Ion Exchange

ION EXCHANGE
INDEX

Ion Exchange .................................................................................................................................... 2
ION EXCHANGE BASICS ....................................................................................................................... 4
Ion exchange resin types ............................................................................................................ 17
Feed water and some recommended limits for ion exchange systems ........................... 20
Basic ion exchange processes in water treatment .............................................................. 26
Regeneration methods for ion exchange units ...................................................................... 37
Ion exchange resins applications A general overview ......................................................... 49
Ion exchange capacity ................................................................................................................. 65
Ion exchange columns .................................................................................................................. 72
Ion exchange plant design .......................................................................................................... 88
Glossary of ion exchange ............................................................................................................ 92
Water analysis details .................................................................................................................. 99
Concentration and capacity units ........................................................................................... 106
Ion exchange resin structure ................................................................................................... 107
Ion exchange resin properties ................................................................................................. 115
Approximate selectivity scales - cation exchange resins.................................................. 126
Approximate selectivity scales -SBA resins .......................................................................... 128
DRINKING WATER Ion exchange processes .......................................................................... 130
Ion exchange reactions .............................................................................................................. 132
Limits of use of anion exchange resins ................................................................................. 139

About this document

This document wascreated from the following website:
http://dardel.info/IX/

Ion Exchange
Update 7 June

Ion exchange is a powerful technology to soften and demineralise water to extremely good
quality. This technology is well proven, as it developed initially in the 1950s, and today, it is
still the best to produce ultra-pure water, i.e. to remove all traces of contaminants.
In addition to water treatment, ion exchange is also used in a variety of industrial and
domestic applications. It can for instance:
Remove colour from cane sugar syrups to make white sugar
Purify antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals
Extract uranium from ores
Separate metals
Remove harmful substances from solutions
Be used as an excipient in pharmaceutical formulations
Catalyse reactions to make anti-knocking agents for petrol
Produce clear and pure water for the tea or coffee you make at home
This site covers essentially water treatment. Click one of the buttons on the right to see
more details. The mark (N) indicates new or updated (U) pages or documents. Other pages
are shown in the site map ( ).
If you don't find here the answer to your question, I may offer you some help.
Any suggestion and comment regarding these ion exchange pages are welcome. Just drop me
a line at the e-mail address below.
Ion exchange basics
Introduction
Ion exchange is a powerful chemical technology, little known to the
general public. This simple page attempts to show what ion
exchange is to those who are not chemical experts.
When my friends ask me what is my professional activity, I tell them
"ion exchange". Most of them have no clue. In Western Europe, the
majority of my friends have one or two ion exchange devices in their
household. So, I return a question: "Why do you think you put salt in
your dishwasher?" Very few know, and if you are in this case, you will
discover why below.

Water
Water looks simple: it is made of water molecules (formula H2O). You know
however that this apparent simplicity is more complex in reality: otherwise,
bottled water producers would not make such a fuss about its mineralisation.
All natural waters contain some foreign substances, usually in small amounts. The water in
the river, in a well or from your tap at home is not just H2O, it contains a little of:
Solid, insoluble substances, such as sand or vegetal debris. You can in principle filter
these solid substances out.
Soluble substances, that you most often cannot see and that cannot be filtered out.
These substances can be inorganic or organic, they can be ionised (electrically
charged) or not ionised.
The soluble, non-ionised substances are present in the water in form of molecules of
various sizes and formulas, for instance:
Carbon dioxide is a small molecule with a simple formula: CO2.
Sugar is a larger molecule with a complicated formula abbreviated as C12H22O11. Want
to see the 3 D formula? Sugars are not removed by ion exchange, though.
You may want to remove these foreign substances from the water. You can remove the
ionised substances by ion exchange.

Ions
The soluble, ionised substances are present in water as ions, which are electrically charged
atoms or molecules. The positively charged ions are called cations, and the negatively
charged ions are called anions. Because water is globally neutral electrically (otherwise you
would get an electric shock when you put your hand in water) the number of positive charges
is the same as the number of negative charges.
Ions can have one charge or more, the most usual range being 1 to 3. Ions can be made of
one atom only (monoatomiic ions) , or several atoms linked permanently together, like
molecules (polyatomic ions).
Examples:
A monovalent monoatomic cation: the sodium ion Na
+

A divalent monoatomic cation: the calcium ion Ca
++

A monovalent polyatomic cation: the ammonium ion NH4
+

A monovalent monoatomic anion: the chloride ion Cl

A monovalent polyatomic anion: the nitrate ion NO3

A divalent polyatomic anion: the carbonate ion CO3
=

Another divalent polyatomic anion: the chromate ion (metallic complex) CrO4
=

The trivalent monoatomic aluminium cation Al
+++
exists only in very acidic solution,
not in normal water.
Similarly, there are no monoatomic di or trivalent anions in normal water
Ions are able to move around in water, they are not fixed, and they are not attached to ions
of the opposite charge. Only the sum of the charges is the same for all cations and all
anions. See figure 1 for a schematic representation of ions in water.

Figure 1: Ions in water are not attached to each other. The sum of charges is constant.
Salts are crystallised substances containing a fixed proportion of cations and anions. For
instance, table salt has exactly the same number of sodium cations (Na
+
) and chloride anions
(Cl
). Its formula is given as NaCl. When you dissolve a salt into water, its cations and anions
are dissociated, and free to wander as seen on figure 1.
The dissolved ions are surrounded by water. They are said to be hydrated. They are loosely
connected to water molecules, cations attracted by the O atom, anions by the H atoms of
the water molecule, as shown in figure 2.
Ionic compound dissolved in water

Figure 2: Hydrated ions in water e.g. Na
+
and Cl
(table salt NaCl)

Magnesium sulphate is a salt with exactly the same number of magnesium cations (with
double charge: Mg
++
) and sulphate anions (also with double charge, SO4
=
) so that the formula
is MgSO4.
Calcium chloride is made of calcium ions (with 2 charges, Ca
++
) and chloride ions (with 1
charge only, Cl
). You need 2 chloride anions to balance each calcium cation. Therefore the
formula of calcium chloride is CaCl2.
Similarly, in sodium carbonate you have sodium cations Na
+
and carbonate anions CO3
=
, so
that you need 2 sodium ions for each carbonate ion, and the formula is Na2CO3.
When you boil and evaporate water for a long time, you are left with a dry residual which is
made of salts and possibly other residues, such as silica and organic compounds. Only in sea
water do you have a sizeable quantity of dry residual, 35 to 40 g dry residual for one litre of
sea water. In river or tap water, the dry residual is usually very low, ranging from 50 to 500
mg/L. The dry residual is also called Total Dissolved Solids and abbreviated as TDS.
You may want to remove these foreign substances from the water. You can remove the
ionised substances by ion exchange. See details of the water analysis and units of concentration
used in ion exchange.

Ion Exchange
Impurities in water
Water, as we have seen, contains small amounts of foreign substances. In many cases, these
substances cause no problem. Drinking water containing some salinity is much better for
health than ultra-pure water. For specific applications, however, these foreign substances
are regarded as impurities and must be removed from water.
Insoluble substances (sand etc.) can be removed by filtration. There are many different sorts
of filtration technologies, down to ultrafiltration that can remove sub-micron particles. For
soluble substances other techniques must be used.
Soluble ionised substances can be removed by ion exchange.
Ion exchange resins
These are very small plastic beads, with a diameter of about 0.6 mm. These beads are
porous and contain invisible water inside the beads, measured as humidity or moisture
content. The structure of the resin is a polymer (like all plastics) on which a fixed ion has
been permanently attached. This ion cannot be removed or displaced; it is part of the
structure. To preserve the electrical neutrality of the resin, each fixed ion must be
neutralised with a counterion. This counterion is mobile and can get into and out of the
resin bead. Figure 3 shows a schematic cation exchange resin bead. The dark lines represent
the polymeric skeleton of the resin bead: it is porous and contains water. The fixed ions of
this cation exchange resin are sulphonates (SO3
) that are attached to the skeleton. In this

picture, the mobile ions are sodium (Na
+
) cations. Cation exchange resins such as Amberjet
1000 are often delivered in the sodium form.

Figure 3: Schematic cation and anion resin beads
The anion resin bead has a very similar skeleton. The functional groups are here quaternary
ammonium cations shown in the picture as N
+
R3; a more accurate formula would be CH2-N
+
-
(CH3)3. Each ion going into the bead has to be replaced by an ion getting out of the bead,
again to preserve electrical neutrality. This is what is called ion exchange. Only ions of the
same electric sign are exchanged. You cannot make a resin that can exchange cations as well
as anions, because the fixed cations inside the resin beads would neutralise the fixed anions
and no exchange with the outside world would be possible. Therefore you need separate
cation exchange resins and anion exchange resins.
Details about resin structure are given in a separate page.

Water softening
Among the substances dissolved in water, hardness is very commonly found. Hardness is a
popular word to represent principally calcium and magnesium dissolved in the water; these
ions can precipitate under certain conditions and form the scale that you may have seen in
your boiling pan, and that can obstruct pipes and damage water boilers. The softening of
water is the exchange of the hardness cations (Ca
++
and Mg
++
) for another cation that cannot
form scale because it is much more soluble: the sodium ion Na
+
.
To soften water, you take a cation exchange resin in which the mobile ion inside the beads is
sodium (Na
+
) and you pass the hard water through a column filled with the sodium form
resin. The hardness ions Ca
++
and Mg
++
move into the resin beads and each of these divalent
cations is replaced by two sodium ions getting out of the resin. The exchange reaction can
be written as:
2 RNa + Ca
++
R2Ca + 2 Na
+

Figure 4 illustrates the reaction: the resin beads are initially loaded with sodium (Na
+
) ions.
As shown schematically, each calcium or magnesium ion entering the resin bead is
compensated by two sodium ions leaving it. Anions from the water cannot enter the resin
bead because they would be repelled by the fixed sulphonate (SO3
) anions inside the beads.

Figure 4: Softening (sodium exchange) in a single resin bead
This cation exchange can only take place efficiently because the cation exchange resin has a
higher affinity for the hardness ions than for sodium. In plain English, the resin prefers
calcium and magnesium over sodium. The result of the softening process is not a net removal
of the hardness ions from water, it is the replacement of the hardness ions by sodium ions.
The salinity of the water has not changed, only the constituents of the salinity are different
at the end of the softening process.
Obviously, this exchange is not unlimited: when the resin has removed so much hardness
from the feed water that no room is left on the resin for removing more, the exhaustion run
has to be stopped. At this stage, the resin will be replaced by a fresh resin, or regenerated.

Demineralisation
If you replace all cations dissolved in water by H
+
ions and all anions by OH
ions, these will

recombine and form new molecules of water. To do this, you need a cation exchange resin in
the H form and an anion exchange resin in the OH form. All cations and anions will be
exchanged, and in this case the net result is a complete disappearance of the ionic
contaminants. The cation exchange reactions will be:
2 RH + Ca
++
R2Ca + 2 H
+

RH + Na
+
RNa + H
+

In these equations, R represents the cation exchange resin. This is shown on figure 5. The
resin is initially in the hydrogen (H
+
) form. In this picture the anions in water are not shown,
but the sulphonic functional groups SO3
are. You can see that one Ca

++
ion getting in causes
two H
+
ions to leave the resin, whilst one Na
+
cation is exchanged for one H
+
ion.

Figure 5: Decationisation (all cations replaced by H
+
)
Similarly, an anion exchange resin initially in the OH
form can remove all anions. The anion

exchange reactions will be:
ROH + Cl
RCl + OH

2 ROH + SO4
=
R2SO4 + 2 OH

where R represents the anion exchange resin. All anions are replaced by hydroxide (OH
)
ions. There is no picture for this anion exchange, as it is very similar to the cation exchange
picture in figure 5 above.
At the end of the exchange process, the resin beads have loaded all cations and anions from
the water and released H
+
and OH
ions. The resin beads are nearly exhausted (fig. 6).

These H
+
and OH
ions will immediately combine and form water:

H
+
+ OH
HOH H2O
The ionic contaminants are now sitting on the two resins (Na and Ca on the cation resin, Cl
and SO4 on the anion resin) and the water has been completely demineralised. Its salinity is
reduced to almost nothing, a few ions that have escaped from the resin columns, and that
are called ion leakage.

Figure 6: Resin beads are exhausted.
H
+
and OH
ions have been released into the water

Water demineralisation can thus be summarised in a small single picture:

Figure 7: Demineralisation summary!

Regeneration
When the resins are exhausted, you can bring them back to the fresh state and start over
again. Regeneration of ion exchange resins is a reversal of the exchange reactions shown
above.
Regeneration of a water softener
The softening resin is regenerated with sodium (Na
+
) ions supplied by a salt (common salt:
NaCl) solution. The regeneration reaction is:
R2Ca + 2 NaCl 2 RNa + CaCl2
Regeneration can only be performed when the concentration of the
regenerant is high, typically 1000 times higher than the concentration
in normal water. For instance, salt is used as a brine with 10 % (about
100 g/L) concentration.
At this stage, you will have understood why you put salt in your
dishwasher: the salt is diluted with water and regenerates the
invisible softening cartridge usually located at the bottom of the
machine, out of sight.
Regeneration of a demineraliser
In the case of demineralisation, strong acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCl) or sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) are fully dissociated and can supply H
+
ions to replace the cations that have been
exchanged and are sitting in the cation exchange resin beads at the end of the exhaustion
run:
RNa + HCl RH + NaCl
Similarly, strong alkalis, of which in practice only caustic soda (NaOH) is used, can supply
OH
ions to replace the anions sitting on the anion exchange resins beads at the end of the
run:
RCl + NaOH ROH + NaCl
As can be seen from the regeneration reactions, the regeneration step produces saline
waste. This is the principal disadvantage of ion exchange.
See a page with co-flow and reverse flow regeneration methods.

How resins look like
Click on the pictures

A sample of Amberlite
TM

FPC23

Amberjet
TM
mixed bed resins

Amberjet
TM
4400
There is a full page with many other resin pictures under the microscope.

Column operation

In the laboratory as well as in industrial plants, ion exchange resins are used in columns. The
water or solution to be treated flows through the resin. On the picture at the right, you see
the fresh resin, then you see how the resin gets progressively loaded with the ions from the
feed solution. Ions from the resin not shown on the picture are released into the treated
solution. At the end some of the ions from the feed escape into the pure solution, and
operation is stopped.
The next pictures show a typical laboratory column, a simple industrial column and a
photograph of an existing Amberpack plant.

Laboratory
setup
Industrial column Amberpack
TM
column
The jug showed at the top of this page contains a small filter filled with activated carbon and
ion exchange resin. The quantity of resin is around 150 ml. For comparison, a large industrial
ion exchange column can contain 20'000 L of resin, sometimes more.

Ion exchange capacity
Total capacity
The number of "active groups", or "functional groups" in an ion exchange resin is its total
capacity. As there are billions of individual active groups in a single bead of resin, the
capacity is usually expressed in equivalents per litre of resin. One equivalent is 6.0210
23

active groups. You don't have to remember this very large number called Avogadro number.
A typical strong acid cation exchange resin has a total capacity of 1.8 to 2.2 eq/L
A typical weak acid cation exchange resin has a total capacity of 3.7 to 4.5 eq/L
A typical weak or strong base anion exchange resin has a total capacity of 1.1 to 1.4 eq/L

Operating capacity
In the "column operation" picture above, the resin is 100% regenerated at the beginning of
the run, and not completely exhausted at the end of the run. The definition of operating
capacity is: the difference of regenerated sites between the beginning and the end of the
ion exchange run. It is also measured in equivalents per litre.
In operation, the operating capacity of the resin amounts to about half the total capacity.
The actual range is 40 to 70 % of the total capacity depending on the operating conditions.
See other details in a specific page.
It is the number of ions and their charge (one, two, or three charges per
ion), not their mass or weight, that is important for ion exchange. Therefore all
feed water analyses must have the mass of ions converted to equivalents.

Why the resin quantity is expressed in volume, not weight
When an ion exchange resin filter is designed and built, it is the volume of filtering media
that is important to determine the column size, not its mass. Ion exchange resins have
different density values (see resin properties), so the resins are sold by volume, in litres or
cubic metres, or in cubic feet in the USA. Many of the resin properties are also related to the
resin volume.

Treated water quality
In a typical demineralisation system regenerated in reverse flow (see regeneration methods),
the treated water quality, expressed in water conductivity, is below 1 S/cm. Considering
that feed water from rivers and deep wells has a conductivity of 100 to more than 1000
S/cm, the efficiency of ion exchange ranges from 99 to more than 99.9 %. Other processes,
such as reverse osmosis, are far from this high salt rejection number.

Limits of ion exchange
For ion exchange to be efficient there must be a difference in affinity between the ion in
the resin and the ion or ions you want to remove from solution. The resin must have a higher
affinity for the ion in solution compared to the ion in the resin.
The ion exchange technology is a perfect tool to remove or exchange contaminants present
in low concentrations. In such a case the running time until the resin column is exhausted
can be very long, ranging from a few hours to several months. When however the
concentration of contaminants is high, say several grams per litre of water, the ion exchange
cycles become exceedingly short and the quantity of regenerants increases to uneconomical
levels. In the case of brackish water (underground water with high salinity as often found in
arid countries) or sea water, ion exchange is not suitable and other technologies must be
used, such as reverse osmosis or distillation.
Also, any contaminant that is not ionised cannot be removed by ion exchange. Other
technologies are available for this purpose, using activated carbon, polymeric adsorbents,
molecular sieves and other media.

Selective ion exchange
Thanks to differences of affinity for different ions, common ion exchange resins can be used
to remove selectively ions from water. One of the most obvious examples is softening. You
cannot soften water effectively with reverse osmosis i.e. remove only Ca
++
and Mg
++
ions:
RO is not selective and will remove Na
+
ions as well; only ion exchange can soften water with
a cation exchange resin in the Na
+
form. Similarly, you can remove fairly selectively other
ions from water, such as nitrate of sulphate, using an anion exchange resin in the chloride
form. This works because the anion exchange resin has more affinity or a better
selectivity for the nitrate or sulphate ion than for the chloride ion, the order of affinity
being:
SO4
=
> NO3
> Cl
> HCO3
> OH
> F

There is thus no practical way with any technology to remove only chloride from water
without removing other anions as well.
For cation resins used in softeners, the affinity is
Pb
++
> Ca
++
> Mg
++
> Na
+
> H
+

The Pb (lead) is shown here to indicate that any dissolved lead will be removed efficiently by
a softening resin, as well as many other (but not all) heavy metals. See tables of selectivity
values for cation and anion exchange resins.
Some contaminants are not easy to remove by conventional ion exchange resins. In many
cases, very specific resins have been developed for these contaminants. Selective resins are
available today for the removal of:
Boron
Nitrate
Perchlorate
Nickel
Chromate
and some other contaminants. See the drinking water page.

Outside of water treatment
There is an incredible number of applications in fields other than water treatment. Let us
mention a few of them:
Softening of beet sugar juices before evaporation
Colour removal from cane sugar syrups
Chromatographic separation of glucose and fructose
Demineralisation of whey, glucose and many other foodstuffs
Recovery of polyphenols for use in the food industry
Recovery of uranium from mines
Recovery of gold from plating solutions
Separation of metals in solution
Catalysis of anti-knocking petrol additives
Extraction of antibiotics and other compounds from fermentation broths
Purification of organic acids
Powdered ion exchange resin is used in tablets in the pharmaceutical industry
See a separate page with details of the above applications.

Conclusion
Ion exchange is a very powerful technology to remove
impurities from water and other solutions. Many industries
depend on ion exchange for the production of extremely
pure water. Examples are:
Nuclear and thermal power stations
Semiconductor, computer chips and display panel
production
Selective removal of toxic contaminants from
drinking water
There are also many applications in areas other than water treatment, as mentioned above.
Go to the site map for several detailed pages on applications, processes, resin properties and
more.

Ion exchange resin types
Srongly Acidic Cation Exchange Resins
(SAC)
Functional groups SO3
H
+

Sulphonic acid
What they do In sodium form, they remove hardness (essentially calcium and
magnesium) from water and other solutions
In hydrogen form, they remove all cations
They are also used as acidic catalysts
Examples (uniform)
Amberjet
TM
1000 Na
(uniform)
Dowex
TM
Marathon C
(uniform)
Lewatit
TM
Monoplus S100
(conventional)
Amberlite
TM
IR120 Na
(conventional)
Lewatit
TM
S100
Typical total capacity 1.9 to 2.2 eq/L [Na
+
]
Weakly Acidic Cation Exchange Resins
(WAC)
Functional groups COOH
Carboxylic acid
What they do In hydrogen form, they remove preferentially divalent ions (e.g.
calcium and magnesium) from solutions containing alkalinity
Examples Amberlite
TM
IRC86
Dowex
TM
MAC3
Lewatit
TM
CNP80
Typical total capacity 3.7 to 4.5 eq/L [H
+
]
Strongly Basic Anion Exchange Resins
(SBA)
Functional groups N(CH3)3
+
OH

Quaternary ammonium
What they do In hydroxyl form, they remove all anions
In chloride form, they remove nitrate, sulphate and several other
ions
Examples (uniform)
Amberjet
TM
4200 Cl
(uniform)
Dowex
TM
Marathon A
(uniform)
Lewatit
TM
Monoplus M500
(conventional)
Amberlite
TM
IRA402 Cl
(conventional)
Lewatit
TM
M500
Typical total capacity 1.0 to 1.5 eq/L [Cl
]
Weakly Basic Anion Exchange Resins
(WBA)
Functional groups N(CH3)2
Amines
What they do After cation exchange, they remove chloride, sulphate, nitrate, and
other anions of strong acids, but they do not remove weak acids
(SiO2 and CO2)
Examples Amberlite
TM
IRA96
Dowex
TM
Marathon MWA
Lewatit
TM
Monoplus MP64
Typical total capacity 1.1 to 1.7 eq/L [free base]
Selective and chelating resins
Functional groups Many different types
What they do They remove metals, boric acid, perchlorate or other ions
selectively
Examples
Function Resin type Removes
Triethylammonium Amberlite PWA5 NO3
Thiol Ambersep GT74 Hg, Cd etc.
Aminophosphonic Amberlite IRC747 Ca from brine
Iminodiacetic Amberlite IRC748
Lewatit TP208
Ni, Cu etc.
Methyl glucamine Amberlite IRA743
Amberlite PWA10
H3BO3
Bis-picolylamine Dowex M4195 Metals at low pH
Thiourea Lewatit TP214 Hg, Cd etc.
See details in Resin structure.

Further reading:
Laboratory photographs of various resins.
Structure of the matrix and functional groups of ion
exchange resins.
Resin properties
Selectivity
Selectivity tables for cation and anion exchange resins.

