restricting a couple's access to divorce would in some cases serve only to exacerbate existing
marital problems (Johnson, 1981). In those cases where violence is involved, the consequences
could be tragic. Apart from all this, returning to more restrictive divorce laws seems to be a
solution little favoured by Australians. (Harrison, 1990).

Hart (cited in Haralambos, 1995), writing from a Marxist-feminist position, traces marital
conflict to changes in the capitalist economic system and their resultant effect on the roles of
men and women. It is difficult to know however, how such an analysis might be translated into
practical social policies. This is because the Hart program would appear to require in the first
place a radical restructuring of the economic system. Whilst this may be desirable for some, it is
not achievable in the present political climate. Hart is right however, to suggest that much
81

marital conflict can be linked in some way to the economic circumstances of families. This is
borne out in many statistical surveys which show consistently that rates of divorce are higher
among socially disadvantaged families (McDonald, 1993). This situation suggests then that
social policies need to be geared to providing support and security for these types of families. It
is little cause for optimism however, that in recent years governments of all persuasions have
shown an increasing reluctance to fund social welfare programs of this kind.

It is difficult to offer a comprehensive explanation for the growing trend of marital breakdown;
and it is even more difficult to find solutions that might ameliorate the problems created by it.
Clearly though, as I have argued in this essay, the most useful answers are to be found not within
a narrow legal framework, but within a broader socio-economic one.

Finally, it is worth pointing out that, whilst we may appear to be living in a time of increased
family instability, research suggests that historically, instability may have been the norm rather
than the exception. As Bell and Zajdow (1997) point out, in the past, single parent and step
families were more common than is assumed - although the disruptive influence then was not
divorce, but the premature death of one or both parents. This situation suggests that in studying
the modern family, one needs to employ a historical perspective, including the possibility of
looking to the past in searching for ways of dealing with problems in the present.
References

Australian Bureau of Statistics (1996). Divorces, Australia. Canberra: Australian Government
Printing Service.

Bell, R. and G. Zajdow (1997) Family and household. In R. Jureidini, S. Kenny and M. Poole
(eds). Sociology: Australian Connections. St Leonards. NSW: Allen and Unwin

Bilton, T., K. Bonnett and P. Jones (1987). Introductory Sociology, 2nd edition. London:
MacMillan.

Haralambos, M. (1995). Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, 3rd edition. London: Bell and
Hyman.
82

Harrison, M. (1995). Grounds for divorce. Family Matters. No 42 pp 34-35.

Johnson, V. (1981). The Last Resort: A Women's Refuge. Ringwood: Penguin.

Kilmartin, C. (1997). Children divorce and one-parent families. Family Matters. No. 48. (
Available On-line Opens in a new window)

McDonald, P. (1993). Family Trends and Structure in Australia. Australian Family Briefings No
3. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.

...............................................................................................

Effects of Overpopulation in
Mexico
It's a fact that day by day population in
Mexico is increasing, and this causes many
social, economic, and pollution problems.
The main purpose of this essay is to discuss
the three main effects of overpopulation in
Mexico.
The first major effect of overpopulation in
Mexico is unemployment. First of all, there
aren't enough sources of jobs in Mexico, so
only the most prepared people get a job.
83

This is a great social and economic problem because people who don't work get frustrated and
can't support their families.
The second effect of overpopulation in Mexico is the low quality of public services. Natural
resources, like water or food, aren't enough for so many people, so there is a lot of thirst and
hunger in the country. Also, the level of education is quite low because there are a lot of children
or young people who must study, and there are not enough schools or teachers. The same
happens with health; hospitals aren't capable of giving attention to all the people who need it, so
there are a lot of diseases.
The most significant effect of overpopulation in Mexico is the high level of pollution. Because a
great number of people must go by car to their jobs at the same time, amazing traffic jams are
caused. This, together with the noise caused by cars and people, causes a great amount of
pollution. Also, every day people generate a lot of trash, and this pollutes both water and ground.
All the effects of over population that I have said make a cycle. For example, pollution causes
diseases, and these diseases can't be attended because of the insufficient hospitals. That's why I
think that we must find a way to organize all the people who live in this country, so we could
live in a better environment and have a better quality of life. We must also learn to take care of
the natural resources and think of those who are coming. If we don't stop spending our resources
and polluting, the next generations will have a huge problem. Finally, I think that Mexico needs
to generate more sources of jobs, so everybody can work and satisfy their needs.
Copyright Eslbee.com, 2001-2013. All rights reserved.
http://eslbee.com/effects_of_overpopulation_in_mexico.htm

The Effects of Exercise
The purpose of this paper is to discuss
the effects of exercise in your absolute
health (mental, social, and physical
health). If you are not well in one of the
three parts, you are not completely
healthy. Exercising is a free time
activity that helps people to feel good in
every aspect of the health definition.
The best known part that exercising
84

improves is the physical part. The physical effect of exercising is that every part and system of
our body is in continuous movement. There are many parts in our body that benefit from
exercise, but one of the most important parts that exercising helps is the cardiovascular system.
For example, when you exercise, muscles move, and to move, muscles need oxygen in the blood,
so the heart has to pump blood in a faster rhythm to keep the muscles moving. This trains your
heart and lungs giving you more strength for the future.
Another part of the definition of health is mental health. This aspect is for me one of the aspects
that makes people exercise. Exercise distracts and relaxes you for a while because in your
exercise, you are discharging many feelings and incommodities, such as stress. Many people feel
that after exercising, all the problems and pressures of their lifestyle disappear or at least are
forgotten for a while. While exercising problems of our lives can be solved because you are calm
and relaxed, and it is just much easier to think clearly.
The social aspect of health is helped with exercise because many of the sports are or can be made
with someone else. This makes stronger relationships because you meet people that are like you
and share the same things. I think that this makes you feel more secure and learn about human
relationships.
Exercising is an activity that touches the three aspects of health. By exercising you could
improve the functioning of your body, be calm in your mind, and meet new people which make a
healthier life. I think that another benefit of exercising is the satisfaction of doing something that
helps you to live healthy. This idea causes many people to think of exercise as a drug. You
should try it. Exercise, and be healthy.

Causes of Anorexia
Have you ever felt afraid of gaining
weight? If the answer is affirmative, just
be careful. Sometimes wishing to have a
perfect body can be dangerous. Desires
like those could be the origin to a very
well known disease called anorexia
which is an eating disorder characterized
by low body weight and fear of
becoming fat. Even when anorexia is
linked to a physical condition, the real
causes of anorexia are related to an
individuals emotionality. The purpose
85

of this essay is to discuss the main causes of anorexia which are worthless personal feelings,
stressful events in life, and cultural influence of the country where the person is living.
The first cause of anorexia and, in my opinion, the most important is a worthless personal
feeling. A person who has a low self-esteem usually feels useless and valueless, despite
achievements in his life, and he doesnt like the way he looks. These feelings cause the
individual to feel rejection and an alleged pressure from the society. As a consequence, an
anorexic person is always looking for the perfection.
The second and an important cause of Anorexia is the existence of stressful events in life. It is
usually that you feel stressed and worried when you are working under pressure, or it is common
that you suffer nervousness as a consequence of experience life changes. These situations begin
to affect your schedule and you stop doing some vital activities to stay healthy. In the case of
anorexia, a person begins to stop eating in the right times or even stop eating.
The third and final cause of anorexia is the cultural influence of the country where the person is
living. It is very common that some societies consider that the ideal beauty is based in extreme
thinness. Nowadays, this idea has caused thousands of women and men to go on starvation diets
or use products that supposedly make them lose weight in few days. The use of these products is
originated just by the idea of body perfection.
As you can see, the causes of anorexia which are worthless personal feelings, stressful events in
life, and cultural influence of the country where the person is living, are situations that can look
normal, but that can have deathly
consequences.
Copyright Eslbee.com, 2001-2013. All rights
reserved.
The Effects of Being an Athlete
Practicing a sport is much more than the
sole act of pushing your body through
exhaustion or using your skills to reach
your goal. There are many effects that
show after you get involved in a sport,
physical, human, and social. The purpose
of this paper is to discuss those effects.
The first major effect of practicing a sport
is that you will develop physical abilities.
Your body will be in better shape, and
youll be able to achieve things that
physically you couldnt accomplish before.
For instance your speed, muscular mass,
86

stamina, lung capacity, and elasticity will all increase enormously. By exercising on a regular
basis your body will be healthier, which means fewer diseases and fewer injuries. People with a
healthy life tend to live longer and happier.
The second effect has to do with your personal life. Yes, sports will get very deep into your life.
Practicing a sport requires some time, so you will be entertained for a while everyday instead of
watching television or surfing on the internet. By practicing a sport youll get the chance to
travel to new places where meets are held. And thats not all because once you enter a better
level of competition; you may compete in national or international meets, attract sponsors, and
even make a profit out of it!
Most important is the effect that practicing a sport causes on your person, your social side. You
will meet a lot of people in the business, from beginners to professionals; however, only a small
group of individuals will become your friends to the point of turning into your second family.
That is having a team. As an athlete you will develop a strong character and a competitive spirit.
Besides youll become more disciplined and responsible, which will certainly help you in your
professional life.
The effects of being an athlete shape your body, your life, and your mind in good ways.
Practicing a sport keeps you entertained and far away from boredom. In addition you will have
the chance to experience the amazing feeling of beating all your opponents down from the
quarterfinals or crossing the finish line ahead of everyone else.

The Causes of Poverty in Mexico
Are you aware that 20 million people in Mexico live on less than two dollars a day? Sixty
million people, half the Mexican population, live in poverty, and 20 million of them live in
extreme poverty. Most of the time, garbage is their food, and some days, they dont even eat
anything. This critical situation in Mexico is caused by individual, geographic and political
factors. The purpose of this essay is to analyze these three main causes of poverty in Mexico.
The writer of this essay identifies and supports three main causes of poverty: The first and immediate
cause of poverty in Mexico is.... The second cause of poverty has to do with.... The third and most
significant cause of poverty in Mexico is....
The first and immediate cause of poverty in Mexico is the individual condition. This cause refers
to circumstances and characteristics of poor people. For example, the amount of education, skill,
intelligence, health, and prejudice all have an influence on poverty . The lack of education is one
87

of the most significant factors that contributes to poverty. There is no access to jobs for non-
educated people.
The second cause of poverty has to do with geography. For example, statistics show that people
who live in rural areas far away from the cities are poorer. This is caused by the lack of
communication and transportation in remote rural areas. Because of this, governments cant
provide essential services such as potable water, affordable food, primary health care, and
education. People who live there are totally isolated from the rest of the society.
The third and most significant cause of poverty in Mexico is the political economy of the
country. The International Monetary Fund and World Bank-prescribed structural adjustment
policies have been applied in Mexico because the government doesnt carry out enough policies
to encourage successful development. They cannot, for these international institutions lend
money to Mexico on the condition that the nation open up its economy and cut social
expenditures to repay the loans. The IMF and World Bank programs are supposed to reduce
poverty, but actually they are increasing it.
Unless the Mexican government works on the causes of the poverty which are the individual
condition, the geographic factor, and the political economy of the country, the problem is going
to get worse. Nobody likes to see poor children eating out of garbage cans. Mexico needs a new
political economy designed by Mexican economists and politicians, people who are committed
to Mexico and to the future of its society.
The Effects of Entering a University
Entering a university is a very important and interesting experience in a persons life, but at the
same time it is an experience that will change your lifestyle and personality forever. The purpose
of this essay is to discuss the three main effects of entering a university which are missing old
friends, learning how to survive during university, and developing responsible behavior which
must accompany university studies.
In the introduction, the writer of this essay states "The purpose of this essay is to discuss the three main
effects of entering a university which are (1) missing old friends, (2) learning how to survive during
university, and (3) developing responsible behavior...." How well does the writer support each point in
her essay?
The first and also the most common effect of entering a University is that once you enter the new
school, you start missing your old friends. There are many reasons you and your friends start
splitting apart and leaving to study in different cities or schools, but feeling sad because you miss
them is inevitable. This doesnt mean you are never going to see your friends again, but it isnt
the same to be at school without your best friends.
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The second effect of entering a university is the fact that you have to get acquainted with the
entire university environment. Being at junior high or at high school is completely different than
being in a university, so you have to learn how to survive in it. During university studies you
have to search for your own way to success because at a university, teachers are not going to
solve your problems.
The third and most important effect of entering a university is the responsible behavior you must
develop during your way through the university. Entering a university forces you to be a
responsible person because you are the only one who will care about you. During university
studies you are in charge of your life and of the decisions that you make such as doing or not
doing homework, going or not going to class, etc. Being a responsible person is essential for
anyone in this world; without responsibility a persons life can be a mess and will never reach
success.
Entering a university, as everything that is new in our lives, can be terrifying at first, but with a
little bit of effort, it can become one of the greatest experiences of our lives. It is very important
to enjoy our university studies because it will help us become independent and responsible
people, only if we learn how to survive it.

