IB Geography Standard Level

Index Def.
Meaning LEDC example MEDC example

Crude
Birth
Rate
(CBR)
No. of live birth/1000
peo. in pop./year
For labors Contribute to family income -
To look after them in old ages -
To continue family name -
High IMR Replace dead children -
High CBR/TFR: Parents want children: Botswana
44.07 (1980) 24.01 (2011)
France:
14 (1980) 12.7 (2011)
Total
Fertility
Rate
(TFR)
Avg. no. of children that
would be born to a
woman during her
lifetime
Children are costly -
Good public pension scheme & health services
No need of children to look after
-
Women are free to get education & work Delay
marriage, childbearing
-
Low IMR No need of child replacement -
Widespread use of family planning -
Low CBR/TFR: Botswana:
6.62 (1980) 2.71 (2011)
Botswana gov. strongly
invested in public health
sys.
France:
1.85 (1980) 2.03 (2011)
Pro-natalist policy (maternity
grants, tax benefits)
-
Child-orientated policies
(crches)
-
Crude
Death
Rate
(CDR)
No. of deaths/1000 peo.
in pop./year
No clean, reliable water supply & food -
Poor sanitation Contagious diseases (diarrhea,
vomiting)
-
Poor medical care (no vaccination) Infectious
diseases (malaria)
-
Unhealthy lifestyle -
Natural disasters -
High CDR (rural areas, shanty towns, ):
Cons: CDRAgeing pop. > CDRYouthful pop. Can't reflect level
of development
Botswana:
8.98 (1980) 7.07 (1990)
17.36 (2010)
1990: AIDS pandemic
France:
10.2 (1980) 8.8 (2002) 9.1
(2003) 8.5 (2011)
Infant
Mortalit
y Rate
(IMR)
No. of deaths of
children < 1 year/1000
live birth/year
Lack of trained health workers & health facilities
Give birth at home
-
Poor sanitation (no clean water, dirty settlement)
Infectious diseases
-
Lack of nutrition -
High IMR: Botswana:
54.4 (1980) 37.8 (1990)
54.6 (2000) 42.9 (2011)
France:
10.2 (1980) 3.4 (2011)
Modern medical facilities
Life
Expectan
cy at
Birth (E0)
Avg. no. of years that a
person can be expected
to live from birth, if
demographic factors
remain unchanged
Early diagnosis Survive chronic illnesses (cancers) -
Shorter working weeks -
High E0: Botswana:
60.71 (1980) 63.3 (1989)
46.25 (2006) 46.67
(2011)
1990: AIDS pandemic -
2003: Medical campaign to
stop spread of HIV virus
-
Japan:
76.09 (1980) 82.59 (2011)
Healthy lifestyle (fishes, green
tea)
-
Good public healthcare system -
Population change
Saturday, April 13, 2013 5:18 PM
Population in transition Page 1
Population Pyramids
Economic development increases >>>>
Stage 1: Expansive
Wide base High BR -
Concave sides High DR Rapid
fall in each upward age group
-
Short E0 -
Stage 2: Expansive
Wide base High BR -
Straight sides Falling DR More
peo. living into middle age
-
Slightly longer E0 -
Stage 3: Stationary
Slightly narrow base Declining BR -
Convex sides Low DR Proportion
of population aged 65+
-
Long E0 -
Stage 3: Contractive
Narrow base Very low BR -
Convex sides Low DR -
Higher dependency ratio -
Long E0 -
* NOTE:
In-migration -
Baby boom at specific year -
Bulges in the slope:
Out-migration -
Age-specific, Sex-specific death (epidemics, war) -
Deficits in the slope:
Population projection
Predictions about future population based on
trends in fertility, mortality and migration.
Population momentum
Tendency for pop. to grow despite fall in BR/FR -
Relatively high concentration of peo. in pre-childbearing &
childbearing year
These young peo. move through reproductive age No. of

births > No. of deaths in older pop. Pop. will continue to grow
Reason: -
Pop. of developing countries will continue to grow despite large
& rapid FR
Pop. of developed countries (Europe) will decline even if FR is

brought up to replacement
Replacement level fertility is a long-term concept rather than

indication of current pop. growth rates
Implications: -
Dependency ratio

Stay on at school after 15

Work after 60
Very crude: Peo.
Youthful population Aging population
Def. Increasing ratio of young peo. in pop. Increasing ratio of peo. aged 65+ in pop.
Advan
tages
Potential economic growth
Attractive to new investment
Large potential workforce: -
US personal healthcare expense: Elderly: $11000/year; Working-
age: $3400/year
Lower medical costs -
Beverages, confectionery, electronics,
Young peo. are big consumer Large potential market -
Training cost
Valuable in workplace (help find more practical, plausible
solutions)
Trained skills & Experiences: -

Supermarkets, furniture stores
Preferable employees -
Look after children Allow both parents to work -
Holiday companies, healthcare providers
Grey economy Economic opportunities -
Disadv
antage
s
Large costs of supporting education & health services required by
children & youth
-
Egypt: 90% unemployment aged < 30 (2/3 pop. aged. < 30)
High unemployment rates Economic stagnation -
High pop. growth rate Pressure on providing sufficient housing,
food & water
-
Honduras: 50% aged < 19, youth gangs (drug trafficking)
High crime rates Social instability -
Labor forces Potential economic stagnation -
Japan:
Aged 65+: 15% (2002) 24.8 (2012) 25% expected (2025)
Expenditure on welfare: 20% (2002) 22% (2012) 27%
expected (2025)
Large costs of funding pensions & healthcare -
Burden on working pop. -
Anti-natalist population policy
'One Child Policy', China, 1979
Pro-natalist population policy
Sweden
Def. Policy that attempts to pop. growth by attempting to BR Policy that attempts to pop. growth by attempting to BR
History
Mao became country's leader
Chinese were encouraged to have as many children as
possible for patriotic reasons
1949: -
10 years: Pop. 550 mil 655 mil Pressure on food, housing,
education, employment
-
FR: 2.4 (1964, peak) 1.6 (1978) -
Worries about aging population -
Method
Policy: 1 child to urban couples, 2 child to rural couples
Set marriageable age: men 22, women 20
1979: -
1981: Extend 1 child policy to rural areas -
Incentives: Free edu., priority housing, pension & family benefits -
Lose gov. benefits, fine 15% family's income
Forced abortion
2
nd
pregnant:
Persistent offenders Sterilization
Penalties: -
Living allowance paid for each child until 16
4 months fully-paid leave before childbirth, 12 months 80%
paid leave afterwards
Incentives: -
Flexible labor policies Help women not fear of losing
career because of childbearing
Women can work part-time during maternity leave

High-quality low-cost public all-day childcare
10 benefit days for fathers Share responsibility with wives
Encourage women to continue job after childbirth: -
Gender equality
Success BR: 31.9 (1960) 27.29 (1979) 22.13 (1998) -
FR: 5.76 (1960) 2.81 (1979) 1.55 (1998) -
Late 1990s: Pop. size < 230 mil (estimation if no policy) -
FR: 1.6 (1978) 2.13 (1990) -
BR: 11.2 (1978) 14.5 (1990) -
Problem Couples in coastal areas have become wealthier No fear
penalties
-
Boy : Girl = 117:100
Forced abortions with evidence of female infanticide (parents
want 1 boy child) Sex imbalance
-
Low BR Can't maintain population Aging population (result
from baby boom in Mao's time) Pressure on social expenditure
-
1990s: Economic stagnant Gov. support Difficult to
parents to have many children FR 1.5 (1999)
-
Since 2000: Economic growth FR -
Successful policies (excluding effect of economic situations)
Responses to High & Low Fertility
Monday, April 15, 2013 2:51 PM
MIGRATION
Movement of peo., involving change of
residence
-
Can be internal/external (intl.),
voluntary/force
-
Not include temporary circulations
(commuting, tourism)
-
VOLUNTARY migration
Mexicans North America
Employment (job seeking, higher salary, ) -
Europeans Australia
Trading opportunities -
Better climate, especially on retirement -
Social amenities (hospitals, schools, entertainment) -
Friends/Family links -
(Migrants move from choice, because they want to)
FORCED migration
(Migrants have no choice & either have to/are made to
move)
Religious/Political persecution -
6 mil Afghans Pakistan & Iran
War -
Forced labor (slaves) -
Droughts: 1.5 mil Ethiopians, Sudanese & Somalis
left home to seek food & water
Natural disaster -
Overpopulation: Pop. > Resource availability -
Refugee: Person who flees for safety,
especially to a foreign country, as in time of
war, political upheaval, economic hardships
-
Asylum seeker: Peo. who claim to be
refugees & seek asylumin another country.
-
Migration
INTERNATIONAL VOLUNTARY migration
(Mexico US)
Origin (Mexico) Destination (US)
Push/Pull
factors
Lower wages for same jobs -
GDP/capita: $15600
Lower standards of living -
Health expenditure: 6.4% GDP
Poor welfare services (healthcare, education) -
Murderer rate: 13/100000 peo.
Unsafety -
Butcher: WageUS/day = WageMexico/month
University students: More internship, research opportunities
Prospect of higher paid jobs + Better working environment -
GDP/capita: $52600
Higher standard of living -
Health expenditure: 17.9% GDP
Better welfare services (healthcare, education) -
Murderer rate: 13/100000 peo.
Safety -
Positive
impacts
Unemployment rate -
Pressure on infrastructure (electricity, housing, hospitals) -
$16 bil, stable during 2009 economic crisis
Better educational opportunities for children
TVs, clothes, larger & more convenient house
Consumption Comfortable lifestyle
Living standard for peo. at home:
Gov.'s spending on building schools, medical centers
Remittances sent home -
Fruit pickers, store cleaner, butcher,
Cheap labor supply for low-paid jobs that US citizens don't want -
Highly-educated peo. Development of science & technology
Economic growth
-
Restaurants, festivals (Charro Days Fiesta) of Mexican
community
Cultural enrichment -
Negative
impacts
Biologists immigrated to US Research quality in Mexico
Development of pharmaceutical industry
Brain drain: Lack of (qualified) workforce Difficult to attract
new industries & investment
-
2009: Construction projects
Easy to lose jobs in economic hardship
Fluctuation in exchange rate Remittances not
consistent
Migratory workers: -
Parents leave children for relatives at home Children not
raised properly Deviated personality development
-
5000 migrant deaths (2009)
Trying to come across border Deaths -
Depend on migratory low-skilled labors -
Especially in border areas: San Diego, El Paso
Pressure on social services (schools, hospitals) + Shanty
settlement of illegal immigrants
-
Drug trafficking, smuggling
Services of making faked IDs for illegal immigrants
Crime rate -
$1.2 bil paid for border security
Huge gov. spending on restricting illegal immigration -
Most US's foreign prisoners from Mexico Distrust of Mexico
employees
Discrimination -
INTERNATIONAL FORCED migration
(Syria )
Forces loyal to the Ba'ath Party gov. vs. Those seeking to oust it -
Conflict began: 15/03/2011 Nationwide uprising: 2012. -
Syrian civil war:
Origin (Syria) Destination (Neighboring countries)
Push/Pull
factors
Civil war:
Infrastructures ravaged heavily -
Dangers & threats everywhere -
26,000 killed, 1.5 mil internally displaced.
2000 schools damage.
Lack of food, water & shelters -
Jordan: Zataari refugee camp: 26000 peo (July, 2012).
Turkey: 78409 peo.
Safety, food & water -
Close to Syria & Similarity of language, culture. -
Negative
impacts
Father stays behind in hope of protecting property
Mother & children leave.
Broken family: -
100,000 Syrians left country
Children can't go to school.
Breakdown of society -
Breakdown of infrastructure -
Trade with EU, US, Japan is restricted
Great damage on Syrian economy -
40% Zataari camp (Jordan) has electricity.
Sand and dust storms Respiratory problems.
Children: traumatized, injured Need medical help
Huge pressure on infrastructure & health services Spread of
disease
-
Protest of refugees against tight security of Jordanian army
inside & outside camps
Conflicts between Syrian refugees & peo., gov. of destination
countries:
-
Positive
impacts
workforce, especially in jobs that only need temporary workers
INTERNAL migration
China: Rural Urban
Origin (Rural areas) Destination (Urban areas)
Push/
Pull
factors
Rural families has too little land to earn decent income
Low-paid agricultural jobs -
Less opportunities for employment in non-agricultural
sectors
-
Unable to support families (children, elders)
Prospect of higher paid jobs -
More employment opportunities -
Positiv
e
impact
s
Unemployment rate -
Pressure on infrastructure (electricity, housing, hospitals) -
Crime rate -
TVs, clothes, larger & more convenient house
Consumption Comfortable lifestyle
Have money to save
Remittances sent home Living standard for peo. at home: -
Cheap & Plenty labor supply Attract new industries &
investments Economic growth
-
Cultural diversity -
Negati
ve
impact
s
Lack of (qualified) workforce Difficult to attract new
industries & investment
-
2009: Construction projects
In economic hardship
Surplus labor supply Competitive
Migratory workers are hard to find jobs: -
Parents leave children for relatives at home Children not
raised properly Deviated personality development
-
Migrants adopt new lifestyle Deprivation of local culture -
Depend on migratory labors -
Demand in goods & services Price levels Living
standard of low-income peo.
-
Shangqiu, Henan: Urban pop: 171000 (1980) 1.65 mil (2005)
Quality of services (hospitals, schools)
Traffic congestion
Lack of sewage treatment, sanitation Pollution
Overcrowding Huge pressure on infrastructure: -
Crime rate -
Household registration system (hukou) prevent migrants
from receiving official welfare services outside their birthplaces
Social tensions
Gangs in Beijing are often from Henan Henan workers

are distrusted
Discrimination against some regional groups
Regional discrimination: -
Empowerment
Dramatic increase: Africa, Southern Asia, Latin
America
Small increase: Western & Eastern Asia