Feed water
and some recommended limits for ion exchange systems
Introduction
Ion exchange resins exchange ions. Not a surprise, but the composition of the feed water affects plant
performance. It is therefore essential to know precisely the water composition of the feed to the ion
exchange system.
The following components and characteristics should be known:
Salinity (see also the separate page on water analysis details)
Suspended solids and turbidity
Temperature
pH value
Organic substances in the water
Other impurities, such as iron, manganese, aluminium, oil, polyelectrolytes...
We will examine the effect of all above parameters and try to set practical limits for each.
Salinity (water analysis)
This is the single most important item to estimate the performance of an ion exchange system. It is also one
of the first things to check when plant performance deteriorates. You cannot rely on an analysis that was
made months or years ago. Some effects of a change in salinity are:
Type of change Effect
Higher salt content Shorter runs, lower throughput, sometimes lower quality of the
treated water
Lower salt content Longer runs, higher throughput
Change in ionic balance (e.g. less
bicarbonate, more chloride)
Change in treated water quality. The resin volumes become
unbalanced, the degasifier has less or more carbon dioxide to
handle
Higher ratio of silica to total
anions
This may increase silica leakage and require a change in
regeneration conditions.

The picture below is a schematic representation of a water analysis, with cations and anions. A good water
analysis must be balanced.

Click on picture to see it enlarged with more details.
See also a detailed description of the water analysis, with the concentration units to use and a table of the most
common ions in water.
If the water analysis varies according to season, plant performance should be re-assessed, and perhaps
operating conditions re-adjusted, to reflect the seasonal variations. If you don't analyse the water yourself,
give a sample to a reputable laboratory for testing. If your feed water is city water, you should be able to
obtain an accurate analysis from your municipality.
When re-assessing the performance of a plant, or optimising it, it is recommended to use the most probable
analysis for the basic calculation, then to re-run the calculation with seasonal analyses to estimate plant
throughput under various conditions. All the water analyses should be real, not maxima, averages or minima.
We strongly recommend that you should update the expected performance of the plant based on actual
operating conditions. You should collect the necessary data:
Water analysis (after pre-treatment)
Resin types and volumes
Regeneration method (co-flow, reverse flow, packed beds)
Regenerant quantities and concentrations
Salinity limits
Ion exchange is the perfect technology for low concentrations. At high salinity, the cycles
become very short, regenerant consumption increases and in extreme cases the water required
for regeneration may exceed the volume of treated water. As a guideline, a salinity of 20
meq/L (1000 ppm as CaCO3) seems to be the high limit, with some exceptions. Higher salinity
water is probably best treated with RO.
Sea water cannot be demineralised by ion exchange, as the resins would be exhausted in less
than 3 bed volumes.
Suspended solids and turbidity
Ideally, the feed water to an ion exchange vessel should be perfectly clear and free of suspended solids. It is
essential to ensure that mechanical filters installed ahead of an ion exchange system operate properly.
Insufficient filtration resulting in excessive suspended solids may cause:
Channeling of the resin bed, resulting in high leakage and short runs.
High pressure drop values, sometimes resulting in flow reduction, and requiring frequent backwash of
the unit.
Suspended solids are traditionally measured by filtration on a 0.45 m filter and expressed as dry mass. The
tolerated amount of suspended solids varies according to the ion exchange technology and to the run length.
If the resins can be easily backwashed and cleaned, a higher quantity of suspended solids is acceptable.
As co-flow regenerated vessels can be backwashed before each regeneration, they are not very
sensitive to suspended solids, and several mg/L (ppm) are usually acceptable.
In all cases, if the system has long cycles, the accumulated suspended solids may cause pressure drop
problems even if the amount of suspended solids in the feed is relatively low.
Reverse flow regenerated vessels are not backwashed at the end of every cycle, and the pressure
drop should be monitored closely to determine when a resin backwash is necessary.
Packed bed units are more sensitive to suspended solids, as they cannot be backwashed in situ. In
general, the tolerated suspended solids should be well below 1 mg/L (1 ppm).
o In Upcore and Amberpack Reverse the suspended solids land on the surface of the resin bed,
and some are backwashed away during regeneration.
o In Amberpack and floating bed, the suspended solids enter in a slightly fluidised part of the
bed and accumulate there. A higher quantity is tolerated because it migrates partially
upward, but this quantity cannot be removed until the resin is taken out to the backwash
tower.
Turbidity (cloudiness or haziness) is measured in NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units). There is no fixed
relation between turbidity and suspended solids.
Limits for suspended solids
There is no simple number here: the most sensible way is to calculate the load of solids during one
cycle and to express the result per square metre of vessel (cross-section). Here some suggestions:
System Max. load per cycle
Co-flow 6 kg/m
2

Split-flow 6 kg/m
2

RFR hold-down 2 kg/m
2

Condensate 2 kg/m
2

Upcore
TM
& similar 0.5 kg/m
2

Amberpack
TM
& similar 0.2 kg/m
2

ADI
TM
, ADN
TM
0.1 kg/m
2

Suspended solids

Turbidity limits
Turbidity is not used much in conjunction with ion exchange systems. See suspended solids
above. For floating bed systems without a backwash tower, it was found that 1 NTU is more
than what the columns can tolerate.
Temperature
The temperature of the feed water (and of the regenerants) can affect plant performance.
Some effects of a change in temperature are:
At low temperature, the operating capacity of all resins decreases.
There is an exception to the above rule: at high temperature, the silica removal capacity of a SBA
resin decreases, to become virtually zero if the temperature exceeds about 60C.
Styrenic SBA resins of type 2 (e.g. Amberjet 4600) and acrylic SBA resins (e.g. Amberlite IRA458)
should not be operated or regenerated at a temperature higher than 35C. High temperatures may
result in problems of rinse and a loss of strong base capacity, which will cause a higher silica leakage
and shorter runs.
Cation resins can operate at high temperature, sometimes in excess of 100C. However, the presence
of oxygen and trace metals can cause slow oxidation of the resin.
Temperature limits
See the table with limits of temperature for all anion exchange resins.
Cation resins can withstand 100C or even more. Product data sheets give details for all resins.
pH value
Ion exchange resins can tolerate any pH value (0 to 14) without suffering damage, provided strong osmotic
shocks due to rapid change of pH or concentration are avoided.
In service however, resins operate only within pH limits: cation resins cannot operate at very low pH, or
anion resins at very high pH, because they would be permanently regenerated and unable to exchange other
ions. Similarly, the resins are normally not used in very concentrated solutions. This is why in practice the
table below should only go up to pH 12 and down to pH 2, which would be 10 meq/L of NaOH or acid
respectively.
pH limits
Type of resin pH range
WAC 6 to 14
SAC 4 to 14
WBA 0 to 7
SBA 0 to 9
Operating pH range
Organics
Organic matter in water can interfere with ion exchange. The main effect of organics is irreversible fouling
of anion exchange resins.
Some problems caused by organics are:
Low pH (< 6) of the treated water when organic acids slip through the plant.
High conductivity of the treated water.
Increased silica leakage.
Increased time for rinsing and high volume of waste water.
Shorter runs.
The traditional measurement of organics (COD) in natural water uses the potassium permanganate oxidation
method, and its result is expressed in mg/L as KMnO4.
Unfortunately, there is no direct correlation between this method and the more modern analysis of TOC
(Total Organic Carbon). However, experience has shown that as a rule of thumb, 1 mg/L TOC (1 ppm as C)
can be roughly translated into 5.5 mg/L (5.5 ppm) as KMnO4.
Limits of organic load
See the table for all anion exchange resins (same as temperature table).
Other impurities
Other impurities can also interfere with ion exchange. Some of them are listed below with their effect and
possible remedies.
Effects Prevention/Treatment Limits
Iron and manganese
Pressure drop
Short cycles (capacity loss)
Bad quality (high leakage)
Oxidation and filtration
Resin cleaning with HCl
Limits for Fe
Softening and nitrate removal: 1
mg/L
Demineralisation HCl: 15 mg/L
Demineralisation H2SO4: 0.5 mg/L
Condensate polishing: 0.1 mg/L
(up to 2 mg/L at startup)
Aluminium
Precipitation of Al(OH)3
(at neutral pH)
Al dissolves in acid or alkali Limits for aluminium
Aluminium usually does not foul
resins unless it is a large
proportion of the cationic load.
Barium
Precipitation of BaSO4 Regenerate cation resins with
HCl only!
Limits for barium
When Ba is more than 0.1 % of
total cations, H2SO4 should be
avoided.
Oil
Check pumps for oil leakage
Resin cleaning with non-ionic
surfactant
Limits for oil
Virtually zero
0.05 mg/L maximum
Oxidants, chlorine or ozone
Sodium leakage from anion
resins
Pressure drop when resin
gets "soft"
Adjust (reduce) dosage
Use activated carbon as pre-
treatment
Scavenge excess oxidant with
bisulphite
Limits for oxidants
See table with acceptable limits.
Polyelectrolytes
Adjust dosage
Clean resin with 4 % NaOH
Limits for polyelectrolytes
No known limits. Caution
recommended. In doubt,
polyelectrolyte supplier should be
asked for harmlessness.

Basic ion exchange processes
in water treatment
Introduction
The ion exchange technology is used for different water treatment applications:
Softening (removal of hardness)
De-alkalisation (removal of bicarbonate)
Decationisation (removal of all cations)
Demineralisation (removal of all ions)
Mixed bed polishing
Nitrate removal
Selective removal of various contaminants
You will find here a description of the above processes, the exchange reactions and the
changes in water. Resin types are described in another page, as well as regeneration methods.
See also the general introduction to ion exchange, and an overview of ion exchange column
designs in other pages.
Softening
Natural water contains calcium and magnesium ions (see water analysis) which form salts that
are not very soluble. These cations, together with the less common and even less soluble
strontium and barium cations, are called together hardness ions. When the water evaporates
even a little, these cations precipitate. This is what you see when you let water evaporate in
a boiling kettle on the kitchen stove.
Hard water also forms scale in water pipes and in boilers, both domestic and industrial. It
may create cloudiness in beer and soft drinks. Calcium salts deposit on the glasses in your
dishwasher if the city water is hard and you have forgotten to add salt.
Strongly acidic cation exchange resins (SAC, see resin types) used in the sodium form remove
these hardness cations from water. Softening units, when loaded with these cations, are
then regenerated with sodium chloride (NaCl, table salt).
Reactions
Here the example of calcium:
2 R-Na + Ca
++
R2-Ca + 2 Na
+

R represents the resin, which is initially in the sodium form. The reaction for magnesium is
identical.
The above reaction is an equilibrium. It can be reversed by increasing the sodium
concentration on the right side. This is done with NaCl, and the regeneration reaction is:
R2-Ca + 2 Na
+
2 R-Na + Ca
++

What happens to the water

Raw water
SAC (Na)

Softened water
The water salinity is unchanged, only the hardness has been replaced by sodium. A small
residual hardness is still there, its value depending on regeneration conditions.
Uses
Examples for the use of softeners:
Treatment of water for low pressure boilers
In Europe, most dishwashers have a softening cartridge at the bottom of the machine
Breweries and soft drink factories treat the water for their products with food grade
resins
Softening the water does not reduce its salinity: it merely removes the hardness ions and
replaces them with sodium, the salts of which have a much higher solubility, so they don't
form scale or deposits.

De-alkalisation
This particular process uses a weakly acidic cation resin. This resin type is capable of
removing hardness from water when it also contains alkalinity. After treatment, the water
contains carbon dioxide, that can be eliminated with a degasifier tower. The cation resin is
very efficiently regenerated with an acid, usually hydrochloric acid.
Reactions
Here the example of calcium:
2 R-H + Ca
++
(HCO3
)2 R2-Ca + 2 H
+
+ 2 HCO3

and the hydrogen cations combine with the birarbonate anions to produce carbon dioxide
and water:
H
+
+ HCO3
CO2 + H2O

Raw water
WAC (H)

Decarbonated water
Recombination of hydrogen and bicarbonate and removal of carbon dioxide with the
degasifier:

Decarbonated water
DEG

Degassed water
The salinity has decreased. Temporary hardness is gone.
Uses
De-alkalisation is used:
In breweries
In household drinking water filters
For low pressure boilers
As a first step before the SAC exchange in demineralisation
De-alkalisation reduces the salinity of water, by removing hardness cations and bicarbonate
anions.

Decationisation
The removal of all cations is seldom practiced, except as a first stage of the
demineralisation process, or sometimes in condensate polishing where the decationiser
precedes a mixed bed unit. A strongly acidic cation exchange resin (SAC) is used in the H
+

form.
Reactions
Here the example of sodium, but all cations react in the same way:
R-H + Na
+
R-Na + H
+

The equilibrium reaction is reversed for regeneration by increasing the hydrogen
concentration on the right side. This is done with a strong acid, HCl or H2SO4:
R-Na + H
+
R-H + Na
+


Raw water
SAC (H)

Decationised water
DEG

Decat + degassed
water
In the second step, a degasifier is used again to remove the carbon dioxide formed by
combining the bicarbonate anions and the released hydrogen cation. The water salinity is
reduced, and the water is now acidic. A small sodium leakage is shown.

Demineralisation
For many applications, all ions in the water must be removed. In particular, when water is
heated to produce steam, any impurity can precipitate and cause damage. As there are
cations and anions in the water, we must use two different types of resins: a cation
exchanger and an anion exchanger. This combined arrangement produces pure water, as
presented in the general introduction. Demineralisation is also called deionisation. The cation
resin is used in the hydrogen form (H
+
) and the anion resin in the hydroxyl form (OH
), so that
the cation resin must be regenerated with an acid and the anion resin with an alkali.
A degasifier is used to remove the carbon dioxide created after cation exchange when the
water contains a significant concentration of bicarbonate.
The cation resin is usually located before the anion resin: otherwise if the water contains
any hardness, it would precipitate in the alkaline environment created by the OH
form
anion resin as Ca(OH)2 or CaCO3, which have low solubility.
Layout SAC (DEG) SBA
Let us first consider a simple demineralisation system comprising a strong acid cation
exchange resin in the H
+
form, a degasifier (optional) and a strong base anion exchange resin
in the OH
form. The first step is decationisation as shown above:

RSAC-H + Na
+
RSAC-Na + H
+

With calcium insead of sodium (also valid for magnesium and other divalent cations):
2 RSAC-H + Ca
++
(RSAC)2-Ca + 2 H
+

In the second step, all anions are removed with the strong base resin:
RSBA-OH + Cl
RSBA-Cl + OH

The weak acids created after cation exchange, which are carbonic acid and silicic acid
(H2CO3 and H2SiO3) are removed in the same way:
RSBA-OH + HCO3
RSBA-HCO3
+ OH

And finally, the H
+
ions created in the first step react with the OH
ions of the second step to

produce new molecules of water. This reaction is irreversible:
H
+
+ OH
H2O
1: Cation exchange removing all cations (as in decationisation) followed by degassing:

Raw water
SAC (H)

Decationised water
DEG

Decat + degassed
water
2: Anion exchange removing all anions (strong and weak acids):

Decat + degassed
water
SBA (OH)

Demineralised water

Demineralised water is completely free of ions, except a few residual traces of sodium and
silica, because the SAC and SBA resins have their lowest selectivity for these. With a simple
demineralisation line regenerated in reverse flow, the treated water has a conductivity of
only about 1 S/cm, and a silica residual between 5 and 50 g/L depending on the silica
concentration in the feed and on regeneration conditions.
Note that the pH value should not be used as a process control, as it is impossible to
measure the pH of a water with less than say 5 S/cm conductivity.
Regeneration
The SAC resin is regenerated with a strong acid, HCl or H2SO4:
R-Na + H
+
R-H + Na
+

And the SBA resin is regenerated with a strong alkali, NaOH in 99 % of the cases:
RSBA-Cl + OH
RSBA-OH + Cl

Layout WAC/SAC DEG WBA/SBA
Because weakly acidic and weakly basic resins offer a high operating capacity and are very
easy to regenerate, they are used in combination with strongly acidic and strongly basic
resins in large plants. The first step with the WAC resin is dealkalisation (removal of
bicarbonate hardness), and the second step with the SAC removes all the remaining cations.
A WAC resin is used when both hardness and alkalinity are present in large relative
concentrations in the feed water.
WBA resins remove only the strong acids after cation exchange. They are not capable of
removing the weak acids such as SiO2 and CO2. In the regenerated, free base form, they are
not dissociated, so no free OH
ions are available for neutral anion exchange. On the other

hand, their basicity is enough to adsorb the strong acids created after cation exchange:
RWBA + H
+
Cl
RWBA.HCl
In the last step, a SBA resin is thus required to remove the weak acids, as shown in the
preceding section:
RSBA-OH + HCO3
RSBA-HCO3
+ OH

1 & 2: Cation exchange beginning with the removal of temporary hardness (WAC, as in
dealkalisation) followed by the removal of all remaining cations (SAC):

Raw water
WAC (H)

Decarbonated water
SAC (H)

Decationised water
3 & 4: Anion exchange begining after degassing with the removal of strong acids (WBA)
followed by the removal of weak acids (SBA):

Decat + degassed
water
WBA (FB)

Partially
demineralised
SBA (OH)

Demineralised water
A full demineralisation line is shown below, with a cation exchange column (WAC/SAC), a
degasifier, an anion exchange column (WBA/SBA), and a polishing mixed bed unit. The use of
a weakly acidic resin and the degasifier column are conditioned by the presence of hardness
and alkalinity in the feed water, as explained in the previous sections.

A demineralisation line (click to enlarge)
Regeneration
Regeneration is done in thoroughfare, which means that the regenerant first goes through the
strong resin, which requires an excess of regenerant, and the regenerant not consumed by
the strong resin is usually sufficient to regenerate the weak resin without additional dosage.
The cation resins are regenerated with a strong acid, preferably HCl, because H2SO4 can
precipitate calcium.
The anion resins are regenerated with caustic soda.

Regeneration of the demineralisation line (click to enlarge)
The quality obtained is the same as in the simple SAC-SBA layout, but because the weak
resins are practicallly regenerated "free of charge", the regenerant consumption is
considerably lower. Additionally, the weak resins have a higher operating capacity than the
strong resins, so the total volume of ion exchange resins is reduced.
Uses
Examples of demineralisation:
Water for high pressure boilers in nuclear and fossil fuelled power stations and other
industries
Rinse water used in production of computer chips and other electronic devices
Process water for many applications in the chemical, textile and paper industries
Water for batteries
Water for laboratories

Mixed bed polishing

Mixed bed unit in service
and in regeneration
The last traces of salinity and silica can be removed on a resin bed where highly regenerated
strong acid cation and strong base anion resins are mixed.
Mixed bed units deliver an excellent treated water quality, but are complcated to
regenerate, as the resins must first be separated by backwashing before regeneration.
Additionally, they require large amounts of chemicals, and the hydraulic conditions for
regeneration are not optimal. Therefore, mixed beds are usually only used to treat pre-
demineralised water, when the service run is long.
Practically nothing is left:

Demineralised water
SAC (H) + SBA (OH)

Nothing is left
Mixed bed polishing produces a water with less than 0.1 S/cm conductivity. With
sophisticated design and appropriate resins, the conductivity of pure water (0.055 S/cm)
can be achieved. Residual silica values can be as low as 1 g/L.
The pH value should not be used as a process control, as pH meters are unable to operate at
1 S/cm conductivity or below.
Uses
Treatment of water pre-demineralised with ion exchange resins
Polishing of reverse osmosis permeate
Polishing of sea water distillate
Treatment of turbine condensate in power stations
Treatment of process condensate in various industries
Production of ultra-pure water for the semiconductors industry
Service de-ionisation (with off-site regenerated columns)

Nitrate removal
Nitrate can be removed selectively from drinking water using strong base anion resins in the
chloride cycle, i.e. regenerated with a NaCl brine. The reaction is:
RSBA-Cl + NO3
RSBA-NO3 + Cl


Raw water
SBA (Cl)

Denitrated water
Conventional SBA resins can be used, but they also remove sulphate from water. See the
selectivity table. Depending on the resin type, some (selective resins) or all (non-selective)
sulphate is removed. Bicarbonate is only removed partially at the beginning of the service
run.
Uses
Mainly municipal water treatment

Selective removal of various other contaminants
Selective removal of metals and other contaminants is mainly used for drinking water and for
waste. Many of these applications require special resins: chelating resin making stable metal
complexes, for instance.
Examples
Removal of boron (boric acid) from drinking water
Removal of nitrate from drinking water (shown above)
Removal of perchlorate from drinking water
Removal of heavy metals from waste: Cd, Cr, Fe, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn
In many of these applications, a residual concentration in the g/L range is possible.
Some contaminants are difficult to remove with ion exchange, due to a poor selectivity of
the resins. Examples: As, F, Li. See the periodic system of the elements with some ion
exchange data. See also the page about resin types (selective resins) and a separate page
about ion exchange processes for drinking water.

Other information
Abbreviations
Resin types are usually abbreviated in these pages:
SAC: strongly acidic cation exchange resin
WAC: weakly acidic cation exchange resin
SBA: strongly basic anion exchange resin
WBA: weakly basic anion exchange resin
See a table with a complete list of abbreviations and units.

Water
See details about the water analysis as required for the above processes.
A special page is available about drinking water applications.

Ion exchange columns
Various column types are described in a separate page. Degasifiers as well.

Regeneration
See details about regeneration processes, quantities and concentrations of regenerants.

Ion exchange reactions
A full page describes reaction equilibrium and chemical reactions of these resins.

Regeneration methods
for ion exchange units
Introduction
Most ion exchange resins are used in columns. Ion exchange operation is basically
discontinuous: a loading phase, called service run, is followed by regeneration of the
exhausted resins. There are two main methods for the regeneration process:
Co-flow regeneration, where the fluids are flowing from the top to the bottom of the
column both during the service run as well as during regeneration.
Reverse flow regeneration, where the fluids are flowing alternatively upwards and
downwards during service and regeneration.
We will also give information about MB regeneration, regenerant quantities (regeneration ratio),
thoroughfare regeneration, and regenerant types and concentrations. Separate pages give
information about the water quality required for regeneration, and regenerant neutralisation.
See also the page about capacity.
Co-flow regeneration (CFR)
This regeneration technique has been used used at the beginning of ion exchange: the
solution to treat flows from the top to the bottom of the column, and the regenerant uses
the same path.
The problem is that strongly acidic and strongly basic resins are not completely converted to
the H or OH form at the end of the regeneration, because this would require too large an
excess of chemical regenerant. As a result, the bottom layers of the resin bed are more
contaminated than the top layers at the end of regeneration, so that when the next loading
run begins the leakage is high due to the displacement of the contaminating ions by the H
+

(or OH
) ions produced in the exchange.

