Turbine - 1

FLUID MACHINES
1 Introduction
The device which converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy or vice versa is known as
Fluid Machines.
Since a rotating element called ROTOR is an essential part of these machines, and since mutual
dynamic action between the rotor and the working fluid forms their basic principles of operation,
these are also called ROTODYANAMICS or TURBOMACHINES.

The hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy are known as
Turbines and that convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy are known as Pumps.
Fig.1 shows a general layout of a hydroelectric plant.

Fluid Machines/ Rotodynamic machines/Turbo Machines
Incompressible Fluid (Water) Compressible Fluid (Steam, gas, air)
Hydrodynamic Machines
Fluid to rotor Rotor to Fluid
Hydro-
Turbines
Hydrodynamic
pumps
Thermal Turbo-machines
Fluid to rotor Rotor to fluid
Steam and
gas turbines
Compressor
or blower
Fig. 1 General layout of hydropower plant
It consists of the following:
A Damconstructed across a river or a channel to store water. The reservoir is also known as
Headrace.
Pipes of large diameter called Penstocks which carry water under pressure from storage reservoir
to the turbines. These pipes are usually made of steel or reinforced concrete.
Turbines having different types of vanes or buckets or blades mounted on a wheel called runner.
Tailracewhich is channel carrying water away from the turbine after the water has worked on
the turbines. The water surface in the tailrace is also referred to as tailrace.
2. Important Terms
(i) Gross Head (H
a
): It is the vertical difference between headrace and tailrace.
It is the total specific energy of liquid on pressure side of a machine with respect to specific
energy in tail race or sump as datum. Thus with reference to Fig. 2,

s
f o o
a
h
g
V V p
H +
=
2
2 2
(1)
where p
o
is intensity of pressure on pressure side of machine, V
o
is velocity of liquid on pressure
side of machine, V
f
is the velocity at tail race, h
s
is the height of machine from sump or tail race
level generally measured up to centre line of machine.

Fig. 2 Head and Discharge
(ii) Net Head (H): Net head or effective head is the actual head available at the inlet of the
turbine.
L a
h H H = (2)
Where h
L
is the total head loss during the transit of water from the headrace to tailrace. This
mainly consists of head loss due to friction given by:
gd
flV
h
f
2
4
2
= (3)
Here, f is the coefficient of friction of penstock depending on the type of material of penstock, L
is the total length of penstock, V is the mean flow velocity of water through the penstock, D is
the diameter of penstock and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
(iii) Discharge
The discharge (Q) through the machine is expressed in cubic meter per second (m
3
/s) or
litres/second (l/s).
In machines there has to be a gap between stationary and rotating parts. A part of discharge does
not enter the runner at all and instead passes through this gap to the tail race without doing any
work.
Thus if Q
1
is the quantity of liquid available on pressure side of machine, the net quantity of
water, Q, doing work in turbine will be (Q
1
- AQ) where AQ is the amount of discharge which
leaks away without doing any work.
In pumps although the actual quantity of liquid lifted is Q+AQ, only Q is supplied at outlet and
AQ leaks back to sump.
The amount of energy, E, released when an object of mass m drops a height H in a gravitational
field of strength, g, is given by
mgH E =
The energy available to hydroelectric dams is the energy that can be liberated by lowering water
in a controlled way. In these situations, the power is related to the mass flow rate, Q.
QH QgH gH
t
m
gH
t
m
t
E
= =
= = N-m/s
is specific weight = 81 . 9 1000 N/m
3
in SI units.
So that power generated, QH P = N-m/s QH = Watt (4)
And water horse power to the turbine,
75
. . .
QH
P H W

= metric H.P= 13.33 QH mHP
= 736 . 0 33 . 13 QH = 9.8QH [kW]
Electric energy = [kW] = q QH 8 . 9 = QH 8 kW (5)
Taking efficiency equal to 80%.
3. Types of efficiencies
Depending on the considerations of input and output, the efficiencies can be classified [Fig.3] as:
1. Leakage or Volumetric Efficiency
2. Hydraulic Efficiency
3. Mechanical Efficiency
4. Overall efficiency

Fig. 3 Elements of a simple turbine
Considering turbines and pump separately, we may examine these efficiencies for a turbine as
follows:
3.1 Volumetric Efficiency:
Let a hydraulic turbine be supplied discharge (Q) at the head (H).
Then water horse power (WHP) supplied to the machine is given by
75
. . .
QH
P H W

= (5)
However, due to leakage of AQ amount of water to tail race without doing useful work, power
wasted in leakage is given by
Working horse power wastage =
75
QH A
(6)
Hence volumetric efficiency is given by:
Q
Q Q
Eq
Eq Eq
v
A
=
= q
) 3 .(
) 4 .( ) 3 .(
(7)
3.2 Hydraulic Efficiency
It is the ratio of the power developed by the runner of a turbine to the power supplied at the inlet
of a turbine. Since the power supplied is hydraulic, and the probable loss is between the striking
jet and vane it is rightly called hydraulic efficiency.
If R.P. is the Runner Power and W.P. is the Water Power, then
P W
P R
h
.
.
= q (8)
Net power supplied to turbine =
75
) ( H Q Q A
(9)
In the runner specific energy conversion is H
r
and hence hydraulic power generated by the
runner is given by
75
) (
r
H
H Q Q
P
A
= (10)
So that hydraulic efficiency is given by:
H
H
H Q Q
H Q Q
r
r
h
=
A
A
=
75
) (
75
) (
q (11)
3.3 Mechanical Efficiency
It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power developed by the runner of a
turbine. It depends on the slips and other mechanical problems that will create a loss of energy
between the runner and shaft which is purely mechanical and hence mechanical efficiency.
If S.P. is the Shaft Power
P R
P S
m
.
.
= q (12)
If P
m
represents loss of power in mechanical friction at bearings etc., the power available at the
shaft (P
s
) will be obtained by subtracting P
m
from hydraulic power (P
H
) produced. Thus
P
s
= P
H
- P
m
(13)
So that the mechanical efficiency is given by
s m
s
H
s
m
P P
P
P
P
+
= = q (14)
The effect of disc friction losses is similar to that of mechanical friction and hence is included
into it.
3.4 Overall Efficiency
It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power supplied at the inlet of a turbine. As
this covers overall problems of losses in energy, it is known as overall efficiency.
It depends on both the hydraulic losses and the slips and other mechanical problems that will
create a loss of energy between the jet power supplied and the power generated at the shaft
available for coupling of the generator.
P W
P S
o
.
.
= q (15)
v h m
r
m
H
m
m s m s
o
QH
H Q Q
H Q Q
H Q Q
P H W
P
P H W
P P
P H W
P
q q q =
A
A
A
q = q =
+ q
= = q
75
75
) (
75
) (
75
) (
. . . . . .
) (
. .

(16)
Since the mechanical losses are considered as outside effects on turbine performance, hence term
h v i
q q q = indicating internal efficiency is also sometimes used.
Preceding in the same manner the above efficiencies can be derived for pumps also.
4 Classifications of Turbines
4.1 Based on the action of water on the blades
(a) Impulse Turbines:
In this, water is brought to the turbine through a pipe called penstock at the end of which a
nozzle is provided to convert pressure energy into kinetic energy before it strikes the blades in
the atmosphere, hence also sometimes called free jet turbines. The turbine is enclosed in a casing
to prevent splashing of water. Otherwise, it has no other hydraulic function. Example: Pelton
Turbines [Fig. 4].

Fig. 4 Pelton Turbine
(b) Reaction Turbines
Here water enters the turbine under pressure and hence has both pressure energy and kinetic
energy. This turbine always runs full. Examples: Francis turbine [Fig. 5], Kaplan turbine [Fig. 6],
Propeller turbine.

Fig. 5 Francis turbine

Fig. 6 Kaplan Turbine
Impulse turbines are used for high heads and low discharges while reaction turbines for low head
and high discharge.
4.2 Based on the direction of flow
(a) Radial flow turbine
Here path of water through runner lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. It can be:
(i) Outward radial flow turbine: Water enters at the inner circumference and discharges at the
outer circumference of the runner.
(ii) Inner Radial flow turbine: Here water enters at outer and leaves at inner circumference.
(b) Axial Flow Turbine
Water enters parallel to the shaft e.g. Kaplan turbine
(c) Tangential flow turbine
Water enters tangentially. Example: Pelton Turbine
(d) Mixed flow turbine
Water enters radially at the outlet and leaves in the axial direction at the inlet of the runner e.g,
Francis turbine

4.3 Based on the relative position of shaft
(a) Horizontal Shaft turbine
Here shaft of the turbines lies in horizontal plane. Example: Pelton turbine
(b) Vertical Shaft turbine
Turbines producing greater power normally have their shafts vertical e.g. Francis, Kaplan.
They can be arranged as per the following table:

As can be seen from the above table, any specific type can be explained by suitable construction
of sentences by selecting the other items in the table along the row.

5. Pelton wheel or turbine
Pelton wheel [Fig. 7], named after an eminent engineer, is an impulse turbine wherein the flow is
tangential to the runner and the available energy at the entrance is completely kinetic energy.
Further, it is preferred at a very high head and low discharges with low specific speeds. The
pressure available at the inlet and the outlet is atmospheric.

Turbine Type of
energy
Head Discharge
Direction
of flow
Specific
Speed Name Type
Pelton Wheel Impulse Kinetic
High
Head > 250m
to 1000m
Low
Tangential
to runner
Low
<35 Single jet
35 60 Multiple
jet
Francis
Turbine
Reaction
Turbine
Kinetic +
Pressure
Medium
60 m to 150 m
Medium
Radial flow Medium
60 to 300
Mixed Flow
Kaplan
Turbine
Low
< 30 m
High Axial Flow
High
300 to 1000

Fig. 7 Pelton Wheel
The main components of a Pelton turbine are:
5.1 Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement
Water is brought to the hydroelectric plant site through large penstocks at the end of which there
will be a nozzle, which converts the pressure energy completely into kinetic energy. This will
convert the liquid flow into a high-speed jet, which strikes the buckets or vanes mounted on the
runner, which in-turn rotates the runner of the turbine. The amount of water striking the vanes is
controlled by the forward and backward motion of the spear [Fig. 8]. As the water is flowing in
the annular area between the nozzle opening and the spear, the flow gets reduced as the spear
moves forward and vice-versa.

Fig. 8 Flow control for Pelton turbine
5.2 Runner with buckets
Runner is a circular disk mounted on a shaft. On its periphery, a number of buckets are fixed
equally spaced as shown in Fig 9.

Fig. 9 Runner of a Pelton turbine
The buckets which may be hemispherical or double ellipsoidal [Fig. 10], are made of cast-iron
cast-steel, bronze or stainless steel depending upon the head at the inlet of the turbine. The water
jet strikes the bucket on the splitter of the bucket and gets deflected through 160 - 170
0
. The
shape is so designed to get maximum possible energy from the jet.

Fig. 10 Detail of bucket
5.3 Casing
It is made of cast-iron or fabricated steel plates [Fig. 7]. The main function of the casing is to
prevent splashing of water and to discharge the water into tailrace.

5.4 Breaking jet
Even after the amount of water striking the buckets is completely stopped, the runner goes on
rotating for a very long time due to inertia [Fig. 7]. To stop the runner in a short time, a small
nozzle is provided which directs the jet of water on the back of bucket with which the rotation of
the runner is reversed. This jet is called as breaking jet.

5.5 Deflector
In the path of the jet near the nozzle a deflector is provided to control the quantity of the jet
striking the bucket.
5.6 Tail Race
It is kept at such a level that discharge comes out of turbine under gravity and at atmospheric
conditions.
Small turbines are cast as a single unit while in large turbines buckets are cast separately and
bolted to the runner. This facilitates repairs or parts displacement.