Slow, steady improvement in presentation of women in
national parliaments worldwide: 10% (1995) 17%
(2009)
-
Women: 40% in parliaments, 79% in paid
employment
Swedish social welfare system makes women easier

to combine family & professional life
Sweden: -
0.3% women in parliaments
Early marriage: No legal min. age for marriage
Many parents see investment in girls' education as
wasteful
Rural areas: Inadequate provision of educational

facilities for girls
Yemen: -
(Give someone control over their own life/situation)
Land tenure
1% women around the world have land ownership -
Few have legislation in place to assure women's access
to land
Mozambique, Niger,
Kenya: women have limited access to land
Even when women save up enough money to purchase
land, land is signed in their husband's name
African countries: -
Women physically weak Harder to protect land
Religious laws (especially Sariah law) & societal norms
Deny women right to acquire & inherit property
Reasons: -
Allow women to inherit land Provide secure source of
income & food from agriculture
-
(Way in which land rights, restrictions & responsibilities that
peo. have with respect to land are held)
Legal Rights
Muslin women can only get married with Muslim man
If a woman splits up with a man, she loses all her
properties to her man
Marriage & Divorce: Sharia Law:

Bahrain: judges have complete power to deny women
custody of their children for the most arbitrary reasons
Custody Right:
Husbands in Egypt, Bahrain, Syria can forbid their wives
form leaving the countries
Women in Iraq, Libya, Jordan need husband's permission

to travel abroad.
Rights to travel:
Indication: -
Most inequalities take place in Middle East & North Africa where
Islamis dominants.
-
Education
Male LR Female LR
Niger 42.9% 15.1%
India 73.4% 47.8%
Literacy rates: Male > Female (in developing countries)
Male LR Female LR
Niger 42.9% 15.1%
India 73.4% 47.8%
School life expectancy: Male > Female (in developing
countries)
Indication: -
Poverty: Girls are the first to be denied schooling when the
family is unable to support children's education
Make girl children to perform household & agriculture

chores
Cultural & Social traits: Discourage females to study
Early marriage & Family law: Prevent females from accessing
education services & move to higher education
Reason: -
Get jobs with stable income Lift families out of poverty
Participate in labour force Productivity Economic growth
Better education for women: -
Gender and change
Monday, May 13, 2013 9:21 PM
Birth ratio
China: 122: 100 (One child policy Prefer boy,
abort girl baby)
India: 108: 100 (Females need to give huge amount

of dowry to male's family when they get married)
Carry family name

Stronger physically
Support parents when they get old
Reason: Males -
(Ratio of Male: Female at birth)
Life expectancy & Health
Women are genetically stronger than men
Men are 67% more prone to smoke/drink than women
Affection of war
In most countries: Female E0 > Male E0: -
Girls receive less nutritious food & medical care
Pakistan: Women can't visit doctor without supervision
of guardians (men in family)
Women rights
Zimbabwe: women are much more likely to be infected
with HIV than men (result from rape, sex trafficking)
Sex trafficking & HIV/AIDS
Longer E0 of women doesn't mean they have better health.
Factors that affect women's health:
-
Index Def. Pros Cons Implications & Trends
Human
Developm
ent Index
(HDI)
Life expectancy -
Mean years of
schooling +
Expected years of
schooling
-
GNI/capita
(Purchasing Power
Parity)
-
HDIVietnam > HDIPakistan (same
income)
Composite indicator Reflect
level of human development
beside economic development
-
HDIFinland < HDISwitzerland
(1975), now same
Highlight successes of some
countries over time:
-
Environmental cost
Human rights
Gender inequality
Ignore: -
Unreliable, unavailable
data
-
Average Not show
internal disparities
-
US 0.910 ; China 0.687 ; Niger 0.295
Most regions: Steady improvements in HDI past 15
years.
-
Exception: Sub-Saharan Africa (HIV/AIDS + Conflicts) -
Adult
Literacy
Rate (LR)
% pop. < 15 years
old who can read &
write
Easy for intl. comparisons Not indicate level of
education
Low LR Impede economic development in the rapidly
changing, technology driven world
Education
Expenditur
e
% GDP spending on
education
Not reflect quality &
effectiveness of investment
in education
NZ: LR = 99% ; 6.1% GDP for edu.
Niger: LR = 28.7% ; 4.1% GDP for edu.
Strong investment in education Disparities, Income
levels
Infant
Mortality
Rate (IMR)
No. of deaths < 1
year old/1000 live
births
Indicator of level of health-care
system
High IMR are found in poorest countries -
Most causes of death in areas with high IMR are often
preventable
-
NZ 4.72 ; Japan: 2.21 ; Zimbabwe 28.23
Low IMR = water supply, sanitation, housing, nutrition,
basic health-care
-
Calorie
intake
Avg. no. of calories
consumed by
different age groups
Indicator of well-being & diet Ignore nutrient
consumption
10 mil die/year
3/4 in rural areas, 1/4 in shanty towns
815 mil hungry peo. in developing countries: -
1/5 hungry peo. are children 5 years old
Chronic hunger Delay/Stop physical & mental
growth
Children: -
Primary food producers
7/10 world's hungry are women & girls
Much more affected by hunger & poverty than men
(Cultural traditions)
Women: -
GDP/capit
a
GDP/Population Indicator of standard of living Can't fully show
disparities of wealth;
-
Can't show gov.
expenditure for education,
health-care.
-
NZ: $93 bil ; $27309.95/capita
Niger: $10 bil; $687.2/capita
Marginalization
ex. criminal with record, gay/lesbian, minority races, orphans,
illiterations, refugees,
Social process of being made marginal (relegated/confined to lower
social standing/outer edge of social)
Indicators of Development
Saturday, November 17, 2012 11:24 PM
Disparities in Wealth and Development Page 10
Origin of
Disparities
Ethnicity
Living in remote areas, illiteracy -
Difficulties in seeking education & job
opportunity.
-
Lower living standard -
Ethnic minorities:
Parental
Education
If parents are not educated, their
children will be less likely to be
educate.
Gov's spending on education
Disparities + Income level
Employment
(formal+informal)
Higher salaries -
Insured fully -
Better working
conditions
-
Formal labors:
Peo. who own large areas of land &
are ensured the security for those
areas are usually have more stable life
Differences in owned land area -
Security level of land -
Disparities due to:
Land tenure
Large majority of working
poor are informal non-
agricultural workers.
Live in high-value areas -
Gov.'s acquisition of land for construction
projects Face land tenure insecurity
-
Cambodia: Many poor communities
street-traders, illegal
immigrants,
Informal labor
Residence
32% world pop. are slum dwellers
78.2% urban pop. in LEDCs are slum dwellers
(2001)
First stopping point for
immigrants
-
High concentration of social &
economic deprivation, disease-
suffering, ...
-
Slums:
Incomes
China: subsistence farming: farmer just grow
enough for their life
Philippines: 4 years -
India: 7 years -
Gaps of educational year between richest & poorest
household in:
Education levels + Skills -
Rural & Urban areas -
Income gap due to:
Origin of Disparities
Saturday, November 17, 2012 10:17 PM
Trend in Education
Education Index (EI)= LR + Combined enrolment (primary,
secondary, tertiary)
(not necessarily rich countries)
High EI (0.933): Cuba, Australia
Since 1999: Number of children not attending school
33 mil
In developing countries & Western Asia, children out of
school 50%
EI Global trend: Increasing
Afghanistan: 0.198 (1980) 0.398 (2011) Abolition of
Taliban
-
Botswana: 0.446 (1980) 0.633 (2011) Free education +
Independent from UK (1966)
-
Rapid increase in EI:
Lesotho: 0.470 (1990) 0.450 (2011) -
Zimbabwe: 0.425 (1990) 0.347 (2005): Increased
school fee + Droughts + Consecutive economic crisis
-
Decrease in EI:
Trend in Life Expectancy
Aged 80+ are the fastest growing segment of many nations' pop.
Global trend: Increasing
Better housing: Safety & Warmth -
Better food supply Improvements in biological technology -
Great improvement of medical technology (organ transplant,
better medical facilities, )
-
Most world's children are immunized against 6 major
diseases of childhood
Better sanitation -
Stable Gov. Less conflicts, more stable life Death rate -
Intl. aids: UN, FAO, WHO Poor countries can access to
resources quickly and easily.
-
Reason for trend:
Drought Lack of water supply -
Desertification (overgrazing, overpopulation) Lack of food
supply
-
Disease: HIV/AIDS -
Civil wars -
1975-1995: 16 countries - total pop. 300 mil- experienced
decrease in life expectancy. Most of them were African.
Anomaly: Africa
Trend in incomes
Global trend: GDP, GDP/capita
Impact of financial globalization -
Weaker ability of domestic policies to enhance income
position of middle-class and low-income group.
-
Widening gap between richer and poorer households since
1990:
1990-2005: 2/3 countries experienced an increase in
income inequality.
Disparities and change
Sunday, November 18, 2012 2:47 PM
MDG Targets Overall statistics Work have been done
Eradicate
Extreme
Poverty
1. 1A: 50% peo. living
on < $1/day
-
1B: Achieve full,
productive
employment &
decent work for all,
including women
-
1C: 50% peo.
suffering from
hunger
-
Progress in many countries are being sustained -
Only 1A is met
East Asia: 60% 20%
Sub-Saharan Africa: 58% 51% (slightly)
Poverty rate, developing regions, 1990 - 2005:
46% 27%
-
% hunger peo.: 815 mil (1990) 1023 mil
(2009) 925 mil (2010) ( at unsatisfactory
face)
-
% underweight children < 5, 1990 - 2008, :
31% 26% (particular success in Eastern Asia,
notably China)
-
Vietnam's investment in agricultural research & development -
50% Prevalence of hunger: 28% (1991) 13% (2004)
Nigerias National Special Programfor Food Security 50%
agricultural yields & farmers incomes.
-
UNDP working with womens mango cooperative Give
women farmers right skills to grow products for export
2005 - 2008: Mango exports x6, avg. price $70/ton

Training programfor women in Mali: -
World Food Program (WFP): Provides food assistance to hungry,
especially in aftermath of natural disaster.
-
Achieve
Universal
Primary
Education
2. 2A: All children, boys
and girls alike, will be
able to complete a full
course of primary
schooling
Primary school enrollment, developing
regions: 83% (2000) 89% (2008)
-
Primary school drop-out in sub-Saharan
Africa: 30% (high)
-
Unlikely to be met:
Tanzania: 99.6% (2008)
Ethiopia: 79% (2008, 95% since 2000
School fee abolition in Ethiopia, Kenya Significant school
enrolment:
-
Egypts Food-for-Education (FFE) program: Construct girl
friendly, low-fee schools Encourage girls to attend
Girls receive female sheep upon completing education

level
Advocate ending child marriage

Ethiopia's "Berhane Hewan" program:
Keep girls in school
Promoting girl education in Egypt, Ethiopia: -
Improve
Maternal
Health
5. 5A: 75% maternal
mortality ratio.
5B: Achieve universal
access to
reproductive health.
North Africa: 70%
Southern & Western Asia: 50%.
% women seeing a skilled health worker at
least once during pregnancy:
-
Progress is still very slow
>80% maternal deaths are preventable when
there is access to adequate health services.
-
ODA for family planning, 2000 - 2008: 8.2%
3.2% Make target more difficult to be met.
-
> 28 countries integrated this issue into national policies
> 16000 women received fistula treatments
2003, UN Population Fund (UNFPA) launched the Campaign to
End Fistula (childbirth injury that leaves women incontinent &
ashamed)
-
2005, Pakistan: UNFPA-supported mobile clinics set up
Provide skilled birth attendance to 43% of pregnant women in
remote areas (12% higher than the national avg)
-
Uganda: Plan to promote qualified midwife training
Ghana: Assessment of all the midwifery schools Strengthen
training.
Program led by UNFPA & Intl. Confederation for Midwives is

active in Africa No. & capability of midwives:
-
Millennium Development Goal
Monday, March 17, 2014 12:15 AM
Method Def. Pros Cons
Trade
&
Market
access
Free trade: Exchange of goods & services
among countries without any barriers
(tariffs/quotas)
-
Trading blocs: Arrangement among
group of nations to allow free trade
between member countries but impose
tariffs on other countries who may wish
to trade with them.
-
Fair trade: Trade that attempts to be
socially, economically and environmentally
responsible
-
Tax revenue Spending on social welfare
90% catfish in US imported from Vietnam Many
farmers in Mekong Delta become rich
Standard of living Comfortable lifestyle
Mali, 2005 - 2008: UNDP help rural women grow
mango & export directly Mango exports x6, avg.
price $70/ton
Fair trade Revenue of small-scale farmers
Access to wealthy market Business & Domestic jobs in
MEDC's export sectors:
-
Employ local companies & Provide training Skill
levels of workforce, managerial capabilities
Technology transfer
Potential for long-term growth
Attract Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): -
Import Access to greater variety of products, sometimes at
lower price level
-
Limited numbers of trading partners/Heavy dependence on 1 partner
Vulnerable for economic development
-
Export low-value commodities & Import high-value machinery, materials
Trade deficit
Unemployment in MEDCs
EUs cocoa tariff: 9.7% (partially processed), 30.6% (fully processed)
Discourage LEDCs' farmers to move to higher valuable jobs
Protectionismmeasures Harder for LEDCs to trade & develop
Take over agricultural, low-skilled manufacturing jobs from MEDCs
LEDCs: -
LEDCs can't acquire new technology
Limited multiplier effect (most revenue earned by foreigner-owned
managerial roles)
Use low skilled labors with less training:

Environmental degradation
Workers exploited Living standard not improved
Take advantage of weak labor & environmental laws:
Concentrate in coastal, delta areas Disparities between regions
Multinational corporations (MNCs): -
Aid Intl. aid: Voluntary transfer of resources
from 1 country to another
-
Humanitarian aid: Alleviate short-term
suffering caused by natural disasters, wars
-
Development aid: Alleviate poverty in
long run & Improve welfare of individuals
-
Official Development Assistance (ODA):
Development aid provided by gov. on
concessional term
-
Tied aid: Given under condition that
funds are used to buy goods & services
from donor country
-
Humanitarian aid -
Schools, hospitals, watering system Welfare
Roads, bridges Development in remote areas
Develop infrastructures: -
Narrowly targeted to specific objectives
Involves locals in the decision-making process
Train locals skills to work for project
Aid with bottom-up approach: -
Develop much deeper understanding of the issues
Attack poverty directly + Sustainable development
Tied aid No extra employment/output -
Sierra Leone: Bumbuna hydroelectric power was built without upgrading
national wiring system Wasteful
Failed large infrastructure projects
Germany suspended payment of 200 mil to Global Fund against AIDS &
malaria, following corruption claims in Mali, Mauritania, Zambia
Private bank accounts of corrupt politicians
Given to countries with corrupt/ineffective gov.: -
Niger: China investment in oil extraction
Focus on modern sector, industrialization Income inequality between
industrial sector & traditional agricultural sectors
-
Self-reliance Long-term growth -
Exert political & economic pressure Aid not used effectively Corruption -
Debt
relief
Partial/total remission of debts owed by
developing countries to external creditors.
-
30 countries in Africa
Aim: Debt burdens in poor
countries below unmanageable level
Poverty Reduction Strategy

Good performance in poverty
reduction over time
Conditions for debt relief:

1996: Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
(HIPC) Initiative:
-
2005: Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative
(MDRI): Supplement HIPC Initiative
-
Tanzania: Eliminate school fees & build more schools
Primary school enrollments 98%
Burkina Faso: Drastically cost of life-saving drugs

Spending on debt-servicing Spending on health &
education (avg x5 Debt servicing)
-
Gov. & Economic efficiency
Cost of essential imports (machinery, fuel, fertilisers)
Not address core issue: -
WB, IMF: >1/2 countries in HIPC & MDRI at risk of returning to unsustainable
debt level
Motivate countries to continue borrow heavily
Not prevent recurrence of problem
HIPC only relieved debt to WB IMF, African Development Bank
Asian Asian Development Bank
Latin American Inter-American Development Bank
Not all sources of debt are relieved: -
Private sectors (households, business) borrow more than public sectors
Fragmentation of debt creditors Difficult to manage debt
-
Remitt
ances
Global remittances: $170 bil (2002)
$318 bil (2007) (x2 Foreign aid)
Transfer of money/goods by foreign
workers to home countries
Up to 40% of remittances to Africa are destined
for rural areas
Comfortable lifestyle (TVs, clothes, larger & more
convenient house)
Living standard for peo. at home: -

Remittances to Mexico: 0.2% GDP, $16 bil, stable
during 2009 economic crisis
Gov.'s spending on building schools, medical centers -
Remittances sent directly to family
Biologists immigrated to US Research quality in Mexico Development
of pharmaceutical industry
Brain drain: Lack of (qualified) workforce Difficult to attract new investment in
origin countries
-
Mexican in US, 2009: Construction projects
Easy to lose jobs in economic hardship
Fluctuation in exchange rate Remittances not consistent
Foreign workers: -
Parents leave children for relatives at home Children not raised properly
Deviated personality development
-
Reducing disparities
Atmospheric system
Energy balance: Solar - Long wave radiation
35% reflected back to space
19% absorbed by atmospheric
46% absorbed by earth's surface 7% reflected
back
Incoming solar radiation: -

8% lost to space
22% lost by evaporation & condensation
Clouds absorb & reradiate some back to earth
Small amount of conduction occurs
Energy received by earth is reradiated at long
wavelength:
-
Heat gained by atmosphere from the ground = 39% -
External forcing
11 year cycle of intensity of solar energy released
Small variations in earth's orbit Affect seasonal &
latitudinal distribution of solar radiation
Changes in solar radiation: -

Albedo (A): Degree of reflectivity of a surface
Radiation absorbed (AVegetation cover > ASoil)
Photosynthesis CO2 Energy trapped by
atmosphere
Deforestation, desertification:
Melting ice caps: AEarth drastically (AWhite snow = 95%,
highest) Radiation absorbed
Changes in albedo of atmosphere: -

Allow incoming radiation
Stop some outgoing radiation released & Reflect back
Radiation absorbed
Greenhouse gas (natural process):

Reflect, scatter & absorb more insolation
Keep some outgoing radiation
Cloud cover:
Radiation absorbed
Changes in longwave radiation returned to space: -
Global climate change
Rainfall & temp.
Sea level
Habitats
Incidence of droughts, floods & storms
Changes in global patterns of -
Resulting from changes in earth's atmosphere -
Believed to be mainly caused by enhanced
greenhouse effect
-
Causes: Enhanced greenhouse effect (caused by human)
Greenhouse
gas
Situation Sources | Effects
CO2 Concentration: 315
ppm (1950) 355
ppm (2010)
Human activities (fossil fuels
burning, deforestation)
CH4 1%/anum Cattle raising
CFCs 6%/anum Absorb reradiated longwave -
10000x more efficient at
trapping heat than CO2
-
Consequences
Mekong Delta, Bangladesh (densely populated)
Rising sea levels: Global temp. Ices in poles will
melt more Water in ocean Loss of land
-
Polar bear, coral reefs
Loss of biodiversity: Temp. + Sea levels Some
plants & animals will lose habitats forever Extinct
-
South of Sahara Desert ( Pop.)
Droughts & Famine: Temp. Arid (in some
areas) Water shortages + Crop failure
-
Cons
Arctic navigation: Arctic ice Navigation across
North Pole will be safer & quicker Trade between
Scandinavia, Russia, Canada will be easier
-
Agricultural land: Permafrost melts Land
Crop
-
Greenland, Alaska, Siberia
Resource accessibility (oil, gas, metals) -
Pros
Atmosphere and change
Sunday, April 14, 2013 9:31 PM
Patterns in Environmental quality - Sustainability Page 15
Soil
degradation
General knowledge Case study: Loess Plateau, China
Definition
Wind erosion (when soil structures are broken up) -
Sheet erosion (removal of surface soil to even depth over wide area)
Gully erosion: (when run-off becomes sufficiently concentrated)
Water erosion: -
Biological degradation (loss of humus, plant, animal) -
Chemical degradation (acidification, salinization & chemical toxicity) -
The decline in quantity and quality of soil, including:
Causes
12 mil km
2
worldwide
Overgrazing: Make ground susceptible to wind & water erosion -
Over-cultivation: Intensive farming + No fallow periods All nutrients will
get used.
-
Deforestation: Soil nutrients + Land stability (root system is removed) -
Fertilizer and pesticide use: Can crop yields, but chemical pollution in long-
run
-
Unsustainable use of aquifers/rivers: Water is used up Arid -
Industrial pollution: Chemical pollutants leaked from industrial processes
Chemical degradation, dangerous for farming
-
Human causes:
Global temp.: Vegetation cover + Risk of erosion -
Flash floods Top soil erosion -
Flat land: Wind > Water erosion
Hill land: Water > Wind erosion
Topography: Affect degree of vulnerability -
Physical causes:
Trees were felled, many forest disappears
Crops were planted on steep slopes
Vegetation was extensively grazed by livestock
Human came to the region without understanding of the impact on complex
ecological balance & caused eco-system collapse:
Desertification
Environmental
consequences
Surface runoff + Stream discharge
Water infiltration & groundwater recharge
Development of erosional gullies & sand dunes
Topsoil erosion: -
Desertification: Soil degraded Nutrients Can't support vegetation -
Dust storms: Soil stable Lack of vegetation More vulnerable to wind erosion
Large scale dust storms.
-
No vegetation cover 95% rainwater runs off Stripping top soil -
Periods of intensive rain & drought frequent. -
Soil particles are transported thousands of miles Impact human health
Dust storms in north East Asia
No soil protection from wind: -
Socio-
economic
consequences
Lack of farm productivity Hunger & Malnutrition -
Rural unemployment -
Migration -
Poverty trap: Peo. suffered successive floods, droughts & famine -
Rural pop. of the region continued to live with only a small amount & food
and money in an increasingly marginalized land.
-
Management
strategies used
to control
MECHANICAL METHODS: Prevent/Slow movement of rainwater downslope
Slope is broken up into a series of flat steps, with bunds at the edge
Prevent or slow the downward accretion of soil & water.
Allow areas to be cultivated that would not otherwise be suitable

Terracing: -
Shelter belts of trees/hedgerows: Wind Barrier Prevent wind erosion -
CROPPING TECHNIQUES:
Maintain crop cover as long as possible -
Keep in place stubble & root structure of crop after harvesting -
Plant grass crop (grass roots bind the soil, minimize erosion due to wind & rain) -
MANAGING SALT/CHEMICAL AFFECTED SOILS:
Flush soil & Leach salt away -
Use chemicals, (calcium sulphate) Replace sodium ions on clay & colloids with
calcium ones
-
Ask rural communities to give up traditional, unsustainable
agricultural practices
Training, technology transfer

Research program to tackle soil & water conservation.
Carry out:
1994: World Bank, Chinese gov. & other donor agencies: -
270,000ha of trees & grasses on degraded lands Stabilize soil
72,346 ha terraces
Create: -
Sediment control dams Soil quality Valuable farmland
Small dams Harvest rainwater
Build: -
STRATEGIES:
Promote new jobs: Raise sheep & goats with cut-&-carry fodder -
Profitable timber was produced -
Grain yields on terraces x2 in avg. year -
Within 10 years: Local peo.'s income x4 + Food security -
RESULTS:
Soil and change
Saturday, April 13, 2013 5:17 PM
Physical water scarcity Economic water scarcity
Def. When water resource is at/approaching unsustainable level -
Relates to water demand & Imply that arid areas are not necessarily
water scarce
-
A condition where economic/institutional/human restraints limit access
to water
-
Water is available locally but not accessible to everyone -
Environ
mental
factors
affected
Arid & Semi-arid area: Low rainfall, rivers seasonally dry up -
Canada: 0.5% world's pop., 20% world's fresh water supply
China: 21% world's pop., 7% world's fresh water supply
Uneven distribution of world's available fresh water supply: -
Many LEDCs are located in arid areas of Asia & Africa
Human
factors
affected
Pop. growth Fresh water available/Person -
Flush toilets, washing machines,
Domestic: Income Wealthier lifestyle
Industrial: Metal processing, mining use huge amount of water
Agricultural
Demand: -
Only 1% of world's irrigation system
Drip systems (expensive initial cost): Use much less than spray
system
60-75% in LEDCs
Loss of irrigated water through leakage, evaporation
Ineffective water infrastructure: -
Agriculture: Fertilizer, pesticide
Industrialization: Heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants
Pollution: -
Significant problem in many Asian countries: 50% domestic water
supplies come from groundwater
Groundwater depletion: Take out > Recharge Aquifers suffer from
salinization Too salty for human use
-
Latin America: 2% sewage receives treatment
Urbanization Local authorities unable to maintain water
infrastructure Rivers = Open sewers + No water sanitation
-
Major cities in India, Mexico, Thailand
Piped systemdon't meet quality criteria Peo. rely on
(expensive) bottled water
Port-au-Prince, Haiti: Unconnected (forced to purchase from

mobile vendors): $11/m
3
> Connected: $1/m
3
Poor households are usually not connected to (low-priced)
public water system
Underdeveloped water infrastructure: -