The dark zone in the picture above represents
the proportion of exhausted resin, the yellow
zone the proportion of regenerated resin. The
small picture on the right explains what I mean:
for instance, at level A, the resin is 50%
exhausted and 50% regenerated. Above the
exchange zone, the resin is fully exhausted, and
below it is fullly regenerated.
With co-flow regeneration, the only way to reduce this permanent leakage is to increase the
quantity of regenerant so as to leave less contaminating ions at the outlet of the column.

Reverse flow regeneration (RFR)
This is also called "counterflow regeneraton". In the past, it was called counter-current
regeneration, but the term is not strictly correct as the resin bed does not move. With
reverse flow regeneration the regenerant is injected in the opposite direction of the service
flow. There are two sub-cases:
1. Upflow loading and downflow regeneration, as in the floating bed and Amberpack
TM

processes.
2. Downflow loading and upflow regeneration, as in the UFD
TM
and Upcore
TM
processes.
In this case, the regenerant doesn't have to push the contaminating ions through the whole
resin bed. The layers which are less exhausted will be regenerated first and will be the
cleanest when the next loading run (exhaustion) starts.

Or with upflow loading:

Reverse flow regeneration offers two significant advantages:
1. The treated water has a much higher purity than with co-flow, due to a very low
leakage.
2. Less regenerant is required, as the contaminating ions don't have to be pushed
through the whole bed, and the leakage is almost independent of the regenerant
dosage.


At the end of regeneration, the exit layer of the column regenerated in CFR has the highest
concentration of impurities, whereas in RFR the exit layer contains the most highly
regenerated resin. This is why in CFR the contaminants at the bottom find their way into the
treated water, more at the beginning than in the middle of the run, due to a "self
regeneration" effect, whereas in RFR any displaced contaminant from the inlet layer gets
immediately removed from a layer underneath.
The graph shows the typical leakage profile during the loading phase (e.g. conductivity in
S/cm but it can be any other leakage depending on the process). The ionic leakage
obtained with reverse flow regeneration is usually so low, that it does not depend on the
amount of regenerant used. With co-flow, low leakage values are obtained only with high
regenerant dosage.

No backwash with RFR
The whole effect of reverse flow regeneration relies on undisturbed resin layers. The resin
with the highest degree of regeneration should always be at the column outlet. Therefore,
the resin bed should not be backwashed before regeneration, and should not be allowed to
fluidise at any time. So either the columns are completely filled with resin (packed beds) or
the bed is held down during regeneration. See the "column design" page for the concepts of
holddown and packed beds.

Regeneration steps
The general regeneration procedure for ion echange vessels is as follows:
1. Backwash resin bed (co-flow regeneration only) to remove suspended solids and
decompact the bed.
2. Inject regenerant diluted in appropriate water quality. The injection is at a low flow
rate, so that the contact time is 20 to 40 minutes.
3. Displace the regenerant with dilution water at the same flow rate.
4. Rinse the bed at service flow rate with feed water until the desired treated water
quality is obtained.
The above is valid for most ion exchange columns, e.g. softening, nitrate removal, de-
alkalisation. For demineralisation, the cation column is regenerated first with acid, then the
anion column with caustic soda; alternatively, both are regenerated at the same time.
Additional steps may be required in some special applications (see below).

Mixed bed regeneration

Internal regeneration of a mixed bed unit is more complicated. The steps are:
1. Backwash resin bed to separate the cation from the anion resin.
2. Let the resins settle.
3. Optionally: drain the water down to the resin bed surface.
4. Inject caustic soda diluted in demineralised water.
5. Displace the caustic with dilution water.
6. Inject acid diluted in demineralised water.
7. Displace the acid with dilution water.
8. Drain the water down to the resin bed surface.
9. Mix the resins with clean compressed air or nitrogen.
10. Refill the unit slowly with water.
11. Do the final rinse with feed water at service flow rate until the desired treated water
quality is obtained.
Note 1: If no NaOH distributor is available, caustic "rains" from the top of the column down
to the water level. This creates some dilution and the distribution is not as even as with a
dedicated distributor.
Note 2: Cation and anion resin can be regenerated simultaneously to save time. Otherwise,
always start with the anion resin.
Note 3: In condensate polishing, mixed bed units are usually regenerated externally.

Regeneration efficiency
The three pictures on the left
show the conversion of totally
exhausted resins (in the Na
+
or
Cl
form), as a function of
regenerant dosage. The y axis
"% Regeneration" represents the
percentage of conversion of the
resins to the H
+
and OH
form
respectively. We can observe
the following things:
Hydrochloric acid is more
efficient than sulphuric acid to
regenerate a strongly acidic
cation exchange resin (SAC)
initially in the Na
+
form.
With 50 g HCl per litre of resin,
a conversion of 60 % to the H
+

form is achieved.
With 50 g H2SO4, a conversion of
only 40 % is achieved.
Even expressed as equivalents,
hydrochloric acid is more
efficient: 36.5 g HCl (1 eq) will
convert the resin to 45 %,
whereas 49 g H2SO4 (1 eq)
convert only 39 %.
To obtain total conversion, i.e.
100 % in the H
+
form, we need
about 6.5 eq HCl (240 g/L) but
8 eq H2SO4 (400 g/L).
This is due to the fact that the
second acidity of sulphuric acid
is considerably weaker than the
first acidity.
Regeneration of a strongly
basic anion exchange resin
(SBA) initially in the Cl
form
with caustic soda is more
difficult:
With 50 g NaOH per litre, only
37 % of the resin are converted;
with 40 g (1 eq) only 32 %.
As much as 37.5 eq NaOH (1500
g) are required to convert the
SBA resin to about 100 % in OH
form.
The reason why SBA resins of type 1 are more difficult to regenerate than SAC resins is the
selectivity coefficient:
K(Cl/OH) = 22 whilst K(Na/H) = 1.7.

In practice, SAC and SBA resins are not regenerated to a high conversion level, which would
be uneconomical in view of the high regenerant consumption.
On the other hand, weakly functional resins (WAC and WBA) have a near-linear regeneration
curve: the can be regenerated with a dosage close to the stoichiometric value, so they are
fully converted (see below) at the end of each regeneration.
Note: all regenerant values are expressed as grams of pure chemical (100 %) per litre of
resin.

Regeneration ratio
Definition:

Introduction
The regeneration ratio or regenerant ratio is calculated as the total amount of
regenerant (in equivalents) divided by the total ionic load (also in equivalents) during
one cycle.
It is is also equal to the number of eq/L regenerant per eq/L of resin operating
capacity.
A (theoretical) regenerant ratio of 1.00 (i.e. 100 %) would correspond to the
stoichiometric quantity.
All resins need a certain excess of regenerant above the stoichiometric quantity.
Example
Amberjet 1000
regenerated with 55 g HCl per litre
operating capacity : 1.20 eq/L
55 g/L HCl = 55/36.5 = 1.507 eq/L
Regenerant ratio = 1.507/1.20 = 1.26 = 126 %

Excess
The difference between ionic load and regenerant quantity is called excess regenerant.
Excess [in eq]= regenerant [eq] - ionic load [eq]

Excess [in %] = 100 x (regenerant ratio 1)
Minimum values
WAC resins require just above the stoichiometric quantity. A safe number is 105 to
110 %.
WBA resins require 115 to 140 %, because most of them they have some strongly basic
functional groups.
When regenerated with ammonia or sodium carbonate, WBA resins require a
regenerant ratio of 150 to 200 %. These regenerants can be used for WBA only, not
for SBA resins.
SAC and SBA resins require a larger excess than their weak counterparts.
Co-flow regenerated SAC and SBA resins require more than those regenerated in
reverse flow.
SAC resins regenerated in reverse flow with hydrochloric acid need an absolute
minimum of 110 % regeneration, but a safer value is 120 %. If the water contains high
hardness or low alkalinity, the minimum value must be increased.
SAC resins regenerated with sulphuric acid require a larger excess than those
regenerated with HCl. At least 40 % more.
For SBA resins, there is no easy way to estimate a minimum, as it depends on the
type of SBA resin (styrenic type 1 vs type 2 or acrylic resins).
Important note: when calculating the regenerant ratio for SBA resins, one must take
2 equivalents of NaOH for each equivalent of CO2 or SiO2.
WAC/SAC couples can be regenerated with a global ratio of about 105 %.
WBA/SBA couples can be regenerated with a global ratio of 110 to 120 %. More is
required if the silica level is high in the feed water.
The regenerant ratio for silica should be at least 800 %. This should be calculated
separately as the quantity of NaOH (in eq) divided by the load of silica (in eq) during
one cycle. One equivalent of silica is taken as 60 g as SiO2.

Thoroughfare regeneration
When a weak and a strong resin are used in series, the following two rules must apply:
1. The feed water must pass first through the weak, then only through the strong resin.
2. The regenerant must pass first through the strong, then through the weak resin.

Separate columns in service

Separate columns in regeneration

Why is it so?
1. The weak resin has a high capacity and good regeneration efficiency, but does not
remove all ions. Therefore it must be placed first, and the strong resin will be used
to remove whatever the weak resin has not removed, albeit with a lower efficiency.
2. The strong resin requires a high excess of regenerant. The weak resin requires almost
no excess. Therefore the regenerant passes through the strong resin first, and the
weak resin is regenerated with the excess regenerant coming out of the strong resin.
The above pictures are for old-fashioned, separate columns with co-flow regeneration.
Below the same for an Amberpack double compartment column.

Amberpack in service

Amberpack in regeneration
All the above applies equally to a couple of weak acid and strong acid cation exchange
resins.

Regenerant types and concentrations
Types of regenerant
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is normally used to regenerate SAC resins in the softening
process, and SBA resins used for nitrate removal.
For softening, potassium chloride (KCl) can also be used when the presence of
sodium in the treated solution is undesirable.
In some hot condensate softening processes, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) can be
used.
For nitrate removal, the SBA resin can be regenerated with other compounds
providing chloride ions, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl).
For decationisation the first step of a demineralisation process SAC resins must be
regenerated with a strong acid. The most common acids are hydrochloric and
sulphuric acids.
o Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is very efficient and does not cause precipitations in
the resin bed.
o Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is sometimes cheaper and easier to store and to handle
in general, but less efficient than hydrochloric acid: the operating capacity of
the SAC resin is lower. Additionally, its concentration must be carefully
adjusted to prevent calcium sulphate precipitation (see below). Once a CaSO4
precipitate is formed, it is very difficult to remove from the resin bed.
o Nitric acid (HNO3) can also be used in principle, but is not recommended as
it can cause exothermic reactions; explosions have been observed in some
cases, so that the use of nitric acid is considered dangerous.
For dealkalisation, the WAC resin is best regenerated with hydrochloric acid (HCl).
When using sulphuric acid, the concentration must be kept under 0.8 % to avoid
calcium sulphate precipitation. Other, weaker acids can also regenerate WAC resins,
such as acetic acid (CH3COOH) or citric acid, a molecule containing three COOH
groups: (CH2COOH-C(OH)COOH-CH2COOH = C6H8O7). Have a look at the 3-dimensional
formula.
SBA resins are always regenerated with caustic soda (NaOH) in the demineralisation
process. Caustic potash (potassium hydroxide KOH) is in principle also applicable,
but usually more expensive.
WBA resins are usually also regenerated with caustic soda, but other regenerants
weaker alkalis can also be used, such as:
o Ammonia (NH3)
o Sodium carbonate (soda ash, Na2CO3)
o A lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2) suspension
In general, WAC resins can be regenerated with an acid having a pKa lower than that of the
resin itself. The pKa value of most WAC resins is 4.4 to 4.8. Thus acetic acid (pK 4.8) can just
regenerate WAC resins, and citric acid (pK 3.1) is efficient for this purpose, whilst carbonic
acid (pK 6.4) is not. In most cases, however, HCl or H2SO4, usually cheaper, are used.
In general, WBA resins can be regenerated with an alkali having a pKa higher than that of the
resin itself. The pKa value of styrenic WBA resins is around 8.5, that of acrylic WBAs is around
9.5. Thus ammonia, with a pKa of 9.3, can regenerate styrenic WBA resins. In most cases,
however, NaOH is used, being often cheaper and easier to handle.
SAC and SBA resins can only be regenerated with strong acids or strong bases respectively.
Concentrations
The most usual concentrations are:
NaCl (softening and nitrate removal): 10 %
HCl (decationisation, de-alkalisation and demineralisation): 5 %
NaOH (demineralisation): 4 %
H2SO4: for SAC resins, the acid concentration must be carefully selected between 0.7
and 6 % as a function of the proportion of calcium in the feed water (which is the
same in the SAC resin). For WAC resins, the concentration is usually 0.7 %. Too high a
concentration may cause calcium sulphate precipitation.
For SAC resins, stepwise concentrations are often used: after a first step at a low
concentration, a second step is carried out at a higher concentration once a great
part of the calcium on the resin has been eluted. In rare cases, three steps are used.
The steps at higher concentrations reduce the quantity of dilution water and increase
the sulphuric acid efficiency.
There are cases where different concentrations (often lower, rarely higher) must be
selected.

Quality of water for regeneration
The required water quality for each regeneration step is shown in a separate page.
Neutralisation of the regenerants
See another page on the way to neutralise regenerants and increase ion exchange capacity.
Special applications
Sweetening-off and -on
In several applications other than water treatment, the solution treated by resins must be
displaced before regeneration, to recover as much treated solution as possible, avoiding
losses in the regeneration waste. This additional step is called "sweetening off" because it
was first introduced in sugar treatment processes. Similarly, a "sweetening on" step is
carried out after regeneration and rinse before feeding the raw solution to be treated, to
avoid dilution of the treated solution. The complete regeneration process consists then of
the following steps:
1. Backwash with the raw solution (optional)
2. Sweetening off: displacement of the solution with water
3. Regenerant injection
4. Displacement of the regenerant with water
5. Fast rinse with water
6. Sweetening on with the solution to be treated
The sweetening-off fraction is sometimes recycled, particularly when the solution contains
valuable components (precious metals, expensive chemical compounds).
When the solution has a high density, which can be higher than the resin, the service run
which often takes place at a low flow rate can be carried out upflow to pack the resin bed
and thus avoid its floating and fluidisation. This procedure is often used in the treatment of
sugar solutions.

To increase the concentration of the eluate and the operating capacity of the resin, a system
consisting of at least three columns can be used, where two columns are in service, in series,
and the third in regeneration, as shown in the picture on the left. The "lead" column is
exhausted past its leakage breakthrough, whilst the "lag" column acts as a polisher and
guarantees a low leakage in the treated solution.
When the eluate contains a valuable compound removed on the resin, this compound is
eluted at a higher concentration than with a single column.
Ion exchange resins applications
A general overview
Contents
1. Water treatment
1.1. Softening
1.2. Dealkalisation
1.3. Demineralisation
1.4. Mixed bed polishing
1.5. Drinking water
2. Sugar industry
2.1. Softening of water used for sugar extraction
2.2. Softening of sugar juices before evaporation
2.3. The NRS softening process
2.4. The Gryllus softening process
2.5. Demineralisation of sugar juices before evaporation
2.6. Colour removal from sugar syrups after evaporation
2.7. The Quentin process
2.8. Sugar recovery from molasses
2.9. Sucrose inversion
2.10. Chromatographic separation
2.11. Glucose treatment
3. Other applications in the food industry
3.1. Dairy products
3.2. Beverages
3.3. Fruit juices
3.4. Recovery of polyphenols
3.5. Citric acid
3.6. Aminoacids
3.7. Sorbitol demineralization
3.8. Gelatine demineralisation
4. Applications in the chemical industry
4.1. Recovery or removal of metals
4.2. Caustic soda and chlorine production
4.3. Phenol
4.4. Hydrogen peroxide purification
4.5. Selective removal of various elements

5. Catalysis
5.1. Alkylation
5.2. Condensation
5.3. Esterification
5.4. Etherification
5.5. Dehydration
5.6. Hydrogenation
6. Pharmaceutical industry
6.1. Extraction and purification of antibiotics
6.2. Slow-release formulations
6.3. Resins used as drugs
6.4. Taste-masking
6.5. Production chromatography
7. Miscellaneous applications
7.1. Mining industry
7.2. Enzyme immobilization
7.3. Hydroculture

1. Applications of ion exchange resins in water treatment
Water softening and demineralisation are also described with chemical reactions in the IX
basics page. And regeneration methods are in another page.

1.1. Softening
A strongly acidic cation exchange resin is used here in the sodium form. The ions forming
hardness, essentially calcium and magnesium, are exchanged for the sodium ions of the
resin, and the softened water can be used for several purposes:
Laundries
Domestic water boilers
Low pressure industrial boilers
Textile
Resins used:
Amberlite
TM
IR120 Na, Amberjet
TM
1000 Na
Amberlite SR1L Na for drinking water
Treated water quality:
Residual hardness < 0.02 meq/L (1 mg/L as CaCO3) with reverse flow regeneration
Regeneration: brine (NaCl as a 10 % solution)

1.2. De-alkalisation
In a water containing bicarbonates most waters in Western and Central Europe do
calcium and magnesium associated with bicarbonate ions are exchanged for hydrogen ions
from a weakly acidic cation exchange resin. This is called removal of temporary hardness.
The treated water contains carbon dioxide that can be removed with a degasifier. The
salinity of the treated water is lower than that of the feed water. Dealkalisation is used:
To treat water used to make beverages in breweries and soft drink plants
To soften drinking water supplies in municipalities
At home, to filter, soften and partially demineralise the water you use to make tea
or coffee
As a first demineralisation step
For certain industrial processes
Resins used:
Amberlite IRC86 for industrial water
Amberlite PWC13 for municipal drinking water
Imac
TM
HP333 and HP335 for household filter cartridges
Residual alkalinity = very low (endpoint at 10 % of the raw water alkalinity)
Residual hardness = permanent hardness (TH Alk)
Regeneration : Acid (preferably HCl at 5 % concentration)

1.3. Demineralisation
All ions must be removed from water. Therefore the water passes first through cation
exchange resins in the hydrogen form, then through anion exchange resins in the hydroxyl or
free base form. All cations are replaced by ions from the cation resin, and all anions for the
ions of the anion resin. These H
+
and OH
ions recombine to create new water molecules

(H2O). The treated water contains only traces of sodium and silica.
Resins used:
Amberlite IRC86 (weakly acidic resin)
Amberlite IR120 or Amberjet 1000 (strongly acidic resin)
Amberlite IRA96 or IRA67 (weakly basic resin)
Amberlite IRA402 or Amberjet 4200 or 4600 (strongly basic resin)
The use of weakly functional resins depends on the raw water analysis and plant size.
Conductivity: 0.2 to 1 S/cm with reverse flow regeneration
Residual silica 5 to 50 g/L depending on the silica concentration in the feed water and the
quantity of caustic regenerant.
These values are lower than those obtained with other technologies, such as reverse osmosis
or distillation.
Note that the pH value should not be used as a process control, as it is impossible to
measure the pH of a water with less than say 5 S/cm conductivity.
Regeneration
Cation exchange resins: strong acid (HCl or H2SO4)
Anion exchange resins: caustic soda (NaOH)

1.4. Mixed bed units
1.4.1. Polishing mixed beds
When an even better treated water quality is required,
close to that of totally pure water, a polishing vessel is
installed after a primary demineralisation plant. It is
filled with cation and anion exchange resins, which
must be mixed during the loading run, but separated
for regeneration. The separation is carried out with an
upflow backwash step, and requires resins with
appropriate particle sizes and densities.
Resins used:
Amberjet 1000 or 1500 (strongly acidic resin)
Amberjet 4200 or 4400 (strongly basic resin)
For specific applications, such as ultrapure water or circuits in nuclear power plants, other
highly purified grades are also used.
Conductivity: 0.055 to 0.1 S/cm
Residual silica: 1 to 10 g/L.
Note that the pH value should not be used as a process control, as pH meters are unable to
operate at 1 S/cm conductivity or below.
Regeneration
Cation exchange resins: strong acid (HCl or H2SO4)
Anion exchange resins: caustic soda (NaOH)
1.4.2. Working mixed beds
For low salinity waters, or when only moderate demineralised water volumes are required,
mixed bed units can be installed and fed directly with city water or reverse osmosis
permeate. These units are called "Working MBs". The resins used are essentially the same as
those for polishing mixed bed units. A special case is Service De-Ionisation (SDI) using mixed
bed columns or cartridges regenerated off-site described in a separate page.

1.5. Drinking water
Ion exchange is a valuable technology for the selective removal or certain contaminants from
underground water. See details in a separate page.

2. Use of ion exchange resins in the sugar industry
2.1. Softening of water used for sugar extraction
The process it that described in point 1.1 (water softening).