6. Working properties of Pelton Wheel (Turbines)
1. Ideal velocity or theoretical velocity of jet is called sprouting velocity = gH 2 (17)
Due to friction of nozzle, actual velocity of jet, gH C V
v
2 = . Here C
v
varies from 0.97 to 0.99.
2. The maximum velocity of wheel u = 0.5V to get maximum efficiency. In actual practice:
gH k gH gH V u
u
2 2 45 . 0 2 98 . 0 46 . 0 46 . 0 = = = = (18)
Here k
u
varies from 0.43 to 0.47
3. Least diameter of jet,
2
1
2
1
542 . 0
2
4
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
t
=
H
Q
gH C
Q
d
v
(19)
d is in m when Q is in m
3
/s.
4. Mean diameter of Pelton wheel is called Pitch dia.
60
DN
u
t
=
N
gH k
N
u
D
u
t
=
t
=
) 2 ( 60
60
(20)
5. The ratio of mean or Pitch diameter of wheel to the diameter of jet is called jet ratio and is
denoted by m = (D/d). Here, m varies from 11 to 14 and an average value of 12 is generally
opted.
Smaller values of m result in too close spacing or too few buckets for whole jet. Large value
results in too bulky installation.
6. Dimensions of bucket and jet
(a) Axial width, B = (3 to 4) d
(b) Radial length, L = (2.5 to 3.0)d
(c) Depth of cup, y = (0.8 to 1.2)d
(d) Width of cut, w= (1.5 to 2.0)d
(e) Length of cut, L
1
= (0.3 to 0.5)d
(f) No. of buckets = 15
2
1
+ |
.
|
\
|
d
D
or
2
1
4 . 5 |
.
|
\
|
d
D
(21)
(g) Area of jet < 0.1 (Projected area of bucket, =L*B)
(h) Angle of deflected jet, | = 160
o
to 170
o

Cut in the bucket is provided so that the bucket exactly opposite the jet gets full jet striking on it
and is not intercepted by the lower portion of the bucket that follows.
Number of buckets should be as few in number as possible so that friction loss is minimum and
as maximum as possible so that water is fully utilized and no water goes waste.
7. Theory of Pelton wheel
Figure 11 shows 3 D picture of a jet striking the splitter and getting split in to two parts and
deviating.

Fig. 11 Jet striking pelton wheel blade
Figure 12 shows velocity triangle for the jet striking pelton wheel bucket.

Fig. 12 Velocity triangles
u Peripheral velocity at the center of the bucket
V
1
inlet absolute velocity
V
r1
relative velocity at the inlet = (V
1
u)
V
r2
relative velocity at the outlet = V
r1
= (V
1
u)
V
2
absolute velocity at the outlet
V
w2
velocity of whirl at the outlet
V
f2
velocity of flow at the outlet
and | o angles with which jet enters and leaves the turbine
u vane angle at the inlet
| vane angle at the outlet also called side clearance angle
The ratio of peripheral velocity, u, to the inlet absolute velocity, ( ) 2
1
gH K V
v
= is called
VELOCITY RATIO (K
V
).
1
V
u
K
v
=
) cos (
2 1
| = V V Q F
x
(22)
Now
] ) cos 1 ( cos [ } cos ) {( ) cos ( cos cos
1 1 1 2 2 2
u V u u V u V u V V V
r r w
| + | = | = | = | = = |
so that ) cos 1 )( ( ] ) cos 1 ( cos [
1 1 1
| + = | + | + = u V Q u V V Q F
x

Work done per second i.e. power = ) cos 1 )( (
1
| + = u V Qu u F
x
(23)
0 ) cos 1 )( 2 (
1
= | + = u V Q
du
dP

1
1
5 . 0
2
V
V
u = = (24)
Hence
4
) cos 1 (
2
1
max
V
Q P | + = (25)
Hydraulic Efficiency, ( ) | +
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
| +
= q cos 1 1 2
2
) cos 1 )( (
1 1
2
1
1
V
u
V
u
V
Q
u u V Q
h
(26)
Mechanical Efficiency,
u u V Q
P
jet to due shaft on acting Power
shaft at Available Power
s
m
) cos 1 )( (
1
| +
= = q
(27)
Overall efficiency,
m h
q q = q
For Pelton wheel, % 99 95
m
q and % 90 85 q
h

7. Governors for Turbines
Generators driven by turbine are to run at a constant speed to produce power at a given
frequency irrespective of power requirement or load. The frequency is given by
60
pN
f = (28)
Here N is the r.p.m. of generator; p is the number of pairs of poles for generator
Usually, f = 50, so that
p p
N
3000 60 50
=
= (29)
Hence, it is necessary that turbine should also run at constant speed N at all loading conditions.
This speed is known as SYNCHRONOUS SPEED and the turbines are designed for this speed.
The Pelton turbine speed can be maintained constant:
(i) by controlling discharge by forward and backward motion of spear inside the nozzle
(ii) by deflecting the discharge using deflector, or
(iii)by combination of these two
This regulation of discharge flowing through the runner in accordance with the variation in load
is called governing of the turbine and usually this is done automatically by means of a
governor.
A Governor is a mechanism to regulate the speed of the shaft of a turbine.
The most commonly used governor used is oil pressure governor as shown in Fig. 13.

Fig. 13 Oil pressure governor
The main component parts of the governor are:
1. Servo-meter or relay cylinder
2. Relay valve or control valve or distribution valve
3. Actuator or pendulum driven by belt or gear connected to the main shaft of turbine
4. Oil Sump
5. Oil pump driven by belt connected to the turbine main shaft.
6. System of oil supply pipes connecting oil sump with relay valve and relay valve with
servo-meter.
Working

Fig. 14 Working of a Governor
With respect to Fig. 14
When load on generator drops, speed of generator and hence turbine increases.
This result in outward movement of fly balls, hence the upward movement of sleeve.
This result in downward movement of lever on R.H.S of fulcrum and hence downward
movement of Bell crank lever.
This downward movement will raise the deflector up, coming in the way of jet, deflecting it
away from the vane.
The downward motion of main lever, also move the piston in the control or relay valve
downward which will result in opening servo-meter on the left hand side of its position which
then will move to the right side.
This causes the spear to move forward. This will reduce the area of the nozzle outlet and thus
decreases the rate of flow and normal speed is restored.
When normal speed is restored, main lever will attain its normal position and the roller on the
cam will move up forcing the belt crank to move up and hence the deflector will come to its
original position.

8 Some other Types of Impulse Turbines
(i) Double overhung Pelton Wheel Turbine
When high speed or greater power is required, the two pelton wheels are provided on a single
shaft. However, analysis will remain same as for single pelton turbine.
(ii) Multiple Jet Pelton Turbine:
The power developed by a single wheel may be increased by providing more than one jet [Fig.
15] spaced evenly around the runner. The jet should be so spaced that the water issued from a jet
after striking the runner should not interfere with other jets. The maximum number of jets so far
used in some larger units is six. The power of such wheel will be (n X P) where n is the number
of jets and P is the power due to single jet.

Fig. 15 Muti-jet Pelton Turbines

9. Reaction Turbines
Reaction turbines are those turbines which operate under hydraulic pressure energy and part of
kinetic energy. In this case, the water reacts with the vanes as it moves through the vanes and
transfers its pressure energy to the vanes so that the vanes move and in turn rotate the runner on
which they are mounted.
9.1 Types of reaction turbine
The main types of reaction turbines are:
(i) Radially outward flow reaction turbine: This reaction turbine consists of a cylindrical disc
mounted on a shaft and provided with vanes around the perimeter. At inlet the water flows into
the wheel at the centre and then glides through radially on fixed guide vanes and then flows over
the moving vanes. The function of the guide vanes is to direct or guide the water into the moving
vanes in the correct direction and also regulate the amount of water striking the vanes. The water
as it flows along the moving vanes will exert a thrust and hence a torque on the wheel thereby
rotating the wheel. The water leaves the moving vanes at the outer edge. The wheel is enclosed
by a water-tight casing. The water is then taken to draft tube.
(ii) Radially inward flow reaction turbine: The constitutional details of this turbine are similar
to the outward flow turbine but for the fact that here the guide vanes surround the moving vanes.
This is preferred to the outward flow turbine as this turbine does not develop racing. The
centrifugal force on the inward moving body of water decreases the relative velocity and thus the
speed of the turbine can be controlled easily.
(iii) Mixed flow reaction turbine: This is a turbine wherein it is similar to inward flow reaction
turbine except that when it leaves the moving vane. The direction of water is turned from radial
at entry to axial at outlet. The rest of the parts and functioning is same as that of the inward flow
reaction turbines.
(iv) Axial flow reaction turbine: This is a reaction turbine in which the water flows parallel to
the axis of rotation. The shaft of the turbine may be either vertical or horizontal. The lower end
of the shaft is made larger to form the boss or the hub. A number of vanes are fixed to the boss.
When the vanes are composite with the boss the turbine is called propeller turbine. When the
vanes are adjustable the turbine is called a Kaplan turbine.

Fig. 16 Inward radial flow reaction turbine
9.2 Derivation of the efficiency of a reaction turbine
Consider Fig. 17.

Fig. 17 Reaction turbine velocity triangles
Let
R
1
= Radius of wheel at inlet of the vane
R
2
= Radius of wheel at outlet of the vane
e = Angular speed of the wheel
Tangential speed of the vane at inlet = u
1
= e R
1

Tangential speed of the vane at outlet = u
2
= e R
2
The velocity triangles at inlet and outlet are drawn as shown in Fig. 17.
o and | are the angles between the absolute velocities of jet and vane at inlet and outlet
respectively
u and | are vane angles at inlet and outlet respectively
The mass of water striking a series of vanes per second = a V
1

Here a is the area of jet or flow and V
1
is the velocity of flow at inlet.
The momentum of water striking a series of vanes per second at inlet is given by the product of
mass of water striking per second and the component of velocity of flow at inlet
= a V
1
x V
w1
(V
w1
is the velocity component of flow at inlet along tangential direction)
Similarly momentum of water striking a series of vanes per second at outlet is given by
= a V
1
x (V
w2)
(V
w2
is the velocity component of flow at outlet along tangential direction and
with sign because the velocity component is acting in the opposite direction)
Now angular momentum per second at inlet is given by the product of momentum of water at
inlet and its radial distance = a V
1
x V
w1
x R
1
(30)
And angular momentum per second at inlet is given by = a V
1
x V
w2
x R
2
(31)
Torque exerted by water on the wheel is given by impulse momentum theorem as the rate of
change of angular momentum:
)
2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1
R x Vw R x Vw ( V a = )] R x Vw x V a (- - R x Vw x V a [ = T + (32)
Work done per second on the wheel = Torque x Angular velocity = T x e
WD/s = a V
1
(V
w1
R
1
+ V
w2
R
2
) x e = a V
1
(V
w1
R
1
x e + V
w2
R
2
x e) (33)
As u
1
= eR
1
and u
2
= eR
2
, we can simplify the above equation as
WD/s = a V
1
(V
w1
u
1
+ V
w2
u
2
) (34)
In the above case, always the velocity of whirl at outlet is given by both magnitude and direction
as: V
w2
= (Vr
2
Cos | u
2
) (35)
If the discharge is radial at outlet, then V
w2
= 0 and hence the equation reduces to
WD/s = a u
1
V
1
V
w1
(36)
KE/s = a V
1
3
(37)
Efficiency of the reaction turbine is given by
( )
3
1
2 2 1 1 1
2
1
V a
u V u V V a
second / Energy Kinetic
second / done Work
w w
+
= = q
( )
2
1
2 2 1 1
2
V
u V u V
w w
+
= (38)
Note: The value of the velocity of whirl at outlet is to be substituted as V
w2
= (Vr
2
Cos | u
2
)
along with its sign.
Work done per unit weight =
second per striking water of Weight
second per done Work

=
( )
( )
2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
1
u V u V
g g Q
u V u V Q
w w
w w
=
(39)
If the discharge at the exit is radial, then Vw
2
= 0
Work done per unit weight = ( )
1 1
1
u V
g
w
(40)
Hydraulic efficiency =
( )
( )
2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
1
. .
. .
u V u V
H g H Q g
u V u V Q
P W
P R
w w
w w
=
(41)
If the discharge at the exit is radial, then Vw
2
= 0 and hence
Hydraulic efficiency, = ( )
1 1
1
u V
H g
w
(42)

Fig. 18 Velocity Triangles for different reaction turbines
9.3 Francis Turbine
The inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge (i.e. the angle made by the absolute
velocity with the tangent on the wheel is 90
o
) at the outlet is known as Francis turbine. The main
component parts of a Francis turbine [Fig. 19] are:
(i) Casing: This is an annular channel of decreasing cross-sectional area about the axis, the tube
being of geometric shape of volute or a spiral. It is made either of cast steel or welded rolled steel
plates or concrete or concrete and steel. It completely surrounds the runner. The water first fills
the casing and then enters the guide vanes from all sides radially inwards. The decreasing cross-
sectional area helps the velocity of the entering water from all sides being equal. The volute or
spiral shape helps the entering water avoiding or preventing the creation of eddies.
The casing is also provided with inspection holes and pressure gauge connections.
(ii) Speed Ring or Stay Ring
From scroll casing, water passes through speed or stay rings. These rings are held together by
means of fixed vanes called Stay Vanes. The number of these stay vanes is generally half of the
number of guide vanes. Stay Rings serve two purposes:
(i) It directs the water from the scroll casing to the guide vanes.
(ii) It resists the load imposed on it by the internal pressure of water and also the weight
of turbine and the generator and transmits it to the foundation.
It is made either of cast iron or cast steel or fabricated steel.