The Effects of Being a Foreign Student
Usually becoming a foreign student in order to study in another city can change your life in
many aspects. Living in a city far away from home can bring many consequences which almost
always change a students life. When I became a foreign student, many things changed or had to
change. You do not live with your family, so usually you have to learn how to live in harmony
with others, how to do things by yourself, how to move to other places, etc. Being a foreign
makes you learn a lot of things, and at the beginning it can be somewhat difficult as it happened
to me. That is why the purpose of this paper is to discuss the three main effects of being a foreign
student.
The writer of this essay writes about what she knows and what she has learned by way of personal
experience.
The main effect and the one that affects you most is the fact that you do not live with your
parents and in your house, which means that you will not enjoy its commodities. It was so good
when your mom cooked for you or when she made your bed. Your dad took you to school, and
when classes finished, you returned to your room and made yourself completely comfortable.
But becoming a foreign student means that you will live in a dormitory or that you will rent an
apartment. Usually you have to take care of dirty dishes, messy rooms, and cooking. This means
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you have to learn many new things, like how to cook several dishes. In a few words, you have to
learn how to be independent.
Another effect is that you have to find your way around the city, so you have to learn the main
parts of the city. If you have a car, it may be easier to explore the city. You can just get lost and
see where each street takes you, and then find a way back home. But if you dont have a car, you
need to learn how to get around by walking, in buses, or with taxis. For this you may find out
about bus routes or find out how much it costs to use taxis, and in this way you can plan the time
it will take you to get from your house to school, for example. This will force you to plan your
time better, and maybe you will have less available time during the day. This may decrease the
time you have to do homework or to hang out with your friends, for example. But over time, you
learn how to plan your activities in a better way.
A foreign student may also find himself feeling somewhat lonely, since arriving in a new city
means you dont know anyone. You may be lucky if another friend from your city comes with
you, but usually you are alone. It is important to start meeting people and making friends. In this
way it will be much easier to get used to being a foreign student. You will have new friends to
party with. Sometimes friends can also help you in a lot of situations, like when you run out of
money, when you need to go to your house quickly but you dont have a car, or when you need
to get something that is not easily found. But most of all, with friends you can have a great time
and learn a lot of things.
Leaving your house and going to another city to study is an experience in your life that cannot be
compared to any other experience in your life. You learn how to be independent, and you get to
meet new people. It may be somewhat difficult to live without your parents in another city, but
this makes you learn how to live your life better and how to appreciate what you have, like your
parents and your belongings. Besides, you get to appreciate the things you achieve during your
life because you learn that your goals are not achieved easily, but that they cost a lot of work and
effort. In conclusion, being a foreign student is great!

The Effects of Cigarette Smoking
There have been numerous campaigns
against cigarette smoking communicating
that this vice causes death. But a threat to
health doesnt seem to be a good reason for
quitting anymore. People somehow block
themselves and ignore all the information
that is given to them. The purpose of this
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essay is to discuss three effects of cigarette smoking, besides the broadly mentioned possibility
of developing cancer or dying, which are the smell of smoke, the stained teeth, and the cost of
doing it.
The first effect of cigarette smoking, and probably the one that the non-smokers hate the most, is
that it permeates everything around it. Smokers usually have smelly hair, breath, clothes, and, if
they smoke indoors, a smelly room. The stench of cigarette smoke is very penetrating and hard to
remove. Even if the person quits smoking the odor remains for a long time.
The second effect of cigarette smoking is one that most people dont even take into
consideration. It stains the teeth yellow or sometimes even brown. Since this effect is long term,
most people are not aware of it when they begin smoking. The truth is that a cigarette stain is
very hard to eliminate from the teeth, and it will probably end up costing a considerable amount
of money. Yellow teeth are disgusting because they give an unhygienic image and make people
look older.
The third effect of smoking is that it will eventually end up affecting the smokers personal
economy. Depending on the country the prices of cigarettes can differ. But even at an affordable
price the regular consumption of cigarettes will eventually take its economic toll.
These are only three out of many other effects that cigarette smoking can have, but to any
sensible person they are more than enough to realize that smoking is bad. People cant possibly
be proud of calling themselves smokers. It is terrible for health as well as personal appearance. In
the end, those who live in poverty, stink of smoke, and have yellow teeth are the people who are
affected the most by this life threatening activity.
http://eslbee.com/effects_of_standing_up_your_girlfriend_on_a_date.htm

The Effects of Alcoholism
How many times have you heard about
the consequences of alcoholism? Have
you taken them into account?
Alcoholism is one of the major
problems in society. The effects of this
disease are really serious. Many people
get used to drink alcohol , and they can
easily abuse; that is the problem. The
purpose of this essay is to discuss the
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physical, psychological, and economic effects of alcoholism.
The first effects of alcoholism are physical. These are the most important because these can
cause your death. For example, alcoholism causes cancer in the stomach, kidneys, and liver.
Besides, alcohol alters the digestion of nutrients that the body needs to stay healthy. Alcoholism
also causes severe damage in the neurons, so it causes alterations in the body movements, loss of
appetite, and depression. There are other effects in the body like gastritis and cirrhosis of the
liver. All these physical consequences could cause your death if you drink alcohol in mass
quantities.
The second effects caused by alcoholism are psychological. At the beginning, alcohol makes you
feel relaxed, but if you drink it in excess, it increases anxiety and causes depression. It also
causes family and legal problems, violence, changes of behavior, suicide, among others. Alcohol
is very powerful and alters all your normal behaviors.
The third effects of alcoholism are economic. According to the National Institute and Drug
Abuse, drug abuse and dependence cost an estimated $98 billion. Alcohol is not cheap. If you
drink two or three times in a week, it could cost you about $1000 pesos or more a week! People
do not think about the money and spend almost everything when they are drunk.
In conclusion, the effects of alcoholism which are physical, psychological, and economic can
cause many problems that affect your life in all aspects. Alcohol alters your brain, muscles,
digestion process, and other disorders that affect your health. It also can cause you depression or
changes in your behavior that result in problems with your family, friends, and with yourself.
Besides, it will leave you in poverty because it cost a lot. Finally, I invite you to think about it
and ask you why drink it?

..................................................................
Cause and Effect: Fast Food
This is a cause-and-effect essay about fast food how it become so popular and what its effects
have been. It uses 4 paragraphs and a 3-7-7-3 layout (three sentences in the introduction, seven in
the causes paragraph, seven in the effects paragraph, and three in the conclusion).

Show or Hide Explanations
In the past people in the United Arab Emirates used to eat healthy, freshly prepared food with their
families in the home.Today however, many people, particularly young people, prefer to eat fast food
such as hamburgers, fried chicken, shawarma, or pizza.There are many reasons why this change has
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occurred, but this essay will also outline the serious effects of this move towards fast food on individuals
and society.
There are many reasons for the popularity of fast food.One of the main reasons is the change in
lifestyle.Many people in the UAE are working long hours, shifts, or extended school days. They dont
have time to find ingredients or prepare good food.Women are now starting to work in the Emirates,
and this can result in less time being available for preparing family meals.Another cause is the huge
number of young, affluent people in the United Arab Emirates.The rapid development of the country
has meant that young people, who comprise over 75% of the population, have money to spend. A third
reason is advertising.The UAE is a modern, free-market country, with all forms of media such as the
Internet and satellite television, and people like to try new products and different kinds of fast food.
Show or Hide Explanations
However, this change in diet can have some serious effects.One effect is on health.Many individuals in
the UAE are becoming obese.These people will be less productive and have conditions such as heart
disease and diabetes.Another result of fast food culture is the loss of the family tradition of eating
together.Children and adults rarely eat together now, and thus get less opportunity to talk.A further
effect is on the economy.Although fast food is not very expensive, it is more expensive than cooking
properly for yourself.Many of the fast-food companies are franchisees of foreign corporations, so profits
leave the country.
In conclusion, fast food, although it is convenient and a tasty addition to a diet, can have serious health
and social effects.People should learn to choose fast food carefully and remember the pleasure of eating
good food in good company.

Cause and Effect: Outline
This is an outline for a cause-and-effect essay about fast food how it become so popular and
what its effects have been in the United Arab Emirates. It uses 4 paragraphs and a 3-7-7-3 layout
(three sentences in the introduction, seven in the causes paragraph, seven in the effects
paragraph, and three in the conclusion).
Introduction:
Past

Present

Thesis (Main idea or purpose of
essay)
people used to eat

what people eat now
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this change has had
many effects
Causes
There are many reasons why fast food
has become so popular
Cause 1: Lifestyle

Cause 2: More money

Cause 3: Modern Life
Many people working
long hours, no time
Women working

Young people have
money to spend,
More eating outside the
home

Advertising
Less time with family
New things, desire for
change
Effects
These changes have had serious
effects
Effect 1: Health

Effect 2: Families

Effect 3: Economic effects
Obesity
Heart Disease
Diabetes
Less energy

Family not eating
together
Family not talking over a
meal

Waste of money
Multinational companies
own fast food chains
New things, desire for
change
Conclusion:
Three
Sentences
Both sides:

Future
Fast food is tasty but.
fast food also has a
downside
We need to look after
our health in future

http://writefix.com/?page_id=578
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Student Model
This cause/effect essay opens with a brief explanation of a case in which a herd of elephants is
spared from death, but then goes on to explain how that is not typicalthat, in fact, elephants are
headed toward extinction. Michelle, the author, clearly establishes the main causes of this
situation, as well as their sad effects.
Save the Elephants
What should be done with a herd of marauding elephants? This was the problem recently
confronting officials at Pilanesberg National Park in South Africa. A number of orphaned male
elephants had been transported to the park in order to provide them with a safe and nurturing
environment. However, this step to protect the elephant population soon threatened another
endangered species.
The young elephants had entered musth, like puberty, a state of heightened hormonal activity and
increased aggression. The elephants went on a killing spree, slaying almost 40 rhinoceros
including incredibly rare black rhinos. The park officials did not want to kill the young
elephants, but they could not afford to have any more rhinos slaughtered.
Oddly enough, the solution to this disastrous situation was to bring more male elephants into the
park. This time, however, they were full-grown bull elephants. In almost no time at all, a
previously impossible hierarchy had been established, and the orphaned males fell right into
place. As of yet, no rhino killings have been reported.
The Pilanesberg story has a positive ending, but many elephants are not as lucky. The elephant
population in Africa has been drastically reduced by loss of habitat to cultivation and
urbanization, and many have been orphaned by poachers cashing in on the ivory trade. Some
biologists believe that if elephant numbers continue to drop, it will soon be impossible to save
the species.
Elephants are amazing creatures. As well as holding the title of "largest land animal," they are
also among the most intelligent. An elephant has 150,000 muscle units in its trunk, can swim
long distances without tiring, walks almost silently despite weighing about 7 tons, can travel up
to 6,000 miles in a year while searching for food, and can live 60 years. Full-grown elephants
have no natural enemies, other than humans.
Like most animals, elephants have an enormous effect on the other animals in their habitat.
Eating 165-330 pounds of food a day, an elephant can clear thick brush into open savannah in no
time, creating an open habitat for other animals. Several tree species rely almost solely on the
elephant to scatter their seeds. If the elephant were to disappear, these life-forms would bear the
consequences.
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With only 2 elephant species left out of 600, the danger of extinction is imminent. If the
population in any particular area drops below 100 individuals (as it has in several parks), that
population is virtually doomed, having entered an extinction vortex. Continued inbreeding
leads to genetic deterioration, which results in fewer reproductive males and females being born.
The numbers begin to drop, and the cycle continues until the population completely dies out.
Evidence of this genetic deterioration can be seen in elephant tusks, which are gradually
becoming smaller. All elephants with exceptionally large tusks have already been poached.
Humans have always taken advantage of the incredible strength and endurance of elephants.
Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, used elephants to carry his supplies across the Alps in the
third century. Elephants have been ridden onto the battlefield, have been trained to carry heavy
logs, and were even used during World War II to drag military equipment up steep slopes. We
have used elephants to our advantage for more than 2,000 years.
Now we are destroying them. Poaching is the chief reason that elephants are brought closer to
extinction every day. From 1986 to 1989, 300,000 African elephants were killed for their ivory
tusks. In 1986 alone, 75 percent of raw ivory came from illegal poachingthe equivalent of
89,000 elephants. Recently, laws have been instituted that completely ban any hunting of the
endangered elephants. However, this has only made poaching easier; without professional
hunters carefully patrolling their favorite hunting blocks, park rangers alone are left to deal with
poachers. Carrying outdated World War II rifles, the rangers are no match for ruthless poachers
with AK-17s, who have been known to kill rangers, local farmers, and even tourists to avoid
capture.
The poaching trade began in earnest in 1971, when a severe drought killed 9,000 elephants in a
Kenyan game reserve. Neighbors of the park moved in to collect ivory. They found it was very
profitable, and when the supply dwindled and they could no longer simply pick it up from the
ground, they turned to the living elephants. In 1973 there were 167,000 elephants in Kenya. By
1987, there were only 20,000 left.
Raw ivory is shipped by smugglers to factories where it is either carved into sculptures or
converted into Chinese medicines (which may actually have very little medicinal value). Before
President Bushs 1989 ban, the United States was one of the largest importers of worked ivory in
the world. Major consumers of ivory today include China, Hong Kong, India, Taiwan, and Japan.
The demand for ivory in these countriesas well as the price paid to poachershas increased
over the years, in some places by 1000 percent. Weapons are also more available due to the civil
wars and political unrest in certain African countries. These factors have contributed to increased
poaching and will ultimately contribute to the demise of elephants.
Many attempts have been made to stamp out poaching in African game reserves, but law
enforcement has proved extremely difficult. Lack of funding for conservation projects and for
staff to patrol the parks is a major obstacle in the quest to protect threatened species. In addition,
many poachers are not the professionals seen on TV, with trucks full of supplies, traps, and
technologically advanced weapons. Instead, they come from poor communities adjacent to major
parks. The people in these communities have to put up with harassment from wild animals, and
they rarely get anything in return. Consequently, they do not object to making some money at the
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expense of an elephant or two. The scenario is common in the poor countries of Africa, such as
Kenya, where 30 million hungry people are crowded into an area the size of Texas.
Officials in Zimbabwe and Botswana have tried to remedy this problem in an interesting fashion.
They granted ownership of all the wild animals in a certain area to the nearest village or
community. Contrary to public expectations, this method was relatively successful. The
communities managed resources carefully, monitored their animals well, and even earned money
from safari expeditions. As it turns out, a trophy hunter spends 100 times more to shoot a single
animal than an average tourist spends to just look. Unfortunately, community ownership of
animals seemed to work only in areas with large areas of land and few people.
Another approach taken to prevent peasants from turning to poaching was to use money
generated by park tourism to build clinics and provide educational programs for surrounding
communities. However, because some parks do not attract as many tourists as others do, and also
because of the sheer number of poor villages, the benefits were spread too thinly.
In recent years, the number of elephant killings due to poaching has decreased, largely due to the
worldwide ban (since 1990) on the trade of ivory. However, the illegal trade continues, and as
long as it does, poachers will be a part of it. The poaching problem is incredibly intricate. Fueled
by the illicit trade to southeast Asia and the rest of the world, it is also the result of a lack of
education and public services in African villages.
It is evident that a single country cannot successfully combat poaching and the loss of elephant
habitat. The world needs to unite like never before if we want to save our remaining elephants.
http://www.thewritesource.com/studentmodels/wi-eleph.htm