2.2. Softening of beet sugar juices before
evaporation
The hardness of beet sugar juices results in scaling of the heat exchanger in the evaporators.
To prevent it, increase the thermal efficiency and save energy, it is usual to soften the sugar
juice. The plant can then operate continuously, without frequent interruptions required for
de-scaling the equipment.
In this process, the type of resin used is the same as that for water softening, but the resins
must be approved for use with food and resist specific stress due to the temperature and
concentration of the juice.
The calcium and magnesium ions present in the sugar juice are exchanged for sodium ions
from the resin. The process is applied to thin juice, i.e. after carbonation. In general,
several columns operate in parallel to ensure continuous operation.
Resins used:
Amberlite FPC14 Na

2.3. The NRS process
This is a clever process where the resin is regenerated with a solution of caustic soda diluted
in thin juice. The basic idea is that whilst calcium hydroxide is insoluble in water, the
calcium ions make a soluble complex with sucrose. The spent regenerant is recycled
upstream, before the carbonation step, so that the production of waste is negligible.
Moreover, the juice is not diluted in water as in the traditional softening process, because
the NRS process does not include sweetening-off and sweetening-on steps. The energy
balance is favourable and results in steam saving.
Resins used:
Amberlite FPC14 Na

2.4. The Gryllus process
This is an older process in which the softening resin is regenerated with thick juice, which
contains high concentrations of sodium. The salt consumption is thus reduced, and again, no
waste is produced, since the spent regenerant is recycled.
Resins used:
Amberlite FPC22 Na

2.5. Demineralisation of sugar juices before evaporation
In this process, "non-sugars" are removed from thin juice to increase the efficiency of
crystalllisation, i.e. the sugar yield. In general, each kilogram of removed non-sugar
produces 1.4 kg of additional sugar. Otherwise, the process is similar to water
demineralisation: a strongly acidic cation exchange resin and a weakly basic anion exchange
resin are used, regenerated respectively with acid and caustic soda.
Resins used:
Amberlite FPC14 Na (strongly acidic)
Amberlite FPA53 (weakly basic)

2.6. Colour removal from cane sugar syrups after evaporation
Cane syrups usually contain many organic compounds imparting colour to the crystallised
sugar and reducing the crystallisation yield. The colour removal process uses strongly basic
anion exchange resins, regenerated with a sodium chloride solution. These resins are
macroporous, so that high molecular mass compounds can be removed. The most efficient
method uses two columns in series, the first one filled with acrylic resin, the second,
polishing column with styrenic resin.
Resins used:
Amberlite FPA98 Cl (acrylic)
Amberlite FPA90 Cl (styrenic)

2.7. The Quentin process
Crystallisation of beet sugar is partially inhibited by the potassium and sodium ions
contained in the juice, so that large quantities of sugar remain in the molasses after
crystallisation. Magnesium being less "melassigenous" than sodium or potassium, the idea is
to pass the thin juice through a column of strongly acidic cation exchange resin in the
magnesium form. This increases the production of whit sugar and reduces the quantity of
molasses.
Resins used:
Amberlite FPC23 H (must be first converted to the Mg
++
form with magnesium
chloride)

2.8. Sugar recovery from molasses
This process is based on ion exclusion, a kind of ion exchange chromatography using fine
mesh, uniform particle size resins. It separates sugar from non-sugars and increases the
recovery of sugar contained in the molasses.
Resins used:
Amberlite CR1220 K

2.9. Sucrose inversion
Sucrose (common sugar) is a di-saccharide. In an acidic environment, the sucrose molecule
splits into two mono-saccharides: glucose and fructose, in equal proportions. Invert sugar has
a more powerful sweetening power than sucrose (1.15 vs. 1.0) , and a lower tendency to
crystallise, an important feature for some industrial food products. Inversion is produced by
passing sugar syrup through a low cross-linked strongly acidic cation exchange resin in the H
+

form.
Resins used:
Amberlite FPC12 H

2.10. Chromatographic separation
As fructose has a higher sweetening power than glucose (1.3 vs. 0.7), invert sugar syrups can
be enriched with fructose by passing the syrup through a fine mesh, very uniform strongly
acidic cation exchange resin in the calcium form. As the syrup stream moves down the
column, fructose moves more slowly than glucose. This results in separated bands of higher
purity of each component within the column. The fructose fraction is recovered separately
in view of its commercial value. The glucose fraction can be either sold as a glucose syrup,
or isomerised enzymatically to produce more fructose.
Resins used:
Amberlite CR1320 Ca

2.11. Glucose demineralisation
Glucose syrups are demineralised to increase purity. The principle is identical to that of
water or sugar demineralisation. In view of the high concentration and high temperature of
the syrups, resins with a good resistance to these stresses must be used.
Resins used:
Dowex
TM
88 (strongly acidic resin)
Dowex 66 (weakly basic resin)

3. Examples of other applications in the food industry
3.1. Whey demineralisation
Whey, a by-product of cheese production, contains valuable
proteins and is used in the food industry. It is demineralised to
increase purity. Again, the principle is the same as that of
water or sugar demineralisation.
Resins used:
Amberlite FPC14 (strongly acidic resin)
Amberlite FPA51 (weakly basic resin)

3.2. Beverages
There are several applications in this area:
Treatment of the water used to make beer or soft drinks (see chapter 1)
De-acidification of beverages with Amberlite FPA51 (weakly basic anion resin)
Removal of metals
Removal of bad taste or smell
Colour and turbidity removal with non-ionic adsorbents

3.3. Treatment of fruit juices
Acid removal with Amberlite FPA51 (weakly basic anion resin)
Removal of bitterness from orange juices with a non-ionic adsorbent resin, Amberlite
FPX66
Colour removal with an adsorbent resin

3.4. Recovery of polyphenols
Polyphenols are praised today for their anti-oxidant properties. They are found in many
types of fruit, such as berries or red grape. Anthocyanins are polyphenols that can be
recovered from grape must.
Resins used:
Amberlite FPX68 (non-ionic adsorbent resin)

3.5. Citric acid
This acid is used as a preservative in many industrial food products. It is produced by
fermentation. Its purification requires ion exchange demineralisation.
Resins used:
Amberlite FPC22 H (strongly acidic)

3.6.Aminoacids
L-lysine and other essential aminoacids (not produced by the human body) are produced by
fermentation. Lysine is recovered from the fermentation broth with a cation exchange resin
in ammonium form.
Resins used:
Amberlite FPC14 (strongly acidic)

3.7. Sorbitol demineralisation
Sorbitol is a polyol, a powerful sweetener and emollient used for instance in chewing gum. It
can be produced by hydrogenation of glucose or by enzymatic processes. The final product
often requires demineralisation.
Resins used:
Amberlite FPC22 (strongly acidic)
Amberlite FPC52 and FPA90 in a polishing mixed bed

3.8. Gelatine demineralisation
Gelatine is produced from the collagen present in pig skin and bones. To produce high purity
gelatine, demineralisation is required.
Resins used:
Amberlite FPC14 or FPC22 (strongly acidic)
Amberlite FPA53 (weakly basic acrylic)

4. Some applications in the chemical industry
4.1. Recovery and removal of metals
In surface finishing and plating shops, metals can be recovered or
removed:
Gold recovery from industrial jewelleries as cyanide
complexes, with Amberlite IRA402
Recycling of various rinse water streams in plating shops,
with Amberlite 252 (for cation removal), IRA96 (for
chromate), and IRA410 (for cyanide)
Copper and iron removal from chromium plating shops with Amberlyst 15Wet
Chromic acid recovery in plating shops with Amberlite IR120 and Amberlite IRA96
Removal of iron from zinc baths with Amberlite IRC748
Purification of pickling baths, removing iron and zinc as chloride complexes with
Amberlite IRA402. Elution is done simply with water.
Other examples:
Recovery of silver as a thiosulphate complex from photographic baths with Amberlite
IRA67 or IRA402
Selective mercury removal in various industries with Ambersep
TM
GT74, a resin with
thiol functionality.
Cadmium can be removed with the same resin
Recovery of vanadium and copper catalysts in the production of adipic acid (a
precursor of nylon) with Amberlyst
TM
40Wet

4.2. Production of chlorine and caustic soda
These chemicals are produced by electrolysis of saturated brine. In the production process,
the absence of divalent metals is critical. A selective chelating resin is thus used to remove
them (principally calcium), which reduces the initial calcium concentration from 10 20
mg/L down to a very low level, smaller than 20 g/L.
Resins used:
Amberlite IRC747 when strontium removal is not necessary
Amberlite IRC748 when strontium must also be removed

4.3. Phenol
Two applications:
Removal of sulphuric acid and organic acids from process streams in phenol
production. A special weak base resin with a phenol-formaldehyde matrix is used.
Removal of phenol from industrial waste. Phenol is removed on a non-ionic adsorbent
resin. Regeneration is done with acetone.
Resins used:
Amberlyst A23 for acid removal
Amberlite XAD4 for phenol removal from waste

4.4. Hydrogen peroxide purification
Resins are used in two different processes:
Removal of anthraquinone derivatives. These organic compounds can be removed on
a non-ionic adsorbent. Regeneration is done with methanol.
Removal of metal traces such as iron, with a strongly acidic resin. The treatment is
done at a very high specific flow rate.
In both cases, the product quality is excellent, with residuals of just a few g/L. Caution:
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a powerful oxidant, and serious steps must be taken in both
processes to avoid accidents.
Resins used:
Amberlite XAD4 for organic contaminants
Amberlyst 15Wet for metals

4.5. Selective removal of various elements
I have built up a periodic system of the elements (Mendeleev table) with brief information
about the removal of several ions (mostly metals) with resins.

5. Catalysis
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of approach
to equilibrium of a chemical reaction without being
substantially consumed in the reaction.
In the majority of processes where a mineral acid was
previously used as a catalyst notably in the petrochemical
industry a strongly acidic cation exchange resin in the H+
form is now used instead. These resin must operate under
stressful conditions often at temperatures between 130
and 170 C and display an acidity as high as possible.
A few typical examples are shown below.

5.1. Alkylation
Product Octylphenol
Reactants Octane + phenol
Catalyst Amberlyst 15Dry
Temperature 100 120 C

5.2. Condensation
Product Bisphenol A
Reactants Acetone + phenol
Catalyst Amberlyst 131
Temperature 60 80 C

5.3. Esterification
Product Dimethyl maleate
Reactants Maleic anhydride
Temperature 110 C

5.4. Etherification
Product Methyl-ter-butyl ether (MTBE)
Reactants Isobutylene + methanol
Temperature 40 80 C

5.5. Dehydration
Product Isobutylene
Reactant Isobutanol
Temperature 70 80 C

5.6. Hydrogenation
Product Methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK)
Reactant Acetone
Catalyst Amberlyst CH28 (palladium-doped catalyst)
Temperature 130 140 C

6. Pharmaceutical industry
There are various and complex applications. As the
pharmaceutical industry is intrinsically secretive, few details are
known. Nevertheless, let us mention a few examples:

6.1. Extraction and purification of antibiotics
Various antibiotics use ion exchange and adsorbent resins in their
production process. The objective is to purify them after extraction from fermentation
broths. Examples: streptomycin, gentamycin, cephalosporin, tetracyclin.
Resins used:
Amberlite XAD1600 (non-ionic styrenic adsorbent)
Amberlite XAD7HP (non-ionic acrylic adsorbent)

6.2. Slow-release formulations
Powdered, highly purified ion exchange resins are used as excipients in pharmaceutical
formulations. The active ingredient is adsorbed on the resin and is released more slowly in
the body than it would if it were present in their original state.
Resins used:
Amberlite IRP64 (weakly acidic)
Amberlite IRP69 (strongly acidic)
Amberlite IRP88 (weakly acidic in potassium form)
Duolite
TM
AP143 (strongly basic)

6.3. Resins used as drugs
The same resin types can be used as active substances in the medicine. It is obvious that
they must meet very stringent specifications and be approved by health authorities. Let us
mention two examples:
Cholestyramine, a drug used to reduce the cholesterol level, is a powder based on a
strongly basic anion resin in the choride form.
Polacrilin potassium, a medicine used to regulate the potassium level in the blood, is
a powder based on a weakly acidic resin with a methacrylic matrix.
Resins used:
Duolite AP143 (cholestyramine)
Amberlite IRP88 (polacrilin potassium)

6.4. Taste-masking
Similar resins are used to mask the unpleasant taste oir smell of a drug.

6.5. Production chromatography
The chromatographic separation of various molecules used as active ingredients can be done
with very fine particle size resins instead of silica gels or other media.
Resins used:
A whole range of products available as Amberchrom resins.

7. Miscellaneous applications
7.1. Mining industry
The most significant application, involving thousands of cubic
metres of resin, is uranium extraction. The crushed ore is treated
with sulphuric acid, which brings the uranium in solution as
uranium sulphate. The pregnant solution is passed through beds
of strongly basic anion exchange resins, which displays a high
affinity for the uranium sulphate complex.
Resins used:
Amberjet 4400
Ambersep 920U

7.2. Enzyme immobilisation
In enzymatic reactions, it is more convenient to immobilise the enzyme on a support rather
than add it to the reaction medium. Ion exchange resins are particularly suitable for this
application.
Resins used:
Amberzyme
TM
oxirane
Duolite A568 (weakly basic resin with a phenol-formaldehyde matrix)

7.3. Hydroculture
Cation and anion exchange resins are used to retain plant nutrients in hydroponic culture:
ammonium, potassium, iron, zinc (cations) as well as nitrate and phosphate (anions).
Oligoelements are also loaded unto the resin. This technique allows the nutrients to be
released slowly as a function of the plant requirements. An overdose of fertilizer is made
impossible.
Resins used:
Lewatit
TM
HD5
Introduction
Ion exchange is a cyclic process: ions are loaded to resins, the resins get progressively
exhausted, and when there is no place to load more ions, the loading phase is interrupted,
and the resins must be regenerated. Ion exchange capacity indicates the quantity of ions
loaded to the resin.
Definitions
Total capacity
The total capacity of a resin sample is the number of ion exchange sites. See details at the
end of the page. Typical capacity values are given below.
Operating capacity
Also called useful capacity, it is the number of ion exchange sites where exchange has really
taken place during the loading run. It is also the number of resin charges not the number
of ions because some ions have more than one charge picked up by the resin in one cycle.
The ion exchange capacity is expressed as eq/L (equivalents per litre of resin).
The unit of mole should be avoided altogether in ion exchange, as it does not take valence
into account and brings only confusion. For reference: 1 eq = 1 mole / valence.
The operating capacity is always smaller than the total capacity. We will see why.
Zone of exchange
Ideal case

Start of the run Middle of the run End of the run
In an ideal case, we would start with a fully regenerated resin. During the exhaustion run,
the exchange front would be absolutely flat, meaning that each infinitesimal resin layer
would be instantaneously converted from regenerated to exhausted, capturing the incoming
ions with an infinite speed of exchange. This flat front would move down the column as more
ions are removed from water. At some point, the flat front would reach the bottom of the
column, and the resin would then be totally exhausted. In such a case, the operating
capacity would be equal to the total capacity of the resin. This case does not exist in
practice, as the exchange front is not flat and the resin is not always fully regenerated at
the beginning of the run.
In the real world, there are two cases:
Case 1: the resin is totally regenerated at the beginning of the run
(WAC & WBA)

Start of the run

Middle of the run

End of the run
At the start of the run, the resin is totally regenerated. In the course of the loading run, the
top layers of the bed get progressively exhausted. However, the exchange reaction is not
infinitely fast, as the ions must find their way to available sites inside each resin bead.
Therefore, some ions find their way to lower levels of the bed before the layers above are
totally exhausted. The area between fully regenerated and fully exhausted resin is called
exchange zone or reaction zone, as shown in the pictures.
At some stage, the ions begin to "leak" iinto the treated water. The loading run is stopped at
the time the concentration of this ion leakage reaches a preset value. This is called the
endpoint of the run. At this stage, the ion exchange resin is not fully exhausted, so the
operating capacity is smaller than the total capacity.
The operating capacity is, as defined above, the difference between the exhausted resin at
the start and at the end of the run. The behaviour shown here is typical of weakly acidic
and weakly basic ion exchange resins, that can be fully regenerated with a minimum amount
of regenerant, close to the stoichiometric value. A stoichimetric regenerant quantity is the
quantity of chemical equivalents exactly equal to the ionic load during the exchange cycle.
In practice, weak resins are regenerated with a small excess over the stoichiometric
quantity.
The typical operating capacity of a weak base anion exchange resin is 70 to 90 % of the total
capacity. For weak acid cation resin, operating capacity depends on several parameters, so
there is no such simple estimate. However, WAC resins having a high total capacity and
being regenerated almost without an excess (see regenerant ratio), their use is very helpful for
waters containing a high concentration of alkalinity and hardness.
Case 2: the resin is partially exhausted at the beginning of the run (SAC
& SBA)

Start of the run

Middle of the run

End of the run
This second case is typical of strongly acidic and strongly basic resins, which are more
difficult to regenerate, so that an excess of regenerant chemical must be passed through the
resin bed. Even so, it is not economical to regenerate the resin totally, which would mean a
very high regenerant dosage, so in practice the resin bed is only partially regenerated. The
pictures here indicate a resin bed with downflow loading and upflow regeneration. See the
page about regeneration details.
Typically the operating capacity of SAC and SBA resins is 40 to 60 % of their total capacity.

Case 2b: co-flow regenerated resins

Start of the run

Middle of the run

End of the run
The feed water during the exhaustion run and the regeneration solution are both flowing
from top to bottom. As a result, the top layers of the resin bed are well regenerated at the
start of the run, but the bottom of the bed is not. During the exhaustion run, a fraction of
the ions from the feed not removed during regeneration leak into the treated water, as
shown in the regeneration page.
For example, if the resin is regenerated with acid, some of the H
+
ions released by the
removal of Na
+
ions from the feed wander down the column and displace a few of the Na
+

ions left at the bottom after the previous regeneration. The sodium leakage is thus much
higher than with reverse flow regeneration.
Ion exchange kinetics
Weak acid and weak base resins are sensitive to flow rate. When the flow rate increases, the
reaction zone becomes longer.

Low flow rate:
the reaction zone is short

High flow rate:
the reaction zone is long
When the reaction zone is short, the achievable operating capacity is higher, because a
higher fraction of the total capacity can be used before the leakage reaches its endpoint.
SAC and SBA resins are less sensitive to flow rate.
Fine resins have generally higher kinetics; this is especially true for WAC and WBA resins.
The reason is a shorter path for the ions to travel inside the resin beads.

Parameters affecting operating capacity
The operating capacity depends on a number of process variables including:
Concentration and type of ions to be adsorbed
Service flow rate
Temperature
Type, concentration and quantity of regenerant
Type of regeneration process (co-flow, reverse flow...)
Bed depth (reverse flow regeneration only)
Particle size of the ion exchange resins
The ion exchange resin manufacturers publish performance data allowing users to calculate
the operating capacity of their resins under the most common conditions of use. Several of
them also have computer programs to make basic designs for ion exchange systems. I have
developed such a program for Rohm and Haas under the name of IXCalc.

Measurement of the total capacity
The total capacity of a resin sample is measured by titration and expressed in eq/L. The
procedure involves a volume measurement and must be carried out under strict conditions.
As the volume changes according to the ionic form of the resin some ions have a higher
mass and their volume is different from others the ionic form of measurement must always
be reported.
The total capacity must also be reported as dry weight capacity after drying of the resin
sample. The dry weight capacity measures the number of active groups per kg of dry resin,
i.e. without the moisture content. It is expressed in eq/kg. Mention of the ionic form is
critical here as well, as different ions have different masses.
Dry weight capacity is important for two different purposes:
1. For new resins, it gives information about the efficiency of the activation process: for
instance, if every aromatic ring has been sulphonated in a strongly acidic resin, the
theoretical maximum total dry weight capacity is about 5.5 eq/kg in H
+
form.
2. For used resins, it gives information about a possible fouling: a fouled resin sample
contains foreign matter, which increases the dry weight, and as a consequence the
dry weight capacity (number of active groups per kg of dry matter) decreases, even if
no functional group has been lost.

Operating capacity in practice
We have seen that the operating capacity of an ion exchange resin is a fraction of the total
capacity. It is also expressed in eq/L (equivalents per litre of resin) and indicates the
quantity of ions (more precisely the number of charges) that can be exchanged during a
cycle.
The following table shows typical total and operating capacity values for the common resins
(all values in eq/L, most common value in brackets):
Resin type* Total capacity Operating capacity
WAC 3.7 to 4.5 [4.2] 1.0 to 3.5
SAC 1.7 to 2.2 [2.0] 0.6 to 1.7
WBA 1.1 to 1.7 [1.3] 0.8 to 1.3
SBA 0.9 to 1.4 [1.2] 0.4 to 0.9
* See abbreviations and resin types
Let's consider for example a strongly acidic cation exchange resin (SAC) used for softening,
and let's assume the water to be treated has a hardness concentration of 4.4 meq/L and the
resin, under specific operating conditions, has an operating capacity of 1.1 eq/L, which is
1100 meq/L.
Each litre of ion exchange resin will thus be able to treat 1100 / 4.4 = 250 litres of the hard
water before having to be regenerated. In ion exchange jargon, this means that the
throughput is 250 bed volumes. If the water hardness is higher, the throughput will be less,
and vice-versa. See also concentration and capacity units.
Ion exchange columns
Introduction
Ion exchange resins are used in columns, in principle similar to those used for sand filters or
activated carbon. These are pressure vessels, usually made of rubber-lined steel. Small units
are made of fiberglass reinforced plastic, and units used in the food industry are often made
of stainless steel. A typical ion exchange column with co-flow regeneration is represented
below:

Co-flow regenerated column
Some explanations about the details shown in the picture:
The water enters from the top of the column. So as not to disturb the surface of the
resin bed, the incoming water stream is stopped by a simple jet breaker.
The column has a large freeboard, usually about the same height as the resin bed, so
that the resin can be backwashed inside the column to remove suspended solids
accumulated on the bed surface.
A manhole (shown on the left side) is necessary to inspect and possibly repair the
column inside.
Two sight glasses are also shown, one at the top, one at the level of the resin bed
surface.
An air vent is also necessary at the top, to empty the column by draining the water
out for inspection or a resin change.
One of the most important features of the vessel is the collector at the bottom:
nowadays, one of the most popular types of collector is a plate with densely
distributed nozzles.
The reinforced plate disk of steel onto which the nozzles are screwed.
It is supported by poles or L-shaped beams (here two poles are visible).
A regenerant distributor is sometimes but not always mounted in the middle of
the vessel to ensure a uniform distribution of the regenerant. In absence of such a
collector, the regenerant is introduced from the top of the column, which results in
some dilution of the chemicals.
Most of the features of the above column (vent, sight glasses, nozzle plates, manhole) are
common to many types of column, regenerated in co-flow or in reverse flow. You will find here
the most common vessel designs used in water treatment, including:
Columns with freeboard
o Co-flow regenerated vessels
o Reverse flow regeneration with air hold-down
o Reverse flow regeneration with water hold-down
o Stratabed columns
o Split-flow columns
Packed bed columns
o Amberpack
TM
and floating beds
o Multi-compartment Amberpack
o Upcore
TM
(Amberpack Reverse)
o Stratapack
TM

Some other technologies
o Econex
TM
(Italba)
o ReCoFlow
TM
(Ecotec)
o ISEP
TM
(Calgon Carbon)
Polishers
o Mixed bed units
o Triobed
TM

o Amberpack Sandwich
TM

o Multistep
TM
(Bayer)
o Tripol
TM
(Vivendi/Permutit)

Columns with freeboard
The main advantage of having a freeboard in the vessel is to allow for resin backwash. This is
useful when the feed water contains suspended matter. The disadvantage of columns with
freeboard is wasted space, and complicated or fragile internals.
Co-flow regenerated vessels
See the picture at the top of the page. Co-flow columns are exhausted from top to bottom
and regenerated from top to bottom as well.
The freeboard provides space for backwashing the resin bed, when required.

Reverse flow regenerated vessels with hold-down
See the page about regeneration methods. Reverse flow regenerated (RFR) vessels with
freeboard are similar in concept to co-flow regenerated (CFR) units, except for a regenerant
collector at the top of the resin bed. They are exhausted downflow and regenerated upflow.
The bed must be kept compacted and must not fluidise during regeneration. For this reason,
the regenerant cannot be removed from the top or the column but must be extracted
through a collector just above the resin bed. The two main types of columns with hold-down
technology are compacted with air or water. As the bed must be kept compact during
regeneration, extra resin is required to cover the collector. This can be inert or inactive
resin (see below).
In the following pictures, some details have been omitted, such as sight glasses, valves,
vents, and manholes. Thes are essentially the same as those shown in the co-flow picture at
the top of this page.