Ornamental water (Uzbekistan's capital - desert area)
Use of water for non-essential purposes, even in places with
water scarcity:
Hydroelectric power plants in Ba Rivers, Vietnam

Hydroelectric dams: Building dams, storing water inadequately
Water scarcity in downstream areas
Mismanagement: -
WATER USE
Current Future (2025)
1/2 world's wetlands
have disappeared
Water tables in many

region are being
depleted
World's pop. x3; Water use

x6:
-
Irrigation: 70%
Industries: 20%
Domestic: 10%
Total: 3700 km
3
/year -
Total: 4772 km
3
(22% ) -
Livestock raising: 71% ( Meat
consumption)
Domestic, industries & livestock use:
62%
-
Urbanization
Many arable lands are already being
farmed
Irrigation: 4% (slow growth): Area of

land used for cultivation is expected to
grow very slowly
-
ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER
Safe drinking water: Bacterial + Chemical + Physical
characteristics that meet WHO guidelines/National
standard for drinking water quality.
-
Source of water < 1kmaway from the place
where it'll be used
Possible to obtain 20l/household member/day

on a reliable basis.
Access to safe drinking water: -

Water usage and change
CASE STUDY: Water supply in Singapore
Land has been cleared for housing industries -
Growth of pop. & industry -
High-tech manufacturing industries requires large amount
of water for their industrial processes.
-
Increasing wealth + Change in lifestyle Use water at
increasing rate
-
Problems: Physical water scarcity
Solution: 'Four national Taps Strategy' by Public Utilities
Board (PUB)
Tap 1: Water from local catchment
areas
14 water reservoirs -
2009, Marina Barrage Local
water catchment areas: 1/2
2/3 island area.
-
Collect rainwater
Channel them to
reservoirs
Stormwater collection ponds

in some housing estates:
-
However, land is also needed
for roads, houses & industries
-
Tap 2: Imported water
2 water agreements with Malaysia,
expire in 2011 & 2061
-
40% water supply, but decreasing -
Agreements can expire & many
not be renewed
Rising price of imported water

Malaysia can threaten the
supply to put pressure on
political issues.
Not the best solution to increasing

water supply:
-
Tap 3: NEWater
Recycle water -
3 NEWater
plants
-
Tap 4: Desalinated water
Use reverse osmosis method to
treat sea water
-
10% water supply -
High cost of building & operating,
but expected to as technology
improves
-
Policies & Campaigns to conserve water supply
Impose water conservation tax
Discourage excessive use of water
-
'Save Water' campaigns , water
conservation talks Raise awareness of
water conservation
-
BIODIVERSITY IN THE BRAZILLIAN AMAZON
RAINFOREST
Rainforest, desert, grassland, tundra
Biome: World's total collection of a particular
type of vegetation community together with
the fauna associated with it
-
Biodiversity: A measure of how much variety
there is in the life forms found in biome
-
IMPORTANCE OF TROPICS
50% world's species in just 7% world's land
Rich area for biodiversity -
Vast store of water
Amazon: 20 bil tons of water/day
Air-conditioners: Releasing vast amounts of water
into atmosphere
Hormone contraceptive pill, anti-malaria drug

Medical remedies:
Rainforests: -
CAUSE FOR LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Deforestation Example
Clearing for
cattle pasture
1966-1975: 38% deforestation to large-scale cattle ranching -
1990-2001: Speed (Brazilian meat export ) -
Subsistence
agriculture
Encouraged to settle on forest lands by gov. land policies
Use fire for clearing land
Poor farmers: -
Every day: tens of thousands of fires burning -
Infrastructure
improvements
Provide access to logging, mining site, exploration of poor
landless farmers
-
Brazil's Trans-Amazonian Highway (bisect forest, for eco.
development): Accelerate deforestation
-
Commercial
agriculture
Brazil: Largest soybean exporter -
Deforestation along BR-163 road (paved highway) for soybean
production
-
Logging For fuelwood, building material & temporary agricultural land -
Sept 2003: 17 arrested for cutting 1000 ha timber
Widespread illegal logging -
CONSEQUENCES
Trans-Amazonian highway: unstable & subject to
inundation during heavy rains
Less water re-evaporates from vegetation Recycling
of water diminishes Annual rainfall + Seasonality
of rainfall
-
Disrupt closed systemof nutrient cycling within tropical
rainforest
-
Wash away finer particles of clay & humus,
Leave behind the coarser land
Amazon: Harvest yields in cleared rainforests are
dismal since forest soils are quickly exhausted, and
new forest had to be cleared annually
Soil erosion: -
Higher flood peak, shorter time lag
Dry season: Lower river levels, greater turbidity
Rivers: -
SOLUTION TO SAVE AMAZON
Solution Detail
Rehabilitation Replant forest (only possible when parts of original forest still remain & few pop. pressure) -
Attract some species to return -
New forest can be used for: Sustainable harvest of forest products, Low intensity logging & Ecotourism -
Increase
productivity of
formerly forested
lands
Non-plowing farming
Enrich the rainforest soil with method of ancient Amazonians (animal bones)
"Terra preta" soil: Absorb CO2.
Technology High yield crops:
Expansion of
protection areas
Prioritize areas for protection -
Ensure sufficient enforcement agencies & funding -
They understand more about forest
Locals must be made both partners & beneficiaries in conservation
Encourage involvement of locals: -
Policy reform & Law
enforcement
Eliminate tax incentives & land policies which encourages conversion of forest to pasture. -
Brazil Environmental Protection Agency only collects 6.5% of fines it imposes
Funding & Strictness for Brazil Environmental Protection Agency -
Biodiversity and change
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Meeting needs of present without compromising ability of future
generations to meet their needs
-
Keeping pop. densities below region's carrying capacity
Facilitating renewal of renewable resources
Conserving & establishing priorities for use of non-renewable
resources
Keeping environmental impact below level required to allow

affected systems to recover & continue to evolve
Encompass: -
NAMIBIA's COMMUNAL CONSERVANCY PROGRAM
14% country area (11.9 mil ha), 230000 rural dwellers (2007)
Successful community-based natural resource management:
Wildlife numbers & Poverty
Legal common property resource management
organization
Built around rural communities' willingness to work

collectively
Free to choose diverse strategies for wildlife

management & distributing benefits
Use rights: hunt, capture, cull, sell 'huntable game'

Establish communal conservancies: -
Incentives to protect valuable resources
Gov. roles: Determine overall culling rate & quotas for trophy
hunting
-
Namibian Community-based Tourism Association:
Help communities negotiate income-sharing agreements
with tourism companies
Multi-disciplinary Research Centre: Provides training &

materials
Cooperation between different institutions: -

Communities' land management skill & income
Strategies Results
North-west conservancies, 1982 - 2000: Elephant x2,
mountain zebra x10
Significant in numbers of wildlife after decades of : -
Managing campsites
Selling wildlife & crafts
Diversification of economic activities (besides
subsistence-level farming practices):
-
Employment & Income
20000km
2
(1998) 100000km
2
(2005)
Rapid expansion of total land area under management: -
Environmental Sustainability
Tuesday, July 02, 2013 9:01 AM
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
UAE (15.99), US (12.22), Denmark (9.88)
Bangladesh (0.6), Namibia (0.66)
Theoretical measurement of amount of land & water a
pop. requires to produce resources it consumes & to
absorb its waste, under prevailing technology
Considered factors
Arable land -
Pasture land -
Forests (fuels, furniture, buildings, ecosystem services
(climate stability, erosion prevention))
-
Oceans (marine products: fish, ) -
Infrastructure (transportation, factories, housing) -
Energy costs (absorbing CO2) -
Ignored factors
Economic/Political/Cultural factors (welfare) -
Deep oceans, deserts, high mountains
78% earth surface deemed to lack biocapacity -
Depletion of non-renewable resources -
Rainforest clear-cutting
Unsustainable management of biosphere -
Forestry's pharmaceutical potential
True use & exchange value of different land types -
Other greenhouse gases (CH4, CFC, )
Waste in land, water
Other waste types besides CO2: -
Data accuracy: Error margin 20~30% -
RELATIONSHIP: POPULATION SIZE vs. RESOURCE CONSUMPTION
Neo-Malthusian view Anti-Malthusian view
Viewpoi
nt
Pop. growth surpasses resource availability, limiting economic
development
-
Pop. ceiling: Saturation level where pop. = local environment's
carrying capacity
-
Pop. growth naturally leads to development -
Carrying capacity will as pop. -
Represe
ntative
Pop. & agri. production grow exponentially, until diminishing
resource base forces industrial production to slowdown
-
Rate of technological innovation only grows arithmetically. -
Sudden & uncontrollable in pop. & industrial
capabilities
If present trends continue, limits to growth (physical (food, fuels) +
social (stability, education) necessities) will be reached in the next
100 years
-
Abstinence/Delaying marriage
Preventive checks: Human fertility
Famine, war, disease
Positive checks: Mortality
Checks are natural way of controlling excessive pop. growth: -
Limits to Growth model (1970)
Examining different land-use systems & their
production intensity When higher yields were
needed for pop., fallow reduction & increased
cropping frequency occur
Pop. growth stimulated change in agricultural
techniques More food could be produced.
-
Resource substitution will overcome resource
depletion
-
Esther Boserup's model (1965)
Limitati
ons
During industrial revolution, agricultural production grew at rapid rate
(> arithmetic rate), exceeding rate of pop. growth
-
Discovery of new resources/new users of resources -
Pop. & Resources (People & Resources don't always coincide)
Agricultural & Industrial activities
Pollution
Spatial distribution of: -
Based on closed community (no migration) -
Migration occurs in over-populated areas to pressure -
Overpopulation can lead to unsuitable farming methods,
degrading land No technological innovation &
development
-
Patterns of Resource Consumption
Patterns in Resource consumption Page 21
OIL PRODUCTION
89 mil barrels/day (2012) -
Middle East (40% share of oil market, )
Europe & Eurasia (17%, stable)
North America (14%, slight )
Biggest producers: -
Most of biggest fields have already peaked
Declining rate 6.7%, nearly x2 the pace calculated in 2007
Intl. Energy Agency (IEA)'s assessment of >800 oil fields in the
world, 3/4 global oil reserves (2009):
-
IEA: 2013 - 2037
US Geological Survey: 2059
Varied estimations:
Reasons: Oil fields' size is national security issue No
accurate information provided
Peak oil: Time when max. oil extraction is reached & after that oil
extraction will
-
SEAL-11 exploration blocks (Brazil, 2013): 3 bil barrels
Africa:
French TOTAL: Exploration drilling in South Africa
Chinese firms: $10 bil, Nigeria
New investment & discovery:
Gas-to-liquids, Tar sands (Canada)
Unconventional oil extraction:
Russia boost military presence in Arctic in response to
Canadian claim in North Pole
Claims of sovereignty in potentially resource-rich locations
Current projects: -
Reliance on Middle East
OIL CONSUMPTION
87 mil barrels/day (2012) -
China: 9.33 mil barrels/day
Asia-Pacific (dramatic )
US: 19.18 mil barrels/day
North America (slight )
Europe & Eurasia (slight )
Biggest consumers: -
Oil consumption is "patently unsustainable", with expected
demand far outstripping supply
4 Saudi Arabias to maintain production

6 Saudi Arabias to keep up with expected demand
until 2030
Even if demand steady, the world have to find the equivalent of:
IEA's assessment of world's major oil fields (2009): -
IMPORTANCE OF OIL
Economic development
Fuel, transportation, heating, raw materials in plastic
& fertilizer industry.
Smooth functioning of almost every aspect of society
Critical for: -
Oil price Production cost Make recovery of global
economy slow & fragile
-
OIL PRICE & GEOPOLITICAL TENSIONS
12 members, 40% global oil supply
Strongly influences crude oil price
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): -
demand, especially by NICs
reserves
Geopolitical development: Countries such as Venezuela, Iran,
Russia use oil resource to their economic power
Terrorist activities
Energy insecurity has arisen due to: -
Geopolitical tension Vulnerable oil price & supply
American-led invasion led to loss of oil production
Oil production (barrel/day): 6 mil (mid-2002) <2
(mid-2003) 1 mil (mid-2004)
Oil price ($/barrel): 30 (2003) 40 (2004)

2003 Iraq War:
Israel attacked Lebanon Tension in Middle East
Oil price ($/barrel): 60 78
2006 Lebanon conflict:
1970 - 2008: crude oil price has up to $139/barrel from only few
$/barrel:
-
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES:
Avg. 100 mil tons of oil/day transported around the world -
Explosion ripped through oil rig
2 days later: Rig sank, oil poured out into the sea at rate
of 62000 barrels/day
160km coastlines were affected, including oyster

beds & shrimp farms
Many animals were killed: 153 dolphins, 2200 birds

Consequences:
Deepwater Horizon oil spill (2010):
Inevitably, some of this oil leaks/spills into the sea Pollution -
Burning of fossil fuels Enhanced greenhouse effect Global
warming
-
Oil
Monday, December 30, 2013 11:52 PM
Energy source Patterns & Trends Advantages Disadvantages Example
Biofuel
(Biological
matter
Energy)
amounts of cropland have been used
to produce biofuel
-
90% total biofuel produced (most
common), particularly in Brazil &
USA (87.9% world total)
Production in EU & China is

growing significantly.
Ethanol: -
Investment for 2
nd
generation
biodiesel (algae, cellulosic diesel)
Larger plants & producers.

Current trends: -
Biodiesel can be
used in any diesel
engine when
mixed (up to 15%)
with mineral diesel
Can be blended with
petrol & diesel
-
Buy time for more
renewable energy to be
developed
Cheap -
Can be grown locally -
Still release greenhouse
gases.
-
Deforestation Grow crops
for energy generation
-
Crops are used for energy
production Food prices
-
Maize turned into ethanol: 15 mil tons (2001)
85 mil tons (2007)
Target: Use of biofuels to 35 bil gals

Objective: Replace 15% imported oil with
domestically produced ethanol
USA -
EU: Biodiesel is the most common biofuel produced
(63% global production).
-
Nuclear power
(Exothermic
nuclear process
Useful heat &
electricity)
Very efficient at manufacturing
plutonium fuel from original
uranium fuel load
Could be disastrous if plutonium

(key ingredient for nuclear
weapons) in wrong hands
New technology: fast-breeder reactor: - Technology already

exists
-
Plentiful supply of
uranium (enough to last
hundreds of years)
-
Release very low
amount of greenhouse
gases
-
Power plant accidents
Radiation into air, land, sea
-
Transporting nuclear
material & waste is risky &
expensive (nuclear material
can be stolen by terrorists)
-
Limited life period
Expensive
decommission cost
Nuclear power stations: -

Health issue: Living near
nuclear power stations risk
of cancers
-
103 operating reactors, 20% electricity
After 1979 Three Mile Island disaster, no new
nuclear plants have been ordered.
USA: -
64 reactors, 30% electricity
After 2011 Daiichi nuclear disaster, most
nuclear power plants were closed.
Japan: -
France: 78% electricity -
15 operating reactors
8 more under construction
India: -
Wind power
(Wind Move
wind turbine
Drive generator
Create
Electricity)
Germany: 23.6% (highest)
Global wind energy capacity is
approaching 100000MW:
-
Today costs are only 10% of 20
years ago
More countries is expanding into this
sector as cost of wind energy improves
further against conventional energy
-
Clean & finite energy Visual pollution -
Noise pollution (Turbines'
disturbing hum)
-
Wind is unreliable -
Hard to store surplus
energy
-
Turbines can kill bird -
100 turbines
Max. output of 300MW
Sufficient to supply 240000 homes
Most turbines will be active 70-85% of the time
Thanet Offshore Wind Farm, UK:
Hydroelectric
power
(Build dam
Use falling
water Drive
generator
Electricity)
China (18.5%)
Canada (11.7%)
Countries with largest share of world
total hydroelectricity:
Clean & finite energy
(if rivers are managed
properly)
-
Dam prevents flooding -
Reservoir can store
water Useful in dry
periods
-
Limited number of suitable
rivers
-
Reservoirs may force
resettlement
-
Large land areas may be
flooded to form reservoir
-
Aquatic life
Water quality
Submerging large
forests without prior
clearance can release
significant amount of
CH4
Damage environment: -
26 turbines, 18000MW annually
Three Gorge Dam, Yangtse River, China:
China's dependence on oil & coal -
Protect 10 mil residents downstreamfrom risk
of flooding
-
Navigation: Large boat can go upstream
further Promote economic development
-
Construction, operation & maintenance
Thousands of jobs created
-
Pros:
1.3 mil people had to be resettled to lest
fertile areas.
-
Seismically active area Risk of dam failure -
Silting Quickly Project's efficiency -
Damage aquatic life: Yangtze giant sturgeon
can't reach its breeding grounds.
-
Cons:
Other energy resources
Tuesday, December 31, 2013 10:52 PM
Activity Def. How Pros Cons
Conserva
tion
Using less of
a resource
-
Using a
product
multiple
times
-
Limit amount of fish different countries are
allowed to catch
-
Calculated each Dec by EU Council of
Fisheries, based on historical declining fishing
catches
-
Each EU country has responsibility to ensure
the quotas are being met
-
* EU Fishing Quotas:
Plastic bottles Flower pots
Nylon bags
Container Mobile housing
* Reuse of items:
North Sea cod: 4 mil ton
(1950s) 740000 ton (1980s)
Help protect endangered species
Ensure continued biodiversity
of ocean
-
Fishing pop. is sustained Ensure
long-term development of
fishing industry
-
More energy efficient than
recycling
* Reuse of items:
Fishermen, ship technicians lose job (but
EU paid compensation to unemployed
fishermen)
Coastal settlements lose principle

function Deprivation
Fish price Affect low-income people

Fish supply & consumption: -
Fish (dead + alive) thrown overboard to meet
quotas Ineffective
-
Modern technologies required to produce
reusable items
* Reuse of items:
Waste
reductio
n
Reduce
amount of
waste
produced
-
Using less of
a resource
-
EU: 6%, Japan: 7%
Legal binding targets: all MEDCs cut CO2
emissions to 1990 level by 2008-12
* Intl. scale: Kyoto agreement (1997)
"Think globally, act locally" -
Turn off unneeded lights & TV
Don't leave computer on permanently
Cycle/Walk instead of driving
Blueprint of actions for all citizens that would
benefit globally:
-
* Local scale: Agenda 21 (UN Action plan related
to sustainable development)
2007: Australian signed agreement
after 10 years
* Intl. scale: Kyoto agreement
Very easy to do -
Change people's consumption
habit in long-term
-
* Local scale: Agenda 21:
Expire in 2012 -
No new legally binding agreement.
No targets for emissions.
2009 Copenhagen climate change talks -
USA, 25% world's CO2 emission: voluntary
targets
-
Even if greenhouse gas production is cut
60-80%, there's still enough greenhouse gas to
temp. by 5
o
C
-
* Intl. scale: Kyoto agreement
Waste
recycling
Processing of
waste
Materials can
be reused
2 green (paper, plastic, glass, metals),
collected every week Get crushed,
melted Reused
1 brown (organic waste), collected

alternate weeks Used for compost
1 black (other waste)

All households were give 4 bins: -
All supermarkets were set up with recycling
centers (paper, glass, plastics, metals)
-
Central recycling centers (dangerous
recyclable waste: oil, rubble)
-
Pupils were educated the importance of
recycling
-
Lichfield, UK:
Plastics made from crude oil
50% waste recycled Save resources -
Soil degradation (much waste
doesn't decompose easily)
Groundwater depletion (toxic

chemicals leak from waste)
Landfill (burying of waste in big pits): -

Cost of recycling High price of products made
from recycled materials Affect low-income
people
-
PCs are placed in baths of acid to strip metals
Environmentally unfriendly &Energy inefficiency: -
Substitut
ion
Using one
resource
rather than
another
China's dependence on oil & coal
China's Three Gorge Dam
Conservation strategies
Monday, December 30, 2013 11:53 PM
Term Definitions
Disaster A major hazard event that causes widespread disruption to a community/region that the
affected community is unable to deal with adequately without outside help.
Hazard A threat (natural or human) that has the potential to cause loss of life, injury, property
damage, socio-economic disruption or environmental degradation.
Hazard event The occurrence (realization) of a hazard, the effects of which change demographic, economic
and/or environment conditions.
Risk The probability of a hazard event causing harmful consequences (expected losses in terms
of deaths, injuries, property damages, economy and environment)
Vulnerability The susceptibility of a community to a hazard or to the impacts of a hazard event.
Characteristics of Hazards What does it mean?
Magnitude
Beaufort Scale (wind speed for hurricanes), Richter Scale (earthquake)
Size of the event
Frequency How often an event of a certain size occurs
The larger the event, the less frequent it occurs
Duration
seconds, hours, decades, ...
Length of time that an environment hazard exists
Areal extent Size of the area covered by the hazard
Spatial
concentration/dispersion
tectonic plate boundaries, coastal location, valleys, ...
Distribution over space, whether they are concentrate in certain areas.
Speed of onset
Rapid (earthquake) Slow-time scale (drought)
Time difference between the start and the peak of the event.
Regularity Cyclones are regular and seasonal
Earthquakes are much more random
Overview of Natural Disasters & Hazards
Monday, November 26, 2012 9:34 PM
Disasters and Hazards Page 25
Hazard Earthquake Hurricane Drought
Def. Sudden, violent shaking of the earth's surface -
Focus: Place beneath the ground where
earthquake takes place
-
Epicenter: Point on ground surface immediately
above focus
-
Intense hazards that bring heavy rainfall, strong
winds, high waves
Extended period of dry weather leading to extremely dry
conditions
Duratio
n
Few seconds (Powerful aftershocks can affect for
long time after main earthquake)
3 - 5 day Several months Year
Frequen
cy
Magnitude Frequent Jul - Oct: Atlantic, Pacific, North of equator -
Nov - Mar: South of equator, off Australia, Indian -
Period of 7-10 years
Speed of
onset
Few seconds 1 day
Spatial
extent
Associated with plate boundaries: Destructive/
Collision/ Constructive/ Conservative margins
-
Along center of Atlantic Ocean between
African & American plates
Around Pacific Ocean at the edge of the

Pacific plate.
Clear line of earthquake -

Nuclear testing, building large dams, drilling
for oil
Some caused by human activities -
Atlantic -
Eastern & Western Pacific -
Australian coast -
Indian Ocean -
Subtropical high-pressure belt: Main cause of aridity around
20
o
- 30
o
N
-
Continentality: Areas far from sea Limited amount of
water carried across by winds.
-
Atacama, Namib deserts
Near cold offshore currents: Limit amount of
condensation into overlying air
-
Patagonian desert
On mountain side facing away from ocean (Rain shadow
effect): Wind can't bring moisture from ocean
-
Deforestation Desertification.
Caused by human activities -
Magnitu
de
Most widely used
Describe typical effects of earthquakes near
epicenter
Richer Scale: 1 12 -
Greater magnitude
More aftershocks
Shallow-focus earthquake
Closer to epicenter
*NOTES:
Greater damage
5 categories, distinguished by intensities of
hurricane's sustained wind
Atlantic Ocean
Northern Pacific Ocean, East of Intl Date
Line
Only describe hurricanes in:

Provide indication of potential damage &
flooding hurricane will cause
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale (SSHS): -

Scale for measuring wind speeds
Most widely used system to measure wind
speed
Based on observation rather than accurate

measurement.
12 levels, 0 for "no wind"

Beaufort Scale: -
No worldwide standardized index -
0: Normal
> 0: Rainfall (2: Moderate; 3: Severe, )
< 0: Drought (2: Moderate; )
Use temperature & rainfall information:
Can be standardized to local climate
Effective in determining long term drought (months
years)
Palmer Index, US: -

Change considerably weekly Respond more rapidly
than Palmer Index
Effective in calculating short-term abnormal dryness or

wetness
Crop Moisture Index (CMI), US: -

Semi-arid: < 500mm/annum
Arid: < 250mm/annum
Extremely arid: < 125mm/annum
Areas classified by rainfall: -
Primary
effects
Ground shaking Wind -
Heavy rain -
Storm surges: Wind-driven waves + Ocean heaving
up under low pressure Water rises up Flood
low-lying coastal areas
-
Moisture deficiency -
Decline of soil & groundwater -
Seconda
ry effect
Soil liquefaction: Soils with high water content
lose strength & behave as fluid
-
Landslides/Avalanches -
Tsunamis: Result of under-sea earthquakes -
Collapse of buildings -
Destruction of road, communication line,
electricity system
-
Food shortages
Flooding -
Landslides -
Collapse of buildings -
Destruction of road, communication line,
electricity system
-
Devastate agricultural areas -
Winds Hurl debris around -
Environment: Dust storms, wildfires, vegetable cover
reduction
-
Farmers: destroyed crops, stunted crops' growth
Food shortage + Lose money
Drought cost US avg. $6-8 bil every year

Hydroelectric power: Drought dries up reservoir
Electricity production Power shortage
Economics: -
Natural hazards
Friday, April 25, 2014 4:29 PM
Food shortages -
Death, injury, homeless -
Winds Hurl debris around -
Death, injury, homeless -
Drought cost US avg. $6-8 bil every year
Costliest natural disaster
Social: Health problems (mental, physical stress, ) -
Predicta
bility
Seismic hazard assessment map: Estimate
probability earthquake of given size will
affect given location over some years
Risk estimation: -
Delays in earthquake occurrences in
San Francisco are natural phenomenon
Pattern theories (Memory effect):
Recurrences of earthquakes may dependent
on recurrence times of previous
50% major earthquakes preceded by

foreshocks:
1975 Haicheng earthquake, M7.3:

foreshock activity + Change in
groundwater + Strange animal
behavior Successful evacuation
mil peo.
Only 5 - 10% foreshocks become
large earthquake Many false
warning
Foreshock prediction:
Prediction: Can't be made to specific time -
Use seismometers
More reliable than earthquake prediction
Provide few seconds warning before major
shaking arrives
Early warning: Technological -

Satellites: Detect & Track hurricane Early
warning
Weather radar: Locate storm in 320-km radius

Only forecasted path once formed: -
Forms5
o
- 30
o
latitude Move westward &
slight towards the poles
Many drift far enough north/south into areas

dominated by westerly winds (middle latitudes)
Direction reversed to eastward
Path patterns: -
Speed: 30 - 60 km/h
Avg. hurricane: 650 km/day, 4800 km before
dying (leave tropics, move over land)
Strength patterns: -
Can't predict > 1 month in advance for most parts of world -
Droughts don't have clear beginning/ending Difficult to
predict
-
Strong connection between El-Nino Southern
Oscillation & intense drought in Australia, India,
Brazil, western Pacific basin islands
US, Canada 1988

Large-scale anomalies in atmospheric circulation
patterns persist for > 1 month Prolonged droughts
Patterns: -
BEHAVIORAL SCHOOL OF THOUGHT
Environmental hazards the result of natural
events.
-
Peo. put themselves at risk -
STRUCTURALIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT
Stresses constraints placed on peo. by
prevailing social & political system
-
Provides link between environmental hazards
& underdeveloped, dependent economy of
many developing countries
-
CHOOSE TO LIVE THERE
volcanic environments, river
floodplains,
Places that have plentiful
resources:
-
Farming, opportunities for
transport & recreation
Coastal cities Suitable for
trading & business activities
-
Family ties -
Benefits (job, education,
tourism, ) > Risks
Psychological denial: -
NO CHOICE
Disable peo. Unable to leave the area -
Impact of hurricane Katrina were greater
on the poor, black pop. of the affected
region than on other sections of society
Poor, marginalized peo. prevented from
living in safer area (indebt, discrimination, )
-
Lack of jobs, skills required to move elsewhere -
In megacities the volume of vehicles
on roads almost inevitably causes air
quality to decline
Source of pollution suddenly come to
residential areas People can't
move/adapt immediately
Southern Spain & Portugal: dry

years
Desertification Groundwater
levels, vegetation
Climate change Putting people at risk
Changing patterns: -
IGNORANCE
The frequency of extreme hazard
is very low Overconfident
-
Moving to shanty settlements
Unfamiliar with hazards -
Lightning never strikes in
same place twice
Superstition -
OTHER
Gov.: corruption, dishonesty,
ineffectiveness
Let people live in at-risk-area such
as shanty settlements.
Why people live in hazardous area?
Friday, December 28, 2012 3:54 PM
VULNERABILITY
Geographic conditions that increase
the susceptibility of a community to a
hazard or to the impacts of a hazard
event
POLITICAL SYSTEM WITH CONFLICTS &
NATURE OF SOCIETY
Nargis Cyclone, Burma 2008: Gov. not
allow aid Disease & malnutrition DR
Forced many people off their
traditional lands.
-
Made movement of food supplies
dangerous.
-
Famine, Ethiopia 1984: Blamed on
drought. However, 2 civil wars taking place:
POVERTY
Haiti was worse hit by
hurricanes than USA even
though not as severe storm,
due to poverty
Lack of insurance cover affects
the poor as they generally have no
cover
EDUCATION
Tsunami, South Asia 2004:
many people were unaware of
what was happening
Less knowledge/awareness of
hazards More vulnerable.
SHANTY SETTLEMENTS
Less likely to receive early warning -
Recent migrants may not be
aware of some of the natural
hazards posed by the area
-
Fear of dispossession leads them
to stay even if warned of
approaching hazard.
-
Built in high risk locations -
Unsafe conditions (unsafe building
structure )
-
AVAILABILITY & READINESS OF
EMERGENCY PERSONNEL
Nargis Cyclone, Burma 2008:
Many deaths after Cyclone due to
shortage of trained personnel
WOMEN
Tend to have less access to resources -
Caregivers to children, elderly & disabled -
Sexual violence -
Human trafficking for prostitution or slave-labor in
period following hazard event
-
EFFECTIVE LINES OF COMMUNICATION
Earthquake, Sichuan, China 2008: Swift
response from Gov. who mobilized 100000
troops & allowed oversea aid.
-
Stark contrast: Pakistan earthquake 2005 -
MARGINALIZED PEOPLE
Cultural factors that influence public
response to warning
-
Poorer people are often marginalized
culturally, politically & geographically
-
CHILDREN
Experience long-term psychological problems
because they can't fully understand what is
happening
-
Sometimes vulnerable to trafficking and abuse after
a disaster, especially if they have been orphaned and
are hungry
-
Also, from disease & infection after death. -
EXISTENCE OF EARLY WARNING SYSTEM
Low death in USA from hurricanes partly
because of an effective early warning
system
ELDERLY
Can't move quickly -
Are often neglected in the aftermath of a
disaster
-
Earthquake, Kobe, Japan: 1/2 deaths were elderly
CONSTRUCTION STYLES &
BUILDING CODES
Earthquake, Sichuan, China 2008:
Criticism that schools were
destroyed by poorly built whereas
Gov. buildings remained standing
POPULATION DENSITY
New Orleans
Large number of rapidly growing
cities occur in hazardous area
Vulnerability
Wednesday, December 26, 2012 11:03 PM
Intensity -
Probability -
Hazard
Social, economic,
ecological values
-
Susceptibility -
Vulnerability
Risk
Probability of social,
economic and
ecological damages
Exposure
Risk = Hazard + Vulnerability + Population
Risk perception
Factors tending to increase risk
perception
Factors tending to reduce risk
perception
Cyclone Nargis, Burma 2006
Immediate impact -
Hurricane Katrina 2005
Many fatalities per disaster -
Bhuj earthquake, India 200
Deaths grouped in space/time -
Unclear accident in Sellafield,
UK
Processes not well understood -
Young population
Lack of belief in authority -
Chernobyl 1986; Mozambique
flood 2000
Much media attention -
Drought in Ethiopia 2003 & 2008
Delayed impact -
UK flood 2007
Few fatalities per disaster -
Stomach cancer
Deaths randomin space/time -
Flooding
Processes well understood -
University scientist
Belief in authority -
Factory discharge in water or
atmosphere
Little media attention -
Experience: More experience of environmental hazards, greater
adjustment to the hazard
-
Material well-being: Those who are better off have more choice -
Personality: Is the person a leader or a follower, a risk-taker or a risk-
minimizer?
-
Do nothing & accept the hazard
Adjust to the situation of living in a hazardous environment
Leave the area
Ultimately, in terms of response, there are just 3 options: -
Factors affecting the perception of risk (individual level):
Under-estimation of the importance of hazards
Lack of necessary long-term data/technology/knowledge
Expensive cost of total estimation
Over-evaluation of economic & political benefit
Why: -
Decision makers lack awareness/willingness to act
Inadequate gov. legislation
Impact: -
Misdirected management of hazard events
Poor gov. planning
Weak risk management institutions
Population incapable of assessing its vulnerability &
confronting emergencies
Poor construction quality

Population & Productive activities over-exposed to hazards
Inadequate capacity to manage risk from hazards
Population
Risk
Wednesday, February 06, 2013 9:24 AM
Hurricane
Cyclone Nargis 2008 (LEDC) Hurricane Katrina 2005 (MEDC)
Locati
on
Formed: Bay of Bengal -
Reach land: Irrawaddy Division, Burma -
Formed: Bahamas sea region -
Reach land: US South East coastal areas: Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida -
Size 4 (Saffir-Simpson Hurricane scale) 5 (Saffir-Simpson Hurricane scale)
Impact
Death: 138000
Missing: 50000
Human cost: -
75% building collapse
Majority of pop. on flooded rice fields lost harvest
Economic cost: $10 bil -
Higher human cost
Lower economic cost: no insurance, poverty
Death: 1836
Missing: 135
Human cost: -
80% New Orleans in flooding
2 mil homes without electricity
Lower human cost (despite bigger size)
Higher economic cost: insurance, house, infrastructure,
Warni
ng
India warned Burma about Cyclone Nargis 48 hours in advance -
Clearly, Burmese weren't warned by gov. -
24 hours in advance
Prepar
ation
Lacks of technology to prepare for big cyclone -
Peo. not warned Unable to prepare -
No preparation
Mandatory evacuations: southeast Louisiana, coastal Mississippi
Rail traffic was suspended
Gulf Coast: -
New Orleans, 40 hours before hurricane: Resort for citizens who couldn't
leave city
-
Many didn't have private means of evacuation
Fuel and rental cars in short supply
However: 10% New Orleans weren't evacuated. -
Very careful preparation, but still have some flaws
Vulner
ability
Political system: Corrupted gov. Don't take care of peo. -
Economic system: Lack of communication facilities + technology -
Poor quality of building & infrastructure -
Lack of early warning system -
Education: Not have enough skill to prepare for cyclone -
Shortage of trained emergency personnel -
Lines of communication (phone, internet): Can be interrupted in
hurricanes
-
Pop. density: New Orleans (below sea level): 759/km
2
-
Black: Usually poor & not have private means of evacuation -
Respo
nse
Initially: Refuse aid (Burmese military gov. fear of foreigners coming
& destabilizing political oppression)
-
1 week later: Allow outside aid, but limited to: food, medicine &
basic supplies, no foreign aid worker
-
3 week later: Allow foreign aid worker -
Response was very poor & slow, causing many preventable
deaths due to disease and malnutrition
Sign $10.5 bil relief package
Order active duty troops to help with rescue efforts.
4 day after hurricane: President Bush -
Many countries donated emergency supplies, sent medical & disaster
recovery teams
-
Huge contribution from NGOs: American Red Cross, Oxfam, ... -
However: National Guards units were short staffed Local recruitments
in communities Many victims stranded without food/water for 3-4
days
-
Criticism of Federal gov.s lack of management & preparation for
relief effort Delay in rescue & relief in New Orleans.
Disasters
Monday, February 11, 2013 10:07 PM
Earthquake
Haiti earthquake 2010 (LEDC) Japanese earthquake & tsunami 2011 (MEDC)
Locati
on
Epicenter 25km west of Port-au-Prince (Haiti capital) Epicenter near east coast of Honshu, Japan
Size Magnitude: 7.0 richer -
Depth: 13 km -
Magnitude: 9.0 richer -
Depth: 30 km -
Impact
Death: 230000
Injured: 300000
Human cost: -
Collapse: 13 Gov. buildings, 250000 homes
In debt: Money borrowed to rebuild.
Economic cost: $8.5 bil (- 5.1% GDP) -
Higher human cost
Lower economic cost: no insurance, poverty, ...
Death: 15881
Injured: 6142
Human cost: -
Collapse: 129000, 254000 (half collapsed)
4.4 mil without electricity
Lower human cost (despite bigger size)
Higher economic cost: insurance, house, infrastructure, ...
Warni
ng
No warning
1 min before earthquake felt in Tokyo
Delivered to general public by NHK in 5 languages
Early warning: -
Tsunami warning: Only 58% peo. in coastal area of Miyagi & Fukushima
heeded immediately after earthquake & reach higher ground.
-
Very timely & widespread, but still have some flaws
Prepar
ation
Education: Not have skills to react to earthquakes -
Most building not designed to resist earthquake
Builders didn't know earthquake-proof construction methods.
Building quality: -
No preparation
Education: Public & private organizations, even kinder gardens conducted
emergency drills
-
Early warning system -
Tsunami-proof seawalls of 12m (but not for entire coastline) -
Very careful preparation
Vulner
ability
Political system: Corruption, political instability Don't take care of
peo.
-
Lack of communication facilities + technology
$9.5 billion debt
Economic system: -
Poor quality building & infrastructure + Uncontrolled regulations -
Education: Not have enough skill to prepare for cyclone -
Shortage of trained emergency personnel -
Main cities surrounded by bare mountains Risk of landslides -
Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant: Located near coastline, hit by
tsunami Radiation release
1046 homes damaged, 30 were destroyed.

Soil liquefaction: Reclaimed land around Tokyo
Building & Infrastructure: -
Population density: 140/km
2
-
Lines of communication (phone, internet): Can be interrupted in
hurricanes
-
Respo
nse
Survivors extricated living & dead from rubble
Lack of hospital Hamper treatment of injuries
Haitian gov. requested help from intl. community
Immediately after earthquake: -
Rapid humanitarian response from intl. community Provide basic
survival requirements.
-
Quick & effective (immediate coordination with intl.
community)
1 hour after earthquake: Self-defense forces & rescue workers on way to
worst affected areas
-
2 days later: 50000 mobilized personnel save 160000 peo. -
26 mil single meal portions, 8 mil bottles of drinking water, 230000 boxes
of basic medicines delivered
-
Many countries sent search & rescue teams -
Japanese Red Cross: $1 bil donation -
Quick & effective
Drought
2011 East African drought 2002-2003 Australian drought
Location Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya Australia
Size 7 months (May - Sep) -
Precipitation rate during rainy season < 30% avg. 19952010 -
11 months (Mar - Jan) -
90% continent received rainfall < long-term median -
Impact
Death rate: 0.6-2.8/10000/day
Famine: 13 million people required urgent aids in health,
nutrition & water
Human cost: -
Worst annual crop production in 17 years
40 - 60% loss of livestock
Economic cost: -
Huge human cost, small economic cost
Human cost: 8 (died in bushfires) -
Bushfires: 3 mil ha burnt, 500 houses destroyed.
- $5 bil. in total value of agri. Production
Tourism adversely affected
Economic cost: -
Very small human cost, huge economic cost
Warnin
g
UN satellite-based warning system: 1st alert (Aug 2010) 2nd
alert (Feb 2011)
-
May: Gov. of East African countries declared national
emergency
Until July: UN warnings taken seriously

However: -
Successfully predicted several months before Planning actions
undertaken (forest fuel reduction, water conservation)
Minimize overall effects
Prepara
tion
No preparation
Store water in reservoirs, but not enough for this severe drought
Apply water restriction
Gov.: Drought occurs in Australia every 3-4 years Familiar -
Use sprinklet watering system
Limit water for carwash, window-cleaning
High awareness of arid condition of Australia:
Not prepare well for bushfire
People: -
Vulnera
bility
Political instability: Al-Shabaab (militant group) controlled almost
southern part of Somali Prevent aid delivering process
-
Use hands to dig wells properly Hit rock soon
Severe thirst + Lack knowledge of what to/not to drink
Drink whatever they have Water-infectious disease
Poverty & Education: -

Children & Pregnant women: Suffered from starvation,
malnutrition
-
Dust storms: Big dust storms able to reach Sydney, Melbourne
Severely affect health, traffic
-
Farmers: Loss of crops & livestock Income -
Respons
e
13 Jul, UN High Commissioner for Refugees: Airlift of aid
supplies to Kenya
27 Jul, UN World Food Program: Airlift of food to Somalia.

Humanitarian agencies requested $2.48 bil to address crisis,
but as 1 Aug, only < half of that amount secured
Intl. communities responded too late: - $10 bil relief package from Australian gov. Support farmers suffered
from drought
-
Rehabilitated by fencing, weed control
Grow stock fodder from native species (grow well in dry condition)
128000 ha of degraded remnants: -
No international help, but quite effective
Class of
adjustments
Earthquakes Hurricanes Droughts
Adjust the
cause of
extreme
natural event
Building dams (Three Gorgeous Dam, China) -
Drilling for oil -
No known way of altering the earthquake
mechanism, unless the earthquake is caused by
human:
No known way of preventing hurricanes
Beijing Weather Modification Command, China: 2000
silver iodine rocket into the air Try to cause rain in
10000 ha (4.4 mil peo.)
Shooting rockets containing silver iodine into the air
Trying to cause more rain.
-
However, artificial rain can contain some toxic chemical -
Modify the
extreme
natural event
Stable site selection -
Soil & slope stabilization -
Sea wave barrier -
Casuarina, coconut tree forest, Vietnam
Wide belts of trees facing the beach (
Wind speeds)
-
Build back from the coast -
Sea walls & levees: Prevent storm surges in
low-lying area
-
Wheat crop, Kansas, US
Genetically modified crop -
Mekong Delta River, Vietnam: Irrigation system; Lakes
created hydroelectric dams are also used to store
water for drought
Irrigation system; dam & storage reservoir -
Perth, Adelaide, Australia
Desalinization plant: Desalinize sea water (huge source of
water)
-
Modify the
vulnerability
of the
population
* BEST: Lift
peo. out of
poverty
South California, US (San Andreas Fault):
Prepare population through Shake Out
program.
Personal preparedness: fire extinguisher,
water, emergency plan (where to meet family in
earthquake)
Tsunami, Indonesia 2004: Peo. didn't run

when they see tsunami
Teach identification signs of hazard:
Education: -
Japan: TV, SMS, street alarm
Warning system: Must go to public fast & in time -
Sky Free Tower, Tokyo
Building design: Shock absorber, reinforce steel,
brace to support high-rise building, counterweights
-
Least critical facilities are placed in most
vulnerable area. Buildings such as schools,
hospitals should be put in areas of low risk
Sufficient open space Safe area away from

fire and aftershock damage to building
Reclaimed land (Queen Street, Auckland, )

Liquefaction-prone land (Christchurch, )
Enforce building codes for vulnerable areas.
Land-use control: -
Personal preparedness: water, food,
important documents, clothes,
-
Signs on road Instruct peo. where/how
to evacuate
-
Hurricane Katrina, US 2005: New
Orleans Evacuation Plan
Evacuation plan: -
Forecast + Warning system: Satellite -
Store food -
Farmers in Northern Nigeria
Seek work elsewhere while drought -
Australia, US
Dry farming techniques: Conserve moisture Enable
farmers to survive drought period
-
Sprinkler system timer
Victoria, Australia
Drip irrigation
Automatic watering system: -
Water recycling plant -
Adjustments
to manage
losses
Kobe, Japan: 7% peo. covered by earthquake
insurance (expensive)
Insurance: House + Properties in the house -
Tokyo, Japan
Set up research center about earthquake, tsunami -
Aid relief: Provision of medical services, tents, water
purification equipment, search and rescue equipment
-
Insurance: House + Properties in the house -
Aid relief: Provision of medical services,
tents, water purification equipment, search &
rescue equipment
-
Insurance: Crop -
Adjustments & Responses to Hazards & Disasters
Thursday, February 28, 2013 9:29 AM
Short-term, Mid-term & Long-term response
RESCUE: Saving peo. so they can survive despite having only minimum life necessities
Short-term response -
Make victims' homes safe & be able to live in them again
Sometimes this is impossible, or may take a long time before peo. are able to move back
REHABILITATION: Restoring function of public services (1 - 2 years)
Mid-term response: -
RECONSTRUCTION: Rebuilding public & economic system, infrastructure & governance function (2 - 5 years)
ADJUSTMENT: Go back to the original risk assessment & re-assess
Long-term response: -
Case study: Haiti earthquake, 2010
Challenge to intl. community: Failed over decades to lift Haiti out of poverty, corruption & violence -
Past 10 years: $4 billion to rebuild communities & infrastructure Mismanagement $9.5 bil debt -
Rescue (1 - 10 weeks) Rehabilitation (1 - 52 weeks) Reconstruction (1 - 40 years)
Survivors extricate living & dead from rubble
Lack of hospital & relevant treatment
Piled up garbage & burn Clean up street
Right after earthquake, Haiti community: -
24 hours: Iceland's rescue team -
First country to give aid (water, food, heavy-
lifting machinery)
Allow Haitians to cross border temporarily

(shelter, treatment)
Dominican Republic (neighbor): -

15 Jan (3 days later), Super-carrier USS Carl
Vinson: 600000 emergency food rations, 130000 l
drinking water
-
16 Jan (4 days later), Israel Defense Force's Home
Front: Field hospital for children, elderly and women
-
18 Jan: Work Reopen Port-au-Prince seaport
Able to offload humanitarian aid at seaport
Roads repaired Transport to city easier

USCG Oak & USNS Grasp: -
UNICEF: 3000 school tents available Interim classrooms -
Help Haitians earn incomes
Improve environment
Cash-for-work scheme for Haitians: Build latrines,
clear rubble:
Distribute plastic sheets Meet emergency needs

for shelter.
Oxfam: -
UK: $33 mil aid -
Cancel $56 mil EUR debt
Aid: Emergency, reconstruction
$30 mil EUR support for Haiti Gov.'s budget
France: -
World Bank: Waive Haiti's debt repayments for 5
years.
-
Conference of 120 countries, intl. organizations
at UN: $9.9 bil donation to rebuild infrastructure
-
Canada: Build new headquarters for Haiti's gov. -
Term Definition
Leisure Any freely chosen activity/experience that takes place in non-work time
Recreation
Individual pursuits -
Organized outings & events -
Non-paid (non-professional) sports -
A leisure-time activity undertaken voluntarily and for enjoyment, including:
Sport A physical activity involving a set of rules/customs, may be competitive
Tourism Travel away from home for 1 night for the purpose of leisure
GROWTH OF TOURISM
WELL-BEINGS
Income (urban middle class, working class)
Traveling more affordable
-
Paid holiday time Sufficient time to plan
trips & travel (no financial pressure)
-
Travelling insurance Safer to travel -
TECHNOLOGY
INTERNET
Information about locations more
accessible
-
Easy booking (hotel, transportation) -
TRANSPORTATION
Faster, safer -
Carrying capacity (big airplanes,
cruise ships)
-
Infrastructure (highway systems) -
CONFLICT/POLITICAL UNREST
LANGUAGE
More peo. know 2 languages -
Tour guides -
Wider use of common languages
(English, Mandarin)
-
ENTRY
More open entry -
Legal procedures (visa,
passport)
-
Support for tourists (bilingual
street signs, embassies)
-
Credit card -
Money exchange agents -
CURRENCY
TOURIST FACILITIES
Facilities (hotels, motels,
restaurants, tour agencies
Carrying capacity
-
Various cost level -
Overview of Leisure, Sport & Tourism
Leisure - Sport - Tourism Page 36
Tourism in Vietnam
Significant component: 5% GDP -
Since 1995: Massive in international
tourists, peaking 6.8 million (2012)
-
Reason for growth
Improved transportation -
Visas are easy to obtain -
Threads of bombs & kidnapping in neighboring countries: Philippines, Indonesia
Safety -
Low exchange rate -
Hoi An: Beautiful town with mixture of Dutch, French, Japanese, Vietnamese &
Chinese culture
Halong Bay: Thousands of limestone karsts situated off the coast

Many UNESCO World Heritage site: -
International advertising campaigns: BBC, CNN -
Links with international travel agents: 1000 travel agents, 50 countries -
Positive impact Negative impact
Economic
250000 directly, 500000 indirectly
Employment -
2010: 625 tourist-related investment projects, $12.26 bil
FDI: -
New Noi Bai's passenger terminal T2 (capacity 10 mil
passengers/year)
New flights: Da Nang - Seoul, Da Nang - Singapore

Airport: Noi Bai, Tan Son Nhat
Highway 1A (principle highway): upgraded & widened
Roads
Transportation improvement: -
Promote economic development
Many managerial roles in hotels (Sheraton, Hyatt hotel) are held by
foreigners
Economic leakage Many profits are not reinvested in Vietnam -
Congestion, overloading in tourist facilities (hotels, restaurants)
Service quality (high price, low-quality food)
Huge pressure on local infrastructure -
Cua Lo beach, Nghe An: Peak in Jun - Sep
Seasonal employment -
Social
Cham, M'Nong
Ethnic minorities' income Life quality
Minority cultures (food, clothes, languages) are promoted &
conserved
-
Hue Citadel, My Son Sanctuary
Conservation of historic & cultural locations -
Language skills -
Local resident's access
Phu Quoc Island: Luxury resorts occupy beautiful beaches
Prevent their means of livelihood, entertainment
Land privatization (beaches, forests belonging to tourist facility) -
Ho Chi Minh City, 2013 - 2014: No. of foreign tourists robbed x2
Mugging, pickpocketing (due to economic polarization between
wealthy tourists & poor locals)
International criminal organizations

Crimes: -
Westernization: Tourists Local culture -
Environm
ental
With tourist interest, new national parks are being created
(Cat Tien National Park)
Environmental protection Air pollution (due to tourists travelling by air) -
Ha Long Bay: Oil leak from large no. of ships, plastic bottles on water
surface
Water pollution -
New tourist facility
Employment (construction,
operation)
Spending (food, clothing,
transportation)
Tourism
Business activities
(shoping, restaurant)
Multiplier effect
Work for local services
(food, clothing, transportation)
National Tourism Industry & Development Strategy
Sunday, October 27, 2013 4:00 PM
Factor Football Golf
Social
Exciting football matches, advertisements with football
players are very popular on TVs.
Daily football news.

Social media: -
Scales: Inter-schools, inter-business, national,
international
Level of professional
Football championships vary in:
Football clubs: Attract talents, provide training, well sponsored
Long history of development
Social movements: -
Inspiration from famous football players, team
Intense effect because football is played in group
Role models: -
Golf players usually associate with
advertisements of luxury products.
Golf matches are silent, less popular on TVs.

Social media: -
Golf championships: High participation fee,
not vary in scales
Golf club: Expensive training, not well

sponsored for amateurs
Social movements: -
Inspiration from famous golf players.
Less intense effect because golf is played
individually
Role models: -
Cultural
Men are encouraged to play football more than women
Football clubs, football championships for men more well
sponsored
Gender inequality: -
Religion: Very low participation of Muslim women in football -
Economic
Cheap (amateur)
Expensive (professional)
Football equipment vary in prices
Peo. can play with friends or alone in relatively short free
time.
Participation cost & time: -

Streets, grass, beach,
Playing ground: Just an empty space
Many schools, residential areas have football fields
Infrastructure: -
High golf club membership fee ( $1000
yearly)
Golf equipment are very expensive

More leisure time to play ( 5 hours)
Participation cost & time: -
Very large area of grassland (ha)
Far away from residential areas
Infrastructure: Golf course: -
Political
Turkey-Armenian
Countries use football (friendly match, exchange training
programs) to restore relationship
World Cup
Promote international friendships
Diplomacy: -
National pride: Some countries invest strongly to national football
teams, hoping that their success will promote nationalism.
-
Sport: International Participation & Success
Choices of venues
2012 Olympics London
Making most use of public transport -
Include affordable housing -
Having peo. have good quality of life using features such as parks -
Sustainable Games:
Short-term benefits Short-term costs Long-term benefits Long-term costs
Econo
mic
Hotels & restaurants' activities
Services: Recycling
Profit generated through: -
Sponsorship, advertisements
50000 speculators daily at
events paid 20% cost
Sales of TV, radio rights, tickets
Costs of the game covered by: -
Clear land, infrastructures
Security
Estimated cost: 9.7 bil: -
Spending on other areas (social health,
education, )
Accommodation, restaurant price
Discourage tourists to go to London
-
Most tourists in East London spending in
other regions of London
-
Temporary employees: potentially unemployed
after Olympics
-
New high-speed railway system Javelin
Cable car across Thames River
Infrastructure improvements (especially
public transport) Benefit Londoners
-
1976 Olympics Montreal:
$1.5 billion debt
Costs compensated by tax
bill (if Profit < Cost)
-
New sport venues could be
abandoned afterwards
-
Social
7000 temporary in construction
12000 permanent in Olympic
park
Jobs created: -
380 companies, some successful didn't want
to move
Reallocation of areas serving Olympics: -
500000 peo. came to Olympic park daily
Traffic Harder to move around -
New housing near Olympic Park but expensive -
Olympic Park open to public after Olympics -
Olympic village's accommodation
converted to affordable accommodation
Legacy of housing & sports facilities for East
London
-
Difficult to adapt to new
location (higher living
costs, less accessible to
supermarkets)
Not all given new settles

with better quality as
promised
Resentment of reallocated
residents:
-
Enviro
nment
al
Olympic Park: No cark park
Encourage walking, cycling,
public transport
Competitors walked from

Athletes' Village to venues
Road traffic, air pollution: -

97% demolition material
reused
Eco-friendly materials (low-

carbon concrete)
Eco-friendly methods of
construction:
-
Road transport, carbon emission
Flights arriving UK Air pollution -
Spectators & athletes Waste, litter -
East London's environment cleaned: -
Dumping grounds
Contaminated land & rivers
Before:
Soil cleaned, Groundwater treated
400000 new plants in Olympic Parks
Artificial habitats built into walls, roof of
venues Encourage animals back
After:
Velodrome: naturally ventilated;
rainwater from roof for flushing toilets
New Energy Center: Efficient low-carbon

power & heat
Eco-friendly buildings: -
Impermeable surfaces: Affect
the hydrological cycle
-
Newham (home to Olympic Village): Large area of
waste & sparsely populated land.
Land availability: New venues should be built in large
area of available land Surface-clearing costs &
Avoid overcrowding
Mountain bikes were held in Essex (north of
London) because London doesn't have
suitable terrain
Properties of sports venues serve: Venues'
locations must be relevant to the sports they
handle. Transportation: bus, underground & surface rail.
Near main road system connecting airports,
harbors & other parts of UK
Stratford, London (Location for 2012 Olympics):

Connectivity: Venues' locations should be easy and
time-saving to come
International Sport Events
Rugby, New Zealand
School teams -
Senior/Junior/Women Clubs -
Canterbury, Auckland, Wellington, Otago
27 teams, each representing a provincial union
Regional teams: ITM Cup (Premier domestic competition) -
15 teams from Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
Blue, NZ: Auckland, North Harbour, Northland
Melbourne Rebels, AUS: Victoria
Each team represent a group of regions in a country
International teams: Super Rugby: -
All Blacks, men's national union team
Represent New Zealand in international competition
National team: -
Relationship: Team location - Supporter's residence
Sphere of influence: The area that peo. travel from to use a service. In
this case, this is the area that peo. travel from to support a rugby team.
Foreign players in team Foreign supporters -
Team members come from local residential areas Local
supporters
-
National team Support from country's citizen, sometimes
regardless of where they live (domestic/oversea)
-
Skillful team Attract supporters -
Team
More supporters inside -
Less supporters outside -
Sphere of influence
Leisure at National/Regional scale: Sport
05 ng i t 2013 8:53 SA
Carrying capacity (CC)
A threshold , beyond which tourists cause damage/strain to
environment & to quality of their own experience
Economical CC (How dependent economy upon tourism) -
Psychological CC (How satisfied tourists express) -
Environmental CC -
Social CC (Reaction of local community to tourism) -
Tourism management in rural areas
(Etosha National Park, Namibia)
400km north of Namibia's capital -
Abundant wildlife: 114 mammal species, 340 bird
species
-
$150 mil/year
Minimize conflicts between locals & tourists
Avoid tourists' impacts on
neighbors' everyday life
Prevent wild animals from destroying

neighbors' crops & livestock
Fences around: -
Change feeding patterns
Limit water available for animals
Problem: Large grazing animals (elephants)
can't migrate freely
-
Prevent large concentration of
animals ( Overgrazing)
Maintain wildlife numbers
Solution: Artificial watering points -
Manage capacity
Entry fee: $3/person, $4/vehicle -
70km between each site
Disperse tourist concentration
Fences around Keep out

dangerous animals
Floodlit water hole Nocturnal

wildlife viewing
3 campsites: -
Preventing large number of tourist
Avoid environmental damage
Staying outside campsites forbidden
Access to western part restricted to
registered Namibia tour operators
Avoid tourists' possible negative impacts

scattering over large areas:
-
Driving speed limited 50km/h, strictly
enforced by speed measuring equipment
Weapons (firearms, air guns) prohibited

Making noise at any water hole between
9:30pm & 6:00am forbidden
Protect wildlife: -
Tourism management in Rural areas
Monday, January 06, 2014 10:50 PM
Art Gallery -
IMAX Cinema -
Restaurants -
Tepid Bath (pool
historical building)
-
Sky Tower (casino) -
Aoteara Square -
Cinemas -
New Market pools -
Gyms -
Auckland Domains Park -
Restaurants -
Victorian market -
Vector Arena Stadium (*) -
Mission Bay beach -
Aquarium -
Shopping center -
Rainbow Ends Theme Park -
MOTAT museum -
Golf courses -
Stadium: Eden Park,
Western Spring (*)
-
Muriwai beach -
Puhekohe raceway -
Woodhill Mountain Bike Park -
Snow Planet (snow indoor
resort)
-
Central business district (CBD)
Transition zone
Suburbs Urban-Rural fringe
Catchment
served
Serving town & surrounding
rural population
Serving largely suburban
neighborhood population
Serving town & surrounding population
(particularly for weekend recreation)
AUCKLAND
Inverse relationship
Smaller the area of facility
Further from central area
-
More peo. & more frequently
facility can gather those peo.
Closer from central area
-
Factors that affect distribution & location of recreation & sport facilities
Accessibility: High freq. of peo. coming Nearer to CBD, easily
accessible location (highway, public transport link)
-
Land value: Larger area required Higher land-buying cost for
construction Further from CBD (avoid high land cost)
-
Soccer stadium: flat area
Biking, bush-walking: hill, natural beauty
Physical characteristic: -
Socio-economic characteristic: Expensive Higher socio-economic
neighborhood area
-
Eden Park Stadium (50000) -
Mt Smart Stadium (30000) -
ASB Tennis Center (48000) -
West Wave Swimming Olympic Pool -
Alexandra Park Raceway -
Auckland (pop: 1.3 mil)
Yarrow Stadium (30000) -
New Plymouth (pop: 60000)
Netball courts (public
swimming pool)
-
3 community hall, 1 show
ground (1000)
Stratford (pop: 8880)
Westpac Stadium (34500) -
TSB Stadium (15000) -
Wellington (pop: 600000)
Threshold pop.: The minimum pop. required for a service
to be provided
The wider range of sports & recreation available -
The bigger sport facilities available -
The bigger the city:
(*) Anomaly
Leisure Hierarchy & Intra-urban spatial patterns
Urban regeneration
Improving/building infrastructure, housing, sport facilities -
Rearranging residential area -
Rebuild of an rundown urban area by:
Make it develop again.
Initial investment
(from government)
Housing -
Recreational facilities (parks, sport
center)
-
Infrastructure (road, electricity) -
Environment -
New/Improved:
Employment
(construction,
maintenance)
Spending (food, clothing,
housing services)
Tourism
Business activities
(shoping, restaurant)
New investment
Multiplier effect
Sport & Recreation in Regeneration strategies of urban areas
Great potential for tourism & economic development -
Used as a triggering factor in regeneration strategies -
Sport & Recreation:
Advantages Disadvantages
Multiplier effect ( employment, tourism, business activities)
In preparation for big sport event, big investments will be brought to
improve housing, major infrastructures (road, electricity)
-
1970s, 1980s: Industrial decline
Big investment: Port enlarging, new runway, telecommunication
Olympic Barcelona 1992:
Infrastructure + 5 local universities High-tech industries (Sony, HP,
Samsung)
Tourism: Tourist, cruise ships (with passengers spending 1-2 nights in

town)
Enhance local environment

Create new recreational facilities (park, sport center)
Living quality (healthier, sportier) of locals
Opportunity: -
Dumping ground, River Lea
40000 new plants in Olympic Parks
East London's environment cleaned:
Olympic Parks (with swimming center, BMX Track) open to public
afterwards.
Olympic London 2012

New investment may not fully benefit locals:
Difficult to adapt to new location (higher living costs, less
accessible to supermarkets)
Not all given new settles with better quality as promised

Reallocation of residential areas:
Resentment
Temporary employment: 7000 (for construction)
Olympic London 2012:
Benefits not sustainable
Urban Regeneration

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Index Def.

Meaning LEDC example MEDC example

These young peo. move through reproductive age No. of

Pop. of developed countries (Europe) will decline even if FR is

Replacement level fertility is a long-term concept rather than

Stay on at school after 15

Trained skills & Experiences: -

Women can work part-time during maternity leave

Gangs in Beijing are often from Henan Henan workers

Small increase: Western & Eastern Asia

Swedish social welfare system makes women easier

Rural areas: Inadequate provision of educational

Marriage & Divorce: Sharia Law:

Women in Iraq, Libya, Jordan need husband's permission

Make girl children to perform household & agriculture

India: 108: 100 (Females need to give huge amount

Carry family name

2005 - 2008: Mango exports x6, avg. price $70/ton

Girls receive female sheep upon completing education

Advocate ending child marriage

Program led by UNFPA & Intl. Confederation for Midwives is

Use low skilled labors with less training:

Poverty Reduction Strategy

Conditions for debt relief:

Burkina Faso: Drastically cost of life-saving drugs

Living standard for peo. at home: -

Incoming solar radiation: -

Changes in solar radiation: -

Changes in albedo of atmosphere: -

Greenhouse gas (natural process):

Allow areas to be cultivated that would not otherwise be suitable

Training, technology transfer

Port-au-Prince, Haiti: Unconnected (forced to purchase from

Underdeveloped water infrastructure: -

Hydroelectric power plants in Ba Rivers, Vietnam

Water tables in many

World's pop. x3; Water use

Irrigation: 4% (slow growth): Area of

Possible to obtain 20l/household member/day

Access to safe drinking water: -

Stormwater collection ponds

Rising price of imported water

Not the best solution to increasing

Hormone contraceptive pill, anti-malaria drug

Keeping environmental impact below level required to allow

Built around rural communities' willingness to work

Free to choose diverse strategies for wildlife

Use rights: hunt, capture, cull, sell 'huntable game'

Multi-disciplinary Research Centre: Provides training &

Cooperation between different institutions: -

4 Saudi Arabias to maintain production

Oil price ($/barrel): 30 (2003) 40 (2004)

160km coastlines were affected, including oyster

Many animals were killed: 153 dolphins, 2200 birds

Production in EU & China is

Larger plants & producers.

Target: Use of biofuels to 35 bil gals

Could be disastrous if plutonium

New technology: fast-breeder reactor: - Technology already

Nuclear power stations: -

Coastal settlements lose principle

Fish price Affect low-income people

1 brown (organic waste), collected

1 black (other waste)