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How to Write a Compare and Contrast Essay
Formulating Your ArgumentOrganizing Your EssaySample Body ParagraphsSample Essay
Outline
Edited by Teresa, Andrew Crosby, Whoze, Harri and 22 others
The purpose of a compare and contrast essay is to analyze the differences and/or the similarities
of two distinct subjects. Once you pick two subjects that can be compared and contrasted in a
meaningful way, then you can begin to formulate your thesis and work out the organization of
your paper. If you want to write a thoughtful and convincing comparison and contrast essay, just
follow these steps.
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EditMethod 1 of 3: Formulating Your Argument
1.
1
Pick two subjects that can be compared and contrasted in a meaningful way. The first step to
writing a successful compare and contrast essay is to pick two subjects that are different enough
to be contrasted, but similar enough to be compared. This means that the subjects aren't so
different that you can't find a thing they have in common (such as oreos and kale) or that they
shouldn't be so similar (like two very similar soft drinks) that you don't have much to say about
their differences. Here are some topics to consider as you pick your two subjects:
[1]

o The careers of two different athletes
o The quality of two different restaurants
o Two movies
o Two novels
o Two weight-loss programs
o Two cities
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o Two historical periods
o Two events
Ad
2.
2
Do your research to make a list of all of the ways the two subjects are similar and different.
Once you've picked your two subjects, you'll need to do your research to figure out exactly how
much they have in common and how different they really are. Make a Venn Diagram of the two
subjects and write the similarities in the part of the intersecting circles, while writing the
differences in the parts of each subject's circle that does not intersect with other. This will
require you to consult your sources, brainstorm, and analyze the two subjects on a deeper level.
o Once you've made your list, think about the most meaningful differences and
similarities. If you're comparing "To Kill a Mockingbird" and "The Great Gatsby," you
may find that one author was male and one was female, but there's only so much you
can say about that; instead, dig deeper into the themes that are worth exploring. For
example, you can argue that both books explore the theme of loss of innocence.
3. 3
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Write your thesis statement. Your thesis statement will be the one sentence that tells your
readers how the subjects are similar or different and why this is an important comparison to
make. Ideally, your thesis should focus on three points of comparison, so that you have three
distinct differences or similarities to discuss. Here are some examples of strong thesis
statements and strategies for the comparison and contrast essay:
o Show readers why one subject is more desirable than the other. Example: "Cats are
better pets than dogs because they require less maintenance, are more independent,
and are more adaptable."
o Help readers make a meaningful comparison between two subjects. Example: "New
York City and San Francisco are both great cities for young professionals but they differ
in terms of their job opportunities, social environment, and living conditions."
o Show readers how two subjects are similar and different. Example: "While both The
Catcher in the Rye and To Kill a Mockingbird explore the themes of loss of innocence and
the deep bond between siblings, To Kill a Mockingbird is more concerned with racism
while The Catcher in the Rye focuses on the prejudices of class."
EditMethod 2 of 3: Organizing Your Essay
1.
1
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Outline your essay. Outlining your essay will help you work out the main organizational
structure and will give you a template to follow as you develop your ideas. Your compare and
contrast essay should have the following organizational structure:
[2]

o Introduction
Presents the basic information about the subjects to be compared and
contrasted
Provides a thesis argument and 3 points of comparison that will be elaborated
in the body of your essay. Points of comparison are the smaller arguments that
help you develop your main argument.
o Body Paragraphs
This is the meat of your essay. Each different section or body paragraph should
tackle a different division of proof. It should provide and analyze evidence in
order to connect those proofs to your thesis and support your thesis. You have
to decide whether you'll be organizing your essay with three body paragraphs
(using point-by-point organization) or with two body paragraphs (using whole-
to-whole comparison).
o Acknowledgement of Competitive Arguments/Concession
This paragraph acknowledges that other counter-arguments exist, but remarks
how those arguments are flawed.
o Conclusion
Summary of the evidence presented
Restatement of the thesis
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2.
2
Organize your body paragraphs based on point-by-point comparison. This is the more common
method used in the comparison and contrast essay. Let's say you're working with the following
statement: "When deciding between whether to go camping in the woods or spend a day at the
beach, one should consider the following points: the weather, the types of activities each
location offers, and the facilities at each location." In this case, you will write one paragraph
describing the weather in both the woods and the beach, one paragraph describing the activities
in each location, and a third describing the facilities in both. Here's how the essay would look:
[3]

o Introduction: state your intent to discuss the differences between camping in the woods
or on the beach.
o Body Paragraph 1: Discuss first difference between woods and beaches:
climate/weather.
Woods
Beach
o Body Paragraph 2: Discuss second difference between woods and beaches: types of
activities.
Woods
Beach
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o Body Paragraph 3: Discuss third difference between woods and beaches: available
facilities.
Woods
Beach
o Conclusion
3.
3
Organize your body paragraphs based on subject-to-subject comparison. This is a less
commonly used and more cumbersome method of organization. Here, you will be writing two
big body paragraphs -- one for each subject. Each body paragraph will discuss one subject based
on the three chosen points of comparison. This is how this type of essay will be organized:
[4]

o Introduction
o Body Paragraph 1/Subject 1: Woods
Climate/Weather
Types of Activities
Available Facilities
o Body Paragraph 2/Subject 2: Beach
Climate/Weather
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Types of Activities
Available Facilities
o Conclusion
4.
4
Organize your individual body paragraphs. Once you've chosen an organizational method for
your body paragraphs, you'll need to have an internal organization for the body paragraphs
themselves. Whether you're using point-to-point comparison or whole-to-whole organization,
each of your body paragraphs will need to have the three following points:
o Topic sentence: This sentence introduces the main idea and subject of the paragraph.
o Body: These sentences provide concrete evidence that prove the topic sentence and
main idea true.
o Conclusion: this sentence wraps up the ideas in the paragraph.
5. 5
Put it all together. Once you've made an outline of your essay and have chosen which form of
organization you use, you just have to fill in the blanks with all the information you've written.
Once you've written a solid draft of the essay, you can review it to look out for any grammatical
errors, confusing phrasing, and repetitive ideas. Look for a balance in your paper: you should
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provide about the same amount of information about each topic to avoid bias. Here are some
things to consider before you turn in your paper:
o Keep your writing in third person. Don't say, "I think that..." or "you should..." and stick
to writing, "one should consider..." or "a person should..." instead. This will make your
paper sound more professional.
o Avoid bias. Don't use overly negative or defamatory language to show why a subject is
unfavorable; use solid evidence to prove your points instead.

...................................................................................................
How to Write a Compare-and-Contrast Essay
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PDF
Cite
Introduction
How to Write a Compare-and-Contrast Essay in 8 Easy Steps
A compare-and-contrast essay might seem like the easiest type of paper to write: just find things
that are alike and then find things that are different. Piece of cake, right? Theres a catch,
however. It is up to you to argue why those similarities and differences matter; otherwise, you
dont have much of a paper. The following steps will guide you through the process of writing an
effective compare-and-contrast essay that actually has something valuable to say.
1) So theyre alike and theyre different. So what? A good paper will not simply offer a
summary of themes, characters, or plot. Your job is to think about how these comparisons and
contrasts create meaningful connections to a larger issue.
2) Create an effective thesis statement. Again, you need to say why the comparison and
contrast is worthy of note. Lets say you want to compare and contrast the heroines of Pride and
Prejudice and Jane Eyre. Your thesis might be this: Although Elizabeth Bennet and Jane Eyre
are very different on the outside, their shared internal values connects them in literary history and
in the fight for womens rights. Now you have a reason for your efforts and a compelling case
for your audiences attention.
3) Select a pattern. There are two ways you can write a compare-and-contrast paper. You can
present your arguments in a "tandem" pattern or an "alternating" pattern.
Tandem. Separate your pros and cons into two camps. For example, if you are comparing Jane
Austens Elizabeth in Pride and Prejudice to the heroine of Charlotte Bronts Jane Eyre, you
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would list all the ways in which the protagonists are similar and different. A rough list might look
something like this:
Elizabeth Jane
Upper class Dirt poor, orphan
Beautiful Plain
Outspoken Outspoken
Resists marriage Resists marriage
Socially inappropriate Socially awkward
Ends up with her man,
and all is well
Ends up with her man,
but only after trauma
Once you have your list, the body of your paper will address everything you have discovered
about one character, then everything about the other character.
Alternating. If you opt for this choice, you will be juxtaposing Elizabeth and Janes pros and
cons. Creating the list of likeness and differences will be handy here as well, but in using this
method, you will continually address the two characters back and forth as you compose the
body of your paper. For example, you might say, Elizabeth is easy on the eyes, a traditional
beauty, but Bronts Jane is continually described as plain and homely.
4) How to decide on a pattern. While there is no rule about selecting one method over another,
for longer papers (those that exceed five or six pages) you should probably go with the
alternating pattern. It is hard for the reader to retain all the pertinent information about each side
of your argument in lengthier discussions. For shorter papers, the tandem pattern will probably
be the best bet.
5) Support with primary text. Support your analysis by providing primary textual support; in
this case, the primary sources are the novels Pride and Prejudice and Jane Eyre. For each point
you address, whether in a tandem or an alternating pattern, offer textual evidence for your
positions either by directly quoting from the text or by paraphrasing. Be sure to properly cite
each quote or paraphrase in whatever format your instructor requests (e.g., MLA, Chicago, etc.).
6) Support with secondary sources, if required. Some instructors may ask that you use sources
other than the text itself to support your argument. A secondary source is anyone other than the
original author. Use secondary sources to provide additional backing for your thesis, especially
in arguing for why the compare-and-contrast approach you have selected is valid.
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7) Include your own voice. One of the biggest challenges for a writer is to offer his or her own
take on a topic. You may feel that everyone else has already said everything there is to say about
your subject. Dont be discouraged! Your own interpretation is what is most valuable in the end.
8) Review. Revise. Repeat. Compare-and-contrast essays can often become convoluted if a tight
check is not kept on your writing. Review your work often to make sure you have not suffered
the sins of summarizing plot, soapboxing, or wandering pointlessly in the literary woods. Move
or delete text if you have to: dont keep trying to pound a piece into the puzzle if it clearly
doesnt fit.
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essay#sthash.ygdydE9r.dpuf

How to Write a Problem-Solution Essay in 16 Easy Steps
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Introduction
How to Write a Problem-Solution Essay in 16 Easy Steps

Problem: youve been assigned a problem-solution paper. Solution: this handy, 16-step guide
will help you successfully tackle the assignment. You may even change the worldor at least
your own backyard.

1) Take a walk. A good problem-solution paper addresses a problem that is worth pursuing and
can be solved practically. World peace is out, sorry. So are your personal gripes with security,
cafeteria food, or that annoying guy in the librarythese are personal nuisances, not problems.
National issues are too big and too broad to be analyzed and solved; you need to think locally.
Get out and examine your immediate environment: what problems do you encounter every day
that can and should be addressed? What questions arise? What answers are there?

2) Develop a proposal. The first person youll need to convince of your topic is yourself. Take
these four steps to get the ball rolling:
Develop a rationale for your selection: why it matters, why its a problem, and why it can be
solved.
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Define your initial understanding: clarify what you know about the problem and what you think
you know about potential solutions.
Determine what you need to learn: develop questions to help you begin your research or
writing.
Design a research plan: poke around your library and/or online databases, and figure out what
information is out there. Pick three people who could help your research and arrange to talk to
them about the issue.
3) Get early feedback. While most people cant give advice on Shakespeare, everyone has an
opinion about the worlds problems, no matter how small. Make it known to others what your
plans are: talk to your teacher, friends, parentsanyoneabout your ideas. When you solicit
their opinions, ask for their response to both your take on the topic and your plans for gathering
information.

4) Dont jump to conclusionsany. Lets face it: were all know-it-alls; we all think we have
the answer to lifes problems. Unfortunately, in our rush to judgment, we often miss key details
that would help us make better decisions. The same goes for a problem-solution paper: those
who establish their solution first and remain steadfast to it tend to demonstrate a limited
understanding of both the problem and logical solution; in other words, they dont do well on the
assignment. Its okay to brainstorm some initial ideas, but set them aside until later: the most
informed decisions come when youre well-informed. Wait until youve researched the topic and
fully defined the problem before finalizing your call for action.

5) Research, research, research. No matter how much you already know about your topic,
there will likely be plenty out there that you dont, and perhaps this source may even have
helpful statistical information. Read as much as you can about your topic, starting with broad
discussions on your topic (i.e., articles about your problem at a national or state level rather than
specific to your area) and then moving on to more local coverage. Some key sources are those
materials that describe how your problem is/was dealt with in other communities like yours. You
can use this information as a comparison tool or to inform your solution.

6) Research some morebut creatively. If youre tackling a school or local community issue,
printed materials may be scant, but consider it an opportunity to collect your own data. The two
best methods: construct a survey to be given to the audience affected by your problem or
interview key people associated with the problem (or solution). Both methods can provide
significant credibility to your analysis and proposal.

7) Map, plan, or outline your essay first. Know where your paper needs to go before you
begin. Problem-solution papers have a lot of components and thus need to follow a tight
structure: you address the problem, you establish middle ground between all concerned parties,
and you present your vision for how to solve the problem. Review steps 8 through 10 before
beginning to write, and then organize your notes and data around the components discussed
below.

8) When youre ready to begin writing, start with the problem section first. Its the easiest
and most logical place to start, and it should be the component of the paper on which you have
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the most information. Take the following steps to define the progression of your problem
paragraph(s):
Define the nature of the problem.
Establish its existence by explaining what has caused or led to the problem
Explain the extent of the problem.
Explain its effects and why it is an issue that needs to be solved.
Finally, warn readers about future effects if no solution is offered. Apply prior experiences from
other communities to this section.
9) Your middle section must establish common ground. Youve addressed the problem, sure,
but before anyone will accept your solution, you need to show you've taken the concerns of
others to heart. To do so, youll need to explain how others view the topic and the concerns of
those people when it comes to trying to solve it. Address opposing arguments, and anticipate
your audiences questions and concerns. Establish criteria for a good solution that will appease
everyone involved.

10) Before you propose your solution, address other alternatives first. Show youve put
some thought into your solution by acknowledging and critiquing other possible solutions to
your topic. Explain your reasons for rejecting them. Your goal: make your solution appear to be
the best solution.

11) Propose a plan of action. Make sure its clear to your readers not only what youd do but
how you would do it. Clearly describe your solution so that your audience can imagine what it
will be like. Address the potential arguments your opposition might have to your solution. Let
your audience know why they would be satisfied with your approach.

12) Conclude with a call to action. Encourage your audience to accept your views and join the
cause. Use projection: show your audience what your community will be like if they do or do not
adopt your solution. Or ask them to take simple steps to bring about the change you desire. Help
them continue the fight.
13) Write your thesis last. A strange idea, but theses for problem-solution papers are pretty
straightforward; wait until youve clearly established your ideas before putting them into a single
sentence. Your thesis statement, by the way, should identify both problem and the solution. For
example, Schools shouldrequire uniforms in order to minimizegang violence.
14) Revision advice #1: Use visualization whenever possible. Detailed descriptions evoke
strong emotions and help your audience see the problem. You can do so with examples from
your area or another area with the same problem, or you can create hypothetical scenarios that
scare or encourage your audience. Make the problem and solution come alive.

15) Revision advice #2: Make your audience care about your ideas. As you read over your
paper, ask yourself, Am I connecting with those people affected by the problem? Address their
needs and concerns. Show them why your ideas matter.

16) Publishor perish. Go public with what youve learned! A problem-solution paper is just
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thata paperunless those people affected by the problem are made aware of what you know.
Talk to your instructor about expressing your knowledge in a new form: a documentary, a
pamphlet, or a new club.
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How to Write an Argumentative Essay in 9 Easy Steps
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Introduction
How to Write an Argumentative Essay in 9 Easy Steps

It goes by many namesthe research project, the persuasive essay, the term paperbut all mean
the same thing: youre writing an argument. Before you wrench in agony, know that a smart
approach and planning phase (like the one youre in right now) can make the process of writing
an argument approachable, even enjoyable. The following 9 steps will help guide you through
the writing process.

1) Choose your topiccarefully. Check your ideas against the following three criteria before
finalizing your topic:
Your topic must be arguable. The phrase everythings an argument is not quite truemost
things are, but not everything. Take the common high school editorial topic of cliques are bad:
its a common opinion, sure, but who really disagrees? Your topic needs to be debatable; there
has to be a clear opposing argument that others support. Ask yourself: who would oppose me?
Why?
Your topic must be contemporary and relevant. Arguments do not exist in a vacuum; they arise
because people of varied beliefs interact with one another every day (or just bump heads). Your
essay, even if it is about the past, should connect to values and ideas of the present. Look to
current events or issues for inspirationwhats going on in the world thats inspiring discussion
and/or disagreement? Ask yourself: does my topic matter to people right now? Why?
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Your topic must have value to you. Given the hours youll need to invest in the paper, your topic
needs to be more than interesting; it has to be knowledge you want to pursue for your own
personal benefit, not just a grade. However fascinating cloning may be, for example, if youre
not interested in science or ethicstwo fundamental sub-issues of the cloning debateyour
essay will be a chore to write. Choose a topic you care about and are invested in. Youll write
better and research deeper because of your personal investment.
2) Narrow and focus your topic. Many popular topics, such as abortion or euthanasia, are too
broad for even 100- to 200-page books, let alone your 3- to 5-page essay. Focus on a specific
aspect of your topic: a specific method (e.g., a late-term abortion procedure), a specific policy
(e.g., No Child Left Behind), or a specific perspective (e.g., evangelical Christians and the
environment). Doing so not only makes your topic (and life) manageable, it should help you
develop very specific search terms when you go to gather evidence.

3) Analyze your audience. Review your assignment sheet to check whether youve been
assigned a specific audience to address in your response. If no audience is assigned, you can
assume your audience is your teacher, a knowledgeable and experienced reader in the subject
area. But dont skip this step just yet.

Your understanding of your audienceyes, even your teacheris integral in determining the
development and organization of your argument, as well as the stylistic techniques you can
utilize in your writing. For example, if you are writing to your instructor, consider what he/she
expects from students on such an assignmenta formal tone, large amounts of evidence
integrated into the paper, analysis of these ideas, right? On the other hand, if youre writing for
an audience of peers, youll want to lean heavily on your connection with them: use personal
pronouns (I or we), express sympathy or understanding for their feelings, and address shared
concerns.

4) Research wisely. Google is quick and easy; everybody uses it. So does your professor, who is
rather justified in his/her skepticism of website credibilitylots of the readily accessible data via
Google is inaccurate and risky. Make sure your online sources are from established
educational/professional sites (like eNotes).
Also use your librarys subject-specific databases to find professional journals covering your
topic. With a narrow and focused topic, searching should be a breeze. And use the snowball
research technique: once you find a helpful source, look at its references/bibliography to get new
leads on evidence for your paper. Wash. Rinse. Repeat.

5) Utilize a variety of evidence types. Statistics can be sexy, but they cant do all the work for
you. In addition to quantitative research, utilize expert opinionsin the form of quotations or
paraphrasesand historical examples to provide varied and insightful support. And dont be
afraid to examine a sometimes overlooked source: you. Include your own personal experience or
observations if they help illuminate the topic for your audience.

6) Express your judgment, not your opinion. In middle school they call it "persuasion"; in
college they call it "argumentation"so whats the difference? Expectation. Your instructor is
less interested in what side you take than in how you take that side, how you analyze the issue
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and organize your response. Forget about whether youre right and someone else is wrong;
writing a good paper is not a competition. Instead, focus on your line of argumenthow you
develop your paper by meeting your audiences needs, integrating solid evidence, and
demonstrating a solid understanding of the topic. Steps 7 and 8 will help you get there.

7) Dig deeper. A meaningful topic will tap into underlying values and issues of modern society.
Look for the themes or big ideas of your issue. For example, consider whether or not cities
should limit or ban national chain stores from expanding in their respective communities. On one
hand, yes, a paper might address the positives and negatives of Wal-Mart or Subway. Yet an
excellent argument will also discuss the bigger conflicts at play: convenience vs. community
identity, job creation vs. environmental damage. Seeing the big picture adds depth to your
argument.

8) Complexify your argument. There are several rhetorical moves or patterns writers can
utilize to enhance their argument and demonstrate critical thinking about their topic. Here are
short summaries of six of them:
Cause and effect: discuss what has led to your topic becoming an issue and why the issue is
affecting people.
Qualification: qualification here means to limit your position to specific contexts or situations,
a yes, but perspective. Qualifying not only can demonstrate that you understand the
complexity of an issue but can show you have a unique perspective on it.
Examination of the opposing argument: know thy enemy. Analyzing other perspectives on your
topic has three key advantages: you demonstrate a broad understanding of the issue; you can
strengthen your position by comparing it to others; and youve given yourself plenty more to
write about.
Concede a little, as necessary: its perfectly okay to admit your position is not perfect; in fact,
breaking down what works and what doesnt about your topic can enhance your analysis.
Anticipating and alleviating your readers concerns can be incredibly persuasive.
Propose a solution: a logical and feasible solution to your issue provides authority and
credibility, and it can make for a strong conclusion.
Examine the implications: what effect will this issue have on individuals and/or the world?
Discussing what lies ahead for your topic also makes for a strong approach to a conclusion.
Note: there is no correct strategy about how to integrate these techniques into your writing, nor
is there a desired amount or limit to how many can be used. Use your best judgment.

9) Revise, revise, revise. Talk is cheapand so are papers littered with clichs, illogical
arguments, and grammar mistakes. Find a peer who disagrees with your position and have
him/her read your paper. Discuss your ideas, your approaches, and your writing style with this
naysayer; take the feedback and advice seriously. Read your paper out loud to yourself during
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later revisions. Be sure to check if youve cited your sources correctly. Edit for grammar and
spelling only after you are comfortable with what youve you written and how youve written it.
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....................................................
Guidelines for writing a SUMMARY with IN-TEXT CITATIONS
Christine Bauer-Ramazani
The purpose of a summary is to give the reader, in a about 1/3 of the original length of an
article/lecture, a clear, objective picture of the original lecture or text. Most importantly, the summary
restates only the main points of a text or a lecture without giving examples or details, such as dates,
numbers or statistics.
Skills practiced: note-taking, paraphrasing (using your own words and sentence structure), condensing
Examples of acceptable paraphrases and unacceptable paraphrases (= plagiarism): Plagiarism: What It
is and How to Recognize and Avoid It
Before writing the summary:
1. For a text, read, mark, and annotate the original. (For a lecture, work with the notes you took.)
o highlight the topic sentence
o highlight key points/key words/phrases
o highlight the concluding sentence
o outline each paragraph in the margin
2. Take notes on the following:
o the source (author--first/last name, title, date of publication, volume number, place of
publication, publisher, URL, etc.)
o the main idea of the original (paraphrased)
o the major supporting points (in outline form)
o major supporting explanations (e.g. reasons/causes or effects)
Writing your summary--Steps:
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1. Organize your notes into an outline which includes main ideas and supporting points but
no examples or details (dates, numbers, statistics).
2. Write an introductory paragraph that begins with a frame, including an in-text citation of
the source and the author as well as a reporting verb to introduce the main idea.
ARTICLE:
In his/her article (or lecture) "________________________, _____________________ (year)
(title, first letter capitalized) (author/lecturer's last name)
argues/claims/reports/contends/maintains/states that ____________________________.
(main idea/argument; S + V + C)
Example: In his article "Michael Dell turns the PC world inside out," Andrew E. Serwer (1997)
describes how Michael Dell founded Dell Computers and claims that Dells low-cost, direct-sales
strategy and high quality standards account for Dells enormous success.
BOOK:
In his book The Pearl, John Steinbeck (1945) illustrates the fight between good and evil in humankind.

INTERVIEW:
In my interview with him/her (date), __________________(first name, last name) stated that ....
Reporting Verbs:
STRONG ARGUMENT NEUTRAL COUNTERARGUMENT SUGGESTION CRITICISM
argue state refute the claim suggest criticize
claim report argue against recommend
contend explain
maintain discuss
insist illustrate
posit observe
Other examples of frames:
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According to ___________________ (year),
________________________________________.
(author's last name) (main idea; S + V + C)
___________'s article on ______________ (year) discusses the
____________________.
(author's last name) (topic) (main idea; Noun Phrase)
___________ (year), in his/her article, "________________" argues that
________________.
author's last name) (title of article) (main idea; S + V + C)
3. The main idea or argument needs to be included in this first sentence. Then mention the
major aspects/factors/reasons that are discussed in the article/lecture. Give a full
reference for this citation at the end of the summary (see #6. below).
a. For a one-paragraph summary, discuss each supporting point in a separate
sentence. Give 1-2 explanations for each supporting point, summarizing the
information from the original.
b. For a multi-paragraph summary, discuss each supporting point in a separate
paragraph. Introduce it in the first sentence (topic sentence).
Example: The first major area in which women have become a powerful force is politics.
4. Support your topic sentence with the necessary reasons or arguments raised by the
author/lecturer but omit all references to details, such as dates or statistics.
5. Use discourse markers that reflect the organization and controlling idea of the original, for
example cause-effect, comparison-contrast, classification, process, chronological order,
persuasive argument, etc.
6. In a longer summary, remind your reader that you are paraphrasing by using "reminder
phrases," such as
o The author goes on to say that ...
o The article (author) further states that ...
o (Author's last name) also states/maintains/argues that ...
o (Author's last name) also believes that ...
o (Author's last name) concludes that
7. Restate the articles/lecturers conclusion in one sentence.
8. Give a full reference for the citation (see the example below for the in-text citations in
#2). For citing electronic sources, please see Citation of Electronic Resources.
References
Serwer, A. (1997, Sept. 8). Michael Dell turns the PC world inside out. Fortune, 76-86.
Steinbeck, J. (1945). The pearl. New York: Penguin Books.
2006 Christine Bauer-Ramazani, Saint Michael's College. Last updated: August 8, 2013
http://academics.smcvt.edu/cbauer-ramazani/AEP/EN104/summary.htm
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How to Write a Summary in 8 Easy Steps
Writing a good summary demonstrates that you clearly understand a text...and that you can
communicate that understanding to your readers. A summary can be tricky to write at first
because its tempting to include too much or too little information. But by following our easy 8-
step method, you will be able to summarize texts quickly and successfully for any class or
subject.
1) Divideand conquer. First off, skim the text you are going to summarize and divide it into
sections. Focus on any headings and subheadings. Also look at any bold-faced terms and make
sure you understand them before you read.
2) Read. Now that youve prepared, go ahead and read the selection. Read straight through. At
this point, you dont need to stop to look up anything that gives you troublejust get a feel for
the authors tone, style, and main idea.
3) Reread. Rereading should be active reading. Underline topic sentences and key facts. Label
areas that you want to refer to as you write your summary. Also label areas that should be
avoided because the detailsthough they may be interestingare too specific. Identify areas
that you do not understand and try to clarify those points.
4) One sentence at a time. You should now have a firm grasp on the text you will be
summarizing. In steps 13, you divided the piece into sections and located the authors main
ideas and points. Now write down the main idea of each section in one well-developed sentence.
Make sure that what you include in your sentences are key points, not minor details.
5) Write a thesis statement. This is the key to any well-written summary. Review the sentences
you wrote in step 4. From them, you should be able to create a thesis statement that clearly
communicates what the entire text was trying to achieve. If you find that you are not able to do
this step, then you should go back and make sure your sentences actually addressed key points.
6) Ready to write. At this point, your first draft is virtually done. You can use the thesis
statement as the introductory sentence of your summary, and your other sentences can make up
the body. Make sure that they are in order. Add some transition words (then, however, also,
moreover) that help with the overall structure and flow of the summary. And once you are
actually putting pen to paper (or fingers to keys!), remember these tips:
Write in the present tense.
Make sure to include the author and title of the work.
Be concise: a summary should not be equal in length to the original text.
If you must use the words of the author, cite them.
Don't put your own opinions, ideas, or interpretations into the summary. The purpose of
writing a summary is to accurately represent what the author wanted to say, not to
provide a critique.
116

7) Check for accuracy. Reread your summary and make certain that you have accurately
represented the authors ideas and key points. Make sure that you have correctly cited anything
directly quoted from the text. Also check to make sure that your text does not contain your own
commentary on the piece.
8) Revise. Once you are certain that your summary is accurate, you should (as with any piece of
writing) revise it for style, grammar, and punctuation. If you have time, give your summary to
someone else to read. This person should be able to understand the main text based on your
summary alone. If he or she does not, you may have focused too much on one area of the piece
and not enough on the authors main idea.
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....................................................................................................

How to Write a Research Paper
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Introduction
How to Write a Research Paper in 10 Easy Steps

If you have just been told that you have to write a research paper and feel a bit intimidated, we
hope the following steps will ease your fears. First of all, you do research all the time. Think of
when you last made a major purchase, selected a school, or saw a movie. You might have spoken
to friends, read reviews about the product or film, visited a campus, or test drove a car. Doing
academic research is not much different, although your approaches and sources will differ.

1) Choose an interesting question. Your teacher or professor will either allow you to choose
your topic, let you select from a list, or assign you a topic. In any case, you should try to select a
topic or a feature of your topic that is of interest to you. Approach your research with a critical
spirit of inquiry. Critical does not mean fault finding, but rather a receptive and discerning
frame of mind.

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2) Be specific. Frame your question so that it will explore the who, what, where, why, and how
of your topic. Avoid topics that are too broad. A broad topic will make your research hard to
contain. Think of your question as both an anchor and an umbrella: your whos and hows are
your anchor, and its up to you to keep everything under control, protected by your umbrella of
research.

3) Focus your thesis statement. Example of a thesis statement that is too broad: How has global
warming affected the planet? Example of a thesis statement that can be answered: How has
global warming affected marine life in the Pacific Ocean?

4) Make your question challenging. Along with a specific question, your topic must be
challenging enough to sustain reader interest. If it requires simply a yes or no answer, then few
will be motivated to keep reading.
Not challenging/interesting question: How has global warming affected marine life in the Pacific
Ocean?
Challenging question: How can private citizens and corporations work together to reduce global
warming and thus preserve marine life?

5) Begin looking for sources to answer your question. An academic paper may require both
primary and secondary sources. Primary research means working with original documents or
gathering data in the field. Secondary research means finding out what others have learned about
a topic.

6) Use a variety of sources to support your question. There are several ways to obtain
secondary research materials. Use your librarys databases. Peruse newspapers and periodicals.
Visit websites, but use caution; be sure that they are reputable. A good (but not foolproof) way to
tell is if the address ends in .org, .gov, or .edu.

7) Refine your keyword searches. Search engines vary, but the following guidelines work for
many search engines.
Group words together by putting quotation marks or parentheses around the search phrase.
Example: New Orleans Jazz
Use the Boolean operators "AND" or "+" to group words. Example: Darwin AND Frazer.
Use "NOT" in front of words you do not want in your search. Example: Armstrong NOT Louis.

8) Take notes while you are reading. A good way to organize your notes is to use note cards to
record important quotations and paraphrases. To avoid citation problems later, be sure to also
write down the title, author, and page number of the work used!

9) Create an outline for your paper and write your first draft. Working from an outline will
help you keep everything under the umbrella. Consider what your introduction will include,
what points you will be addressing, in what order those points will occur, and how you plan to
conclude. Write your first draft. Ideally, you should set it aside for at least twenty-four hours and
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have someone else read it before beginning your revision.

10) Write your final revision. Based on reflection and feedback, revise your paper. Dont forget
to proofread carefully for spelling and punctuation. Also be sure to double-check your Works
Cited (or References) page for accuracy.

There! That wasnt so hard, was it?
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How to Correct 9 Common Writing Mistakes
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Introduction
We have all been guilty of mangling the English language at one point or another. Sometimes a
handy reminder is all that is needed to keep your writing error-free and your communication
clear. Here is a list of 9 common writing mistakes and how to avoid them.

1) Its versus Its. The incorrect use of an apostrophe can cause confusion or make you appear to
be a sloppy writer. Remember, in the case of its versus its, the apostrophe is a conjunction,
the mark taking the place of the i in the word is or ha in the word has. The word its
grants possessiveness. For example: It had the bird in its teeth.

If you are confused about whether the right word is its or its, simply replace the apostrophe
with is or has and choose the one that makes sense.

2) Spell-Check: friend and foe. Spell-check is a marvelous invention, but remember that a
human eye is usually necessary to avoid unintended meanings. As humorist Dave Barry points
out, spell-check would say A-okay! to the following: Deer Mr. Stromple: It was a grate
119

pleasure to meat youre staff and the undersigned look foreword too sea you soon inn the near
future. Whoops!

3) Their, theyre, and there. An easily overlooked mistake is the misuse of the words their,
theyre, and there.
Their is a pronoun: Their vacation home is in Jamaica."
Theyre is a contraction of the words they and are: Theyre on their way home.
The trickiest word is there because it can be an adverb, pronoun, noun, or interjection.
Examples: She is from there originally (pronoun); You can take it from there, Watson!
(noun). There! I am done with it! (interjection).
4) Dates and numerals. Be careful when spelling out dates and numerals. It is proper to write
November 11, 2007 or 42nd Street. When writing dialogue, however, it is usually best to
write the numeral out, as in, Yesterday, I turned eighteen.

A very common error in punctuating dates is to grant possessiveness to a time period. For
example, you should write, Disco was the music of the 1970s, not Disco was the music of the
1970s. In this case, you are expressing a plural idea, not a possessive one.

5) Dont add unnecessary words. Make your writing work, not your reader! Dont use several
words to do the job of a single one. For example, the phrase at the present time should be
changed to now. The phrase in the immediate future should be shortened to soon. And
for the reason that is much more clear when you simply write because.

6) Make word order clear. While you may know exactly what you mean, your reader might be
left scratching his or her head. If you write, Mom wanted to take me to the movies with
Charlotte, but she was too busy, it is not clear who was too busy...Mom or Charlotte?

7) Avoid pretentiousness. Simply your sentences whenever possible. If you attempt to sound
grand, chances are youll just come off as pompous. Which sounds better? The blazing solar orb
slipped beneath the arboreal vista or The sun sank below the trees?

8) Leave out the clichs. Clichs are words or phrases that are so overused that they are no
longer powerful. Whenever you find examples of the following clichs in your writing, delete
them immediately:
blessing in disguise
boggles the mind
dead as a doornail
each and every
fierce fighting
in this day and age
in todays society
tip of the iceberg
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9) The 25-word rule. If you are guilty of the run-on sentence, try to stay within 25 words per
sentence. Beyond this point, your reader will probably become distracted and your ideas might
seem convoluted. Though you may sometimes ignore this rule, typically youll find that longer
sentences can be separated or condensed. Your reader will thank you!
- See more at: http://www.enotes.com/topics/how-correct-common-writing-
mistakes#sthash.IiqCAz7Q.dpuf

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How to Correct 9 Common Writing Mistakes
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Introduction
We have all been guilty of mangling the English language at one point or another. Sometimes a
handy reminder is all that is needed to keep your writing error-free and your communication
clear. Here is a list of 9 common writing mistakes and how to avoid them.

1) Its versus Its. The incorrect use of an apostrophe can cause confusion or make you appear to
be a sloppy writer. Remember, in the case of its versus its, the apostrophe is a conjunction,
the mark taking the place of the i in the word is or ha in the word has. The word its
grants possessiveness. For example: It had the bird in its teeth.

If you are confused about whether the right word is its or its, simply replace the apostrophe
with is or has and choose the one that makes sense.

2) Spell-Check: friend and foe. Spell-check is a marvelous invention, but remember that a
human eye is usually necessary to avoid unintended meanings. As humorist Dave Barry points
out, spell-check would say A-okay! to the following: Deer Mr. Stromple: It was a grate
pleasure to meat youre staff and the undersigned look foreword too sea you soon inn the near
future. Whoops!

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3) Their, theyre, and there. An easily overlooked mistake is the misuse of the words their,
theyre, and there.
Their is a pronoun: Their vacation home is in Jamaica."
Theyre is a contraction of the words they and are: Theyre on their way home.
The trickiest word is there because it can be an adverb, pronoun, noun, or interjection.
Examples: She is from there originally (pronoun); You can take it from there, Watson!
(noun). There! I am done with it! (interjection).
4) Dates and numerals. Be careful when spelling out dates and numerals. It is proper to write
November 11, 2007 or 42nd Street. When writing dialogue, however, it is usually best to
write the numeral out, as in, Yesterday, I turned eighteen.

A very common error in punctuating dates is to grant possessiveness to a time period. For
example, you should write, Disco was the music of the 1970s, not Disco was the music of the
1970s. In this case, you are expressing a plural idea, not a possessive one.

5) Dont add unnecessary words. Make your writing work, not your reader! Dont use several
words to do the job of a single one. For example, the phrase at the present time should be
changed to now. The phrase in the immediate future should be shortened to soon. And
for the reason that is much more clear when you simply write because.

6) Make word order clear. While you may know exactly what you mean, your reader might be
left scratching his or her head. If you write, Mom wanted to take me to the movies with
Charlotte, but she was too busy, it is not clear who was too busy...Mom or Charlotte?

7) Avoid pretentiousness. Simply your sentences whenever possible. If you attempt to sound
grand, chances are youll just come off as pompous. Which sounds better? The blazing solar orb
slipped beneath the arboreal vista or The sun sank below the trees?

8) Leave out the clichs. Clichs are words or phrases that are so overused that they are no
longer powerful. Whenever you find examples of the following clichs in your writing, delete
them immediately:
blessing in disguise
boggles the mind
dead as a doornail
each and every
fierce fighting
in this day and age
in todays society
tip of the iceberg
9) The 25-word rule. If you are guilty of the run-on sentence, try to stay within 25 words per
sentence. Beyond this point, your reader will probably become distracted and your ideas might
seem convoluted. Though you may sometimes ignore this rule, typically youll find that longer
sentences can be separated or condensed. Your reader will thank you!
122

- See more at: http://www.enotes.com/topics/how-correct-common-writing-
mistakes#sthash.IiqCAz7Q.dpuf

http://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/Denouement.htm

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Writing Research Papers
Writing is easy. All you do is stare at a blank sheet of paper until drops of blood form on your
forehead. --- Gene Fowler
A major goal of this course is the development of effective technical writing skills. To help you
become an accomplished writer, you will prepare several research papers based upon the studies
completed in lab. Our research papers are not typical "lab reports." In a teaching lab a lab report
might be nothing more than answers to a set of questions. Such an assignment hardly represents
the kind of writing you might be doing in your eventual career.
Written and oral communications skills are probably the most universal qualities sought by
graduate and professional schools as well as by employers. You alone are responsible for
developing such skills to a high level.
Resources for learning technical writing
Before you begin your first writing assignment, please consult all of the following resources, in
order to gain the most benefit from the experience.
General form of a typical research article
Specific guidelines (if any) for the assignment see the writeups on individual lab studies
McMillan, VE. "Writing Papers in the Biological Sciences, Third Ed." New York: Bedford/St.
Martin's, 2001. ISBN 0-312-25857-7 (REQUIRED for Bioc 211, 311, recommended for other
science courses that include writing)
Writing portfolio examples (pdf)
As you polish up your writing skills please make use of the following resources
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Instructor feedback on previous assignments
Common errors in student research papers
Selected writing rules (somewhat less serious than the other resources)
For Biosciences majors the general guidelines apply to future course work, as can be seen by
examining the guidelines for the advanced experimental sciences research paper (Bioc 311).
General form of a research paper
An objective of organizing a research paper is to allow people to read your work selectively.
When I research a topic, I may be interested in just the methods, a specific result, the
interpretation, or perhaps I just want to see a summary of the paper to determine if it is relevant
to my study. To this end, many journals require the following sections, submitted in the order
listed, each section to start on a new page. There are variations of course. Some journals call for
a combined results and discussion, for example, or include materials and methods after the body
of the paper. The well known journal Science does away with separate sections altogether, except
for the abstract.
Your papers are to adhere to the form and style required for the Journal of Biological Chemistry,
requirements that are shared by many journals in the life sciences.
General style
Specific editorial requirements for submission of a manuscript will always supercede instructions
in these general guidelines.
To make a paper readable
Print or type using a 12 point standard font, such as Times, Geneva, Bookman, Helvetica, etc.
Text should be double spaced on 8 1/2" x 11" paper with 1 inch margins, single sided
Number pages consecutively
Start each new section on a new page
Adhere to recommended page limits
Mistakes to avoid
Placing a heading at the bottom of a page with the following text on the next page (insert a page
break!)
Dividing a table or figure - confine each figure/table to a single page
Submitting a paper with pages out of order
In all sections of your paper
Use normal prose including articles ("a", "the," etc.)
Stay focused on the research topic of the paper
Use paragraphs to separate each important point (except for the abstract)
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Indent the first line of each paragraph
Present your points in logical order
Use present tense to report well accepted facts - for example, 'the grass is green'
Use past tense to describe specific results - for example, 'When weed killer was applied, the
grass was brown'
Avoid informal wording, don't address the reader directly, and don't use jargon, slang terms, or
superlatives
Avoid use of superfluous pictures - include only those figures necessary to presenting results
Title Page
Select an informative title as illustrated in the examples in your writing portfolio example
package. Include the name(s) and address(es) of all authors, and date submitted. "Biology lab #1"
would not be an informative title, for example.
Abstract
The summary should be two hundred words or less. See the examples in the writing portfolio package.
General intent
An abstract is a concise single paragraph summary of completed work or work in progress. In a
minute or less a reader can learn the rationale behind the study, general approach to the problem,
pertinent results, and important conclusions or new questions.
Writing an abstract
Write your summary after the rest of the paper is completed. After all, how can you summarize
something that is not yet written? Economy of words is important throughout any paper, but
especially in an abstract. However, use complete sentences and do not sacrifice readability for
brevity. You can keep it concise by wording sentences so that they serve more than one purpose.
For example, "In order to learn the role of protein synthesis in early development of the sea
urchin, newly fertilized embryos were pulse-labeled with tritiated leucine, to provide a time
course of changes in synthetic rate, as measured by total counts per minute (cpm)." This sentence
provides the overall question, methods, and type of analysis, all in one sentence. The writer can
now go directly to summarizing the results.
Summarize the study, including the following elements in any abstract. Try to keep the first two
items to no more than one sentence each.
Purpose of the study - hypothesis, overall question, objective
Model organism or system and brief description of the experiment
Results, including specific data - if the results are quantitative in nature, report quantitative
data; results of any statistical analysis shoud be reported
Important conclusions or questions that follow from the experiment(s)
Style:
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Single paragraph, and concise
As a summary of work done, it is always written in past tense
An abstract should stand on its own, and not refer to any other part of the paper such as a figure
or table
Focus on summarizing results - limit background information to a sentence or two, if absolutely
necessary
What you report in an abstract must be consistent with what you reported in the paper
Corrrect spelling, clarity of sentences and phrases, and proper reporting of quantities (proper
units, significant figures) are just as important in an abstract as they are anywhere else
Introduction
Your introductions should not exceed two pages (double spaced, typed). See the examples in the writing
portfolio package.
General intent
The purpose of an introduction is to aquaint the reader with the rationale behind the work, with
the intention of defending it. It places your work in a theoretical context, and enables the reader
to understand and appreciate your objectives.
Writing an introduction
The abstract is the only text in a research paper to be written without using paragraphs in order to
separate major points. Approaches vary widely, however for our studies the following approach
can produce an effective introduction.
Describe the importance (significance) of the study - why was this worth doing in the first place?
Provide a broad context.
Defend the model - why did you use this particular organism or system? What are its
advantages? You might comment on its suitability from a theoretical point of view as well as
indicate practical reasons for using it.
Provide a rationale. State your specific hypothesis(es) or objective(s), and describe the reasoning
that led you to select them.
Very briefy describe the experimental design and how it accomplished the stated objectives.
Style:
Use past tense except when referring to established facts. After all, the paper will be submitted
after all of the work is completed.
Organize your ideas, making one major point with each paragraph. If you make the four points
listed above, you will need a minimum of four paragraphs.
Present background information only as needed in order support a position. The reader does
not want to read everything you know about a subject.
State the hypothesis/objective precisely - do not oversimplify.
As always, pay attention to spelling, clarity and appropriateness of sentences and phrases.
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Materials and Methods
There is no specific page limit, but a key concept is to keep this section as concise as you possibly can.
People will want to read this material selectively. The reader may only be interested in one formula or
part of a procedure. Materials and methods may be reported under separate subheadings within this
section or can be incorporated together.
General intent
This should be the easiest section to write, but many students misunderstand the purpose. The
objective is to document all specialized materials and general procedures, so that another
individual may use some or all of the methods in another study or judge the scientific merit of
your work. It is not to be a step by step description of everything you did, nor is a methods
section a set of instructions. In particular, it is not supposed to tell a story. By the way, your
notebook should contain all of the information that you need for this section.
Writing a materials and methods section
Materials:
Describe materials separately only if the study is so complicated that it saves space this way.
Include specialized chemicals, biological materials, and any equipment or supplies that are not
commonly found in laboratories.
Do not include commonly found supplies such as test tubes, pipet tips, beakers, etc., or standard
lab equipment such as centrifuges, spectrophotometers, pipettors, etc.
If use of a specific type of equipment, a specific enzyme, or a culture from a particular supplier is
critical to the success of the experiment, then it and the source should be singled out, otherwise
no.
Materials may be reported in a separate paragraph or else they may be identified along with
your procedures.
In biosciences we frequently work with solutions - refer to them by name and describe
completely, including concentrations of all reagents, and pH of aqueous solutions, solvent if
non-aqueous.
Methods:
See the examples in the writing portfolio package
Report the methodology (not details of each procedure that employed the same methodology)
Describe the mehodology completely, including such specifics as temperatures, incubation
times, etc.
To be concise, present methods under headings devoted to specific procedures or groups of
procedures
Generalize - report how procedures were done, not how they were specifically performed on a
particular day. For example, report "samples were diluted to a final concentration of 2 mg/ml
protein;" don't report that "135 microliters of sample one was diluted with 330 microliters of
buffer to make the protein concentration 2 mg/ml." Always think about what would be relevant
to an investigator at another institution, working on his/her own project.
127

If well documented procedures were used, report the procedure by name, perhaps with
reference, and that's all. For example, the Bradford assay is well known. You need not report the
procedure in full - just that you used a Bradford assay to estimate protein concentration, and
identify what you used as a standard. The same is true for the SDS-PAGE method, and many
other well known procedures in biology and biochemistry.
Style:
It is awkward or impossible to use active voice when documenting methods without using first
person, which would focus the reader's attention on the investigator rather than the work.
Therefore when writing up the methods most authors use third person passive voice.
Use normal prose in this and in every other section of the paper avoid informal lists, and use
complete sentences.
What to avoid
Materials and methods are not a set of instructions.
Omit all explanatory information and background - save it for the discussion.
Omit information that is irrelevant to a third party, such as what color ice bucket you used, or
which individual logged in the data.
Results
The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported. Continue to be
concise, using figures and tables, if appropriate, to present results most effectively. See
recommendations for content, below.
General intent
The purpose of a results section is to present and illustrate your findings. Make this section a
completely objective report of the results, and save all interpretation for the discussion.
Writing a results section
IMPORTANT: You must clearly distinguish material that would normally be included in a
research article from any raw data or other appendix material that would not be published. In
fact, such material should not be submitted at all unless requested by the instructor.
Content
Summarize your findings in text and illustrate them, if appropriate, with figures and tables.
In text, describe each of your results, pointing the reader to observations that are most relevant.
Provide a context, such as by describing the question that was addressed by making a particular
observation.
Describe results of control experiments and include observations that are not presented in a
formal figure or table, if appropriate.
128

Analyze your data, then prepare the analyzed (converted) data in the form of a figure (graph),
table, or in text form.
What to avoid
Do not discuss or interpret your results, report background information, or attempt to explain
anything.
Never include raw data or intermediate calculations in a research paper.
Do not present the same data more than once.
Text should complement any figures or tables, not repeat the same information.
Please do not confuse figures with tables - there is a difference.
Style
As always, use past tense when you refer to your results, and put everything in a logical order.
In text, refer to each figure as "figure 1," "figure 2," etc. ; number your tables as well (see the
reference text for details)
Place figures and tables, properly numbered, in order at the end of the report (clearly
distinguish them from any other material such as raw data, standard curves, etc.)
If you prefer, you may place your figures and tables appropriately within the text of your results
section.
Figures and tables
Either place figures and tables within the text of the result, or include them in the back of the
report (following Literature Cited) - do one or the other
If you place figures and tables at the end of the report, make sure they are clearly distinguished
from any attached appendix materials, such as raw data
Regardless of placement, each figure must be numbered consecutively and complete with
caption (caption goes under the figure)
Regardless of placement, each table must be titled, numbered consecutively and complete with
heading (title with description goes above the table)
Each figure and table must be sufficiently complete that it could stand on its own, separate from
text
Discussion
Journal guidelines vary. Space is so valuable in the Journal of Biological Chemistry, that authors are
asked to restrict discussions to four pages or less, double spaced, typed. That works out to one printed
page. While you are learning to write effectively, the limit will be extended to five typed pages. If you
practice economy of words, that should be plenty of space within which to say all that you need to say.
General intent
The objective here is to provide an interpretation of your results and support for all of your
conclusions, using evidence from your experiment and generally accepted knowledge, if
appropriate. The significance of findings should be clearly described.
129

Writing a discussion
Interpret your data in the discussion in appropriate depth. This means that when you explain a
phenomenon you must describe mechanisms that may account for the observation. If your results
differ from your expectations, explain why that may have happened. If your results agree, then
describe the theory that the evidence supported. It is never appropriate to simply state that the
data agreed with expectations, and let it drop at that.
Decide if each hypothesis is supported, rejected, or if you cannot make a decision with
confidence. Do not simply dismiss a study or part of a study as "inconclusive."
Research papers are not accepted if the work is incomplete. Draw what conclusions you can
based upon the results that you have, and treat the study as a finished work
You may suggest future directions, such as how the experiment might be modified to
accomplish another objective.
Explain all of your observations as much as possible, focusing on mechanisms.
Decide if the experimental design adequately addressed the hypothesis, and whether or not it
was properly controlled.
Try to offer alternative explanations if reasonable alternatives exist.
One experiment will not answer an overall question, so keeping the big picture in mind, where
do you go next? The best studies open up new avenues of research. What questions remain?
Recommendations for specific papers will provide additional suggestions.
Style:
When you refer to information, distinguish data generated by your own studies from published
information or from information obtained from other students (verb tense is an important tool
for accomplishing that purpose).
Refer to work done by specific individuals (including yourself) in past tense.
Refer to generally accepted facts and principles in present tense. For example, "Doofus, in a
1989 survey, found that anemia in basset hounds was correlated with advanced age. Anemia is a
condition in which there is insufficient hemoglobin in the blood."
The biggest mistake that students make in discussions is to present a superficial interpretation
that more or less re-states the results. It is necessary to suggest why results came out as they did,
focusing on the mechanisms behind the observations.
Literature Cited
Please note that in the introductory laboratory course, you will not be required to properly
document sources of all of your information. One reason is that your major source of information
is this website, and websites are inappropriate as primary sources. Second, it is problematic to
provide a hundred students with equal access to potential reference materials. You may
nevertheless find outside sources, and you should cite any articles that the instructor provides or
that you find for yourself.
130

List all literature cited in your paper, in alphabetical order, by first author. In a proper research
paper, only primary literature is used (original research articles authored by the original
investigators). Be cautious about using web sites as references - anyone can put just about
anything on a web site, and you have no sure way of knowing if it is truth or fiction. If you are
citing an on line journal, use the journal citation (name, volume, year, page numbers). Some of
your papers may not require references, and if that is the case simply state that "no references
were consulted."

..........................................................................................
Read te essay cause and effect
-anayyse the structure
-analyse the sentences
-analyse the structures for active

Download the story for Thursday
Compare and contrast structure
Find suitable title
Rewrite the essay...compare and contrast

131

Words exist on two or more levels the literal or dictionary definition and the figurative
or suggested meaning. The former is the denotative meaning and the later is the
connotative.
We all know what is a poet. That is we know the word in its denotative context. However,
there may be as many connotative meanings as there are poets or people who read poetry. Here are
two:
A poet is a tall scholarly man with a slight stoop and an air of abstraction. He is
diffident, and at cocktail parties, may be found in another room reading his hosts books.
A poet is a slim youthful man with a sensitive, slightly haggard face. He is given to
velvet lapels and extravagant neckwear and attends salonswhere he reads his own
versesand has innocuous conversations with middle-aged women.

Exercise 1: Below are some examples of connotation. Write out your ideas of the
connotation of each of the words in two of the groups below.

Proud Obese Ugly
High and mighty Corpulent Homely
Overbearing Overweight Plain
High-hat Comfortable Hideous
Supercilious Plump Revolting

Spy Snooty Spinster
Agent Arrogant Old maid
Counter-espionage man Conceited Maiden lady
Secret service man Vain Bachelor girl
Undercover man Egotistical Career woman

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Mansion Friendly
Home Sociable
Dwelling Approachable
Residence Genial
Domicile Palsy-walsy

Exercise 2. Describe the scene the poet is depicting here. Comment on the vines that
round the thatch-eaves run, the mossed cottage Comment on bosom-friend, maturing,
bless. Discuss any other words that seem to contribute to the mood? What is the mood
of the poem? Comment on the poets use of detail to achieve mood. What is the speakers
attitude?

Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness,
Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;
Conspiring with him how to load and bless
With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eaves run;
To bend with apples the mossed cottage-trees,
And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;
To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel-shells
With a sweet kernel; to set budding more
And still more, later flowers for the bees,
For summer has oer brimmed their clammy cells.

133

Exercise 3: The following passage is the opening paragraph of a short story. Read it
carefully and answer the following questions.
1. What can you deduce about Midge and Annabel?
3 Would the author have enjoyed their usual lunch? What words or phrases led you
to your conclusion, and why?
4. What is the attitude of the author of this passage towards both the girls and the
food? How did you arrive at it?

Annabel and Midge came out of the tearoom with the arrogant slow gait of the leisured, for their
Saturday afternoon stretched ahead of them. They had lunched, as was their wont, on sugar,
starches, oils and butterfats. Usually they ate sandwiches of spongy new white bread greased with
butter and mayonnaise; they ate thick wedges of cake lying wet beneath ice cream and whipped
cream and melted chocolate gritty with nuts. As alternates, they ate patties, sweating beads of
inferior oil, containing bits of bland meat bogged in pale, stiffening sauce; they ate pastries limber
under rigid icing, filled with an indeterminate yellow sweet stuff, not still solid, not yet liquid, like
salve that has been left in the sun. They chose not other food, nor did they consider it. And their
skin was like the petals of wood anemones, and their bellies were as flat and their flanks as lean as
those of young Indian braves.

Exercise 4: Read the two passages below carefully. Both are pictures of a New
England scene in winter; show how the tone of the second is quite different from that of
the first. Discuss what words the respective authors use to establish the tone and mood
of the two works. Make specific references and provide explanations.

Abreast of the schoolhouse the road forked, and we dipped down a lane to the left,
between hemlock boughs bent inward to their trunks by the weight of the snow. I had
often walked that way on Sundays, and know that the solitary roof showing through bare
branches near the bottom of the hill was that of Fromes sawmill. It looked exanimate
1

enough, with its idle wheel looming above the black stream dashed with yellow-white spume
and its cluster of sheds sagging under their white load. Frome did not even turn his head
as we drove by, and still in silence we began to mount the next slope. About a mile farther,
on a road I had never traveled, we came to an orchard of starved apple-trees writhing
over a hillside among outcroppings of slate that nuzzled up through the snow like animals
pushing out their noses to breathe. Beyond the orchard lay a field or two, their
boundaries lost under drifts; and above the fields, huddled against the white immensities
134

of land and sky, one of those lonely New England farm-houses that make the landscape
lonelier.
2. deprived of life

They drove slowly down the road between fields glistening under the pale sun, and
then bent to the right down a land edged with spruce and larch. Ahead of them, a long way
off, a range of hills, stained by mottlings of black forest, flowed away in round white
curves against the sky. The lane passed into a pinewood with boles reddening in the
afternoon sun and a warm stillness seemed to drop from the branches with the dropping
needles. Here the snow was so pure that the tiny tracks of wood-animals had left on it
intricate lace-like patterns, and the bluish cones caught in its surface stood out like
ornaments of bronze.
2. the trunk of a tree or red clay

135

Suggested Answers:
These two passages deal with winter in New England, but from very different
perspectives. In the first passage winter is depicted as stark and cruel, something to be
endured, where survival is the ultimate goal. The hemlock boughs are bent inward by the
weight of the snow that is heavy and burdensome, and hemlock is a plant that is poisonous,
thus carrying negative connotations. The sawmill is solitary, the branches are bare, the
mill-wheel is idle, and the shed roofs are sagging under a white load. The landscape is
harsh, bleak, cold, figuratively as well as literally. Frome seems in keeping with the
landscape and with his solitary mill; the people drive in silence, with no companionable
conversation; Frome does not even turn his head as they pass by the mill.
Nothing is warm or friendly. The total effect is of lifelessness, or rather of
suspension of life. The idle water-wheel, so busy in the summer, the examinate scene,
and even the motionless Frome adds to the impression that all life has come to a standstill.
On a strange road the narrator sees an apple-orchard personified in its struggle
against murderous winter. The apple-trees are starved, and they are writhing, in
agony, presumably, among outcroppings of slate, which are depicted as animals suffocating
under the snow. Winter is painful, isolating; it deprives everything of food and
companionship. The final scene of the huddled fields and the lone farmhouse that makes
the landscape lonelier emphasizes the bleakness and depression of the whole. The passage
is loaded with emotionally connotative words, all suggesting unpleasant emotional states.
Solitary, bare, idle, looming, starved, writhing, lost, huddled, immensities,
136

lonely, all contribute to the total effect of life overwhelmed by a murderous unfeeling
power. The use of imagery that is angled and planed lends harshness to the overall scene.
In the second passage the tone is one of delight in a beautiful scene, of enjoyment
of a pleasurable experience. Winter here is safe, cozy and secure, with the snow
protecting the ground, deadening sound and creating a scene of beauty. The fields
glisten under the pale sun. The distant hills, on which the forest is merely a stain or
mottling . . . flowed in round white curves against the sky, instead of being an inimical
presence like the writhing trees in the first passage, the view is attractive both in the
distance and nearby. The pinewood is not bleak but warm-colored, with the tree-boles
reddening in the afternoon sun, and delicate blue shadows on the snow. Inside, the
wood seems a magical place, still, warm, pure and quiet, with tiny tracks of wood animals
making intricate lace-like patterns and cones like ornaments of bronze. With its
roundness and curves, it is a kinder, more inviting scene.
The first passage is emotional in its hatred of one aspect of winter. The colors are
stark black and white, relieved only by the yellow-white spume of the water wheel.
There is no sun. The scene is like an abandoned world.
The second passage is more impersonal in tone admiring, in detail, such things as
the lace-like tracks and the ornaments of bronze, enjoying the delicate curves of the
scenery, the glowing colors, the sensation of safety within the wood, and the sense of
awakening animal life all around. The colors in the second passage are varied. As well as
black and white there is red, blue, and bronze.