Vessels with air hold-down
In production

In regeneration

The picture above shows the basic design in production and in regeneration. The vessel is
similar to a co-flow regenerated unit. An inert granular material pushes the bed down during
regeneration, under air compression. The inert material is usually polypropylene, which
floats when the upper part of the vessel is filled with water, and comes down when it is full
of air. It is important that the resin bed itself doesn't get dry, so the inert resin prevents
contact between the air and the active resin.
Instead of pushing air into the unit (whereby the compressed air is often warm), you can also
suck the liquid using a hydro-ejector. In this case, as the tendency of dehydrating the resin is
lower, ion exchange resin can be used to cover the regenerant collector instead of inert
material.
Air hold-down is suitable for regeneration flow rates up to 10 m/h, thus fine for sulphuric
acid regeneration at a low concentration.
The depth of inert or inactive resin must be enough to cover the regenerant collector at the
beginning as well as the end of regeneration; resin swelling must be taken into account when
determining its volume.
Vessels with water hold-down
In production

In regeneration

These are the same as the air hold-down units, except that the counterpressure needed
during regeneration is exerted with a flow of water from the top rather than air. In this
case, the regenerant collector is buried in the resin bed. The part of the resin that is located
above the collector never gets regenerated, and is thus called "inactive". The other
disadvantage of this system is that it consumes more water in the regeneration process, and
produces a larger volume of waste. In Europe, water hold-down units have not been very
popular for this reason.
Water hold-down units can be operated only at very low regeneration flow rates otherwise
the hydraulic system is unstable.
The downward flow rate of the hold-down stream must be adjusted as a function of the
upward regenerant injection flow rate, density of the regenerant, density of the resin and
acceptable contact time, which should not be too long for sulphuric acid regeneration.
Although not a rule, it seems that the hold-down flow rate is often equal to the flow rate of
the regenerant solution. No inert material is required. The resin volume must be calculated
including the amount of inactive resin that must always cover the collector.

Stratified beds

These are hold-down units containing a pair of cation or anion resins: the weakly functional
resin has a smaller particle size, and its density is lower than that of the strongly functional
resin allows the two components to be kept separated. Some mixing of both layers at the
interface is inevitable, though, and periodical re-separation is required. The stratified bed
technology saves a column and brings the benefit of a good regeneration efficiency. As the
weak resin always has a density smaller than the strong base, stratified bed must always be
regenerated in reverse flow. For co-flow regeneration, two separate columns are necessary.
Stratified beds are also called layered beds. Stratabed
TM
is a trademark of Dow.

Air and water hold-down, including Stratabed
As we have just seen, additional resin is required, either inert (air holddown) or inactive
ion exchange resin (water holddown).

Split-flow units

In split-flow vessels, regeneration is carried out simultaneously from the top and from the
bottom of the bed. The regenerant collector is located in the upper third of the resin bed.
An additional regenerant distributor is required above the resin bed. The idea is to allow the
upper part of the bed to be backwashed to remove accumulated debris without disturbing
the lower layers of the bed that are responsible for the good treated water quality. There is
no inert or inactive resin, and the system does not consume extra water, but is more
complicated and the regeneration flows are sometimes difficult to adjust.

Resins used in vessels with freeboard
Practically all resins can be used. In practice, standard grades are often chosen for co-flow
units, because they are cheaper.
For reverse flow regeneration, uniform particle size resins are often selected due to their
better hydraulic characteristics and to a slightly higher operating capacity compared to the
standard grades. For Stratabed units, a fine specially graded weak resin is required, as well
as a high density and coarser strong resin.

Packed bed units
Those have no freeboard although a little space must be allowed to accommodate resin
swelling and no internals that obstruct the hydraulic flow and can be easily damaged. The
vessels are thus smaller and cheaper, and the resin depth is usually higher than in a column
with freeboard. This offers a benefit for strongly acidic and strongly basic resins, which have
a higher operating capacity when the bed depth is high. Also, there is no need for an
inactive resin, although Bayer's floating bed and Dow's Upcore use an inert material. Of
course, the resin can no longer be backwashed in situ.

Floating bed units

Amberpack in service and regeneration

Called "Schwebebett" by Bayer AG in 1963, this design has upflow loaded, downflow
regenerated columns in which the bed was initially partially fluidised. The floating bed
technology has been a big success since the mid 1970's has been adopted, with some
variations, by most of the European OEMs. Today, these units are fully packed with
practically no fluidised resin.

Bayer's Schwebebett (called WS system in some countries) uses an inert floating material at
the top of the resin chamber. It cannot be backwashed.

Amberpack
TM

Amberpack with double chamber

The Amberpack system of Rohm and Haas is a variation of the floating bed and enables resin
transfer to a backwashing column. The ion exchange vessels are similar to Bayer's
Schwebebett units, the differences being the absence of inert floating material and the
presence of at least two transfer ports per resin chamber, through which resins can be taken
out for backwashing. The resins are exhausted upflow and regenerated downflow.
In multicompartment Amberpack columns, two (sometimes three) resins are separated by a
plate fitted with double nozzles. This is the ideal system for WBA/SBA and for WAC/SAC
combinations: it gives the best efficiency and treated water quality. Each compartent has
two transfer ports for external backwashing.
The WAC/SAC combination with sulphuric acid regeneration requires a special version with
secondary dilution.

A full Amberpack demineralisation line followed by a mixed bed polisher

Upcore
TM

Upcore column in service and regeneration

UpCoRe stands for "Upflow Countercurrent Regeneration". Dow licensed this technology from
the Dutch engineering company Esmil in the late 1970s. The units are exhausted downflow
and regenerated upflow. A special inert polymer called Dowex Upcore IF62 fills the upper
part of the columns.

Dow claim that their system is "self-cleaning", and that suspended solids accumulated during
the exhaustion run escape during the first stage of regeneration, but this is only partially
true: the system is not capable of eliminating large amounts of suspended matter, unlike
Amberpack with its dedicated backwashing tower.

Besides, upflow regeneration is more difficult than downflow, particularly with hydrochloric
acid, because of the high velocity required to compact the bed and the resulting short
contact time. This system consumes a little more water, as an additional step is required to
compact the bed against the top nozzle plate before regenerant injection.
Upcore is also available as Amberpack Reverse, the main difference being the presence of a
backwash column as a safety feature.
Upcore is useful when the plant works intermittently or when large flow rate variations are
expected.

Stratapack
TM

A Stratapack vessel

Stratapack columns, which are Amberpack Reverse units in the Stratabed fashion, and offer
the advantages of both. Inert resin is necessary in view of the relatively fine particle size of
the weak base or weak acid resin. The column has three transfer ports. The system is also
available as Upcore layered bed.

Stratapack cation units are not recommended with sulphuric acid regeneration.

Because a little mixing at the interface cannot be prevented, Stratapack is not quite as
efficient as a double-compartment Amberpack. Additionally, it consumes a little more
water, like Amberpack Reverse. To minimise the effect of resin mixing, a higher dosage of
regenerant is often used.
The common characteristic of all Amberpack systems is the presence of a backwash column,
which is an essential safety device to ensure smooth operation of the water treatment plant.

Resins used in packed bed units

Only uniform or semi-uniform grades are suitable. Standard grades will cause serious trouble
due to the fine bead fraction. For Stratapack units, a fine specially graded weak resin is
required, as well as a high density and coarser strong resin.

Some other technologies
Many OEMs have their own proprietary design. Only a few will be mentioned here.

The Econex system

Econex
TM

This system was developed in the 1970s by Italba-Ionics and Davy-Bamag. The columns have
a freeboard, but in normal operation it is filled with inert material so the columns do not
need an air or water hold-down during regeneration. When the resin has to be backwashed,
the inert is extracted to a holding tank and backwashing is performed in the ion exchange
column.
The columns are simple, but large and a transfer system is needed. Some units have double
chamber anion columns to house a WBA above and a SBA below.

A ReCoFlo unit

ReCoFlo
TM

This technology was developed by the Canadian Ecotec Corporation. The columns are very
shallow, with a bed depth of typically only about 15 cm (6 inches). Cycles are very short, the
service run being only about 20 minutes. Special, fine resins are used. This technology was
mainly applied in the surface treatment industry.

A simplified ISEP system

ISEP
TM

ISEP is a simulated moving bed, operating in a quasi continuous, stepwise fashion. It was
developed by the US company Advanced Separation Technologies (AST), now a subsidiary of
Calgon Carbon. The columns typically 30 of them) are arranged in a carrousel (merry-go-
round). The feed and elution solutions are connected to a stationary upper distributor fitted
with typically 20 ports, and the raffinate as well as the extract are connected to a lower
stationary connector fitted with the same number of ports. The columns themselves are on a
rotating frame. The carrousel rotates continuously at a speed of 0.1 to 1.5 revolutions per
hour, and the ports are thus successively connected to all columns. A simplified schema is
shown here with only 8 columns and 6 inlet and outlet ports. Simulated moving beds can be
used for chromatography, for purification of fermentation broth, sugar syrup deashing,
colour removal from various solutions, separation of metals and other applications. The
major problem with this system is leaks between the heads of the rotating columns and the
fixed distributor.

Other "continuous" systems
The Asahi/ECI system of Degrmont, the Kontimat system of Hager und Elssser, and the
ChemSeps system of Cochrane were popular in the late 1960's and in the 1970's. The resin
inventory was small and the production semi-continuous. However, they were quite
complicated in design and delicate in operation, and their very short cycles caused the
toughest resins to wear rapidly. A few of the continuous plants were still in operation after
2000, but no new installations of this type are built. They are progressively replaced by more
simple reverse flow regeneration systems, which also offer a better regeneration efficiency.

Polishing units
There are basically two types of polishers, used in water demineralisation and condensate
treatment:
1. Units with mixed resins
2. Units with separate resins, in one or several vessels

Mixed bed units

A mixed bed in service

Strongly acidic cation resin is mixed with strongly basic anion resin. The quality of treated
water is excellent, typically with a conductivity of less than 0.1 S/cm and a residual silica
of less than 10 or even down to 1 g/L when properly designed and operated. The resins
must however be separated for regeneration. This is a delicate and lengthy operation.
Regeneration involves the following steps:
Backwash for separation
Settling
Acid injection from the bottom, extraction through the middle collector
Acid displacement
Caustic injection from the ad hoc distributor, extraction through the middle collector
Caustic displacement
Air mixing
Final fast rinse
See details in the regeneration page.

Regeneration of a mixed bed unit is not efficient, due to the shallow bed depth of the
components and the resulting hydraulic distribution problems. Mixed bed vessels are also
more complicated than single bed units. For this reason, mixed bed units are mostly used to
treat water with very low salinity, as in this case cycles are reasonably long and chemical
efficiency is thus not critical.
Mixed bed units used to treat water with more than traces of salinity are usually called
"Working MBs".
Mixed bed polishers are often designed based on specific flow rate in BV/h rather than on
salinity and running time.
See also the section about water polishers in the page about water treatment processes.

Spherical units

A spherical vessel

Some power stations have condensate polishers operating under high pressure: 4 to 5 MPa
(40 to 50 bar, 600 to 700 psi). In this case the shell of the vessel must be very thick. For this
reason spherical vessels are built, because a sphere has a better resistance to pressure than
a cylinder, and one can save in the thickness of the vessel shell. Those have disadvantages
compared to cylindrical columns, as the flow through the resin bed is less uniform.

Triobed
TM
units

A Triobed after separation

Triobed is a trademark of Rohm and Haas. The concept was developed by Duolite in the
1970's, and had immediate success. The idea was to mix a third, inert component to the
active SAC and SBA resins. Density and particle size of the three components are precisely
adjusted so that the inert forms a separating layer between cation and anion resins after
backwash. Click on the adjacent picture for a better understanding of the principle.
Triobed doesn't have only advantages:
The inert resin has sometimes problems: it may float if there are traces of oil in the
water or condensate, or attract air bubbles at the time of backwashing.
The inert "dilutes" the active resins, and uses space: the total capacity of the bed is
reduced.
The SAC resin is very coarse, which is detrimental to its kinetics, and requires a high
backwash flow rate for separation.
For these reasons, conventional two-component mixed beds are now preferred. Amberjet
and other uniform resins resins give a very sharp separation, and if absolutely no cross-
contamination is acceptable, other techniques are available with external regeneration.
For existing Triobed units, only very specific resin combinations are allowed.

Amberpack
TM
Sandwich
TM

Amberpack Sandwich unit

A different type of polisher, with separate cation and anion resins, not a mixed bed.
Amberpack Sandwich polishing units are double chamber Amberpack columns with a strong
acid and a strong base resin, separated by a nozzle plate. Twice the efficiency of a mixed
bed, and half the size.

The small freeboard (see picture) is usually be filled with a floating inert material. A
collector is located just below this separation plate. The advantages of Amberpack Sandwich
compared to mixed bed units are:
As the column is almost full, it contains twice the resin amount, and offers thus a
double capacity for the same vessel size.
As resins are never mixed, all problems of cross-contamination found in MBs are
avoided.
Regeneration is in counterflow mode, thus a much smaller quantity of regenerants is
required.
Sandwich gives the same treated water quality as a conventional MB.
It is sometimes preferred to have the anion column in the bottom compartment: in this way,
traces of Na from the anion resin are eliminated by the cation resin. This arrangement is
possible only when the feed does not contain any hardness.

Sandwich units can also be used, like "working MBs", for the treatment of low salinity water,
such as RO permeate.
Tripol
TM

A system with separate resin beds in a single column developed by Permutit (now Veolia).
Regeneration is external: the cation resins are transferred to a separate regeneration
column. The bottom resin is transferred first, then the top resin on top of it. Therefore, the
resin from the bottom compartment receives the maximum acid and is always perfectly
regenerated. This system is used for condensate polishing.
Multistep
TM

This is an inverted Tripol patented by Bayer AG and operating in floating bed fashion.
Regeneration is in situ. Of course, the acid must by-pass the anion resin, so two additional
collectors/distributors are necessary. Acid comes from the top, is extracted through the
collector just underneath the top compartment, then re-injected through the second
distributor just underneath the anion compartment. Inert is required.
Separate columns
A combination of SAC and SBA in separate columns, with co-flow regeneration, was the first
kind of polishing installed even before mixed beds became popular.
In Germany, several condensate polishers have been installed with this concept, but the
columns are of the floating bed type to maximise efficiency and quality.
Resins used in separate bed polishers
As most of these are packed bed units, uniform grades are recommended. For DI polishers,
the standard choice is gel type. For condensate polishers, the hybrid gel cation/macroporous
anion combination is recommended.

Construction material
Click the small pictures.

In the laboratory, glass columns are used for
resin testing or quality control.
Small units are usually made of fiberglass
reinforced plastic. See also SDI.

Industrial units are made of steel with an
internal hard rubber coating.
In the food industry and some other
industries, ion exchange columns are often
made of stainless steel.
See also the page about degasifiers.
A few basic principles of plant design.
Ion exchange plant design
Some basic principles
You will not find here a complete plant design manual. Only a few general recommendations
to ensure that an ion exchange system is designed economically and to achieve good
performance. Basic column types are shown in another page.
Reputable water treatment companies have their own technologies and design methods. We
will cover in this page some of the basic parameters to consider when designing an ion
exchange plant.
These parameters are:
Feed water analysis
Production flow rate
Cycle length
Required quality of the treated water
Regeneration technology
Dimensions of the vessels
Selection of resin types
This page is mainly focused on demineralisation systems, but most of the principles and
recommendations apply to other ion exchange processes: softening, dealkalisation, nitrate
removal etc.
Analysis of the feed water
All ion exchange systems are designed for a given feed water. Some variations of the feed
water analysis are acceptable, and should be taken into account, but an ion exchange
system cannot be designed efficiently for vastly different water types. For instance, a
demineralisation system designed for the
treatment of deep well water is completely
different from a system designed to treat
reverse osmosis permeate.
The first thing to do is thus obtain a reliable
water analysis. Details are shown in another
page.
When the water analysis is not constant, e.g.
due to seasonal variations, do not take an
"average composition" as the basis of your
design. Instead, use the "most probable"
case, design with this water, and check as a
second step what will happen with the
"minimum" and "maximum"' waters. All water
analyses must be perfectly balanced, as
shown in the example on the right.
The water analysis will determine what resin combination is required, and if a degasifier
should be considered.

Production flow rate
It is important to know whether the system will operate at constant or variable flow rate.
Some system designs require a minimum flow rate (e.g. Amberpack
TM
). Obviously, the system
should be able to operate at both limits.
In general, it is not advisable to operate intermittently, i.e. to stop production in the middle
of the run and re-start it. Treated water quality may be affected after a stop not followed
by regeneration.

Cycle length
A short cycle length is desirable in most cases. The practical limit is that the production run
should be at least as long as the regeneration process. As most ion exchange systems are
regenerated automatically, the duration of the production run does not have to be "at least
one day" as was the rule at the time (many decades ago) when the morning shift would
regenerate manually every day at 7 o'clock. Efficient systems have been designed with
running times as short as 3 hours.
The limits of the running time are also related to resin kinetics. When reading ion exchange
resin product data sheets, you will typically see that the specific flow rate in water
treatment should be between 5 and 50 bed volumes per hour (m
3
/h per m
3
of resin). At lower
flow rates, hydraulic distribution in the resin bed may be poor, and at higher flow rates,
kinetic effects may affect the speed of exchange, resulting in both cases in deterioration of
the treated water quality.
So in practice the running time must be selected as a function of the following parameters:
Specific flow rate between 5 and 50 bed volumes per hour (BV/h).
Mixed bed units should be designed to operate at a minimum of 12 to 15 BV/h.
Make the system as small as possible for economical reasons (lower investment in
hardware and resins).
For packed bed systems, ensure that bed compaction is good both in the production
phase (e.g. Amberpack
TM
) and during regeneration (e.g. Upcore
TM
).
With low salinity waters, e.g. when the feed water is good RO permeate, the running time
can be several days. Mixed bed polishers after a primary demineralisation will run for several
weeks before regeneration is required.

In ion exchange the quality of the treated water does not depend much on the feed water
analysis. Factors affecting the treated water quality are essentially related to the
regeneration process.
To a minor extend, temperature may affect the residual silica leakage in the treated water:
at temperatures higher than about 50 C, silica is hardly removed by strongly basic anion
exchange resins (SBA).
Other than that, you can expect the treated water quality of a regeneration system
regenerated in reverse flow to be:
Conductivity: ~ 1 S/cm
Silica: 10 to 25 g/L
For polishing MB units, conductivity is generally around 0.1 S/cm, and silica less than 10
g/L. Well designed and operated mixed bed polishers can achieve a conductivity close to
that of pure water (0.055 S/cm) and silica in the single g/L range, or below.

Regeneration technology
Details of the regeneration are given in a separate page. Another page shows the
corresponding column designs.
Except for very small ion exchange units (and for de-alkalisation with a WAC resin only),
plants should always be designed using reverse flow regeneration. Packed bed columns are
particularly useful, as they offer a compact and economical design, and very good treated
water quality. They are normally sized for relatively short cycles.
One should however pay attention to the following points:
Amberpack
TM
and other floating bed columns
Those have upflow loading and downflow regeneration. The service flow rate must be high
enough to keep the bed compacted. For SAC resins, that have the highest specific gravity,
the linear flow rate must be comprised between 25 and about 70 m/h (at about 20 C).
Other resins have a lower specific gravity and are compacted at a lower flow rate, the
minimum being about 16 m/h.
Upcore
TM
and similar units
With downflow loading and upflow regeneration, the regeneration flow rate must be high
enough to keep the bed compacted. This is achieved using the following tricks:
An initial short compaction step is performed at about 30 m/h before regenerant
injection
Regenerant concentration may have to be reduced so that the acid solution can be
injected at 7 or more m/h in the SAC unit, and the caustic solution at more than 5
m/h in the anion exchange unit.
Contact time of the regenerant solution may have to be reduced.
Short contact times and lower regenerant concentration may however affect the efficiency
of regeneration.

Vessel sizing
For a given resin volume, it is generally cheaper to make
a tall and narrow column rather than a wide and short
unit: in the illustration, both columns contain the same
resin volume. Column B is cheaper, because the major
cost components of the column are the dished ends and
nozzle plates.
There is no limit in height, except that the pressure drop
at maximum flow rate should not exceed 100 to 150 kPa
(1 to 1.5 bar) at maximum flow rate with clean resins.
When selecting the vessel diameter, the limits of the
preceding section (regeneration technology) should also
be considered.

Resin choice
You will have to refer to the resin manufacturer. However, a few general recommendations
can be made:
Macroporous resins are normally not required for demineralisation or softening
An exception: all styrenic WBA resins are macroporous
Special particle sizes are required depending on the design technology:
o uniform or semi-uniform resins are necessary for packed beds
o special grades are required for stratified beds (e.g. Stratabed
TM
or
Stratapack
TM
)
o special grades are also required for mixed bed polishers
When the feed water contains high organics, acrylic anion resins are a good choice

Glossary of ion exchange
The table below contains the most current terms used in ion exchange, and
covers especially water treatment applications. You can sort the table by
clicking on the dark blue headers.