Fig. 19 Francis Turbine
(iii) Guide Vanes
From speed ring, water passes through a series of guide vanes are called Wicket Gates. These
vanes are fixed between two rings in the form of a wheel known as guide wheel. Guide vanes
have two functions:
(i) to regulate the quantity of water supplied to the runner.
(ii) to direct the water on to the runner smoothly and with minimum loss of head i.e. at
appropriate design angle.
Each guide vane can rotate about its pivotal axis. The pivots of all vanes are connected to two
regulating rods through the regulation ring. The guide vanes are operated either by means of
hand wheel or automatically by governor.
(iv) Runner with vanes: The runner is mounted on a shaft and the blades are fixed on the runner
at equal distances. The vanes are so shaped that the water reacting with them will pass through
them thereby transferring their pressure energy to make it rotate the runner.
(iv) Draft tube: This is a divergent tube fixed at the end of the outlet of the turbine and the other
end is submerged under the water level in the tail race. The water after working on the turbine,
transfers the pressure energy there by losing all its pressure and falling below atmospheric
pressure. The draft tube accepts this water at the upper end and increases its pressure as the water
flows through the tube and increases more than atmospheric pressure before it reaches the
tailrace.

9.4 Design of Francis Turbine Runner
For a given value of power (kW) to be developed at had H when the turbine is to run at a speed R
r.p.m, following procedure is adopted to obtain preliminary dimensions:
(i). Assume suitable values of
H
q (85 to 90%) and
o
q (80 to 90%)
(ii) Obtain Q from ) (
1000
kW
QH
P
o
q
= or ) . (
75
P H
QH
o
q
=
(iii) Ratio of runner width to runner diameter is designated by n which varies from 0.1 to 0.45.
Assume a suitable value of n.
(iv) Ratio of flow velocity V
f1
at the inlet tip of the vane to spouting velocity ( ) gH 2 is
designated as Flow Ratio, .
gH
V
f
2
1
= or gH V
f
2
1
= 0.15 to 0.30
Chose appropriate value of and obtain V
f1
.
(v) The area at inlet =
1 1 1
k b D t , where k
1
accounts for space occupied by the thickness of runner
vanes. Assume k
1
= 0.95.
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 ) ( k nD D
Q
k b D
Q
V
f
t
=
t
= Knowing Q, k
1
and V
f1
, D
1
and b
1
can be calculated.
(vi) The tangential velocity at the inlet u
1
can be expressed in terms of spouting velocity through
speed ratio, | i.e. gH u 2
1
| = , where | 0.6 to 0.9.
Assume suitable value of | and determine u
1
.
Also,
60
1
1
N D
u
t
= from where D
1
can be determined and a check on D
1
value determined in (v)
can be made.
(vii) Assume hydraulic efficiency value. For radial flow,
gH
u V
w
H
1
1
= q . Find V
w1
.
(viii) Guide blade angle at inlet, o, and vane angle at inlet, u can be determined from:
1
1
tan
w
f
V
V
= o and
1
1
1
tan
u V
V
w
f
= u
(ix) Runner diameter D
2
at the outlet
3
2
3
1
to ~ D
1
. Assume suitable D
2
so that
60
2
2
N D
u
t
= .
(x) If t
2
and b
2
are respectively thickness of vane and the width of runner at the exit, then
2
2 2 2 f
V b D k Q t = Assume k
2
= 0.95.
So that
1 1 1
2 2 2
1
2
b D k
b D k
V
V
f
f
t
t
=
Generally, it is assumed that
1 2
f f
V V = and k
1
= k
2
, so that
b
2
D
2
= b
1
D
1

(ix) For flow to be radial at exit of vanes, 0 = | and blade tip angle | at the exit will be
2
1
2
2
tan
u
V
u
V
f f
= = |
(xii) The number of guide blades, Z
g
, is kept even in order to avoid vibrations due to
synchronous effects. This number may vary from 8 to 24. Assume Z
g
.
Then number of runner blades, 1 =
g r
Z Z . Thickness of runner blades ranges from 6mm to
24mm.

9.5 Kaplan Turbine

Fig. 20 Kaplan turbine installation
The reaction turbine developed by Victor Kaplan (1815-1892) is an improved version of the
older propeller turbine. It is particularly suitable for generating hydropower in locations where
large quantities of water are available under a relatively low head. Consequently the specific
speed of these turbines is high, viz., 300 to 1000. As in the case of a Francis turbine, the Kaplan
turbine is provided with a spiral casing, guide vane assembly and a draft tube. The blades of a
Kaplan turbine, three to eight in number are pivoted around the central hub or boss, thus
permitting adjustment of their orientation for changes in load and head. This arrangement is
generally carried out by the governor which also moves the guide vane suitably. For this reason,
while a fixed blade propeller turbine gives the best performance under the design load
conditions, a Kaplan turbine gives a consistently high efficiency over a larger range of heads,
discharges and loads. The facility for adjustment of blade angles ensures shock-less flow even
under non-design conditions of operation.
Water entering radially from the spiral casing is imparted a substantial whirl component by the
wicket gates. Subsequently, the curvature of the housing makes the flow become axial to some
extent and finally then relative flow as it enters the runner, is tangential to the leading edge of the
blade as shown in Fig 20(c), Energy transfer from fluid to runner depends essentially on the
extent to which the blade is capable of extinguishing the whirl component of fluid. In most
Kaplan runners as in Francis runners, water leaves the wheel axially with almost zero whirl or
tangential component. The velocity triangles shown in Fig 20(c) are at the inlet and outlet tips of
the runner vane at mid radius, i.e., midway between boss periphery and runner periphery.
Table below gives a comparison between Reaction and Impulse Turbines
S
N
Reaction turbine Impulse turbine
1 Only a fraction of the available hydraulic
energy is converted into kinetic energy
before the fluid enters the runner.
All the available hydraulic energy is
converted into kinetic energy by a nozzle
and it is the jet so produced which strikes
the runner blades.
2. Both pressure and velocity change as the
fluid passes through the runner. Pressure at
inlet is much higher than at the outlet.
It is the velocity of jet which changes, the
pressure throughout remaining atmospheric.
3 The runner must be enclosed within a Water-tight casing is not necessary. Casing
watertight casing (scroll casing). has no hydraulic function to perform. It only
serves to prevent splashing and guide water
to the tail race
4. Water is admitted over the entire
circumference of the runner
Water is admitted only in the form of jets. .
There may be one or more jets striking
equal number of buckets simultaneously.
5. Water completely fills at the passages
between the blades and while flowing
between inlet and outlet sections does
work on the blades
The turbine does not run full and air has a
free access to the buckets
6. The turbine is connected to the tail race
through a draft tube which is a gradually
expanding passage. It may be installed
above or below the tail race
The turbine is always installed above the
tail race and there is no draft tube used
7. The flow regulation is carried out by
means of a guide-vane assembly. Other
component parts are scroll casing, stay
ring, runner and the draft tube
Flow regulation is done by means of a
needle valve fitted into the nozzle.

10. Run Away Speed
When external load on the turbine drops to zero and if governing system also fails, then turbine
runner will race up and will attain maximum possible speed. This limiting speed of the runner is
called Run Away speed.
Pelton Turbine = 1.8 to 1.9 times normal speed; Francis Turbine = 2 to 2.2 times normal speed
Kaplan turbine = 2.5 to 3.0 times normal speed
Hence for safe design, the components of turbines are designed for runaway speed.

11. Unit Quantities
In the studies of comparison of the performances of turbines of different output, speeds and
different heads, it is convenient to determine the output, the speed and the discharge, when the
head on the turbine is reduced to unity, i.e. 1 m. The conditions of the turbine under unit head are
such that the efficiency of the turbine remains unaffected. Thus the velocity triangles under
working conditions and under unit head are geometrically similar.
Given a turbine every velocity vector (V
1
, U
1
, Vw
1
, V
f1
) is a function of H where H is the head on
the turbine. With this basic concept, we can determine the speed, discharge and power under unit
head.
11.1 Unit Speed (N
u
)
This is the speed of a turbine working under a unit head
Let N be the speed of turbine, H be the head on the turbine and u be the peripheral velocity.
We know that the peripheral velocity u is given by
60
N D
u
t
= where D is the mean diameter of the runner which is treated as constant and N is
the speed of the runner,
Hence u N
But H g K u
u
= 2 and hence H uo
Hence H No
i.e. H K N
1
= , where K
1
is the proportionality constant.
From definition of Unit speed, it is the speed of a turbine when working under unit head. Hence
at H=1, N=N
u
. Substituting, we get
1
1
K N
u
= (46)
H Nu N= or
H
N
Nu = (47)
11.2 Unit Discharge (Q
u
)
This is the discharge through the turbine working under a unit head.
Consider the Q as the discharge through a turbine. From discharge continuity equation,
Q = a x V, where a is the cross-sectional area of flow and V is the mean flow velocity.
For a given turbine, the cross-sectional area is constant and hence Q V
But H g C V
v
= 2 and hence H Vo and hence H Qo
i.e., H K Q
2
= where K
2
From definition of Unit discharge, it is the discharge through the turbine when working under
unit head. Hence at H=1, Q=Q
u
1
2
K Q
u
= (48)
H Q Q
u
= or
H
Q
Q
u
= (49)
11.3 Unit Power (P
u
)
This is the Power developed by the turbine working under a unit head.
Consider the P as the power developed by the turbine.
Efficiency of turbine,
H Q
P
q = (50)
Where is the weight density of the fluid/water passing through the turbine, Q is the discharge
through the turbine and H is the head under which the turbine is working. But efficiency of a
turbine and weight density of water is constants and hence, we can write
P Q H (51)
From discharge continuity equation, Q = a x V, where a is the cross-sectional area of flow and V
is the mean flow velocity.
For a given turbine, the cross-sectional area is constant and hence Q V
But H g C V
v
= 2 and hence H Vo and hence H Qo
Substituting, we get
H H Po or H H K P
3
= (52)
where K
3
From definition of Unit Power, it is the power developed by the turbine when working under unit
head. Hence at H=1, P=P
u
1 1
3
K P
u
= (53)
H H Pu P= or
2
3
H
P
H H
P
Pu = = (54)
Unit Speed, Unit discharge and Unit Power is definite characteristics of a turbine.
If for a given turbine under heads H
1
, H
2
, H
3
,. the corresponding speeds are N
1
, N
2
, N
3
,, the
corresponding discharges are Q
1
, Q
2
, Q
3
,. and the powers developed are P
1
, P
2
, P
3
,. Then
Unit speed =
3
3
2
2
1
1
H
N
H
N
H
N
N
u
= = =
Unit Discharge =
3
3
2
2
1
1
H
Q
H
Q
H
Q
Q
u
= = =
Unit Power =
2
3
3
3
2
3
2
2
2
3
1
1
3
3
2
2
1
1
H
P
H
P
H
P
P or
H H
P
H H
P
H H
P
P
u u
= = = = = =
Thus if speed, discharge and power developed by a turbine under a certain head are known, the
corresponding quantities for any other head can be determined.
11.4 Specific Speed of a Turbine (N
s
)
The specific speed of a turbine is the speed at which the turbine will run when developing unit
power under a unit head. This is the type characteristics of a turbine. For a set of geometrically
similar turbines the specific speed will have the same value.
Consider the P as the power developed by the turbine.
We know that the efficiency of turbine is given by
H Q
P
q =
Where is the weight density of the fluid/water passing through the turbine, Q is the discharge
through the turbine and H is the head under which the turbine is working. But efficiency of a
turbine and weight density of water are constants and hence, we can write
Fig. 21 Pelton Turbine
P Q H
Discharge is given by the product of cross sectional area of flow and the flow velocity. Cross
sectional area is t d b and hence
Q = t D b V
f

But H g C V
v
= 2 and hence H Vo
And H g K u
u
= 2 and hence H uo
Further, the peripheral velocity is given by
60
N D
u
t
= where D is the mean diameter of the runner.
From the above two equations of u, we can write that
H DNo or
N
H
Do
But in turbines the width of flow area b is proportional to the diameter D. Hence D b, with
which
N
H
bo
b
D
b
t
D
Hence H
N
H
N
H
Po
or
2
2
5
N
H
Po
or
P
H
K
P
H
N
2
5
2
5
2
= o
Simplifying further
P
H
K N
4
5
= (55)
But from the definition of specific speed, it is the speed of a turbine when it is working under
unit head developing unit power. Hence when H = 1 and P = 1. N = N
s
. Hence
s s
N K and K N = =
1
1
4
5
(56)
Substituting we get
P
H
N N
s
4
5
=
or
4
5
H
P N
N
s
= (57)
12. Performance of Turbines
Turbines are usually designed fro particular values of head, speed, output and gate opening.
However, in actual practice they are to work under varying conditions. Hence, their behavioral
and their performance under these varying conditions are designed to be studied. For
convenience purpose, the test results are obtained from these types of studies are expressed in
unit quantities if comparison is required for the same types of turbines e.g. among Pelton
turbines. If the comparison is required between different types of turbines like Francis and Pelton
turbine for example, then the test results are expressed in terms of specific quantities.
(i) Performance under unit head
Consider a Francis turbine.

Fig. 22 Velocity Triangles for Francis turbine
The velocity triangles at the inlet when this turbine is subjected to the working head, H and unit
head will be same so that
u
w
u
w
V
u
V
u
=
1
1
(58)
u
f
u
f
V
u
V
u
=
1
1
(59)
From (58) and (59),
( )
( )
( )
( ) g V
g u V
g V
g u V
u
u
f
w w
f
w
2 /
/
2 /
/
2 2
1
1
1
1
1
= (60)
Similarly for outlet
( )
( )
( )
( ) g V
g u V
g V
g u V
u u
u
f
u w
f
w
2 /
/
2 /
/
2 2
2 2
2
= (61)
This means that ratio of useful energy to wasted velocity energy is same under working head as
well as unit head. It means that the efficiency of the turbine at working head and unit head is
same i.e.
u
H H
q q = or
1
1
1
=
g
u V
gH
u V
u w w
u

1
1
gu
gHu
V
V
u
w
w
u
=
which leads to
H
u
u
u
1
= (62)
Equation 59 will lead to
H
V
u
u
V V
f
u
f
f
u
1
1
1
= = (63)
Since H
N
N
DN
DN
u
u
u u u
= = =
60 /
60 /
1
t
t
, hence
H
N
N
u
= (64)
Equation 64 is called unit speed of the turbine.
Now
H
V
V
V DB k
V DB k
Q
Q
f
f
f
fu
u u
1
) (
) (
1 1
= = =
t
t
or
H
Q
Q
u
= (65)
Equation 65 is called unit discharge.
Now P = ( QH)
o
q and P
u
= ( Q
u
1)
ou
q = ( Q
u
)
ou
q
Since
o
q =
ou
q for the same turbine, so
QH
Q
P
P
u u
= =
H H.
1
=
2
3
1
H
P
u
=
2
3
H
P
(66)
Equation 66 is called unit power.
Once the performance under unit head is known for a turbine, then its possible to determine the
performance of that turbine under any other head, H
1
.
H
Q
Q
u
= =
1
H
Q
Q
H
H
Q
2
1
1
1
|
.
|
\
|
= (67)
2
3
H
P
P
u
= =
2
3
1
1
H
P
P
H
H
P
2
3
1
1
|
.
|
\
|
= (68)
H
N
N
u
= =
1
1
H
N
N
H
H
N
2
1
1
1
|
.
|
\
|
= (69)
(ii) Performance of turbine of the same type:
Here we are to define a unit turbine which is a turbine having the runner diameter of 1m and
operating under a head of 1m. Then
H
u
u
u
=
60
1
u
N t
=
H
N D 1
60
t

H
D
N N
u
= (70)
Similarly,
H D
Q
Q
u
2
2
= and
2
3
2
H D
P
P
u
= (71)

(iii) Performance of turbine of Different types
Here an imaginary turbine called SPECIFIC TURBINE is defined. This is a turbine which is
identical in shape, geometrical proportion, blade angle and gate opening etc. as actual turbine
but reduced to a size that will develop 1HP under unit head.
For actual turbine under unit head and for specific turbine under unit head, the inlet velocity
triangle will be same i.e. u
s
= u
u
and V
fs
= V
fu
, so that
s
u
Q
Q
=
fs s s
fu
V nD D
V nD D
) (
) (
t
t
=
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
s
D
D
(72)
s
u
P
P
=
os s
u
Q
Q
q
q

1
1
0
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
s
u
Q
Q
=
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
s
D
D
(73)
P
u
= P
s

2
|
|
.
|
\
|
s
D
D
=
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
s
D
D
as P
s
= 1HP (74)
D
s
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
u
P
D
Now P
u
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
3
H
P
D
s
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
P
DH
2
3
(75)
Also u
u
=
60
u
DN t
and u
s
=
60
s s
N D t

60
u
DN t
=
60
s s
N D t

N
s
= N
u

|
|
.
|
\
|
s
D
D
= N
u

u
P (76)
Also N
u
=
H
N
and P
u
=
2
3
H
P
N
s
=
4
5
H
P N
(77)
Equation 77 is called SPECIFIC SPEED of the specific turbine or runner.
Similar relations can be developed for any other turbine.
Equation 77 also shows that specific speed is independent of dimensions and sizes of both
specific turbine and actual turbine. It means that All turbines of the same geometrical shape,
working under the same speed ratio, k
u
, and flow ratio, | , and thus having the same efficiency,
will have the same specific speed, no matter what their size be and what power they develop
under what heads.
Hence N
s
is the specific speed of the actual as well as specific turbine. Specific speed may be
defined as the speed of a turbine geometrically similar to the actual turbine but of such a size
that under corresponding conditions it will develop 1HP when working under unit head.
Specific speed is computed for operating conditions corresponding to maximum efficiency.
(See Books for this)

13. Characteristic curves of a Turbine
These are curves which are characteristic of a particular turbine which helps in studying the
performance of the turbine under various conditions. These curves pertaining to any turbine are
supplied by its manufacturers based on actual tests.
The data that must be obtained in testing a turbine are the following:
1. The speed of the turbine N
2. The discharge Q
3. The net head H
4. The power developed P
5. The overall efficiency q
o

6. Gate opening (this refers to the percentage of the inlet passages provided for water to
enter the turbine)
The characteristic curves obtained are the following:
1. Constant head curves or main characteristic curves
2. Constant speed curves or operating characteristic curves
3. Constant efficiency curves or Muschel curves

13.1 Constant head curves: Maintaining a constant head, the speed of the turbine is varied by
admitting different rates of flow by adjusting the percentage of gate opening. The power P
developed is measured mechanically. From each test the unit power P
u
, the unit speed N
u
, the
unit discharge Q
u
and the overall efficiency q
o
are determined. The characteristic curves drawn
are
1. Unit discharge vs unit speed
2. Unit power vs unit speed
3. Overall efficiency vs unit speed
13.2 Constant speed curves: In this case tests are conducted at a constant speed varying the
head H and suitably adjusting the discharge Q. The power developed P is measured
mechanically. The overall efficiency is aimed at its maximum value.
The curves drawn are
P vs Q
q
o
vs Q
q
o
vs P
u

q
o max
vs % Full load

13.3 Constant efficiency curves: These curves are plotted from data which can be obtained
from the constant head and constant speed curves. The object of obtaining this curve is to
determine the zone of constant efficiency so that we can always run the turbine with maximum
efficiency.
This curve also gives a good idea about the performance of the turbine at various efficiencies.

Fig. 23 Main Characteristic curves of a Pelton turbine

Fig. 24 Main Characteristic curves of a Kaplan turbine

Fig. 25 Main Characteristic curves of a Francis turbine

Fig. 26 Operating Characteristic curves of a turbine

Fig. 28 Constant efficiency curves for a reaction turbine

14. Draft Tubes
The water after working on the turbine, imparts its energy to the vanes and runner, thereby
reducing its pressure less than that of atmospheric pressure (Vacuum). As the water flows from
higher pressure to lower pressure, it cannot come out of the turbine and hence a divergent tube is
connected to the end of the turbine.
Draft tube is a divergent tube one end of which is connected to the outlet of the turbine and other
end is immersed well below the tailrace (Water level). The major function of the draft tube is to
increase the pressure from the inlet to outlet of the draft tube as it flows through it and hence
increase it more than atmospheric pressure. The other function is to safely discharge the water
that has worked on the turbine to tailrace.
Depending on the shape and alignment, draft tubes are classified as follows:

Straight Diverging

Hydracone

Simple Elbow

Elbow with change in shape

Hyperbolic tube

Fig. 27 Different types of Draft Tubes
Vertical divergent draft tube The draft tube has the shape of a frustum of a cone. This is
generally provided for low specific speed. The cone angle is not to exceed 8
o
. For greater value
of the cone angle it is seen that the flowing body of water may not touch the sides of the draft
tube (Leaving the boundary). This will lead to the eddy formation bringing down the efficiency
of the draft tube.
Moodys draft tube or hydraucone: This is a bell mouthed draft tube or a conical tube with a
solid conical central core. The whirl of discharged water is very much reduced in this
arrangement.
Elbow draft tube: This draft tube affords to discharge the water horizontally to the tail race.
Elbow draft tube with circular inlet and rectangular outlet: This is a further improvement of the
simple elbow draft tube. In all the types mentioned above, the outlet of the draft tube should be
situated below the tail water level.

15. Model testing of turbines
In order to check the performance of the actual turbine, it is better to prepare a geometrically
similar model of the turbine. This model can tested under a known head, speed and flow rate and
its output i.e. power as well as the efficiency is determined. The model can be modified at lesser
cost of any modification required to meet the design.
The various variables involved are:
Discharge Q, head H, speed of rotation of runner N, runner diameter D, output power P, mass
destiny and viscosity .
) , , , , , , (
1
N D H g Q f P = (78)
However,
(1) It is convenient to use gH as one variable as it gives potential energy per unit mass as g as
individual parameters does not affect power.
(2) Since velocity is very high, Re, will be very large so that effect of viscosity can be ignored.
Hence, ) , , , , (
2
N D gH Q f P = (79)
Using dimensional analysis, one can write
3
gHND
P
= f
3 |
.
|
\
|
2 2 3
,
D N
gH
ND
Q

(80)
On the similar lines, one can write
q = f
4
|
.
|
\
|
2 2 3
,
D N
gH
ND
Q
(81)
In the above:
3
ND
Q
= Flow or Discharge number;
D N
gH
2
= Head Number;
3
gHND
P
= Power number
Eliminating D from Head number and power number, one gets:
2
1
4
5
2
1
) ( gH
NP
= N
s
= Non-dimensional specific speed or Shape number.
For complete similarity to exist between the model and the actual (or prototype) turbines the
above noted parameters must have the same values for the model and the prototype turbines, i.e.
m
ND
Q
|
.
|
\
|
3
=
p
ND
Q
|
.
|
\
|
3
or
m
D gH
Q
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
=
p
D gH
Q
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
(82)
m
ND
gH
|
.
|
\
|
2
=
p
ND
gH
|
.
|
\
|
2
(83)
m
gHND
P
|
|
.
|
\
|
3
=
p
gHND
P
|
|
.
|
\
|
3
or
m
D H g
P
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
2
3
2
3
=
p
D H g
P
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
2
3
2
3
(84)
m
D gH
P N
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
4
5
2
1
) (
=
m
D gH
P N
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
4
5
2
1
) (
(85)
However, Reynolds number which should also be equal in the model and the prototype turbines
for complete similitude. But in actual practice, it is not possible to have the same value of the
Reynolds number in the model and the prototype turbines, on account of considerable difference
in their sizes, However, since the flow in the prototype turbine is turbulent, it has been observed
that if the flow in the model turbine is also turbulent, then even if the Reynolds numbers' are not
equal for the model and the prototype turbines the similarity between them can be ensured.
A little consideration will show that the above noted conditions may be achieved if, K
u
, and
N
s
have the same values for the model and the prototype turbines. Further it may be seen that the
various terms in the above expressions represent the unit quantities and hence for similarity
between the model and the prototype turbines the values of the various unit quantities must be
equal for the both.
If
om
q and
op
q are the overall efficiencies of the model and prototype, then
om
q =
m
L
H
h H
|
.
|
\
|
and
op
q =
p
L
H
h H
|
.
|
\
|
(86)
where H and h
L
are respectively the head acting on the turbine and the loss of head in the turbine.
So that the net effective heads for the model and the prototype turbines will be
(H h
L
)
m
=
om
q (H
m
) and (H h
L
)
p
=
op
q (H
p
) (87)
So that the above numbers in terms of efficiency can be written as:
m
o
D H
Q
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
q
=
p
o
D H
Q
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
q
(88)
m
o
D N
H
|
.
|
\
|
2 2
q
=
p
o
D N
H
|
.
|
\
|
2 2
q
(89)
m
o
D H
P
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
2
3
q
=
p
o
D H
P
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
2
3
q
(90)
m
o
H
P N
|
|
.
|
\
|
4
5
4
5
q
=
p
o
H
P N
|
|
.
|
\
|
4
5
4
5
q
(91)
It can be seen from the above that:
p s
m s
N
N
) (
) (
=
4
5
|
|
.
|
\
|
op
om
q
q
(92)
For determining the efficiency of a prototype turbine from the efficiency obtained for its model,
the following general expression has been given:
om
op
q
q
1
1
=
o
|
|
.
|
\
|
p
m
D
D
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
p
m
H
H
(93)
where
om
q and
op
q are the overall efficiencies of the model and the prototype respectively, D
m

and D
p
are the respective diameters of their runners, H
m
and H
p
are the heads acting on the model
and the prototype turbines respectively and o and | are the numerical exponents. Different
values have been suggested for the exponents o and | by different investigators, but the most
commonly adopted values are those recommended by L.F. Moody which are o = 0.20 and | =
0.

16. Losses in Turbines
(i) Hydraulic Losses:
Hydraulic losses in the wheel are commonly expressed as a function of relative velocity at wheel
exit or
g
V
K h
r
2
2
2
= ' (94)
These are friction losses due to the movement of water through the runner passages and are,
therefore, for reaction turbine relatively larger for small wheels under high heads. It is due to this
reason that impulse turbines are more efficient than reaction turbine for high heads.
(ii) Disk Friction:
Denoted by h
D
, represents the power required to drive the runner submerged. The water above
and below the runner rotates at about half the speed of the runner, and hence, a friction loss
occurs between this water and the stationary part (the upper and lower covers) and an additional
friction loss occurs between this water and runner.
To minimize this loss, the inner surface of the covers and the outer surface of the wheel runner
must be made smooth and free from unnecessary projections. Disk friction is relatively greater
for high-head units, the power thus lost varying according to the formula, h
D
= KD
5
N
3
, and is of
importance in affecting the efficiency of such units, especially at part gate.
(iii) Leakage Losses:
Denoted by h
L
occur due to escaping of water between the periphery of the runner and the
stationary parts, These are important with high head units and depend on the head and the area
between the runner seals and stationary parts.
These losses can be minimized by using rubber seal rings, which permit the operation of the
turbine with little or no clearance between the rotating and stationary parts and yet an elastic
surface well lubricated (by water) to accommodate inaccuracies of alignment without danger of
tearing or surging, or by the use of labyrinth seal for the runner.
Disk friction and leakage losses don't occur with impulse tu1'bine, although the windage losses
of the latter, due to air friction of the moving wheel and its parts, are somewhat analogous to disk
friction losses of the reaction wheel.
(iv) Draft Tube and Exit Losses
This includs friction as well as the velocity-head loss at exit from the tube. These may be
expressed as:
g
V
m h
r
d
2
2
2
= (95)
The value of m would be
2
3
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
A
, which tend to make it somewhat larger and approach unity as
an extreme limit.
As no draft tube is used in impulse wheel; in this case m becomes unity, or in other words, the
entire velocity head at exit from the wheel is lost.
(v) Shock Losses:
Denoted by h
s
, occur in case the wheel is running at other than full-load point or at part gate.
These losses are caused by the direction of flow and its velocity at entrance to the wheel runner
being somewhat changed at part gate from the normal values for which the wheel runners are
designed.
This loss remains practically constant for the impulse turbine at all wheel gates; hence, its better-
sustained efficiency at part gate than the reaction wheel. So that the total effective head, h, is
given by:
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + + + + =
s L D
r
u
h
g
V
m h h
g
V
K h h
2 2
2
2
2
2
(96)
Not all of the head h
u
utilized by the wheel effectively reaches the generator as it gets reduced by
the mechanical losses, chiefly the friction of the wheel on its bearing and which vary with the
speed of the turbine in irregular manner between N and N
2
.

17. Cavitation in turbines
When the pressure in any part of the turbine reaches the vapour pressure of the flowing
water, it boils and small bubbles of vapour form in large numbers. These bubbles are carried
along by the flow, and on reaching the high pressure zones these bubbles suddenly
collapse as the vapour condenses to liquid again. The alternate formation and collapse of
vapour bubbles may cause severe damage to the surface which ultimately fails to fatigue and the
surface becomes badly scored and pitted. This phenomenon is known as cavitation.
In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of the turbine, D.
Thomas has developed a dimensionless parameter called Thomas' cavitation factor , o , which is
expressed as
H
H H H
s v a

= o (97)
H
a
= atmospheric pressure head
H
v
= vapour pressure head
H
s
= suction pressure head
It has been found thato depends on N
s
.
For a turbine of particular N
s
, o can be reduced to such a value up to which
o
q remains constant.
The limited value of o at which
o
q starts decreasing is called critical cavitation factor,
c
o .
For Francis turbines: Critical cavitation factor;
c
o = 0.044 (N
s
/100)
2
(98)
For Kaplan turbine,
c
o = 1.1
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
3
100
) 0032 . 0 ( 28 . 0
s
N
(99)
It is, therefore, necessary that similarity w.r.t o also exists between model and prototype to test the
performance of turbine.

18. Surge Tanks
When the load on the generator decreases the governor reduces the rate of flow of water striking
the runner in order to maintain the constant speed for the runner. But the sudden reduction of the
rate of flow in the penstock may lead to setting up of water hammer in the pipe, which may cause
excessive inertia pressure in the pipeline due to which the pipe may burst. Deflector and relief
valves are provided to 'avoid the sudden reduction of the rate of flow in the penstock.
But neither of these devices is of any assistance when the load on the generator increases and the
turbine is in need of more water. Thus in order to fulfill both the above noted requirements, in
addition to the above noted devices certain other devices such as surge tank and forebay are
usually employed.
Surge tanks are employed in the case of high and medium head hydro-power plants where the
penstock is very long, while forebays are suitable for medium and low head hydro-power plants
where the length of the penstock is short.
An ordinary surge tank is a cylindrical open-topped storage reservoir, as shown in Fig. 30, which
is connected to the penstock at a point as close as possible to the turbine.

Fig. 28 Surge Tanks and its types

The upper lip of tank is kept well above the maximum water level in the supply reservoir. When
the load on the turbine is steady and normal and there are no velocities variations in the pipeline
there will be a normal pressure gradient oaa
1
.
The water surface in the surge tank will be lower than the reservoir surface by an amount equal
to the friction head loss in the pipe connecting the reservoir and the surge tank. When the load on
the generator is reduced, turbine gates are closed and the water moving towards the turbine has
to move backward. The rejected water is then stored in the surge tank in the space between levels
o and b and a rising pressure gradient obb
l
is developed.
The retarding head so built up in the surge tank reduces the velocity of flow in the pipeline
corresponding to the reduced discharge required by the turbine.
When the load on the generator increases, the governor opens the turbine gates to increase the
rate of flow entering the runner. The increased demand of water by the turbine is partly met by
the water stored between levels a and c in the surge tank. As such the water level in the surge
tank falls and a falling pressure gradient occ
1
is developed. In other words, the surge tank
develops an accelerating head which increases the velocity of flow in the pipeline to a value
corresponding to the increased discharge required by the turbine.
The various other types of surge tanks are also shown in Fig. 30.
Type (a) is a conical type surge tank,
Type (b) has an internal bell mouth spillway which permits the overflow to be easily disposed of.
Type (c) is known as the differential surge tank, which is provided with a central riser pipe
having small ports or holes at its lower end. The main advantage of this is that for the same
stabilising effects its capacity may be less than that of a simple cylindrical surge tank. This is so
because in a differential tank retarding and accelerating heads are developed more promptly than
in a simple surge tank in which the heads only built-up gradually as the tank fills. Moreover no
water is spilled to waste from the differential tank.
Type (d) is also similar in performance to the differential tank, but it is suitable when appropriate
.earth or rock excavation can be carried out.

19. Selection of turbines
(i) Based on Head and Specific speed
S. No. Head (m) Type of Turbine Specific Sped
1. 300 or more Pelton Wheel
Single or multiple jet
8.5 to 47 (SI units)
10-55 (metric)
2. 150-300 Pelton Wheel
Francis Turbine
30-85 (SI units)
35-100 (metric)
3. 60-150 Francis Turbine
Deriaz Turbine
85-188 (SI units)
100-220 (metric)
4. Less than 60 Kaplan turbine
Propeller turbine
Deriaz or tubular turbine
188-860 (SI units)
220-1000 (metric)

(ii) Part Load Operation: The variability of load will influence the choice of turbine if the head
lies between 150m to 300 m or lies below 30m. For higher ranges of heads, Pelton should be
used, for less than 30m Kaplan should be preferred.
(iii) Based on operational range

Fig. 29 Turbine selection based on operational range

Problems on Pelton or Impulse Turbines
Example
The head at the base of the nozzle of a Pelton wheel is 640 m. The outlet vane angle of the
bucket is 15
o
. The relative velocity at the outlet is reduced by 15% due to friction along the
vanes. If the discharge at outlet is without whirl find the ratio of bucket speed to the jet speed. If
the jet diameter is 100 mm while the wheel diameter is 1.2 m, find the speed of the turbine in
rpm, the force exerted by the jet on the wheel, the Power developed and the hydraulic efficiency.
Take C
v
=0.97.

Solution:
H = 640 m; |=15
o
; V
r1
= 0.85 V
r2
; V
w2
= 0; d = 100 mm; D = 1.2 m;
C
v
= 0.97; K
u
= ?; N = ?; F
x
= ?; P = ?; q
h
= ?
We know that the absolute velocity of jet is given by
74 . 109 640 10 2 97 . 0 2 = = = H g C V
v
m/s
Fig. A Velocity triangle
Let the bucket speed be u
Relative velocity at inlet = V
r1
= V
1
-u = 109.74-u
Relative velocity at outlet = V
r2
= (1-0.15)V
r1
= 0.85(109.74-u)
But V
r2
cos| = u 0.85(109.74-u)cos15
Hence u = 49.48 m/s
u
1
Vr
1

V
1
=Vw
1

u
Deflection angle
Vr
2

u
2

Vw
2
=0
V
2
=V
f2

|
|
V
f1
=0
But
60
N D
u
t
=
5 . 787
2 . 1
48 . 49 60 60
=
= =
t t D
u
N rpm (Ans)
Jet ratio = m = 45 . 0
74 . 109
48 . 49
= =
V
u

Weight of water supplied = Q =
2 2
74 . 109 1 . 0
4
1000 10
t
= 8.62kN/s
Force exerted = ( )
2 1 1 w w x
V V V a F =
But V
w1
= V
1
and V
w2
= 0
( ) 58 . 94 74 . 109 1 . 0
4
1000
2
2
= =
t
x
F kN
Work done/second = s kN u F
x
/ 82 . 4679 48 . 49 58 . 94 = =
Kinetic Energy/second =
3 2 3
1
74 . 109 1 . 0
4
1000
2
1
2
1
=
t
V a
= 5189.85kN/s
Hydraulic Efficiency = % 17 . 90 100
85 . 5189
82 . 4679
= = =
Energy/s Kinetic
done/s Work
h
q

Example
A PELTON wheel turbine is having a mean runner diameter of 1.0 m and is running at 1000
rpm. The net head is 100.0 m. If the side clearance is 20 and discharge is 0.1m
3
/s, find the
power available at the nozzle and hydraulic efficiency of the turbine.
Solution:
D = 1.0 m; N = 1000 rpm; H = 100.0 m; | = 20
o
; Q = 0.1 m
3
/s;
WD/s = ? and q
h
= ?
Assume C
v
= 0.98

Fig. B Velocity triangle
We know that the velocity of the jet is given by
m/s H g C V
v
83 . 43 1000 10 2 98 . 0 2 = = =
The absolute velocity of the vane is given by
m/s
N D
u 36 . 52
60
1000 1
60
=

= =
t t

This situation is impracticable and hence the data has to be modified. Clearly state the
assumption as follows:
Assume H = 700 m (Because it is assumed that the typing and seeing error as 100 for 700)
Absolute velocity of the jet is given by
m/s H g C V
v
96 . 115 700 10 2 98 . 0 2 = = =
Power available at the nozzle is the given by work done per second
WD/second = Q H = g Q H = 1000x10x0.1x700 = 700 kW
Hydraulic Efficiency is given by
( )| | ( ) % 07 . 96 ) 20 cos 1 ( 36 . 52 96 . 115
96 . 115
36 . 52 2
cos 1
2
2 1 2
1
= +
= + = | q u V
V
u
h

Example
A Pelton wheel has a mean bucket speed of 10 m/s with a jet of water flowing at the rate of 700
lps under a head of 30 m. The buckets deflect the jet through an angle of 160. Calculate the
power given by water to the runner and the hydraulic efficiency of the turbine. Assume the
coefficient of nozzle as 0.98.
Solution:
u = 10 m/s; Q = 0.7 m
3
/s; | = 180-160 = 20
o
; H = 30 m; C
v
= 0.98;
WD/s = ? and q
h
= ?
Assume g = 10m/s
2

m/s H g C V
v
24 30 10 2 98 . 0 2 = = =
V
r1
= V
1
-u = 24 10 = 14 m/s
Assuming no shock and frictional losses we have V
r1
= V
r2
= 14 m/s
V
w2
= V
r2
Cos | - u = 14 x Cos 20 10 = 3.16 m/s
We know that the Work done by the jet on the vane is given by
WD/s | | | |
2 1 2 1 1 w w w w
V V u Q u V V V a + = + = as Q = aV
1

| | 12 . 190 16 . 3 24 10 7 . 0 1000 = + = kN-m/s (Ans)

Fig. C Velocity Triangle
Input per sec = KE/s
2 2
1
3
1
24 7 . 0 1000
2
1
2
1
2
1
= = = V Q V a

201.6 = kN/s

Hydraulic Efficiency = Output/Input = 190.12/201.6 = 94.305%

It can also be directly calculated by the derived equation as
( )| | ( )| | 94.29% u V
V
u
h
= +
= + = 20 cos 1 10 24
24
10 2
cos 1
2
2 1 2
1
| q (Ans)
Example
A Pelton wheel has to develop 13230 kW under a net head of 800 m while running at a speed of
600 rpm. If the coefficient of Jet C
y
= 0.97, speed ratio | = 0.46 and the ratio of the Jet diameter
is 1 /16 of wheel diameter. Calculate:
1. Pitch circle diameter
2. the diameter of jet
3. the quantity of water supplied to the wheel
4. the number of Jets required.
Assume overall efficiency as 85%.
Solution:
P = 13239 kW; H = 800 m; N = 600 rpm; C
v
= 0.97; | = 0.46 (Speed ratio)
m
19.2
N
u
D 22 . 1
300
60 60
=
= =
t t
(Ans)
Single jet Pelton turbine is assumed.
The diameter of jet is given by the discharge continuity equation
171875 . 2 . 39
4 4
2 2
0 d V d Q = =
t t

Hence d = 74.7 mm
The design parameters are
Single jet
Pitch Diameter = 1.22 m
Jet diameter = 74.7 mm
Jet Ratio = 32 . 16
0747 . 0
22 . 1
= = =
d
D
m
No. of Buckets = 0.5xm + 15 = 24
Example
It is desired to generate 1000 kW of power and survey reveals that 450 m of static head and a
minimum flow of 0.3m
3
/s are available. Comment whether the task can be accomplished by
installing a Pelton wheel run at 1000 rpm and having an overall efficiency of 80%.
Further, design the Pelton wheel assuming suitable data for coefficient of velocity and coefficient
of drag.
Solution:
P = 1000 kW; H = 450 m; Q = 0.3 m
3
/s; N = 1000 rpm; q
o
= 0.8
Assume C
v
= 0.98; K
u
=0.45; = 1000 kg/m
3
; g = 10 m/s
2
74 . 0
450 3 . 0 1000 10
10 1000
3
=

= = =
H Q
P
Input
Output
o

q
For the given conditions of P, Q and H, it is not possible to achieve the desired efficiency of
80%.
To decide whether the task can be accomplished by a Pelton turbine compute the specific speed
N
s
.
4
5
H
P N
N
s
= ;
Here N is the speed of runner, P is the power developed in kW and H is the head available at the
inlet.
35 25 . 15
450
1000 1000
4
5
< = =
s
N
Hence the installation of single jet Pelton wheel is justified.
Absolute velocity of jet is given by
m/s H g C V
v
97 . 92 450 10 2 98 . 0 2 = = =
Absolute velocity of vane is given by
19.2 H g u = = = 80 10 2 48 . 0 2 | m/s
The absolute velocity of vane is also given by
60
N D
u
t
= and hence
m
19.2
N
u
D 22 . 1
300
60 60
=
= =
t t
(Ans)
Single jet Pelton turbine is assumed
The diameter of jet is given by the discharge continuity equation
171875 . 2 . 39
4 4
2 2
0 d V d Q = =
t t

Hence d = 74.7 mm
The design parameters are
Single jet
Pitch Diameter = 1.22 m
Jet diameter = 74.7 mm
Jet Ratio = 32 . 16
0747 . 0
22 . 1
= = =
d
D
m
No. of Buckets = 0.5xm + 15 = 24

Example
A double jet Pelton wheel develops 895 MKW with an overall efficiency of 82% under a head of
60m. The speed ratio = 0.46, jet ratio = 12 and the nozzle coefficient = 0.97. Find the jet
diameter, wheel diameter and wheel speed in RPM.
Solution:
No. of jets = n = 2; P = 895 kW; q
o
= 0.82; H = 60 m; K
u
= 0.46; m = 12;
C
v
= 0.97; D = ?; d = ?; N = ?
We know that the absolute velocity of jet is given by
6 . 33 60 10 2 97 . 0 2 = = = H g C V
v
m/s
The absolute velocity of vane is given by
93 . 15 60 10 2 46 . 0 2 = = = H g K u
u
m/s
Overall efficiency is given by
H Q
P
o

q = and hence 819 . 1
60 82 . 0 10 10
10 895
3
3
=

= =
H
P
Q
q
m
3
/s
Discharge per jet = 9095 . 0
2
819 . 1
= = =
n
Q
q m
3
/s
From discharge continuity equation, discharge per jet is also given by
m d
d
V
d
q
186 . 0
9095 . 0 6 . 33
4 4
2 2
=
= =
t t

Further, the jet ratio
d
D
m = = 12
Hence D = 2.232 m
Also
60
N D
u
t
= and hence 136
232 . 2
93 . 15 60 60
=
= =
t t D
u
N rpm

Note: Design a Pelton wheel: Width of bucket = 5d and depth of bucket is 1.2d

Example
The following data is related to a Pelton wheel:
Head at the base of the nozzle = 80m; Diameter of the jet = 100 mm; Discharge of the nozzle =
0.3m
3
/s; Power at the shaft = 206 kW; Power absorbed in mechanical resistance = 4.5 kW.
Determine
1. Power lost in the nozzle and
2. Power lost due to hydraulic resistance in the runner.
Solution
H = 80 m; d = 0.1m; a = td
2
= 0.007854 m
2
; Q = 0.3 m
3
/s; SP = 206 kW; Power absorbed in
mechanical resistance = 4.5 kW.
From discharge continuity equation, we have,
Q = a x V = 0.007854 x V 0.3
V = 38.197 m/s
Power at the base of the nozzle = g Q H = 1000 x 10 x 0.3 x 80 = 240 kW
Power corresponding to the kinetic energy of the jet = a V
3
= 218.85 kW
Power at the base of the nozzle = Power of the jet + Power lost in the nozzle
Power lost in the nozzle = 240 218.85 = 21.15 kW (Ans)
Power at the base of the nozzle = Power at the shaft + Power lost in the (nozzle +
runner + due to mechanical resistance)
Power lost in the runner = 240 (206 + 21.15 + 4.5) = 5.35 kW (Ans)

Example
The water available for a Pelton wheel is 4m
3
/s and the total head from reservoir to the
nozzle is 250 m. The turbine has two runners with two jets per runner. All the four jets
have the same diameters. The pipeline is 3000 m long. The efficiency of power
transmission through the pipeline and the nozzle is 91% and efficiency of each runner is
90%. The velocity coefficient of each nozzle is 0.975 and coefficient of friction 4f for
the pipe is 0.0045. Determine:
1. The power developed by the turbine;
2. The diameter of the jet
3. The diameter of the pipeline.
Solution
Q = 4 m
3
/s; H
g
= 250 m;
No. of jets = n = 2 x 2 = 4;
Length of pipe = l = 3000 m;
Efficiency of the pipeline and the nozzle = 0.91
Efficiency of the runner = q
h
= 0.9; C
v
= 0.975; 4f = 0.0045
Efficiency of power transmission through pipelines and nozzle =
250
250
91 . 0
f
g
f g
h
H
h H

=
= q
Hence h
f
= 22.5 m
Net head on the turbine = H = H
g
h
f
= 227.5 m
Velocity of jet = m/s 65.77 H g C V
v
= = = 5 . 227 10 2 975 . 0 2
1

(i) Power at inlet of the turbine = WP = Kineti c energy/second = a V
3
WP = x 4 x 65.77
2
= 8651.39 kW

9 . 0 = =
8651.39
turbine by developed Power
WP
turbine by developed Power
h
q
Hence power developed by turbine = 0.9 x 8651.39 = 7786.25 kW (Ans)
(ii) Discharge per jet = /s m
jets of No.
discharge Total
q
3
0 . 1
4
0 . 4
= = =
But 77 . 65
4
0 . 1
4
2
1
2
= = d V d q
t t

Diameter of jet = d = 0.14 m (Ans)
(iii) If D is the diameter of the pipeline, then the head loss through the pipe is given by = h
f

5
2 2
3
2
4
D
Q L f
D g
V L f
h
f
= = (From Q=aV)
5 . 22
3
4 3000 0045 . 0
5
2

=
D
h
f

Hence D = 0.956 m (Ans)

Example
The three jet Pelton wheel is required to generate 10,000 kW under a net head of 400 m. The
blade at outlet is 15
o
and the reduction in the relative velocity while passing over the blade is 5%.
If the overall efficiency of the wheel is 80%, C
v
= 0.98 and the speed ratio = 0.46, then find:
1. the diameter of the jet,
2. total flow
3. the force exerted by a jet on the buckets
4. the speed of the runner.
Solution:
No of jets = 3; Total Power P = 10,000 kW; Net head H = 400 m; Blade angle = | = 15
o
; Vr
2
=
0.95 Vr
1
; Overall efficiency = q
o
= 0.8; C
v
= 0.98; Speed ratio = K
u
= 0.45; Frequency = f = 50
Hz/s.
We know that
400 10 1000
10 000 , 10
8 . 0
3

= =
Q H Q g
P
o

q
Q = 3.125 m
3
/s (Ans)
Discharge through one nozzle = /s m
n
Q
q
3
042 . 1
3
125 . 3
= = =
Velocity of the jet = /s m H g C V
3
v
65 . 87 400 10 2 98 . 0 2
1
= = =
But 65 . 87
4
042 . 1
4
2
1
2
= = d V d q
t t

d = 123 mm (Ans)
Velocity of the Vane = /s m 14 . 41 400 10 2 46 . 0 2
3
= = = H g K u
u

Vr
1
= (V
1
u
1
)=87.6541.14 = 46.51 m/s
Vr
2
= 0.95 Vr
1
= 0.95 x 46.51 = 44.18 m/s
V
w1
= V
1
= 87.65 m/s
V
w2
= Vr
2
cos |u
2
= 44.18 cos 1541.14 = 1.53 m/s
Force exerted by the jet on the buckets = F
x
= q(Vw
1
+Vw
2
)
F
x
= 1000 x 1.042 (87.65+1.53) = 92.926 kN (Ans)
Jet ratio = (Assumed)
d
D
m 10 =
D = 1.23 m
60
N D
u
t
=
Hence
23 . 1
14 . 41 60 60
= =
t t D
u
N =638.8 rpm (Ans)

Problems on Reaction Tutbines
Example
The external diameter of an inward flow reaction turbine is 0.5 m. The width of the wheel at inlet
is 150 mm and the velocity of flow at inlet is 1.5 m/s. Find the rate of flow passing through the
turbine.
Solution:
D
1
= 0.5 m, B
1
= 0.15 m, V
f1
= 1.5 m/s, Q = ?
Discharge through the turbine = Q = t D
1
B
1
V
f1
= t x 0.5 x 0.15 x 1.5
Q = 0.353 m
3
/s (Ans)

Example
The external and internal diameters of an inward flow reaction turbine are 600 mm and 200 mm
respectively and the breadth at inlet is 150 mm. If the velocity of flow through the runner is
constant at 1.35m
3
/s, find the discharge through turbine and the width of wheel at outlet.
Solution:
D
1
= 0.6 m, D
2
= 0.2 m, B
1
= 0.15 m, V
f1
= V
f2
= 1.35 m/s, Q = ?, B
2
= ?
Discharge through the turbine = Q = t D
1
B
1
V
f1
= t x 0.6 x 0.15 x 1.35
Q = 0.382 m
3
/s (Ans)
Also discharge is given by Q = t D
2
B
2
V
f2
= t x 0.2 x B
2
x 1.35 0.382
B
2
= 0.45 m/s (Ans)

Example
An inward flow reaction turbine running at 500 rpm has an external diameter is 700 mm and a
width of 180 mm. If the guide vanes are at 20 to the wheel tangent and the absolute velocity of
water at inlet is 25 m/s, find (a) discharge through the turbine (b) inlet vane angle.
Solution:
N = 500 rpm, D
1
= 0.7 m, B
1
= 0.18 m, a = 20, V
1
= 25 m/s, Q = ?, u = ?
We know that the peripheral velocity is given by
s m
N D
u / 33 . 18
60
500 7 . 0
60
1
1
=

= =
t
t

From inlet velocity triangle, we have
V
f1
= V
1
Sin 20 = 8.55 m/s
Vw
1
= V
1
Cos 20 = 23.49 m/s

657 . 1
33 . 18 49 . 23
55 . 8
1 1
1
=
=
u V
V
Tan
w
f
u
u = 58.89 (Ans)
Q = t D
1
B
1
V
f1
= t x 0.7 x 0.18 x 8.55 = 3.384 m
3
/s (Ans)

Example
A reaction turbine works at 450 rpm under a head of 120 m. Its diameter at inlet is 1.2 m and the
flow area is 0.4 m
2
. The angle made by the absolute and relative velocities at inlet is 20 and 60
respectively with the tangential velocity. Determine (i) the discharge through the turbine (ii)
power developed (iii) efficiency. Assume radial discharge at outlet.
Solution:
N = 450 rpm, H = 120 m, D
1
= 1.2 m, a
1
= 0.4 m
2
, o = 20 and u = 60
Q = ?, q = ?, Vw
2
= 0
We know that the peripheral velocity is given by
s m
N D
u / 27 . 28
60
450 2 . 1
60
1
1
=

= =
t
t

27 . 28
60
1
1
1 1
1
=
w
f
w
f
V
V
Tan
u V
V
Tanu

Hence V
f1
= (V
w1
28.27) Tan 60 (01)
Further 20
1
1
Tan
V
V
Tan
w
f
= = o
Hence V
f1
= (V
w1
) tan 20 (02)
From equations 1 and 2, we get
(V
w1
28.27) tan 60 = V
w1
tan 20
Hence V
w1
= 35.79 m/s
V
f1
= 35.79 x tan 20 = 13.03 m/s
Discharge Q = t D
1
B
1
V
f1
= a
1
V
f1
= 0.4 x 13.03 = 5.212 m
3
/s (Ans)
Work done per unit weight of water =
( ) ( ) N m kN u V
g
w
/ 178 . 101 27 . 28 79 . 35
10
1 1
1 1
= =
Water Power or input per unit weight = H = 120 kN-m/N
Hydraulic efficiency = % 31 . 84
120
178 . 101
= = q

Example
The peripheral velocity at inlet of an outward flow reaction turbine is 12 m/s. The internal
diameter is 0.8 times the external diameter. The vanes are radial at entrance and the vane angle at
outlet is 20. The velocity of flow through the runner at inlet is 4 m/s. If the final discharge is
radial and the turbine is situated 1 m below tail water level, determine:
The guide blade angle
The absolute velocity of water leaving the guides
The head on the turbine
The hydraulic efficiency
Solution:
u
1
= 12 m/s, D
1
= 0.8 D
2
, u = 90, | = 20 , V
f1
= 4 m/s,Vw
2
= 0, Pressure head at outlet = 1m, o =
?, V
1
= ?, H = ?, q
h
= ?
From inlet velocity triangle,
12
4
1
1
= =
u
V
Tan
f
o , Hence o = 18.44

Absolute velocity of water leaving guide vanes is
m/s V u V
f
65 . 12 4 12
2 2 2
1
2
1 1
= + = + =
60 60
2
2
1
1
N D
u and
N D
u
t t
= =
Comparing the above 2 equations, we have
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
60 60
D
u
D
u
hence and
D
u
D
u
= =
t t

Hence m/s u
D
D
u 15
8 . 0
12
1
1
2
2
= = =
From outlet velocity triangle, V
2
= V
f2
= u
2
tan 20 = 15 tan 20 = 5.46 m/s
As Vw
2
= 0

Work done per unit weight of water = m/N kN
g
u Vw
=
= 4 . 14
10
12 12
1 1

Head on turbine H
Energy Head at outlet = WD per unit weight + losses
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
g
u Vw
g
V
H
1 1
2
2
2
1 and hence
m
g
H 89 . 16 4 . 14
2
46 . 5
1
2
= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
Hydraulic efficiency = % 26 . 85 100
89 . 16 10
12 12
1 1
=
= =
H g
u Vw
h
q
Example
An inward flow water turbine has blades the inner and outer radii of which are 300 mm and 50
mm respectively. Water enters the blades at the outer periphery with a velocity of 45 m/s making
an angle of 25 with the tangent to the wheel at the inlet tip. Water leaves the blade with a flow
velocity of 8 m/s. If the blade angles at inlet and outlet are 35 and 25 respectively, determine
1. Speed of the turbine wheel
2. Work done per N of water
Solution:
D
1
= 0.6 m; D
2
= 0.1 m, V
1
= 45 m/s, o = 25, V
2
= 8 m/s, u = 35, | = 25, N = ?, WD/N = ?
423 . 0 25
1
1
= = = Sin
V
V
Sin
f
o
Hence V
f1
= 0.423 x 45 = 19.035 m/s
466 . 0 25 tan
1
1
= = =
w
f
V
V
Tano
Hence Vw
1
= 40.848 m/s
1 1 1
1
848 . 40
035 . 10
7 . 0 35 tan
u u V
V
Tan
w
f
= =
= u
u
1
= 13.655 m/s
60
1
1
N D
u
t
= and hence RPM 434.65
D
u
N =
= =
6 . 0
655 . 13 60
60
1
1
t t
(Ans)

m/s
N D
u 552 . 4
60
3 . 869 1 . 0
60
2
2
=

= =
t
t

Ignoring shock losses, V
r2
= V
r1
= m/s
V
f
187 . 33
35 sin
035 . 19
sin
1
= =
u

Vw
2
= V
r2
cos | - u
2
= 33.187 cos 25 4.552 = 25.526 m/s
Work done per unit weight of water = ( )
2 2 1 1
1
u V u V
g
w w
+
( ) m/s
g
N WD 4 . 67 552 . 4 526 . 25 655 . 13 848 . 40
1
/ = + = (Ans)

Example
A reaction turbine 0.5 m diameter develops 200 kW while running at 650 rpm and requires a
discharge of 2700 m
3
/hour; The pressure head at entrance to the turbine is 28 m, the elevation of
the turbine casing above the tail water level is 1.8 m and the water enters the turbine with a
velocity of 3.5 m/s. Calculate (a) The effective head and efficiency, (b) The speed, discharge and
power if the same machine is made to operate under a head of 65 m
Solution:
D = 0.5 m, P = 200 kW, N = 650 rpm, Q = 2700/60
2
= 0.75 m
3
/s,
V
1
= 3.5 m/s, m
g
p
28
1
=

The effective head = H = Head at entry to runner Kinetic energy in tail race
+ elevation of turbine above tailrace
m 29.1875
g
V
g
p
H = +
= = 8 . 1
10 2
5 . 3
28
2
2
2
2 1
(Ans)
Hydraulic efficiency = % 36 . 91 100
1875 . 29 75 . 0 10 1000
10 200
3
0
=

= =
H Q g
P
q
Further unit quantities are given by
Unit speed =
2
2
1
1
H
N
H
N
N
u
= =
Unit Discharge =
2
2
1
1
H
Q
H
Q
Q
u
= =
Unit Power =
2
3
2
2
2
3
1
1
H
P
H
P
P
u
= =
31 . 120
65 1875 . 29
650
2
= = =
N
N
u

N
2
= 969.97 rpm (Ans)
1388 . 0
65 1875 . 29
75 . 0
2
= = =
Q
Q
u

Q
2
= 1.119 m
3
/s (Ans)
268 . 1
65 1875 . 29
200
2
3
2
2
3
= = =
P
P
u

P
2
= 664.49 kW (Ans)

Example
A Francis turbine has inlet wheel diameter of 2 m and outlet diameter of 1.2 m. The runner runs
at 250 rpm and water flows at 8 cumecs. The blades have a constant width of 200 mm. If the
vanes are radial at inlet and the discharge is radially outwards at exit, make calculations for the
angle of guide vane at inlet and blade angle at outlet
Solution:
D
1
= 2 m, D
2
= 1.2 m, N = 250 rpm, Q = 8 m
3
/s, b = 0.2 m, Vw
1
= u
1
,
Vw
2
= 0, o = ?, | = ?
60
1
1
N D
u
t
= m/s 18 . 26
60
250 2
=

=
t

m/s
N D
u 71 . 15
60
250 2 . 1
60
2
2
=

= =
t
t

Q = t D
1
b V
f1
= t D
2
b V
f2

8 = t x 2 x 0.2 x V
f1

Hence V
f1
= 6.366 m/s
Similarly 8 = t x 1.2 x 0.2 x V
f2

V
f2
= 10.61 m/s
18 . 26
366 . 6
tan
1
1
= =
u
V
f
o
o = 13.67(Ans)
71 . 15
61 . 10
tan
2
2
= =
u
V
f
|
| = 34.03 (Ans)

Example
Determine the overall and hydraulic efficiencies of an inward flow reaction turbine using the
following data. Output Power = 2500 kW, effective head = 45 m, diameter of runner = 1.5 m,
width of runner = 200 mm, guide vane angle = 20, runner vane angle at inlet = 60 and specific
speed = 100.
Solution:
P = 2500 kW, H = 45 m, D
1
= 1.5 m, b
1
= 0.2 m, u = 20, o = 60,
N
s
= 110, q
o
= ?, q
h
= ?

We know that specific speed is given by
4
5
H
P N
N
s
= and hence rpm
P
H N
N
s
233
2500
45 100
4
5
4
5
=
= =
s m
N D
u / 3 . 18
60
233 5 . 1
60
1
1
=

= =
t t

But from inlet velocity triangle, we have
u o tan tan
1 1
1
f f
V V
u =
60 tan 20 tan
3 . 18
1 1 f f
V V
= and hence V
f1
= 8.43 m/s
m/s 16 . 23
0 2 tan
43 . 8
tan
1
1
= = =
o
f
w
V
V
V
w2
= 0 and hence
% 18 . 94 100
45 10
3 . 18 16 . 23
1 1
=
= =
H g
u Vw
h
q (Ans)
Q = t D
1
b
1
V
f1
= t x 1.5 x 0.2 x 8.43 = 7.945 m
3
/s
% 93 . 69 100
45 945 . 7 10 1000
10 2500
3
=

= =
H Q g
P
o
q (Ans)

u
2
Vr
2
V
f2
=V
2

|
o
u
u
1

V
1

Vr
1

V
f1

Vw
1

Example
Determine the output Power, speed, specific speed and vane angle at exit of a Francis runner
using the following data. Head = 75 m, Hydraulic efficiency = 92%, overall efficiency = 86 %,
runner diameters = 1 m and 0.5 m, width = 150 mm and guide blade angle = 18. Assume that
the runner vanes are set normal to the periphery at inlet.
Solution:
Data: H = 75 m, q
h
= 0.92, q
o
= 0.86, D
1
= 1 m, D
2
= 0.5 m, o = 18,
Vw
1
= u
1
, P = ?, N = ?, | = ?
H g
u
H g
u Vw
h
2
1 1 1
= = q
u
1
2
= 0.92 x 10 x 75 = 690
u
1
= 26.27 m/s
s m
N N D
u / 27 . 26
60
0 . 1
60
1
1
=

= =
t t

N = 501.7 RPM
V
f1
= u
1
tan o = 26.27 x tan 18 = 8.54 m/s
Q = t D
1
b
1
V
f1
= t x 1.0 x 0.15 x 8.54 = 4.02 m
3
/s
2
2
1
1
D
u
D
u
= and hence u
2
= 0.5 x u
1
= 13.135 m/s

Assuming V
f1
= V
f2

From outlet velocity triangle, we have
65 . 0
135 . 13
54 . 8
tan
2
2
= = =
u
V
f
|
Hence | = 33
86 . 0
75 02 . 4 10 1000
=

= =
P
H Q g
P
o
q
Hence P = 2592.9 kW (Ans)

Specific speed = RPM 75 . 115
75
9 . 2592 7 . 501
4
5
4
5
= = =
H
P N
N
s

Example
The following data is given for a Francis turbine. Net Head = 60 m; speed N = 700 rpm; Shaft
power = 294.3 kW; q
o
= 84%; q
h
= 93%; flow ratio = 0.2; breadth ratio n = 0.1; Outer diameter
of the runner = 2 x inner diameter of the runner. The thickness of the vanes occupies 5%
circumferential area of the runner, velocity of flow is constant at inlet and outlet and discharge is
radial at outlet. Determine: Guide blade angle, Runner vane angles at inlet and outlet, Diameters
of runner at inlet and outlet, Width of wheel at inlet.
Solution
H = 60 m; N = 700 rpm; P = 294.3 kW; q
o
= 84%; q
h
= 93%;
flow ratio = 2 . 0
2
1
=
H g
V
f

m/s 928 . 6 60 10 2 2 . 0
1
= =
f
V

Breadth ratio 1 . 0
1
1
=
D
B

D
1
= 2 x D
2
V
f1
= V
f2
= 6.928 m/s
Thickness of vanes = 5% of circumferential area of runner
Actual area of flow = 0.95 D
1
B
1

Discharge at outlet = Radial and hence V
w2
= 0 and V
f2
= V
2

We know that the overall efficiency is:
60 10 1000
10 3 . 294
84 . 0 ;
3
0

= =
Q H Q g
P
q
Q = 0.584 m
3
/s
Q = 0.95 D
1
B
1
V
f1
=0.95 D
1
x (0.1 D
1
) x 6.928 = 0.584
Hence, D
1
= 0.531 m (Ans)
1 . 0
1
1
=
D
B
and B
1
= 53.1 mm (Ans)
m/s 46 . 19
60
700 531 . 0
60
1
1
=

= =
t t N D
u
Hydraulic efficiency
60 10
46 . 19
93 . 0 ;
1 1 1
= =
w w
h
V
H g
u V
q
V
w1
= 28.67 m/s
From Inlet velocity triangle 242 . 0
67 . 28
928 . 6
tan
1
1
= = =
w
f
V
V
o
Hence Guide blade angle = = 13.58 (Ans)
752 . 0
46 . 19 67 . 28
928 . 6
tan
1 1
1
=
=
u V
V
w
f
u
Vane angle at inlet = u = 37 (Ans)
( )
m/s 73 . 9
60
700
2
531 . 0
60
2
2
=

= =
t
t N D
u
From outlet velocity triangle, we have
712 . 0
73 . 9
928 . 6
tan
2
2
= = =
u
V
f
|
| = 35.45(Ans)
Diameters at inlet and outlet are D
1
= 0.531m and D
2
= 0.2655 m

Example
A Kaplan turbine develops 9000 kW under a net head of 7.5 m. Overall efficiency of the wheel is
86% The speed ratio based on outer diameter is 2.2 and the flow ratio is 0.66. Diameter of the
boss is 0.35 times the external diameter of the wheel. Determine the diameter of the runner and
the specific speed of the runner.
Solution:
P = 9000 kW; H = 7.5 m; q
o
= 0.86; Speed ratio = 2.2; flow ratio = 0.66;
D
b
= 0.35
2 . 2
2
1
=
H g
u

m/s 94 . 26 5 . 7 10 2 2 . 2
1
= = u

66 . 0
2
1
=
H g
V
f

m/s 08 . 8 5 . 7 10 2 66 . 0
1
= =
f
V
5 . 7 10 1000
10 9000
86 . 0 ;
3
0

= =
Q H Q g
P
q

Q = 139.5 m
3
/s
( ) | | ( ) 5 . 139 08 . 8 35 . 0
4 4
2 2
1
2 2
= =
o o f b o
D D V D D Q
t t

D
o
= 5.005 m (Ans)
m/s 94 . 26
60
005 . 5
60
=

= =
N N D
u
o
t t

N = 102.8 rpm (Ans) )
(Ans) rpm 76 . 785
5 . 7
9000 8 . 102
4
5
4
5
= = =
H
P N
N
s

Example
A Kaplan turbine working under a head of 25 m develops 16,000 kW shaft power. The outer
diameter of the runner is 4 m and hub diameter is 2 m. The guide blade angle is 35. The
hydraulic and overall efficiency are 90% and 85% respectively. If the velocity of whirl is zero at
outlet, determine runner vane angles at inlet and outlet and speed of turbine.
Solution
H = 25 m; P = 16,000 kW; D
b
= 2 m; D
o
= 4 m;
o = 35
0
q
h
= 0.9;

q
o
= 0.85; V
w2
= 0; u = ?; | = ?; N = ?
25 10 1000
10 16000
85 . 0
;
3
0

=
=
Q
H Q g
P
q

Q = 75.29 m
3
/s
( ) ( ) 29 . 75 2 4
4 4
1
2 2
1
2 2
= =
f f b o
V V D D Q
t t

V
f1
= 7.99 m/s
From inlet velocity triangle,
1
1
tan
w
f
V
V
= o

m/s 41 . 11
35 tan
99 . 7
1
= =
w
V

From Hydraulic efficiency
H g
u V
w
h
1 1
= q

25 10
41 . 11
9 . 0
1
=
u

u
1
= 19.72 m/s
9614 . 0
41 . 11 72 . 19
99 . 7
tan
1 1
1
=
=
w
f
V u
V
u

u = 43.88 (Ans)
For Kaplan turbine, u
1
= u
2
= 19.72 m/s and V
f1
= V
f2
= 7.99 m/s
From outlet velocity triangle
4052 . 0
72 . 19
99 . 7
tan
2
2
= = =
u
V
f
|

| = 22.06 (Ans)
m/s 72 . 19
60
4
60
2 1
=

= = =
N N D
u u
o
t t

N = 94.16 rpm (Ans)

Example
A Kaplan turbine works under a head of 22 m and runs at 150 rpm. The diameters of the runner
and the boss are 4.5 m and 12 m respectively. The flow ratio is 0.43. The inlet vane angle at the
extreme edge of the runner is 16319. If the turbine discharges radially at outlet, determine the
discharge, the hydraulic efficiency, the guide blade angle at the extreme edge of the runner and
the outlet vane angle at the extreme edge of the manner.
Solution:
H = 22 m; N = 150 rpm; D
o
= 4.5 m; D
b
= 2 m;
9 1 163 ' = '
o
u

43 . 0
2
1
=
H g
V
f
,

m/s 34 . 35
60
150 5 . 4
60
2 1
=

= = =
t t N D
u u
o

m/s 02 . 9 22 10 2 43 . 0
1
= =
f
V

( )
( )
1 1
1
180 tan
w
f
V u
V
= u

( )
( )
2997 . 0
34 . 35
02 . 9
19' 163 180 tan
1
=
=
w
V

V
w1
= 5.24 m/s
Hydraulic efficiency is given by
% 17 . 84
22 10
34 . 35 24 . 5
1 1
=
= =
H g
u V
w
h
q

72 . 1
24 . 5
02 . 9
tan
1
1
= = =
w
f
V
V
o

o = 59.85 (Ans)
2552 . 0
34 . 35
02 . 9
tan
2
2
= = =
u
V
f
|

o
32 . 14 = o

Example
A kaplan turbine is to be designed to develop 7,350 kW. The net available head is 5.5 m. Assume
that the speed ratio as 0.68 and the overall efficiency as 60%. The diameter of the boss is
rd
of
the diameter of the runner. Find the diameter of the runner, its speed and its specific speed.
Solution:
P = 7350 kW, H = 5.5 m

68 . 0
2
1
=
H g
V
f

m/s 13 . 7 5 . 5 10 2 68 . 0
1
= =
f
V

09 . 2
2
1
=
H g
u

m/s 07 . 23 5 . 5 10 2 2 . 2
1
= = u

5 . 5 10 1000
10 7350
6 . 0 ;
3
0

= =
Q H Q g
P
q

Q = 222.72 m
3
/s
( ) 72 . 222 13 . 7
3 4 4
2
2
1
2 2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
=
o
o f b o
D
D V D D Q
t t

D
o
= 6.69 m (Ans)
m/s 07 . 23
60
69 . 6
60
=

= =
N N D
u
o
t t

N=65.86 rpm (Ans)
(Ans) rpm 37 . 670
5 . 5
7350 86 . 65
4
5
4
5
= = =
H
P N
N
s

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