Exercise 5: Discuss the choice of words and how the connotative values of these words
add to the theme and emotional impression of the work

On First Looking into Chapmans
1
Homer
Much have I travelld in the realms of gold,
And many goodly states and kingdoms seen;
Round many western islands have I been
Which bards in fealty to Apollo
2
hold.
137

Oft of one wide expanse had I been told
That deep-browd Homer ruld as his demesne;
3

Yet did I never breathe its pure serene
Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold:
Then felt I like some watcher of the skies
When a new planet swims into his ken;
4

Or like a stout Cortez when with eagle eyes
He stard at the Pacific and all his men
Lookd at each other with a wild surmise
Silent, upon a peak in Darien
.5

_______

1
early translator of Homer
2
god, among other things, of poetry
3
lords estate
4
knowledge
5
the Isthmus of Panama

Suggested answers:

Realms of gold suggests a distant, magical, unreal country. Realm, unlike country
or kingdom, is a medieval word, giving connotations of chivalry and romance. Gold brings
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associations of the Golden Age of Greece. The juxtaposition of gold and realms
suggests that this is not a literal kingdom.
Western islands gives the connotations that go with all the literature connected
with islands: the ideas of solitude, romance, exotic splendor, and adventure. The word
islands may have other, quite different connotations, but the romantic mood is set by
other words and phrases, such as realms of gold. Western has often been the
direction of adventure and exploration, and of opportunity. It may also be connected on
the poets mind with Arthurs misty isle of Avalon, or perhaps the Never-Never Land of Tir
nan Og of the Celts. The underlying meaning, of course, is works of Western authors.
Fealty, like realms, adds to the medieval atmosphere, as this is a technical term
from the feudal period. There is also the image of the poets (bards) swearing homage to
Apollo as to a feudal lord.
Deep-browd might suggest that Homer had a noble face, or it might refer to
Homers insight as a poet, or both.
Demesne again connotes the Middle Ages the lands belonging to a lord. Homer is
her the feudal lord.
It might have been clearer if Keats had written air serene, but it would not have
entirely expressed his meaning, because he is saying that what the poet is breathing is
both pure and serene. By substituting "air for pure, serene becomes an adjective
instead of a noun, and the emphasis is changed. The words as the poet uses them indicate
that he is speaking metaphorically, not of actual air, nor of an actual place, but of a mental
experience.
The word swim, suggests that the planet might swing back again, and is perhaps
more appropriate to a comet than a planet. Glides, suggests a bird and a wavy flight
through the air, rather than a steady course. It also suggests speed. Might swims, then
suggest a fish? Perhaps Keats chose this word because of its alliterative connection with
watcher.
Cortez might seem to be more interesting, exciting, and romantic than Balboa.
Since Keats is not writing about real places but about regions of the mind, the connotative
value of Cortez the conquistador is more important than strict accuracy.
By his use of the words realms, bards, fealty, and demesne, the poet has
established an atmosphere of medieval times particularly with regard to land and its
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ownership; and by introducing the bards as the holders of the land, he has established
his real subject to be poetry, and the material with which it deals. With his reference to
Apollo, the Greek motif is introduced, and with it all the resources of Greek Mythology.
The medieval atmosphere of the first four lines suggests all the glamour of chivalry
and sets the mood of the poem. The effect, which his first introduction to the world of
Homer had upon him, he expresses in two word-pictures, both continuing the metaphor of
physical exploration with which he began. The watcher of the skies discovers a New
World in the heavens. Cortez also discovers a New World a new hemisphere at any rate.
The emotion throughout is one of astonishment, almost shock. The emotional climax in the
sestet suggests that, as well as the distance in time and space provided by the medieval
and Greek connotations, by the image of the astronomer, and of the Spanish conqueror, a
basic ingredient of romanticism is strong emotion.

Exercise 6: In paragraph one the writer tells about his young sons typical days while he
was attending a private school. Paragraph two is a summary of paragraph one. Read the
two paragraphs and analyze the connotations of the words, the tone of the passage, the
rhetorical strategies, and the attitude of the speaker.

Paragraph 1
His days were rich in formal experience. Wearing overalls and an old sweater (the accepted
uniform of the private seminary), he sallied forth at morn accompanied by a nurse or parent and
walked (or was pulled) two blocks to a corner where the school bus made a flag stop. This flashy
vehicle was as punctual as death; seeing him waiting at the curb, it would sweep to a halt, open its
mouth, suck the boy in, and spring away with an angry growl. It was a good deal like a train picking
up a bag of mail. At school the scholar was worked on for six or seven hours by half a dozen
teachers and a nurse, and was revived with orange juice in midmorning. In a cinder court, he played
games supervised by an athletic instructor, and in a cafeteria he ate lunch worked out by a
dietician.

Paragraph 2
His days followed a set routine. He wore overalls and an old sweater, as everyone else did
in his school. In the morning a parent or nurse walked the two blocks with him to the
corner where he met the school bus. The bus was always on time. During the six or seven
140

hours of the school day, he had six teachers. The school also employed a nurse and a
dietitian. Games were supervised. The children ate in the cafeteria. Orange juice was
served during the morning session.

Suggested answers:
The two paragraphs are studies in contrast: one is an example of minimal expression using
passive voice and the other a vivid depiction using figurative language and active voice.

Paragraph two is a sterile summary of the events in the day of a small boy at a private
seminary school. He wears overalls and an old sweater, as everyone else did in his school.
This introduces the impersonal atmosphere along with the idea of his total lack of control.
It has some active verbs at the beginning of the text but lapses into passive voice after
the first three sentences. The bus was always on time . . . Games were supervised . . .
Orange juice was served . . .. The adjectives are as bland as the description of the day.
There is little figurative language such as personification, similes, or irony. The passage is
mechanical, straightforward, terse, and without life. The second paragraph is more
general and much less specific than the first. It is primarily denotative, conveying facts
with little emotion or subjectivity.

Paragraph one gives the overall impression that the boy is an inanimate object and that
the people, environment, and objects in his day are animated and have total control over
him. His world is cold and mechanical, even machine-like. Even though he sallied forth, a
phrase which has myriad meanings such as to emerge spiritually from a resting place or to
set out on a trip or excursion, it may be used ironically here to suggest that young scholars
often begin their academic journeys with great enthusiasm and expectations but are often
stifled and beaten down by the rigid formality of modern educational systems. The first
statement indicating that his days were rich in formal experience introduces the idea of
rigidity of his day, the lack of control, and the rote routine aspect of his days. The word
rich may be used either ironically in regards to his education or to connote the material
holdings of his family. Even the prescribed, overalls and an old sweater, clothing that
many would envy as comfortable, everyday wear, function to take away his individuality and
make him just one of the mass of students. Ironically, one expects a tidy uniform at a
seminary school. Perhaps the warm, comfortable clothing provides a protection against the
141

cold, impersonal environment of the private school. The child is most likely young, since he
is accompanied by a nurse or a parent, a pairing of nouns which may indicate that there is
little difference between his parents and the hired help who walk him to the bus, thus
adding to the impersonal aspect of his day. Next, the speaker indicates that the boy
walked or was pulled) two blocks, suggesting a tinge of reluctance on his part to being
submitted to another day in a sterile vacuum, an image which is reinforced in the following
lines: The school bus makes a flag stop suggestive perhaps of a pit stop made by a race
car driver and is as punctual as death an interesting simile that may be indicative of the
sterile educational environment that kills any creative urges or enthusiasm the young
scholar may still possess. It stops at the cold curb an image suggesting both the
coldness and indifference of the school and the curb, an impediment at the edge of a path,
that
restricts movement or forward progress. The bus sweeps to a halt an expression
connoting cleaning (reinforcing the vacuum image) as well as sterility and stopping (again
perhaps his creative talents?) The boy is sucked [ed] into the mechanical bus and -
Eureka! - is on his way to the vacuous, mechanical, educational institution. The bus is
personified as spring[ing] away with an angry growl. This language suggests the
aggressive, intimidating aspect of the institutions and its instructors. The fact that the
boy is compared to a bag of mail reinforces the image of his being a passive, almost non-
human object with the potential to communicate, but at this stage in life, is merely being
moved from one station to the next. At school the scholar, a word used perhaps
ironically, is worked on for six or seven hours by half a dozen teachers and a nurse . . ..
making even more evident his passive, unavoidable subjection to the impersonal machine-
like forces of the private seminary. The fact that he is revived with juice in midmorning
is anagalous to the refueling of a car with petrol. The cinder court, a hard, man-made
surface, continues the image of a hard, cold, unyielding environment. The final portion of
the paragraph reinforces the images of control. . . . Games were supervised by an athletic
instructor . . . and he ate lunch worked out by a dietician. The little boy never has a
choice, never has control, never has an outlet for his own desires, and is too small and
helpless to resist an overpowering, mechanized, impersonal system.

142

Suggested Answer:2
This is a stanza from Keats ode To Autumn. The poet is depicting a small English country
village whose cottages have thatched roofs and small gardens, in which the apple trees are so old
they are covered with moss, and where vines (perhaps grapevines) grow up the cottage walls and
round the windows. The gardens contain gourds and probably beehives, although of course the bees
could be wild, but the other details suggest domestic cultivation. The setting for this poem is the
country; not the open fields, but life in a small village. There are no people in this stanza, but there
is a sense of human activity all around. The poet seems to be writing about autumn and its blessings
for man, especially the country villager, who would live closer to Nature in all its aspects than the
townsmen.
Autumn is personified here as a bosom-friend. Autumn is on terms of great intimacy with
the sun, and together the two conspirators hatch their benign plot: how to increase the yield of all
the crops of the season. The sun of early fall, the time of last growth before harvest, is a maturing
sun: it has made the season warm and dry at the right time for ripening. The atmosphere is one of
contentment and fulfillment, when each plant prospers the gourds swell, the hazelnuts become
plump and meaty inside the shells; frost has not yet come, so that the honey-flow continues much
longer than usual. The mood of richness, of luxuriance and prosperity, is shown also in load and
bless with fruit, bend with apples, ripeness to the core.
To achieve his effect the poet appeals constantly to the senses. His mention of mists,
together with the later reference to maturing sun makes one think of a typical fall day, misty and
chilly in the morning, but comfortably warm and mellow as the sun comes up. The vines, the bent-
over trees, the gourds, nuts and flowers appeal to the sense of sight, but also to the sense of taste.
The words swell, plump, and sweet, give a sense of almost cloying richness. The repetition of fruit
and fruitfulness and the references to vines and apples and ripeness almost make the mouth water,
but the most striking detail is the climactic lines about the bees:
For summer has obrimmed their clammy cells.
Clammy, as a word descriptive of the cool stickiness of honey, has a great impact, and summarizes
the richness of the other pictures in this stanza, most of which are fairly conventional. The first
nine lines establish an atmosphere that is strengthened by the vivid details of clammy cells.

Suggested Answer: 3
Midge and Annabel are coming out of a tearoom after lunch, with the arrogant slow gait of the
leisured, for their Saturday afternoon stretched in front of them. If they feel so leisured
just because they have the afternoon off, they are probably office workers or schoolgirls
people who do work quite hard the rest of the week. They are obviously quite young, since they
habitually eat a lunch loaded with calories, mainly carbohydrates and fats, and yet their skin is
like the petals of wood anemones, and they are slender, almost thin, like young Indian braves.
The author is revolted by what they eat. Bread greased with butter . . . patties,
sweating beads of inferior oil . . . bland meat bogged in . . . sauce and the pastries with sweet
stuff . . . like salve that has been left in the sun. The words greased, gritty, sweating,
143

bogged, and stiffening have strong overtones of distaste, even disgust. One feels that one
bite of the girls diet would have been too much for the author. She dislikes the diet partly for
its texture and appearance, partly for its taste, but largely for its excessive richness and
gooeyness.
The author laughs at Midge and Annabel a little for their arrogant, slow gait. Perhaps
they are pretending to be very grand and that they never work at all. The author understands
the feeling of how much a day off means when you are young and working. The author also feels
that the girls have horrible taste in food, but she admires their appearance, and is probably a
little envious of anyone who can eat such rich food with no ill effects. The emotional feelings
the author displays about the food and the obvious admiration for their metabolism, suggests
that the author is a person who could never eat what the girls had without suffering for it.
There is a distinct note of envy in the last sentence. The girls are not only slender and clear-
skinned; they have delicate fresh complexions like wood anemones, and really fit, healthy
bodies like Indian braves. Envy of this sort suggests that the author is herself a woman. She
is obviously a good deal older that Midge and Annabel, for her attitude is patronizing or
superior at times. She looks down on the girls for their horrible taste in food; she laughs at
their childish behavior in the first sentence 4. This attitude of amused scorn (tolerant
amusement, amused superiority) suggests that she is a good deal more sophisticated than Midge
and Annabel.

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RANCANGAN PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN SEMESTER

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