Update 7 June
2014

1. Ordenado en ingls
2. Ordenado en castellano

ENGLISH

ESPAOL
Acid cido
Acidity Acidez
Adsorb Adsorbar
Adsorber resin Adsorbente
(resina)
Affinity Afinidad
Air scouring Lavado con aire
Alkaline earth
(metals)
Alcalinotrreos
(metales)
Alkalinity Alcalinidad
Ammonia Amonaco
Anion Anin
Backwash (n) Esponjamiento
Backwash (v) Contralavar,
esponjar
Backwashing Contralavado
Bead Bola, perla
Bead size
distrib.
Distribucin
granulom.
Bed (resin) Lecho (de resina)
Bed depth Altura (de lecho)
Bond Enlace
Brackish (water) Salobre (agua)
Breakage Rotura
Breakdown
(resin)
Rotura
Breakthrough
(ion)
Ruptura
Brine Salmuera
Buffer Tampn
Bulk density Densidad aparente
Capacity Capacidad
Carbon
(activated)
Carbn activo
Carbon dioxide Acido carbnico
Cartridge Cartucho
Cation Catin
Caustic soda Sosa
Channelling Pasos
preferenciales
Chelating resin Quelatante
(resina)
Circuit Circuito
Cleaning Limpieza
Co-flow (co-
current)
Co-corriente
Collector Colector
Colour removal Decoloracin
Column Columna
Complexing
agent
Acomplejante
Concentration Concentracin
Condensate Condensado
Conditioning Acondicionamiento
Conditioning
(water)
Tratamiento
Conductivity Conductividad
Conical Cnico
Content Contenido
Core Nucleo
Counter ion Contra ion
Counter-current Contra-corriente
Counterflow Contra-corriente
Counterpressure Presin de
bloqueo
Cracked Agrietado
Crosslinking Reticulacin
Cycle Ciclo
Davit Pescante
De-alkalisation Descarbonatacin
De-colourisation Decoloracin
De-compact Descompactar
De-oiling Eliminacin de
aceite
De-scaling Desincrustar
De-sugarisation Desazucarado
Decalcification Descalcificacin
Decontamination Descontaminacin
Decrosslinking Desreticulacin
Degasifier,
degasser
Desgasificador
Degasser,
degasifier
Desgasificador
(torre)
Deionisation Desionizacin
Deionised water Desmineralizada
(agua)
Demineralisation Desmineralizacin
Density Densidad
Density (bulk) Masa volmica
Deposit Depsito
Desalination Desalacin,
desalinizacin
Diameter Dimetro
Diffusion Difusin
Dilution Dilucin
Dilution and
rinse water
Aguas de servicio
Dished bottom,
d. end
Fondo bombeado
Displacement Desplazamiento
Distributor Distribuidor
Divalent Divalente
Downflow De arriba abajo
Drop Gota
Dry matter Materia seca
Efficiency, yield Rendimiento
Eluant Eluent
Eluate Eluat
Elute (v) Eluir
Elution Elucin
Empty (a) Vaco
Empty (v) Vaciar
Endpoint Punto final
Equilibrium Equilibrio
Excess Exceso
Exchange (n) Intercambio
Exchange (v) Intercambiar
Exchanger Intercambiador
Exhaust Agotar
Exhaust Agotar
Exhausted Agotado
Exhausted Agotado
Exhaustion Saturacin
Exit Salida
Expansion (bed) Expansin (del
lecho)
Extraneous,
foreign
Extraas
(materias)
Faucet, tap Grifo
Feed water Agua de
alimentacin
Fill Llenar
Filling grade Llenado
Filter Filtro
Fixed bed Lecho fijo
Floating bed Lecho flotante
Floor, plate Suelo, placa
Flow Flujo
Flow rate Caudal
Fluidised bed Lecho fluidificado
Fluidised bed Lecho fluidificado
Fouling Envenenamiento
Fouling Ensuciamiento
Free base Base libre
Free mineral
acidity (FMA)
Acidos fuertes
(TAF)
Freeboard Altura libre
Full Lleno
Functional group Grupo funcional
Granular Granular
Granule, grain Grnulo
Gravel Grava
Grind, powder
(v)
Moler, pulverizar
Grinder Molino
Hardness Dureza
Harmonic mean
size
Medio harmnico
Head loss Prdida de carga
Hose Manguera
Hydrochloric
acid
Clorhdrico (cido)
Hydrofluoric
acid
Fluorhdrico
(cido)
Immobilisation Inmovilizacin
Impurity Impureza
Influent Solucin de tratar
Integrity Integridad
Ion exchange Intercambio de
iones
Ionic load Carga inica
Iron Hierro
Kinetics Cintica
Layer Capa (de resina)
Layered (bed) Estratificados
(lechos)
Layout Tipo de linea
Leaching, throw Liberacin
(impurezas)
Leakage Fuga
Line (demine) Linea, cadena
Linear Lineal
Load (ionic) Carga inica
Macroporous Macroporoso
Macroreticular Macroporoso
Make-up water Agua de aporte
Man hole,
manway
Boca de hombre
Matrix Esqueleto
Matrix Esqueleto
Mean size Tamao medio
Merry-go-round Carrusel
Mesh Malla
Mesh opening Abertura de malla
Miscible Miscible
Mix (v) Mezclar
Mix, mixture Mezcla
Mixed bed Lecho mezclado, l.
mixto
Mixture, mix Mezcla
Moisture Humedad
Monovalent Monovalente
Network Red
Neutralise Neutralizar
Nitrate removal Nitratos
(eliminacin)
Nitric acid Ntrico (cido)
Nozzle plate Falso fondo con
boquillas
Nozzle, Strainer Boquilla
Opening Abertura
Operating
capacity
Capacidad til
Operation Funcionamiento
Organics,
organic matter
Materias orgnicas
Overrun (v) Hacer fugar
Packed bed Lecho compacto
Particle Partcula
Particle size Granulometra
Pick up (v) Fijar
Pipe Tubo
Pipework Tubera
Plant (I.X.) Planta
Plate, floor Placa, suelo
Polishing Pulido
Polishing
(condensate)
Pulido de
condensados
Pollution Polucin
Pore Poro
Porosity Porosidad
Porous Poroso
Powder Polvo
Powder (v),
grind
Pulverizar, moler
Powdered resin Resina en polvo
Pre-treatment Pre-tratamiento
Pressure Presin
Pressure drop Cada de presin
Process Proceso
Pump Bomba
Pure Puro
Purification Purificacin
Purify Purificar, limpiar
Ratio Tasa, relacin
Ratio Relacin, tasa
Raw water Agua bruta
Recovery Recuperacin
Recycle (v) Recircular
Recycle rinse Recirculacin
(lavado)
Recycling Recirculacin
Regenerant Regenerante
Regenerant level Nivel de regen.
Regenerate Regenerar
Regeneration Regeneracin
Removal Eliminacin
Reservoir, tank Depsito, tanque
Resin Resina
Resistivity Resistividad
Reverse flow Contra-corriente
Reverse osmosis Osmosis inversa
Rinse (n) Enjuague, lavado
Run (n) Ciclo de
produccin
Run (v) (a plant) Hacer funcionar
Run in Probar
Running in phase Fase de prueba
Running time Tiempo de
produccin
Salinity Salinidad
Salt Sal
Sand Arena
Scale (n) Escala
Scale (n) Incrustaciones
Scale (v) Incrustar
Selectivity Selectividad
Separation Separacin
Service run Fase de
agotamiento
Sewage Aguas residuales
Sewer Desage,
alcantarilla
Shrinkage Contraccin
Sieve (n) Tamiz
Sift Tamizar
Sight glass Mirilla
Silica Slice
Slot Ranura
Slot width Abertura (de
ranura)
Soft Blando, dulce
Softening Ablandamiento
Solvent Solvente
Space velocity Caudal especfico
Specific flow
rate
Carga volmica
Specific gravity Densidad real
Spent
(regenerant)
Usado (regener.)
Sphere Esfera
Spherical Esfrico
Stability Estabilidad
Start-up Puesta en marcha
Straight side Altura cilndrica
Strainer, Nozzle Boquilla
Stratified (bed) Estratificados
(lechos)
Stream Corriente, flujo
Stream Flujo, corriente
Structure Estructura
Sulphuric acid Sulfrico (cido)
Surface Superficie
Sweetening-off Desendulzado
Sweetening-on Endulzado
Swelling Hinchamiento
Tank, reservoir Tanque
Temporary
(hardness)
Temporal (dureza)
Throw, leaching Liberacin
(impurezas)
Trace (n) Traza
Train Cadena, linea
Trap (resin) Trampa (de
resinas)
Treatment Tratamiento
Ultrapure Ultrapuro
Uniform Uniforme
Uniformity
coeff.
Coef. de
uniformidad
Unmix Separar (una
mezcla)
Upflow De abajo arriba
Uptake Fijacin
Valve Vlvula
Valve Vlvula
Velocity Velocidad
Vent (air) Respiradero
Vessel Bidn, tanque
Void volume Intersticial
(volumen)
Waste water Vertido
Waste water Aguas de desecho
Water Agua
Yield, efficiency Rendimiento

ENGLISH

ESPAOL
Opening Abertura
Slot width Abertura (de
ranura)
Mesh opening Abertura de
malla
Softening Ablandamiento
Acidity Acidez
Acid cido
Carbon dioxide Acido carbnico
Free mineral
acidity (FMA)
Acidos fuertes
(TAF)
Complexing
agent
Acomplejante
Conditioning Acondicionamie
nto
Adsorb Adsorbar
Adsorber resin Adsorbente
(resina)
Affinity Afinidad
Exhausted Agotado
Exhausted Agotado
Exhaust Agotar
Exhaust Agotar
Cracked Agrietado
Water Agua
Raw water Agua bruta
Feed water Agua de
alimentacin
Make-up water Agua de aporte
Waste water Aguas de
desecho
Dilution and
rinse water
Aguas de
servicio
Sewage Aguas residuales
Alkalinity Alcalinidad
Alkaline earth
(metals)
Alcalinotrreos
(metales)
Bed depth Altura (de
lecho)
Straight side Altura cilndrica
Freeboard Altura libre
Ammonia Amonaco
Anion Anin
Sand Arena
Free base Base libre
Vessel Bidn, tanque
Soft Blando, dulce
Man hole,
manway
Boca de hombre
Bead Bola, perla
Pump Bomba
Strainer,
Nozzle
Boquilla
Nozzle,
Strainer
Boquilla
Train Cadena, linea
Pressure drop Cada de presin
Layer Capa (de resina)
Capacity Capacidad
Operating
capacity
Capacidad til
Carbon
(activated)
Carbn activo
Ionic load Carga inica
Load (ionic) Carga inica
Specific flow
rate
Carga volmica
Merry-go-
round
Carrusel
Cartridge Cartucho
Cation Catin
Flow rate Caudal
Space velocity Caudal
especfico
Cycle Ciclo
Run (n) Ciclo de
produccin
Kinetics Cintica
Circuit Circuito
Hydrochloric
acid
Clorhdrico
(cido)
Co-flow (co-
current)
Co-corriente
Uniformity
coeff.
Coef. de
uniformidad
Collector Colector
Column Columna
Concentration Concentracin
Condensate Condensado
Conductivity Conductividad
Conical Cnico
Content Contenido
Counter ion Contra ion
Counter-
current
Contra-corriente
Reverse flow Contra-corriente
Counterflow Contra-corriente
Shrinkage Contraccin
Backwashing Contralavado
Backwash (v) Contralavar,
esponjar
Stream Corriente, flujo
Upflow De abajo arriba
Downflow De arriba abajo
Colour
removal
Decoloracin
De-
colourisation
Decoloracin
Density Densidad
Bulk density Densidad
aparente
Specific
gravity
Densidad real
Deposit Depsito
Reservoir,
tank
Depsito,
tanque
Sewer Desage,
alcantarilla
Desalination Desalacin,
desalinizacin
De-
sugarisation
Desazucarado
Decalcification Descalcificacin
De-alkalisation Descarbonataci
n
De-compact Descompactar
Decontaminati
on
Descontaminaci
n
Sweetening-
off
Desendulzado
Degasifier,
degasser
Desgasificador
Degasser,
degasifier
Desgasificador
(torre)
De-scaling Desincrustar
Deionisation Desionizacin
Demineralisati
on
Desmineralizaci
n
Deionised
water
Desmineralizada
(agua)
Displacement Desplazamiento
Decrosslinking Desreticulacin
Diameter Dimetro
Diffusion Difusin
Dilution Dilucin
Bead size
distrib.
Distribucin
granulom.
Distributor Distribuidor
Divalent Divalente
Hardness Dureza
Removal Eliminacin
De-oiling Eliminacin de
aceite
Eluate Eluat
Elution Elucin
Eluant Eluent
Elute (v) Eluir
Sweetening-on Endulzado
Rinse (n) Enjuague,
lavado
Bond Enlace
Fouling Ensuciamiento
Equilibrium Equilibrio
Scale (n) Escala
Sphere Esfera
Spherical Esfrico
Backwash (n) Esponjamiento
Matrix Esqueleto
Matrix Esqueleto
Stability Estabilidad
Layered (bed) Estratificados
(lechos)
Stratified
(bed)
Estratificados
(lechos)
Structure Estructura
Excess Exceso
Expansion
(bed)
Expansin (del
lecho)
Extraneous,
foreign
Extraas
(materias)
Nozzle plate Falso fondo con
boquillas
Service run Fase de
agotamiento
Running in Fase de prueba
phase
Uptake Fijacin
Pick up (v) Fijar
Filter Filtro
Flow Flujo
Stream Flujo, corriente
Hydrofluoric
acid
Fluorhdrico
(cido)
Dished
bottom, d.
end
Fondo
bombeado
Leakage Fuga
Drop Gota
Granular Granular
Granule, grain Grnulo
Particle size Granulometra
Gravel Grava
Faucet, tap Grifo
Functional
group
Grupo funcional
Overrun (v) Hacer fugar
Run (v) (a
plant)
Hacer funcionar
Iron Hierro
Swelling Hinchamiento
Moisture Humedad
Impurity Impureza
Scale (n) Incrustaciones
Scale (v) Incrustar
Immobilisation Inmovilizacin
Integrity Integridad
Exchanger Intercambiador
Exchange (v) Intercambiar
Exchange (n) Intercambio
Ion exchange Intercambio de
iones
Void volume Intersticial
(volumen)
Air scouring Lavado con aire
Bed (resin) Lecho (de
resina)
Packed bed Lecho compacto
Fixed bed Lecho fijo
Floating bed Lecho flotante
Fluidised bed Lecho
fluidificado
Fluidised bed Lecho
fluidificado
Mixed bed Lecho mezclado,
l. mixto
Throw,
leaching
Liberacin
(impurezas)
Leaching,
throw
Liberacin
(impurezas)
Cleaning Limpieza
Line (demine) Linea, cadena
Linear Lineal
Filling grade Llenado
Fill Llenar
Full Lleno
Macroreticular Macroporoso
Macroporous Macroporoso
Mesh Malla
Hose Manguera
Density (bulk) Masa volmica
Dry matter Materia seca
Organics,
organic matter
Materias
orgnicas
Harmonic
mean size
Medio
harmnico
Mixture, mix Mezcla
Mix, mixture Mezcla
Mix (v) Mezclar
Sight glass Mirilla
Miscible Miscible
Grind, powder
(v)
Moler,
pulverizar
Grinder Molino
Monovalent Monovalente
Neutralise Neutralizar
Nitrate
removal
Nitratos
(eliminacin)
Nitric acid Ntrico (cido)
Regenerant
level
Nivel de regen.
Core Nucleo
Reverse
osmosis
Osmosis inversa
Particle Partcula
Channelling Pasos
preferenciales
Head loss Prdida de carga
Davit Pescante
Plate, floor Placa, suelo
Plant (I.X.) Planta
Pollution Polucin
Powder Polvo
Pore Poro
Porosity Porosidad
Porous Poroso
Pre-treatment Pre-tratamiento
Pressure Presin
Counterpressu
re
Presin de
bloqueo
Run in Probar
Process Proceso
Start-up Puesta en
marcha
Polishing Pulido
Polishing
(condensate)
Pulido de
condensados
Powder (v),
grind
Pulverizar,
moler
Endpoint Punto final
Purification Purificacin
Purify Purificar,
limpiar
Pure Puro
Chelating resin Quelatante
(resina)
Slot Ranura
Recycling Recirculacin
Recycle rinse Recirculacin
(lavado)
Recycle (v) Recircular
Recovery Recuperacin
Network Red
Regeneration Regeneracin
Regenerant Regenerante
Regenerate Regenerar
Ratio Relacin, tasa
Efficiency,
yield
Rendimiento
Yield,
efficiency
Rendimiento
Resin Resina
Powdered
resin
Resina en polvo
Resistivity Resistividad
Vent (air) Respiradero
Crosslinking Reticulacin
Breakdown
(resin)
Rotura
Breakage Rotura
Breakthrough
(ion)
Ruptura
Salt Sal
Exit Salida
Salinity Salinidad
Brine Salmuera
Brackish
(water)
Salobre (agua)
Selectivity Selectividad
Separation Separacin
Unmix Separar (una
mezcla)
Silica Slice
Influent Solucin de
tratar
Solvent Solvente
Caustic soda Sosa
Floor, plate Suelo, placa
Sulphuric acid Sulfrico (cido)
Surface Superficie
Mean size Tamao medio
Sieve (n) Tamiz
Sift Tamizar
Buffer Tampn
Tank,
reservoir
Tanque
Ratio Tasa, relacin
Temporary
(hardness)
Temporal
(dureza)
Running time Tiempo de
produccin
Layout Tipo de linea
Trap (resin) Trampa (de
resinas)
Conditioning
(water)
Tratamiento
Trace (n) Traza
Pipework Tubera
Pipe Tubo
Ultrapure Ultrapuro
Uniform Uniforme
Spent
(regenerant)
Usado (regener.)
Empty (v) Vaciar
Empty (a) Vaco
Valve Vlvula
Valve Vlvula
Velocity Velocidad
Waste water Vertido

See also:
Chemical entities in ion exchange with formulas and names in the same five languages.
Chemical elements with symbols, atomic mass and names in the same five languages.
Water analysis details
Introduction
The general feed water characteristics are
described in another page, with
recommended limits for certain contaminants
and parameters. Here, we focus on the
inorganic components dissolved in the water.
The picture here (click it for bigger size)
shows only the components usually found in
surface or deep well water and important for
the ion exchange processes.
Some of the components are traditionally
grouped:
Ca
++
+ Mg
++
= TH
HCO3
+ CO3
=
+ OH
= m-Alk
Cl
+ SO4
=
+ NO3
= EMA
Calcium and magnesium are the Total Hardness (TH).
Bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxide are the Total Alkalinity (m-Alk). Usually,
natural water does not contain carbonate or hydroxide.
Chloride, sulphate and nitrate are the Equivalent Mineral Acidity (EMA), also called
Salts of Strong Acids (SSA) or, after cation exchange, Free Mineral Acidity (FMA).
When hardness is greater than alkalinity (in meq/L) the bicarbonate hardness is
called "temporary hardness" (= TH Alk) and the remaining hardness is called
"permanent hardness". The value of temporary hardness is then equal to that of
alkalinity in meq/L.
When hardness is smaller than alkalinity (in meq/L) there is no permanent hardness
and temporary hardness is equal to total hardness.
All natural waters are ionically balanced, i.e. the sum of cations in meq/L is equal
to the sum of anions.
Other ions, usually present as traces but sometimes not completely negligible, can be
combined with the above:
barium (Ba
++
) and strontium (Sr
++
) are alkaline earth metals (see important note
below) and belong thus to the hardness;
for calculation with an ion exchange software, you would also add divalent iron
(Fe
++
), nickel (Ni
++
) and copper (Cu
++
) to the hardness group, by convenience;
ammonium (NH4
+
) and potassium (K
+
) are handled like sodium;
lithium (Li
+
) also reacts like sodium (Na
+
);
phosphate (PO4
3
) belongs to the EMA;
fluoride (F
), bromide (Br
) and iodide (I
) are halogenides and behave like chloride.

Beware that standard resins may have poor affinity for some of these ions, such as Li and F.
Also, other possible components, such as aluminium, arsenic and many other metals may be
complexed and behave as anions, and sometimes their removal is difficult.
Barium and strontium specific behaviour:
The solubility of barium sulphate is only 2 mg/L, thousand times lower than that of
calcium sulphate.
Ba and Sr are not well removed on WAC resins. These resins have a lower affinity for
Ba and Sr than for Ca and Mg. See the table of selectivity values.
Ba (and Ra) are very well removed on SAC resins. So well that regeneration may be
difficult. Using H2SO4 to regenerate a SAC resin loaded even partially with barium
may be close to impossible.
See also the (unrelated) information on sea water.
Units of concentration and capacity
Because we need to know the number of ions to be exchanged their mass is not helpful
here the concentration of all these ions must be converted into chemical "equivalent"
units, of which the international unit is eqkg
1
, which we traditionally re-name as
equivalents per litre eq/L, and in case of low concentrations, meq/L. Other units of
concentrations are still used regionally:
Units of concentration
(per volume of water)
Name Abbreviation meq/L
ppm as calcium carbonate 1 ppm as CaCO3 = 0.02
French degree 1 f = 0.2
German hardness degree 1 dH = 0.357
Grain as CaCO3 per US gallon 1 gr as CaCO3/gal = 0.342
Units of capacity
(per volume of resin)
Name Abbreviation eq/L
Gram as CaCO3 per litre 1 g as CaCO3/L = 0.02
French degree 1 f = 0.0002
Gram as CaO per litre g CaO/L = 0.0357
kgr as CaCO3 per cubic foot kgr CaCO3/ft
3
= 0.0458
The complete tables of conversion can be seen in a separate window.
into account and brings only confusion. For reference: 1 eq = 1 mole / valence.
For those curious, a mole contains 6.0210
23
atoms, ions or molecules. This big number is
called Avogadro constant.
Note: in Germany and some other Central and Eastern European countries, mval/L and val/L
are used instead of meq/L and eq/L.
Examples
The table shows the most common ions in water and their equivalent mass.
Name Ion g/mole g/eq
Calcium Ca
++
40 20
Magnesium Mg
++
24 12
Sodium Na
+
23 23
Potassium K
+
39 39
Ammonium NH4
+
18 18
Chloride Cl
35.5 35.5
Sulphate SO4
=
96 48
Nitrate NO3
62 62
Bicarbonate HCO3
61 61
Carbonate CO3
=
60 30
In water, the concentrations are expressed in meq/L. For instance, if you have a calcium
concentration of 90 mg/L, the equivalent concentration is 90/20=4.5 meq/L.
Silica (SiO2), not ionised in normal water, has a molar mass of 60. For ion exchange (with a
strongly basic resin in OH form), it is considered monovalent, so the equivalent mass is also
60.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is very slightly ionised in normal water, and is also considered
monovalent, with a molar and equivalent mass of 44. The equilibrium between CO2 and HCO3
is shown at the bottom of this page.
Don't be confused: 1 equivalent CaCO3 (50 g), for instance, contains 1 eq Ca (20 g) and 1 eq
CO3 (30 g). You don't add these (one eq cation and one eq anion): it is still only 1 eq CaCO3,
not 2!
A balanced analysis ?
Water is electrically neutral, even when it contains large quantities of ions. This means that
the number of anionic charges is exactly the same as that of cationic charges. Otherwise you
would have an electric shock when putting your hand in water. Therefore, once you have
carefully converted all the elements of your water analysis in meq/L units, the sum of anions
should be the same as the sum of cations. The only exceptions to that rule are:
A small difference due to imprecision in the analytical procedures is acceptable as
long as the difference between total cations and total anions is less than 3 %.
At high pH (> 8.2), e.g. in the presence of ammonia or after lime decarbonation,
there will be hydroxide or carbonate ions. Hydroxide ions are usually not reported
separately. Carbonate ions are not always reported. In such a case, you would have
more cations than anions.
At low pH (say < 6.8), the water may contain either free mineral acidity (very rare
for natural water) or free carbon dioxide, both producing H ions wich are usually not
reported separately.
An example of water analysis
Here is an analysis as required to calculate an ion exchange plant (softening,
demineralisation, de-alkalisation, nitrate removal). This is a real water
(1)
, from the Oise
river, in France, dated 28 September 2005.
Cations mg/L meq/L Anions mg/L meq/L
Ca
++
93 4.65 Cl
67 1.89
Mg
++
12 1.00 SO4
=
33 0.69
Na
+
26 1.13 NO3
6 0.10
K
+
4 0.10 HCO3
259 4.23
Total cations 6.90 Total anions 6.91
SiO2 2.4 0.04
pH value 7.04 Free CO2 45 1.02
Conductivity
S/cm
627 Anion load 7.97
Organic matter
(2)
2.6
Temperature C 16
(1)
Important note: To calculate an ion exchange plant, a real water analysis should always
be used, not an average. If necessary, two or three analyses should be considered when the
salinity shows seasonal variations.
(2)
Organic matter (COD) is important because it can foul anion exchange resins. It is usually
expressed in mg/L as KMnO4.
This particular analysis is typical of Western Europe, with relatively high hardness and
alkalinity, and little silica. Silica and free carbon dioxide are removed by the strong base
anion resin in a demineralisation system. However, carbon dioxide can be reduced with a
degasifier after cation exchange to reduce the anion load.
m- and p-Alkalinity
Alkalinity includes following anions:
Hydrogencarbonate HCO3
, often called bicarbonate

Carbonate CO3
=

Hydroxide OH

Alkalinity in water is measured by titration with an acid. Two different indicators are used:
Phenolphthalein changing colour at pH 8.3 measures p-alkalinity
Methylorange changing colour at pH 4.5 measures m-alkalinity
The total alkalinity is m-Alk, and can include OH, CO3, and HCO3 ions. p-Alk measures only
the OH and half of the CO3 ions. When the pH value of the water is smaller than 8.3, p-Alk is
equal to zero, and the water can contain only bicarbonate. At a higher pH, carbonate can
exist. At even higher pH values, hydroxide ions can exist, but then there will be no
bicarbonate ions left, as those would combine with OH to produce carbonate ions and water:
HCO3
+ OH
CO3
=
+ H2O
You will have thus with increasing pH either only bicarbonate, or bicarbonate + carbonate,
or only carbonate, or carbonate + hydroxide, or only hydroxide. This gives the following
table, from which the components of alkalinity can be calculated:
Ion p = 0 p < m/2 p = m/2 m/2 < p < m p = m
OH = 0 0 0 2 p - m p
CO3 = 0 2 p m = 2 p 2 (m - p) 0
HCO3 = m m - 2 p 0 0 0
The values in the table are expressed in equivalent units, i.e. in meq/L, ppm CaCO3, French
or German degrees, not in mol/L or mg/L!
Let us see examples with values in meq/L, with waters of increasing pH
Example 1 m-Alk = 5 p-Alk = 0
OH = 0 CO3 = 0 HCO3 = 5

Example 2 m-Alk = 5 p-Alk = 1.5
OH = 0 CO3 = 3 HCO3 = 2

Example 3 m-Alk = 5 p-Alk = 3
OH = 1 CO3 = 4 HCO3 = 0

If p-Alkalinity is > 0, which means the pH value is more than 8.3, you don't have free CO2,
because it would combine with CO3 to produce HCO3.
CO2 + CO3
=
+ H2O 2 HCO3

Free CO
2
and pH
A low pH value means that there are H
+
ions in
solution. In the presence of bicarbonate, the following equilibrium exists:
H
+
+ HCO3
H2CO3 CO2 + H2O

The two pictures illustrate this equilibrium. Use the second graph to verify that the water
analysis given by your customer makes sense, and to estimate the concentration of free
carbon dioxide if it is not given. You also see there that at a pH of more than 7.2, this
concentration is practically negligible.
When treating RO permeate, however, this relationship is very important, as CO2 is the
largest part of the anion load on the resin. In this case, you can use the third graph, which is
a close-up of the other one for low concentrations.

Concentration and capacity units
This ion exchange site uses almost exclusively metric units, including equivalents. However,
other units have been used in the past and are still unfortunately used in some regions.
Here are two conversion tables:

Units of concentration
(per volume of water)
Name Abbreviation meq/L ppm
CaCO3
f dH gr as
CaCO3/gal
Milliequivalent per litre 1 meq/L = 1 50 5 2.8 2.921
ppm as calcium carbonate 1 ppm as CaCO3 = 0.02 1 0.1 0.056 0.0584
French degree 1 f = 0.2 10 1 0.56 0.5842
German hardness degree 1 dH = 0.357 17.86 1.786 1 1.043
Grain as CaCO3 per US
gallon
1 gr as
CaCO3/gal
= 0.342 17.12 1.712 0.959 1
Units of capacity
(per volume of resin)
Name Abbreviation eq/L g CaCO3/L f g CaO/L kgr CaCO3/ft
3

Equivalent per litre 1 eq/L = 1 50 5000 28 21.85
Gram as CaCO3 per litre 1 g as CaCO3/L = 0.02 1 100 0.56 0.437
French degree 1 f = 0.0002 0.01 1 0.0357 0.00437
Gram as CaO per litre g CaO/L = 0.0357 1.786 178.6 1 0.780
kgr as CaCO3 per cubic foot kgr CaCO3/ft
3
= 0.0458 2.29 228.8 1.281 1
into account and brings only confusion. For reference : 1 eq = 1 mole / valence.
Examples
1 mole Na
+
= 23 g valence = 1 1 equivalent Na
+
= 23/1 = 23 g
1 mole Ca
2+
= 40 g valence = 2 1 equivalent Ca
2+
= 40/2 = 20 g
1 mole PO4
3
= 95 g valence = 3 1 equivalent PO4
3
= 95/3 = 31.7 g

Ion exchange resin structure
Introduction
Ion exchange resins are polymers onto which functional groups are attached. We will
examine here the chemical structure of the resin matrix, the functional groups and the
overall chemical process or ion exchange resins production.
The resins are produced in several steps, the two main steps being:
Polymerisation of the resin matrix
Functionalisation: ion exchange groups are attached to the matrix
Resin matrix
About 90 % of all ion exchange resins are based on a polystyrenic matrix. The "building block"
used to make this plastic skeleton is styrene monomer, an aromatic compound also called
vinylbenzene. Below are the chemical formulas:

Chemical formula of styrene

Simplified representation of styrene

The vinyl double bond of this molecule enables polymerisation. The next picture shows the
polymerised styrene, albeit only with four visible styrene groups. In reality, millions of
groups are attached together in very long chains.

A small fraction of a polystyrene chain
The resulting linear polymer chains are entangled together, but have little physical strength:
they are relatively soft, and after activation they would probably dissolve in water. To give
the polymer a more stable tri-dimentional structure, the polystyrene chains are cross-linked
with another molecule at the time of polymerisation. The cross-linking molecule must be
able to polymerise at two or three ends. The most common cross-linker is divinylbenzene
(abbreviated as DVB).
The polymerisation process is usually done in a suspension medium, either in stirred reactors
(batch polymerisation) or in special "jetting" equipment. The polymers formed are very small
spherical beads (200 to 500 m in diameter). The jetting process produces very uniform bead
sizes, whilst batch polymerisation results in various bead sizes with a near-Gaussian particle
size distribution. See resin properties. These beads will swell to a size of 300 to 1200 m in the
subsequent functionalisation and hydration steps.

Divinylbenzene (DVB)

Cross-linked polystyrene
The second bond of the DVB molecule is shown in red and attaches to the next chain of
linear polystyrene. The more DVB is added to the initial reaction mixture, the more rigid is
the polymer.
Most ion exchange resins are polymerised in such a way that spherical beads are obtained.
This can occur either in a stirred reactor or with a jetting process. In the latter case, the
bead size is very uniform.

Gel and macroporous resin structure
In the polymerisation process described above, the cross-linker is more or less evenly
distributed throughout the matrix. The voids between the chains of polystyrene are called
pores. They are very small and their size is only a few , but the size is relatively constant:
the matrix has a pseudo-crystalline structure, similar to glass, and as a result the finished
ion exchange resiin beads are transparent. In the picture below, the polystyrene chains are
shown in blue without the aromatic chemical details, and the "bridges" formed by DVB are
shown in red.

Gel structure
There is a limit to the quantity of DVB that can be used in gel type resins: too much DVB
creates a stucture with very small pores, which in the final product may be a disadvantage,
as larger ions cannot enter the resin beads. Additionally, highly cross-linked polymers are
more difficult to activate.
To overcome this problem, macroporous resins have been invented in the 1960's. The idea is
to create artifical porosity in the tri-dimensional matrix. To this effect, a third component
called porogen or phase extender is incorporated in the reaction mixture, which does not
react with the monomers, but only takes room in the system. Once the polymerisation
reaction is finished, the porogen is washed out and leaves voids in the polymer structure.
These are the macropores.

Macroporous structure
Macroporous resins have a double porosity: the small pores of the matrix itself and the large
macropores created by the phase extender. The final resins are opaque. They are very
stable, as the matrix is usually highly cross-linked. They also very porous, thus can exchange
large ions.
Pore size
Functionalised, hydrated ion exchange resins have a pore size of approximately 1 to 2 nm (10
to 20 ), while macroporous resins, in addition to their small gel pores, have macropores
with a size of about 20 to 100 nm (200 to 1000 ). For comparison, hydrated inorganic ions
have a size of about 0.2 to 0.5 nm. Organic ions may be much bigger than that.

Functionalisation of the polymer
The polymer described above must be activated to convert the plastic beads into ion
exchange resins.
Strongly acidic cation exchange resins
The activation is chemically simple: it is a sulphonation reaction. the polystyrene beads are
contacted at high temperature with concentrated sulphuric acid. The product is a
polystyrene sulphonate, which is a strong acid.

Sulphonation
After sulphonation, the resin is washed to remove excess sulphuric acid. This hydration step
is a delicate operation, as it causes the resin beads to swell (functional groups are hydrated
and thus grow in size). The corresponding osmotic force is considerable and can result in
breaking the beads to pieces if it is not done cautiously.
This reaction produces the resin in hydrogen form. If the product is to be used as a softening
resin, it must be converted in an additional step to the sodium form. This can be done with
sodium carbonate, for instance.
Strongly and weakly basic anion exchange resins
The activation is more complex, as it requires two successive steps. Also, the chemicals used
are more expensive, which explains that anion exchange resins are considerably more
expensive than SAC resins. The first step is called chloromethylation, and is a reaction
between the polymer beads and chloromethyl methylether (which is a very hazardous
chemical):

Chloromethylation
The product has chloride groups, but these are covalent, not ionised. At this stage, we don't
have an anion exchange resin yet. The second step of the activation is an amination, where
the covalent chloride is replaced by an amine.

Amination
The picture shows an amination made with trimethylamine. The product is a quaternary
ammonium chloride salt. By convention, SBA resins produced with trimethylamine are called
Type 1. As produced, SBA resins are in the chloride (Cl
) form and must be regenerated with

caustic soda before use in a demineralisation system. Type 1 resins are the most common
strongly basic exchangers.
Instead of trimethylamine, dimethylethanolamine can be used to
produce the so-called Type 2 SBA resin. This amine is shown on the
left. Type 2 resins have a lower basicity than type 1. This results in a
better regenerability (conversion to the OH
form) but type 2 resins

are more sensitive to temperature degradation, and have a lower
selectivity for ions, so that the leakage is higher in service.
Weakly basic anion exchange resins are produced in
the same way, but using a secondary instead of a
tertiary amine. In most cases, dimethylamine (shown
on the left) is used. The product is an ion exchange
resin in the hydrochloric form, which is regenerated to
the free base form for supply. This WBA resin is shown on the right. In
the regenerated form, WBA resins do not have exchangeable ions.
They can only remove strong acids from solution, which means they
must be used after decationisation. See ion exchange reactions.
Still other amines can be used to make special anion exchange
resins, such as those selective for nitrate (here on the left
triethylamine), borate (N-methyl glucamine, see below), or
perchlorate.

Weakly acidic cation exchange resins
These resins are not produced by activation of polystyrene beads. Instead, they are made
from acrylic polymers, either starting from acrylonitrile or from methyl acrylate.

Polymerisation of acrylonitrile

Polymerisation of methyl acrylate
The polymer obtained must be hydrolysed to form carboxylic acid groups. The
polyacrylonitrile polymer is hydrolysed with sulphuric acid, whilst the polyacrylate is
hydrolysed with caustic sode. In both cases, the same final compound is obtained. Here only
caustic hydrolysis is shown:

Hydrolysis of polyacrylate with caustic soda
The WAC resin product obtained is a weak acid, only partially ionised in neutral
environment. Its acidity is similar to that of acetic acid. Due to the aliphatic (not aromatic)
light-weight structure of the matrix, WAC resins have a higher density of active groups than
resins based on polystyrene. This results in a high total ion exchange capacity.

Once dissociated (with an alkaline anion, see reactions), the resin can
exchange cations. Here an example with sodium. A carboxylate salt is
formed.

With divalent metals, a stable complex is formed between two
functional groups, as shown on the left, which explains the
high selectivity of WAC resins for these ions.

Acrylic anion exchange resins
WBA and SBA resins can also be made starting from an acrylic instead of an aromatic
copolymer. The first polymeridsation step is the same as that for a WAC resin starting from
methyl acrylate, as shown in the previous section. The polyacrylate is then reacted with a
special di-amine having a primary amine at one end and a tertiary amine at the other end:

Amidation of polyacrylate with DMAPA
The product obtained is a weakly basic acrylic anion exchange resin. From this, a strongly
basic resin can be obtained with an additional quaternisation step using methyl chloride or
dimethyl sulphate:

Quaternisation of an acrylic WBA to SBA
Acrylic anion resins are more hydrophilic than styrenic resins, and show a superior resistance
to organic fouling.
Other functional groups
Several other resin types have been developed, mainly to produce selective resins. A few
typical active groups are shown below:

Various other functional groups
Chelating resins
Most of the above special resins are of the chelating type. They are
able to form complexes with metals. Their name is derived from
the Greek word meaning "claw", because the metallic ions are
captured like in a claw. The picture on the right shows a metal
complexed by the iminodiacetic functional group of a chelating
resin. The chelating resins make complexes only with multivalent
metals. These complexes are very stable. Therefore, these resins
have a high selectivity and are capable of removing metals from
solution preferentially. See examples in the resin types page, with
the corresponding applications.

A summary of the most common resins and their active groups is shown in the "resin types"
page.
Ion exchange resin properties
Introduction
We will examine the meaning of
Particle size
Capacity
Moisture
Dry matter
Specific gravity
Bulk density
Effect of bed compression
Optical aspect
Resin volume and swelling
Stability
Structure and selectivity
and examples will be shown.
The structure (matrix and functional groups) of ion exchange resins is described in other
pages, as well as details of total and operating ion exchange capacity.
The importance of ionic form
In expressing the results of most resin properties, the ionic form should always be
mentioned, as the values are different according to the ions in the resin beads. This applies
in particular to the following properties:
Capacity
Moisture
Density
and to a lesser extent to the particle size. For example, Amberjet 4400 has a total capacity
of about 1.5 eq/L in the Cl
form and 1.2 eq/L in the OH
form. The difference is just due to

resin swelling: it swells by up to 30 % between the Cl
and the OH
form. The number of

active groups in a resin sample is obviously constant, so that when the resin swells, the
density of these active groups decreases, and the volume capacity is a measure of this active
groups density.
Example: analysis of a batch of new resin
Resin type Amberlite IRA96
Lot number 6210AA55
Volume capacity [free base form] 1.36 eq/L
Dry weight capacity [free base] 5.16 eq/kg
Dry matter [free base] 264 g/L
Strongly basic capacity 8.6 %
Moisture holding capacity [free base] 61.8 %
Perfect beads 98 %
Whole beads 99 %
Specific gravity [free base] 1.04
Particle size
Mean diameter 0.68 mm
Uniformity coefficient 1.34
Harmonic mean size 0.67 mm
Effective size 0.53 mm
Fines through 0.300 mm 0.1 %
Coarse beads on 1.18 mm 0.2 %

Particle size distribution
Traditionally, the particle size distribution of a resin was measured using a set of sieves. The
volume on the resin fraction remaining on each sieve is measured in a glass cylinder. It was
found practical to express the results in cumulative percentage through a given sieve
opening.
Today, granulometry is measured with particle counters which are linked to a computer and
calculate all particle size parameters. The components of a particle size distribution are:
Mean diameter
Uniformity coefficient
Effective size
Harmonic mean size
Quantity of fine beads
Quantity of big beads

Conventional resin Uniform resin
UC = 1.60 UC = 1.07

We will review each of these properties.

Measuring particle size
Example of traditional analysis
measuring the volume of resin
retained on each sieve:
mm
% retained on
sieve
% through
sieve
1.25 0.8 99.2
1.00 2.0 97.2
0.80 14.9 82.3
0.63 33.2 49.1
0.50 32.5 16.6
0.40 14.1 2.5
0.315 2.0 0.5
Finer 0.5

The values "between sieves" have
been plotted on a graph with a
logarithmic scale for the sieve
openings. In theory, and very roughly in practice as well, the particle size distribution of
conventional "kettle polymerised" resins is normal, or Gaussian. A Gaussian bell curve has
been superimposed on the graph.
Definitions
The mean diameter is the value of the (theoretical) sieve opening through which
exactly 50 of the resin volume passes, i.e. that retains exactly 50 % of the resin
sample. It is abbreviated as "d50". In the language of statistics, it is called median
diameter.
The effective size is the value of the sieve opening through which exactly 10 % of the
resin sample passes. It is abbreviated as "d10".
The uniformity coefficient is defined as: UC = d60 / d10
This coefficient measures the "width" of the distribution, and is reflected in the
width of the Gaussian bell curve. If all beads had the same size, it would be equal to
1.0. Amberjet resins have a UC of 1.05 to 1.20, Ambersep and SB grades 1.15 to 1.30,
RF grades 1.20 to 1.50, standard grades 1.3 to 1.7. See the small pictures above.
The harmonic mean size abbreviated as HMS is a mathematical
expression calculated from the distribution function. See the formula
on the right. HMS is useful for theoretical considerations regarding
hydraulic properties and kinetics of a resin. For practical purposes,
the value of HMS is close to the median diameter, but a little
smaller. Both values are almost identical for resins with uniform
particle size.
Using a Gaussian-logarithmic
paper, a normal distribution
(cumulated percentage
through the sieves) will appear
as a straight line, as shown on
the picture here. In the past,
this paper was used to
calculate mean diameter,
effective size and uniformity
coefficient based on the
laboratory results. This
example displays the results
corresponding to the bell curve
above. The points are not
exactly aligned due to
imprecision in the sieving, and
due to the fact that the actual
distribution is not exactly
Gaussian. The characteristic
values for this example are:

Mean (median) diameter 0.640 mm
Uniformity coefficient 1.53
Effective size 0.449 mm
Harmonic mean size 0.616 mm
For resins wiith uniform particle size, the median diameter, harmonic mean size and
effective size are close to each other. They would be identiical for resins totally uniform,
i.e. with a uniformity coefficient equal to 1.00. See the bell curve and the Gaussian-logarithmic
plot for a resin with uniformity coefficient 1.10.

What particle size means
Fine resin
Good kinetics (fast exchange rate)
High pressure drop
Coarse resin
Low pressure drop
No problem with clogging collectors
Bead size is important
for mixed beds
for stratified beds
for packed beds
for fluidised beds
for backwashing
for chromatography
fine resins have higher kinetics
The choice of particle size is a compromise: fine resins deliver a higher capacity, but cause
high head loss, and excess fines may produce nozzle clogging. Coarse beads on the other
hand are frequently more sensitive to osmotic stress and have slower kinetics, thus giving a
lower operating capacity. For all applications requiring separation of different resins in the
same column, such as stratified or mixed bed units, selection of the right particle size is of
critical importance.

Total capacity
This is the number of active groups
i.e. the number of exchangeable monovalent ions
Both volume and dry weight capacity values must be reported.
Operating capacity
This is the number of sites where exchange actually takes place during one cycle
Total capacities of new resins are measured for quality control. Capacities are expressed in
equivalents per litre of wet resin or in equivalents per kilogramme of dried resin. The dry
weight capacity indicates if a resin has been properly functionalised, irrespective of its
water content. Whilst a high total capacity is generally desirable, not all exchange sites are
used in a complete ion exchange cycle. Details on the concept of total and operating
capacity are presented in another page.

Moisture holding capacity
Moisture (water retention, or water content) is related to porosity and ionic form. The water
content is expressed as a percentage of the moist resin weight in a given ionic form. Here is
the influence of porosity on resin performance:
High moisture
fast exchange
good adsorption properties
low total capacity
Low moisture
high total capacity
difficult to regenerate
no removal of big ions
tendency to fouling
About half the weight of all ion exchange resins is water, unless they have been dried or the
water has been replaced with an organic solvent. The water surrounds the active groups
(hydration water) and fills the voids in the resin matrix. Obviously, a resin with high moisture
has less dry matter, therefore less active groups and less capacity; but on the other hand,
such a resin may provide easier access for large ions into its structure.
For gel resins, the amount of water is inversely related to the degree of crosslinking of the
matrix. This is not true for macroporous resins, because their (artificial) macroporosity can
be varied as a parameter independent from crosslinking. See the "resin structure" page.
Usually, low moisture resins have a slower exchange rate and are more susceptible to fouling
than high moisture resins.

Dry matter
The dry matter is calculated:
either as the complement of moisture holding capacity (in %);
or as a weight of dry resin per litre of resin as delivered (in g/L)*.
*The dry matter in kg/L is numerically equal to the volume capacity (in eq/L) divided by the
dry weight capacity (in eq/kg).
The dry matter was used in the past by some manufacturers instead of the percentage of
moisture retention. Today, the dry matter concept is not much used any more.

Specific gravity (true bead density)
Density is important for
Mixed bed separation
Stratified beds (Stratabed)
Floating beds
Backwashing
Although not an item for routine testing, specific gravity is an important parameter for
successful plant operation. It is critical for all processes involving mixing or separation of 2
or 3 resins in the same column, and for adjustment of resin backwash flow rate.
Measurement of the specific gravity is made with a pycnometre.
Note that specific gravity varies with the ionic form of the resin. The ionic composition of a
resin varies all the time during a cycle, so it is difficult to predict the exact specific gravity.
This is important to understand when backwashing a resin bed.
Here are some typical values:
Resin type Ionic form Density range Typical
WAC H 1.16 to 1.19 1.18
WAC Ca 1.28 to 1.34 1.32
SAC H 1.18 to 1.22 1.20
SAC Na 1.26 to 1.32 1.28
SAC Ca 1.28 to 1.33 1.31
WBA Free base 1.02 to 1.05 1.04
WBA Cl 1.05 to 1.09 1.06
WBA SO4 1.08 to 1.13 1.11
SBA OH 1.06 to 1.09 1.07
SBA Cl 1.07 to 1.10 1.08
SBA SO4 1.10 to 1.14 1.12
Specific gravity vs ionic form

Bulk density and shipping weight
The bulk density of a resin is usually expressed as the mass of one litre of the resin. As there
are small variations of bulk density from batch to batch, a standard value, called shipping
weight, is used for packaging the resin in the production plant. The variations of bulk density
are mainly due to residual water in the bulk resin after removal of the interstitial water on
the draining belt just before packaging.
Example :
Assume the bulk density values for a given resin type have a range of 720 to 780 g/L. Setting
the shipping weight at 770 g/L will have the following results:
Each 25 L bag will contain 0.770 x 25 = 19.25 kg resin.
If the resin lot has a bulk density of 720 g/L, which is 1.389 L/kg, the customer will
receive 19.25 x 1.389 = 26.7 L resin in a 25 L bag.
If the resin lot has a bulk density of 780 g/L, which is 1.282 L/kg, the customer will
receive 19.25 x 1.282 = 24.7 L resin in a 25 L bag.
If the bulk density is at its maximum, the resin manufacturer is only undershipping a little,
whilst if the density is lower than the shipping weight, he is overshipping some resin, so the
customer will receive at least the ordered quantity in 83% of the cases. If the shipping
weight had been set in the middle of the range, the customer would get less resin than
ordered in 50% of the cases.

Bed compression

The "missing resin" story: it is relatively difficult to measure bulk density values, as wall
effects and bed compression are disturbing the measurement of bed depth and volume. The
"100 %" point is for a small column with 50 mm diameter and 600 mm bed depth. With two
metres bed depth (blue line) and one metre filter diameter, the bed is compressed by 2.5 %,
giving the impression that 2.5 % of the resin is missing.
The picture here has been measured by a customer who was not sure if the delivered resin
volume was correct.

Optical aspect

Optical aspect of a used resin

We look at the resin sample under the microscope. This test is the first done with used
resins: if the sample is badly fragmented, resin replacement will be necessary so that further
testing is not needed.
The optical aspect of a new resin, i.e. the number of cracked beads and fragments, is an
important part of resin quality control in production. The quality control methods use the
concept of perfect beads and whole beads. Perfect beads are just perfect, i.e. not cracked,
not broken. Whole beads are spherical, i.e. not a fragment, but can be cracked.
For samples of used resins, the aspect can give valuable information about operating
problems. So for instance in a used sample the following values are reported:
PBC (perfect bead count) 65 %
WBC (whole bead count) 94 %
This means that the sample has:
65 % perfect beads
29 % cracked beads
6 % fragments
Some people find this way to count not easy to understand. Just remember that whole beads
comprise both perfect beads and cracked beads.
See pictures of new resin samples.

Ionic form and volume change
Resins change volume according to the ions loaded on them. For instance, a gel type strongly
basic resin may swell by more than 25 % if it is totally converted from the chloride form (as
delivered) to the hydroxide form.
Here are the most usual ionic forms of delivery for resins used in water treatment, and an
idea about their volume change.
Resin type Ionic form as supplied Total volume change From...To Example
SAC Na, H 6 to 10 % Na to H Amberjet 1000
SBA Cl, OH, SO4 15 to 30 %
6 to 10 %
Cl to OH
Cl to SO4
Amberjet 4200
WBA Free base (FB) 10 to 25 % FB to Cl Amberlite IRA96
WAC H 15 to 40 %
60 to 100 %
H to (Ca+Mg)
H to Na
Amberlite IRC86
More accurate data about resin swelling are usually available in the individual product data
sheets pubilshed by the resin producers.
The volume change is due to the different hydration state of the ions in the resin: for
instance, weak resins are almost not dissociated in regenerated form, so there are no free
ions in the resin beads. Once they have exchanged ions, though, these ions are hydrated:

Resins are rarely fully converted from 100 % regenerated to 100 % exhausted, so in general
the maximum theoretical volume change is not achieved. However, a volume change does
take place in operation, and is visible if you watch the resin bed surface in a column before
and after regeneration. This is important in the case of packed beds where there is almost no
freeboard.

Stability
Resins must withstand various forms of stress in operation:
Physical stress in case of resin transfer or high pressure drop
Osmotic stress due to the change in volume (see above)
Thermal stress in case high temperature or temperature variations
Organic fouling
The manufacturers offer specific resins according to operating conditions. Ask their experts.

Chemical reactions of the ion exchange resins are shown in a dedicated page.

Selectivity
The structure of resins and their selectivity for various ions are explained in separate pages.

Approximate selectivity scales - cation
exchange resins

The sulphonic resin here is a "nominal 8% DVB" product. Resins with higher cross-linking will
have higher selectivity values, but the order remains unchanged.
CAUTION: the data are approximate, but the relative order should be right.

Monovalent Sulphonic
(SAC)
Carboxylic
(WAC)
Amberlite
TM
example IR120 IRC86
Ion
Li
+
0.85 1.0
H
+
1.00
Na
+
1.69 0.6
NH4
+
2.20
K
+
2.46 0.5
Rb
+
2.54
Cs
+
2.80 0.3
Cu
+
5.25
Ag
+
7.54
Tl
+
9.75

Divalent Sulphonic Carboxylic Iminodiacetic
Amberlite
TM
example IR120 IRC86 IRC748
Ion
UO2
++
0.44
Mg
++
0.63 0.3 0.8*
Zn
++
0.67 1.5 22
Co
++
0.71 1.9 17
Cu
++
0.73 2.0 550
Cd
++
0.75 1.0 28
Ni
++
0.75 1.4 55
Be
++
0.77
Mn
++
0.79 1.4 5.0
Ca
++
1.00 1.00 1.00
Sr
++
1.25 < 1 0.6*
Pb
++
1.9 > 1 160
Ba
++
2.2 < 1 0.5*
Ra
++
2.5
* Doubtful, but the order is Ca > Sr > Ba

For sulphonic (SAC) resins, the order of selectivity is:
Pb
++
> Ca
++
> Mg
++
> Na
+
> H
+

This means that you can remove hardness (Ca & Mg) with a SAC resin in the Na form, but you
cannot remove Na selectively in presence of other cations.
Approximate selectivity scales -SBA resins
Data only typical, i.e. approximate, but relative order should be right.
The values may vary according to porosity of resin (primary and secondary cross-linking). For
instance, the chloride selectivity value varies from about 15 to more than 30 for different
SBA type 1 resins.
SBA resin Type 1 Type 2
Amberlite example IRA402 IRA410
Ion Selectivity
HSiO3
< 1.0 < 1.0

OH
(reference) 1.0 1.0

F
1.6 0.3
CH3COO
3.2 0.5
HCOO
4.6 0.5
IO3
5.5 0.5
HCO3
6.0 1.2
Cl
22 2.3
NO2
24 3
BrO3
27 3
HSO3
27 3
CN
28 3
HSO4
35 9
Br
50 6
NO3
65 8
ClO3
74 12
SO4
2
150
I
175 17
SeO4
2
280
ClO4
> 500
CrO4
2
1700
C6H5SO3
> 500 75
Conventional SBA resins

For these resins, as shown above, the order of selectivity is:
SO4
=
> NO3
> Cl
> HCO3
> OH
> F

There is thus no practical way to remove only chloride from water without removing other
anions as well.

Ion Amberlite PWA5
Cl
1.0
NO3
5.8
ClO4
440
HCO3
0.21
SO4
2
0.019
Nitrate selective resin
With such a product, you can remove nitrate with the resin in the chloride form.
From an unknown source: selectivity scale of a SBA resin at pH 9 to 10:
V2O7
4
> UO2(CO3)3
4
> MoO4
2
> SO4
2
> CO3
2
> NO3
> Cl
> HCO3

DRINKING WATER
Ion exchange processes
Introduction
Ion exchange is not a general method to treat drinking water. The production of potable
water is usually done with other techniques: coagulation, filtration, disinfection and, when
desalting sea water, reverse osmosis. Nevertheless, ion exchange can be very helpful to
remove selectively targeted contaminants.
Contaminants
The table below shows the contaminants that can be removed with ion exchange, and some
that must be removed with other processes.
Contaminant Comments Ion exchange removal
Hardness
There is no prescribed limit for
hardness in drinking water.
Softening is more a question of
comfort.
The process is a normal softening,
using special resins agreed for the
treatment of drinking water.
Nitrate
Nitrate is not a problem for adults,
but it is harmful for infants. The
recommended level is less than 50
mg/L.
Nitrate can be removed with
special, selective resins.
Perchlorate
Perchlorate contaminates some
water wells close to production
sites of rocket fuels. The
recommended level is less than 6
g/L in California.
Perchlorate can be removed with
special, selective anion exchange
resins. Resins used for nitrate
removal are also effective for
perchlorate.
Boron
Boric acid is present in sea water
RO permeate. The recommended
level is 5 mg/L.
Boron can be removed with
special, selective resins.
Lead
Excessive Pb levels may be due to
old lead pipes.
Lead can be removed with
carboxylic (WAC) resins. Softeners
also remove Pb.
Barium
Barium is a component of hardness,
and forms insoluble salts. The
recommended WHO limit is 0.7
mg/L.
Sulphonic (SAC) resins have a high
selectivity for barium.
Chromate
The presence of chromate in
underground water is mostly due to
industrial pollution. The
recommended limit for Cr(VI) is 50
Special WBA resins can be used to
remove chromate from water.
g/L.
Radium
Radium is a component of hardness,
but it has natural radioactivity. The
American EPA has set a limit for a
maximum combined value of 5
pCi/L (0.185 Bq/L). Ra is found in
trace amounts in uranium ores.
Radium can be removed with
sulphonic (SAC) resins.
Uranium
The toxicity of uranium is not due
to its radioactivity, it is purely
chemical. The WHO guideline is 15
g/L.
Uranium(VI) is present in nature
as the uranyl ion UO2
++
and can be
removed with WBA or SBA resins.
Other heavy
metals
Heavy metals may be present in
underground water, either naturally
or due to pollution.
Many metals can be removed with
chelating resins, but those are not
authorised in all countries.
Arsenic
As is found in some natural water
sources. The recommended limit is
10 g/L.
There is no proven ion exchange
process to remove arsenic
selectively. Other media, such as
granulated iron hydroxide or
titanium oxide, can be used.
Fluoride
Ground water is sometimes
contaminated with fluoride
originating from industrial waste,
e.g. aluminium mills. The
recommended WHO limit for the F

anion is 1.5 mg/L.
Anion resins have a low selectivity
for fluoride, so that selective
removal is not practical. The
usual process involves activated
alumina.

Other information
See the periodic system of the elements (Mendeleev table) with some data about
selective ion exchange removal.
See also the page in another section of my web site about drinking water and bottled
water.
Introduction
This page shows the general concept of ion exchange equilibrium, selectivity coefficients,
and typical reactions of the different types of ion exchange resins.
Equilibrium
An ion exchange resin in the ionic form A is in contact with a solution containing an ion B, an
equilibrium reaction is observed. Here an example of cation exchange:
(1)
R-A
+
+ B
+
R-B
+
+ A
+

In the ion exchange process, ions A will migrate into the solution and be replaced by ions B
from the solution until equilibrium is reached. This equilibrium is described by the mass
action law as follows:
(2)

where [..] denotes concentrations, and activity coefficients, and where the bar indicates
the resin phase. K is the selectivity coefficient of B
+
over A
+
for the ion exchange reaction:
(3)

As a first approximation, the activity coefficients are considered constant, so that the
simplified selectivity coefficient is:
(4)

For the most current reaction between a strongly acidic resin in the H
+
form and sodium ions
(Na
+
) in water, equation (1) becomes:
(5)
R-H
+
+ Na
+
R-Na
+
+ H
+

And the corresponding selectivity coefficient is
(6)

The value of coefficient K(
Na
/H) is about 1.7 for a standard, gel type sulphonic strongly acidic
exchange resin (see the table of selectivity coefficients). This means that if a resin with a
known composition of Na and H ions is placed in pure water, sodium ions will migrate into
the water until sodium concentration reaches the equilibrium determined by equation (6).
For divalent ions, e.g. (softening reaction):
(7)
2 R-Na
+
+ Ca
++
R2-Ca
++
+ 2 Na
+

The selectivity coefficient is:
(8)

Regeneration
Regeneration consists of reversing the equilibrium in increasing the concentration of the ion
displaced in the equilibrium reaction. For instance, a softener is regenerated by using a high
concentration of [Na
+
] ions on the right side of reaction (7). This causes the reaction to be
shifted to the left.
Column operation
In normal practice of ion exchange, the resin is not left at equilibrium with the solution.
Instead, the solution is withdrawn at the outlet of the column so the equilibrium is
permanently shifted to the right. Look again at equation (1):
(1)
R-A
+
+ B
+
R-B
+
+ A
+

The treated solution enriched in ions A
+
and depleted of ions B
+
is carried away and
replaced by untreated solution in which the ions A
+
have a low concentration while [B
+
] is
high. This allows the resin to remove more B
+
ions from the solution, because the equilibrium
is displaced to the right.

Let us now look at the specific behaviour of common ion exchange resins.
Strongly acidic resins
When the resin is initially in the hydrogen form H
+
(R-SO3
H
+
, abbreviated here as R-H), it can
remove all cations from solution:
(9)
R-H + Na
+
Cl
R-Na + H
+
Cl

Second example qith calcium bicarbonate:
(10)
2 R-H + Ca
++
(HCO3
)2 R2-Ca + 2 H2CO3
Here the reaction is a neutralisation, as the bicarbonate anion is alkaline. It is not
reversible, as you cannot regenerate a SAC resin wiith carbonic acid.
Reactions (9) and (10) are common as a first demineralisation step. See decationisation.
When the resin is initialy in the sodium form Na
+
, SAC resins remove di-valent cations from
water, but not other monovalent catinons, because the selectivity diifference with K
+
or
NH4
+
, for instance, is too small.
(11)
2 R-Na + Ca
++
(HCO3
)2 R2-Ca + 2 Na
+
HCO3

This softening reaction is reversible, but you would not regenerate with sodium bicarbonate,
because of the risk of calcium carbonate precipitation. Instead, sodium chloride is used.

Weakly acidic resins
These react differently, as they are only weakly ionised in regenerated (H
+
) form. With
neutral salts, no reaction is observed:
(12)
R-COOH + Na
+
Cl
nothing
Here an explanation: assuming that the reaction would take place, it would create HCl as a
product. But as the resin is a weaker acid as the hydrochloric acid product, the resin would
immediately return to its acidic form.
For the weak acid resin to react, it must be dissociated. Therefore, the H
+
ion in the acid
must be taken away by an alkali. For instance, the following reaction is immediate and
irreversible:
(13)
R-COOH + Na
+
OH
R-COO
Na
+
+ H
+
OH

This is a neutralisation reaction in which the product is water (hence the irreversibility).
In the following reaction:
(14)
2 R-COOH + Ca
++
(HCO3
)2 (R-COO
)2Ca
++
+ 2 [H
+
HCO3
]
the bicarbonate ion "rips off" the H from the carboxylic group so that it becomes ionised.
Weak acid cation resins are used in water treatment to remove bicarbonate hardness from
water. This is the de-alkalisation process. See the complex formed in the resin structure page.
With sodium bicarbonate instead of calcium or magnesium bicarbonate, the reaction also
occurs, but the WAC resin has much less affinity for monovalent ions, so that the operating
capacity is low:
(15)
R-COOH + Na
+
HCO3
R-COO
Na
+
+ H
+
HCO3

Once converted to the Na
+
form, divalent ions can be exchanged even in the absence of
alkaline anions:
(16)
2 R-COO
Na
+
+ Ca
+
Cl
2 (R-COO
)2Ca
++
+ 2 Na
+
Cl

Softening with a WAC resin is very efficient due to the strong selectivity of these resins for
hardness ions. The residual hardness in the treated water is very low, so that the process
described by reaction (16) is used to soften water in presence of a high sodium concentration
background. In practice, the WAC resin is converted to the Na
+
form using soda ash (Na2CO3)
or caustic soda (NaOH) before it is used for softening.
Conclusions: in normal use (H-cycle, regeneration with HCl) the WAC resin removes only
hardness, and only when alkalinity is present; for softening (Na-cycle) the WAC resin must
first be converted to the Na form with an alkali.

Strongly basic resins
When the resin is initially in the hydroxide form OH
(R-CH2-N(CH3)3
+
OH
), abbreviated here
as R-OH), it can remove all anions from solution:
(17)
R-OH + Na
+
Cl
R-Cl + Na
+
OH

Regeneration of SBA resins is done by reversal of reaction (17) with a relatively concentrated
solution of caustic soda.
After cation exchange [reaction (9)], the reaction is:
(18)
R-OH + H
+
Cl
R-Cl + H
+
OH

This is a neutralisation reaction of a strong acid in which the product is water. Therefore, it
is irreversible.
The OH
form SBA resin also exchanges weak acids, such as carbonic acid:
(19)
R-OH + H
+
HCO3
R-HCO3 + H
+
OH

A second reaction occurs as long as there are OH
ions on the resin:

(20)
R-HCO3 + H
+
HCO3
R2-CO3 + H
+
OH

The carbonate ions sit on two functional groups of the resin. Note that in practice, OH
form
resins are not used to remove bicarbonate or carbonate from neutral water when it contains
hardness, for fear of precipitating calcium hydroxide or calcium carbonate.
The resin also reacts with very weak acids, such as silica (SiO2) or boric acid (H3BO3). In the
following reaction, silica is represented as H2SiO3:
(20)
R-OH + H
+
HSiO3
R-HSiO3 + H
+
OH

When the SBA resin is initially in the chloride form Cl
, it can exchange any anions for which

it has a higher selectivity (see the selectivity table):
(21)
R-Cl + NO3
R-NO3 + Cl

Reaction (21) represents the nitrate removal process, for which special SBA resins with
different functional groups are used with an increased nitrate selectivity.

Weakly basic resins
The most common functional group is R-CH2-N(CH3)2. These resins are not ionised in their
regenerated free base form. Therefore they do not react with neutral salts:
(22)
R-CH2-N(CH3)2 + Na
+
Cl
nothing
For WBA resins to react, they must first be ionised. This occurs by protonisation of the amine
which is transformed into a quaternary ammonium. The reaction can thus take place after
decationisation (9):
(23)
R-CH2-N(CH3)2 + H
+
Cl
R-CH2-NH
+
(CH3)2
+
Cl

The uptake of the whole hydriochloric acid compound converts the WBA resin to its
hydrochloric (.HCl) form. Similar reactions take place wiith sulphate and nitrate after cation
exchange.
The alkalinity of the WBA resin is not strong enough, however, to protonise the active group
with weak acids, so that these resins cannot remove silica or carbon dioxide from water:
(24)
R-CH2-N(CH3)2 + H
+
HCO3
nothing
Weakly basic resins are used for the removal of strong acids only, but they have a higher
capacity and are easier to regenerate than SBA resins.

Chelating resins
These resins, with several different functional groups (see examples of selective resin types),
are able to form complexes with metals. See also an example of the complex in the resin
structure page.

Other information
Selectivity (general).
Selectivity tables for cation and anion exchange resins.
Water treatment processes for practical use of the above reactions.
Ion exchange applications (water treatment and many other areas).
Various resin types with examples.
Ion exchange resin structure in general.
Mendeleev table with information about the removal of several ions with resins.
Limits of use of anion exchange resins
Anion exchange resins are sensitive to temperature, as heat may damage or destroy the
functional groups, and to organics, which may cause fouling.
The temperature limit is valid for permanent exposure in service, and for regeneration.
The limit of organic load corresponds to the quantity of organics passing through the resin
during one run. Not all the organic matter is removed!
Another way of assessing the suitability of the resin without calculation of the organic load is
to use the fouling index of the water. This fouling index is defined as:

Resin Type Maximum
Temperature
(C)
Maximum
Organic Load
g as KMnO4
per L resin
Maximum
Acceptable
Fouling Index
N
SBA styrenic type 1, gel 60 2 3
SBA styrenic type 2, gel 35 3 6
SBA styrenic type 1, macroporous 60 4 6
SBA styrenic type 2, macroporous 35 5 10
SBA acrylic 35 8 15
SBA Acrylic, macroporous 60 15 18
SBA nitrate selective, macroporous 35 2 3
Bifunctional acrylic 25 10 15
WBA styrenic, macroporous 60 12 12
WBA acrylic, gel 60 25 20
WBA boron selective 40 5 6
Maximum temperature and organic load for anion resins

The organics here are natural organic matter found in surface waters. The table is not valid
for other organic impurities. Water treatment only: in some special applications, higher
temperatures may be used. The ionic load of the SBA resins is not shown; the resins are
assumed to operate in demineralisation cycle, i.e. regenerated with NaOH.
Sensitivity to organics and temperature may vary according to the properties of the resin,
notably their porosity. However the above data can be considered as a good guideline.
The "Total Anions" value shown in the fouling index are those forming the anionic load of the
resin, after degasifier if any. It is difficult to calculate for WBA/SBA couples.
Trademarks
Amberjet, Amberlite, Ambersep, Amberlyst, Amberchrom, Amberzyme, Dowex, Duolite and
Imac are ion exchange and adsorbent resin trademarks of The Dow Chemical Company.
Lewatit is a resin trademark of Lanxess.
Amberjet, Amberlite, and Amberpack are original trademarks of Rohm and Haas, a subsidiary
of the Dow Chemical Company.
Amberjet, Amberlite, Ambersep, and Dowex are trademarks of the Dow Chemical Company.
Lewatit is a trademark of Lanxess.
Amberpack, Upcore, ADI & ADN are trademarks of the Dow Chemical Company

Amberpack, Upcore, Stratabed, and Stratapack are trademarks of the Dow Chemical
Company.

Ion Exchange - Simple To Understand

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Ion Exchange - Simple To Understand

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

(table salt NaCl)

) that are attached to the skeleton. In this

) anions inside the beads.

ions, these will

are. You can see that one Ca

form can remove all anions. The anion

ions. The resin beads are nearly exhausted (fig. 6).

ions will immediately combine and form water:

ions have been released into the water

form. The first step is decationisation as shown above:

ions of the second step to

ions are available for neutral anion exchange. On the other

) ions produced in the exchange.

ions recombine to create new water molecules

) are halogenides and behave like chloride.

, often called bicarbonate

H2CO3 CO2 + H2O

) form and must be regenerated with

form) but type 2 resins

form and 1.2 eq/L in the OH

form. The difference is just due to

form. The number of

< 1.0 < 1.0

(reference) 1.0 1.0

ions on the resin:

, it can exchange any anions for which

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen