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02

imvqb

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03

imvqb

QK-1.2 : `jMZfve wZbwU NUbvq imvqbi DcwwZ evLvmn eYbv Ki|

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04

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05

imvqb

QK-1.4 : Zvgiv wbRiv c~iY Ki|

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06

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(carbon particles) Drcb nq, hv cvi Mvq Rgj ZvK Avgiv Kvwj ej _vwK| GKBfve KjKviLvbv I hvwK hvbevnb _K cwZwbqZ Kveb-WvB-A vBW Mvm Zwi nQ, hv cwieki Rb gvivZK
wZKi|
AwZwi mvi, KxUbvkK, mvevb, wWUviRU, mvy cfwZ gvwUK Ges b`x-bvjv I Lvj-we ji cvwbK `~wlZ
KiQ| gkvi Kqj ev Avivmji auvqv Avgiv wbtkvmi mv_ MnY Kwi| Kwg KmgwUKm&, is I flR
eenvi Kwi, hv ii gvag Avgv`i kixii wfZii wewfb Ask cuQ hvQ| Abw`K, Zvc ev kw
Zwii mv_ Drcb Kveb-WvB-A vBW evqyi mv_ wgk cwieki Zvcgvv ew KiQ|
Avgiv Rvwb, ivmvqwbK mvii AwZwi eenvi MvQi wZ nq ev MvQ gi hvq| Zgwb AwZ ^ evqyi
DcwwZZ KvV ev cvKwZK Mvm cvovj ^vi Rb wZKi Kveb-g bv-A vBW Zwi nq| Jlac
gvvwZwi meb GgbwK gZzI nZ cvi| Zvnj GUv cwivi h, fvjv djvdji Rb ivmvqwbK c`v_i
cwiwgZ eenvi AZ Riwi, Avi Zv GKgv imvqb mK my vbB wbwZ KiZ cvi| Aciw`K,
imvqb cvVi gvag ivmvqwbK c`v_i wewfb wZKviK w`K I SzuwK mK vbvRb me, hv Avgv`iK
mPZb bvMwiK wnme Mo ZzjZ cvi| Gi cvkvcvwk Avgiv wewfb mvgMx eenviKvix Ges cZKvix Dfq
ivmvqwbK c`v_i YvY weePbvc~eK G`i mwVK eenvi wbwZ Ki mgvR I cwiek ivq iZc~Y f~wgKv
ivLZ cvwi| Zvnj GUv h, cZKi imvqb mK vb _vKv AZxe Riywi|

1.5 imvqb Abymvb I MelYv cwqv

Kvbv welq m wRvmv Abymvbi i~c bq Ges Abymvb _KB MelYvi R| hgb cvwb mK
hw` c_g ck nq, GUv Kx? Zvnj cieZx ckUv ne, cvwb Kv_vq Kv_vq cvIqv hvq? wbqB Gi ci h
ckwUi D`K ne, Zv njv cvwb Kx w`q MwVZ? cvwb mK c_g wRvmvwU, wZxqwUi R w`qQ cvwb
Kv_vq cvIqv hvq? DiwU Abymvbi gvag Rvbv me h cvwbi Drm b`x, mvMi, ew, Sibv BZvw`| Avi
cvwbZ Kx Kx AvQ, Zvi Rb MelYvi cqvRb| Gfve AviI wRvmv Rve b`xi I mvMii cvwbZ Kx
Kx _vK? Avgiv Rvwb mvMii cvwb jeYv, Zvnj cii ckwU nZ cvi, mvMii cvwb _K Kxfve mycq
cvwb cvIqv hZ cvi? GUv njv h, GfveB Kvbv welqi Dci Abymvb I MelYv GK Acii
mv_ mwKZ Ges Zv MvQi gZv kvLv-c kvLvq wewZ jvf Ki| wb Abymvb I MelYv KvRi wewfb
avcmg~ni AvjvPbv Kiv njv|

08

imvqb

Abymvb I MelYv cwqvi c_g avc njv- welqe wbaviY ev mgmv wPwZ Kiv| welqe wbaviY
MelYvi GKwU iZc~Y avc| mywbw` j I Dk hv mgvR Z_v gvbeKjvY `iKvi ev fwelZ `iKvi
nZ cvi Ggb wPv Ki Abymvb I MelYvi welqe wbaviY Kiv nq| hgb cw_exZ mycq cvwbi
gvivZK msKU, hw`I Avgv`i `k ZZUv eySv hvq bv| Zvnj mycq cvwbi Abymvb Kiv Ges cvwbi Abvb
Drm _K mycq cvwb cvIqvi Rb MelYv GKwU iZc~Y welq eU| Abw`K, cw_exZ LwbR Rvjvwb
(fossil fuels) hgb cvKwZK Mvm, Kqjv, cUvwjqvg BZvw`i gRy` Kg AvmQ Ges ejv nq h, AvMvgx
GKk eQi Zv dzwiq hve| fwelZi K_v weePbv Ki weK Rvjvwbi Abymvb I MelYv GKwU AZxe
iZc~Y welq| welqe wbaviYi mgq cwiek, mvgvwRK AvPvi ev agxq Abyf~wZi K_vI weePbv Kiv nq|
Abymvbi welqe wVK nj Abymvb KvRK mdj Kivi Rb cwiKbv cYqb, AbywgZ wmv MVb I
cixY Kiv nq| welqe mK Z_ msMn, cixYi Rb ivmvqwbK I Abvb DcKiY msMn, cixYi
dj cv Z_-Dcv (data) msMn, wek-lY (analysis) I evLv (explanation) c`vb Ges djvdj
MnYI Abymvb KvRi mv_ mswk-|
welqe wbaviY
welqe mK
mgK vbvRb

KvRi cwiK
bv
cYqb

d
jvd
j mK
AvMvg aviYvKiY

cix
Y I Z_ D
cvmsMn

we
vb I gvbe
KjvY cfve
Z_- c
DvGi
msMVb I wek
- lY

QK- 1.5: Abym

vb I MelYv cwqvi wewfb avcmg~n|

wZxq avcwU njv welqe mK mgK vb ARb Kiv| Abymvb I MelYvi dj DvweZ e
gvbeKjvY eZxZ Avi Kvb Kvb KvR eeZ nZ cvi, cqvRbxq cixvi Rb eeZ c`v_ ^v I
cwieki Kx wZ KiZ cvi, Abymvb I MelYvi wewfb avci evwbK evLv mK I cixvi mgq h
Kvbv AbvKvwZ cwiwwZ mvgvj `qvi gZv h_ vbvRb I `Zv AvekK| welqe I welqe Dci
cixY msv c~e cKvwkZ wewfb evwbK Z_ msMn Kiv Abymvbi KvRi c_g kZ| hgb ai, Avgiv
mvBwUK GwmWhy dji Abymvb KiZ PvB| Zvnj Kvb-RvZxq d j mvBwUK GwmW _vKZ cvi Zvi aviYv
eBc ev evwbK Rvbvj (scientific journals) cKvwkZ Z_ _K RvbZ ne| mv_ mv_ mvBwUK GwmW
bvgK c`v_wU mve Kx Kx cixvi gvag kbv Kiv hZ cvi m Z_I msMn KiZ ne| cv Z_i
wfwZ AbywgZ wmv (hypothesis) MVb Kiv h, Kvb Kvb djjvZ mvBwUK GwmW _vKZ cvi Ges
Kvb Kvb cixvjvi viv mvBwUK GwmW (citric acid) kbv Kiv hvq| cwiKbv cYqbi mgq AekB
gv_vq ivLZ ne, b~bZg Kvb Kvb cixv bv Kij mvBwUK GwmWi kbvKiY c~Yv ne bv Ges wPwZ
cixvcwZjv _K evQvBc~eK mjvB weePbvq bqv DwPZ hjvi cqvRbxq DcKiY mnRjf I
cwiekeve|

imvqb

KvRi cwiKbv cYqb Kiv Abymvb I MelYv cwqvi ZZxq avc| welqe mK mgK vb I AbywgZ
wmv MVb KvRi cwiKbv cYqbK mnRZi Ki| Abymvb I MelYv cwqvi myweav_ cwiKbv cYqb
Gjvgjv fve bv Ki gvYymvi Kiv evbxq| A_vr h KvRi aviYv Qvov cii KvR i ev KvRi evLv
Kiv hve bv mUvK AvM iL cii KvRwU cwiKbvq bqv nq|
MelYvi cZvwkZ djvdj mK AvMvg aviYv Kiv Abymvb I MelYv cwqvi AviKwU iZc~Y avc| Kvbv
cixYi djvdj mK AvMB aviYv _vKj cv djvdj wbq Ah_v KZ~nj mw ne bv, ZvZ Ki
KvRi cii avcwUZ AMmi nIqv `yZ I mnR ne| GQvovI djvdj mK AvMvg aviYv KiZ cvij
KvRi cwiKbv cYqbI myweav nq, A_vr Kvbv KvRi djvdji Dci wfw Ki cii KvRwUi cwiKbv
Kgb nIqv DwPZ m mK aviYv cvIqv hvq|
imvqb Abymvb I MelYv cwqv AbK B cixYwbfi, Ze Kvbv Kvbv cixYi cwieZ
ckgvjvi gvag Z_-Dcv msMn Kiv hvq| cixY I Z_-Dcv msMn meRb MnYhvM cwZ gb Kiv
nq| hvZ Ki cv Z_-Dcv mevi KvQ evaMg nq| Gi cii avcwU njv- Z_ I Dcvi msMVb
(hvQvB-evQvB) I we k-lY Kiv| cv djvdji evwbK evLv c`vbc~eK Kvb AskwU MnYxq Avi Kvb AskwU
eRbxq Zvi GKwU wP Zzj aiv nq|
Abymvb I MelYvq cv djvdj wevb Ges gvbeKjvY Kx cfve dje Zvi mK AvjvPbv _vKv
Abymvb I MelYv cwqvi AviKwU Ask| cv djvdj wevbi Kvb gwjK welqwUi bZzb evLv c`vb
Kie ev wevbi Kvb AskwU mnR eySZ mnvqZv Kie Zv Dj-L KiZ nq| welqei wbaviY gvbyli
Kvb Kvb KjvYi Avme mywbw`fve Zvi w`K-wb `kbv `Iqv nq| G aibi AvjvPbvi gvag Abymvb
I MelYv KvRi welqei iZ dzU DV|
Dcii AvjvPbv _K GUv eySv hvq h, Abymvb I MelYv cwqv mywbw` cwiKbvi ga w`q Kiv nq Ges
GKwU avc AciwUi m~iK|
Gmv Avgiv Gevi `jMZfve GKUv Abymvbg~jK KvR Kwi| cwZwU `j c_Kfve Kgc `kwU dji/mewRi
bvg ei Ki hjvZ Re GwmW _vKZ cvi Ges bvgjv QK-1.6-G wjwce Ki| Zvgv`i myweav_ GKwU
BwZ njv, GwmWi ^v` UK nq| GwmWi DcwwZ wkKi mnvqZvq wjUgvm ccvii mvnvh wbwZ Ki|
QK-1.6 : `jMZfv e c~iY Ki|
1|

2|

3|

4|

5|

6|

7|

8|

9|

10|

10

imvqb

1.6 imvqb Abymvbi mgq ivmvqwbK `e msiY I eenvi mZKZvg~jK eev

cixY Qvov imvqb hgb Abymvb I MelYv Kiv KwVb, Zgwb ivmvqwbK `ei eenvi eZxZ imvqb
cixY mvaviYZ Kiv nq bv| AbK ivmvqwbK c`v_B ^v I cwieki Rb cZ ev civfve gvivZK
wZ Ki _vK| AbK `e AvQ hviv AwZ mnRB wevwiZ nZ cvi, welv, `vn, ^vmse`bkxj
Ges Kvvi mwKvix| Zvnj ivmvqwbK `e msMn Ges Zv w`q cixYi c~eB Zvi KvhKvwiZv mK
cv_wgK vb _vKv LyeB Riwi|
mvivwek cixvMvi ev MelYvMvi, wk-KviLvbv, Kwl, wPwKrmv cfwZ ivmvqwbK `ei eenvi Z_v
ivmvqwbK `ei evwYR eo hvIqvq G`i msiY I eenvii mZKZvg~jK eev Riwi nq co| G
msv GKwU mveRbxb wbqg (Globally Harmonized System) Pvjyi welqK mvgb iL 1992 mvj
RvwZmsNi D`vM cwiek I Dbqb bvg GKwU mjb AbywZ nq| D mjbi cwZcv` welq wQj(K) ivmvqwbK c`v_K SzuwK I SyuwKi gvvi wfwZ wewfb fvM fvM Kiv, (L) SzuwKi mZKZv msv
Z_Dcv (WvUveR) Zwi Kiv Ges (M) SzuwK (hazard) I SyuwKi gvv eySvevi Rb mveRbxb mvsKwZK wP
wbaviY Kiv| D`vniY^i~c KqKwU mvsKwZK wP QK-1.7 -G AvjvPbv Kiv njv|
Kvbv ivmvqwbK `e mieivn ev msiY KiZ nj Zvi cvi Mvq jeji mvnvh kwYf` Abyhvqx
cqvRbxq mvsKwZK wP c`vb Kiv AekB evbxq| Zvnj eenviKvix mnRB Kvbv ivmvqwbK `ei
cvi Mvq jej `LB Gi KvhKvwiZv mK cv_wgK aviYv wbZ cvie Ges Gi KvhKvwiZvi SzuwK gv_vq
iL msiY I eenvi KiZ cvie| hgb wec`RbK mvsKwZK wP msewjZ Kvbv cvi Mvqi jej
(label) `L GUv eySv hve h, cvi ivmvqwbK `ewU GKwU gvivZK welv c`v_ (QK- 1.7 `L)| mv_
mv_ eenviKvixi gv_vq GUvI KvR Kie h eenvii mgq AekB wekl mveavbZv Aej^b KiZ ne,
hvZ GUv kixii wfZi cek KiZ bv cvi| GQvovI cixvi ci cixY wgkY Dby cwiek dj `Iqv
hve wK bv ev cwikvab KiZ ne wK bv, m mK aviYv wbZ cvie| msMnxZ ivmvqwbK `e Kv_vq,
Kxfve msiY Kij ivmvqwbK `ei gvb wVK _vKe I AbvKvwZ `~NUbv Govbv hve, mme aviYvI
cvIqv hve|
QK-1.7 : ivmvqwbK `ei SzuwK I SyuwKi gvv eySvi Rb wbavwiZ mvsKwZK wP, SzuwK, SyuwKi gvv I
mveavbZv |
mvsKwZK wP

wevwiZ evgv

Avbi wkLv

SzuwK, SzuwKi gvv I mveavbZv

weviK (explosive) `e, AwZ, wbR wbRB wewqv KiZ cvi, hgb Re cviAvBW| wbRb I wZ RvqMvq msiY Kiv, mveavb bvovPvov Kiv, NlY nZ cvi Ggb
Aev Gwoq ivLv, Ab Kviv mv_ wgkYi mgq AwZ axi hy Kiv, eenvii mgq PvL
wbivc` Pkgv civ|
`vn (flammable) c`v_- Mvm, Zij, KwVb| mnRB Avb aiZ cvi| wewqv Ki Zvc
Drcb Ki, hgb Avivmvj, cUvwjqvg| G aibi `e Avb ev Zvc _K `~i ivLv,
NlY nZ cvi Ggb Aev Gwoq ivLv|

11

imvqb

mvsKwZK wP

ei Dci Avbi wkLv

wec`RbK

SzuwK, SzuwKi gvv I mveavbZv

RviK (oxidizing agent) Mvm ev Zij c`v_, hgb Kvwib Mvm| wbtkvm Mj kvmK
nZ cvi, ZK jvMj Z nZ cvi| Mvm nj wbwQ`fve ivLv, RviY wewqv KiZ cvi
Ggb cv bv ivLv, eenvii mgq nvZ `vbv, PvL wbivc` Pkgv I bvK-g~L gv
eenvi Kiv|
gvivZK welv c`v_ (poison) Mvm, Zij, KwVb| wbkvm, ZK jvMj A_ev Lj gZz
nZ cvi| G aibi c`v_ AekB Zvjve vb msiY Kiv evbxq| eenvii mgq nvZ
`vbv, PvL wbivc` Pkgv I bvK-gyL gv (Mvm nj) eenvi Kiv| kixi cek KiZ
cvi Ggb Aev Gwoq Pjv| cixvi ci cixY wgkYi h_vh_ cwikvab Kiv |
i Rb mse`bkxj, Rxevby msgY NUvZ cvi
`ni kvm-ckvm msv (respiratory) Z
(mutagenic), Kvvi mw (carcinogenic) KiZ cvi| memvaviYi evBi wbivc`

^v-S
uzwKi msKZ

vb msiY Kiv, eenvii mgq nvZ `vbv, PvL wbivc` Pkgv I bvK-gyL gv
eenvi Kiv| cixY wgkYi msMn I h_vh_ cwikvab Kiv|
cwieki Rb wZKi, wekl Ki RjR (aquatic) Rxei Rb wZKi| G aibi c`v_
b`x-bvjvi cvwbZ wgkZ `Iqv DwPZ bq| cixY wgkYi msMn I cwikvab Kiv|

cwiek

ZRwq iwk

wP (trefoil)

AvRvwZK iwk wPwU 1946 mvj AvgwiKvZ c_g eeZ nqwQj| wPwUK wUdqj
(trefoil) I ejv nq| GwU viv AwZwi wZKi AvjvKiwkK (kw) eySvbv nq| Gaibi
iwk gvbe`nK weKjv Ki w`Z cvi Ges kixi Kvvi mw KiZ cvi| iwk ei
nZ bv cvi GiKg aibi cyi ev wekl cv ivmvqwbK `evw` msiY Kiv| KvR Kivi
mgq wbivc` `~iZ eRvq, Dchy cvkvK cwiavb Kiv, PvL wekl aibi Pkgv civ
BZvw`|

ai GKwU evZji Mvqi jej wbgi wP (QK-1.8) `Iqv AvQ| Gevi Dci c` Z_ (QK 1.8) _K
kwYK emB wbRiv wP viv e mve SzuwK I SuywKi gvvi eYbv Kivi Pv Ki|
QK-1.8 : wkLbdji gvag Zvgiv wbRiv c~iY Ki|

ei Dci Avbi wkLv

msiY I eenvii mZKZv:

12

imvqb

Abykxjbx

ewbevPwb ck:
1.

cwqvRvZ Lv` ewkmgq ai msi

Y wbPi Kvb c`v_wU ee
Z nq?
K. wcRvifwUfm

L. wfbMvi

M. Bw_wjb

N. AvwmwUwjb

2. wbPi KvbwU ARe hM?

K. cvwb

L. k
Zmvi

M. Avwgl

N. Pwe

. GKwU Wvg Kvwib Mvm AvQ|WvgwUi Mvq Zzwg Kvb mvsKwZK wPhyKie?
3
K.

L.

M.

N.

4.
wPwU _K evS
v hvqi. GKwU ivmvqwbK cwqv
ii. GZ Kveb-WvB-AvBW Mvm D
rcb nq
iii. GwU GKwU `nb wew
qv
wbPi KvbwU mwVK?
K. i I ii

L. ii I iii

M. i I iii

N. i, ii I iii

13

imvqb

mRbkxj ck:
1.

wP1 : J
la mebi Qwe

wP2 : mewR
Z KxUbvk
K
wQUvbvi Qwe

K.

gwiPv Kx?

L.

cuc cvKj njy` nq Kb?

M.

xcKi 1g wPimvqb Kxfve mwKZ evLv Ki|

N.

x
DcKi KvbwUi AwZwieenvi cwiek
i Rb w
ZKi hywmn wjL|

wZxq Aavq

c`v_i Aev
c`v_ nj Ggb fZ e hvi fi I AvqZb AvQ| mKj c`v_B mvaviYZ wZb Aevq weivR Ki KwVb,
Zij I evqexq| wK
^vfvweK K Zvcgvvq wKQz c`v_ KwVb, wKQz Zij Ges wKQz evqexq Aevq _vK|
Zvcgvv cwieZbi mv_ mv_ Aevi cwieZb NU| wZb AevZB G`i wbR^ ewk I ag iqQ,
Ze AYyi MVbi Kvbv cwieZb NU bv| KwVb Aevq AYymg~n KvQvKvwQ _K KuvcZ _vK; Zvc c`vbi
mv_ mv_ AYymg~n MwZkxj nq Ges `~i mi hZ _vK| wewfb gvag KwVb, Zij I evqexq c`v_i Qwoq
covi ceYZv j Kiv hvq| Zv nZ cvi ^ZtZfve A_ev Pvci cfve|

Zvci k
vYl

KwVb

Zij

evqexq

GB Aavq cvV kl Avgiv(1) KYvi MwZZi ^xKvhi mvnvh c`v_i fZ Aev evLv KiZ cvie|
(2) MwZZi mvnvh evcb I wbtmiYi evLv KiZ cvie|
(3) KwVb c`v_i Mjb I EacvZb Ges Zij c`v_i zUb cwqv eYbv KiZ cvie|
(4) c`v_i fZ Aev I Zvci ga mK evLv KiZ cvie|
(5) Zvcgvv ewZ evcb nvi ew cixvi gvag `LvZ cvie|
(6) KwVb c`v_i Mjb I EacvZb GK Zij c`v_i zUb cwqv cixvi gvag `LvZ cvie|
(7) cKwZZ msNwUZ eve NUbv imvqbi `wZ wek-lY AvMn c`kb KiZ cvie|
(8) ivmvqwbK `e I _vgvwgUvi mwVKfve eenvi KiZ cvie|

15

imvqb

2.1 c`v_ I c`v_i Aev :

hvi fi AvQ, RvqMv `Lj Ki Ges RoZv AvQ ZvB c`v_| c~eB RbwQ c`v_ mvaviYZ wZb Aevq _vK
KwVb, Zij Ges evqexq|
wP wKQy KwVb, Zij, evqexq c`v_i wP `Iqv njv:

KvVi UzKiv
wPwb

cvi`

Lvevi jeY

gvej cv_i

wnwjqvg Mvm
fiv ejyb

Pzbvcv_i

`ya

Kveb-WvB-AvBW
jyweKwUs
fiv Mvm Rvi

cvwb

cv_i

BU
AwRb
wmwjvi

mqvweb Zj

wP 2.1 : wKQz KwVb, Zij I evqexq c`v_

wbPi QK Aev Abyhvqx Gjv mvRvI :KwVb

Zij

evqexq ev Mvmxq

QK 2.1 : wewfb Aevi c`v_

Avgiv c`v_mg~n cheY I cixY Ki-

AvKwZ, AvqZb, msKvPbkxjZv, NbZ, mnRcevn,

cmviYkxjZv BZvw` ewk mK aviYv jvf KiZ cvwi

wbR wbR Ki :
evwo _K Avbv cwj, cv_i ev Ab Kvbv KwVb c`v_i Dci Pvc `vI,
AvKwZ I AvqZb cheY Ki|
Gevi GKwU M-vm cvwb bvI, Ab AvKwZi GKwU cv Zv Xvj| Kx j Kij?
BbRKkbi `ywU wmwi cvwb I evZvm fi m~P Lyj gyL e Ki Pvc w`j Kx cwieZb nq `L|
Lvwj ejyb gyL w`q evZvm fi dzjvI, Zvici gyLwU Lyj `vI|
cheYi djvdj LvZvq bvU Ki|

`jMZfve Ki :
cheY I cixYi gvag Dcii Kvb ewkmg~n wbaviY KiZ cvij Kvbjv cvij bv Zv evLv
Ki| wkKi mvnvh wbq jveiUwiZ Zvgiv NbZ I cmviYkxjZv ewk `ywUi cixv KiZ cvi|

16

imvqb

2.2 KYvi MwZZ (Kinetic theory of particles):

mKj c`v_B z`Zg KwYKv viv Zwi Ges Zv KwVb, Zij A_ev Mvmxq GB Aevi h Kvbv GKwU Aevq
_vK| mKj Aevq c`v_i KYvmg~n MwZkxj _vK|
wbP c`v_i wZb Aevq KwYKvmg~n Kxfve mwZ _vK Zv `Iqv njv| KvbwU KwVb, KvbwU Zij I
KvbwU Mvmxq Aevq AvQ LvZvq GuK ci ci mvRvI :

(K)

(L)

(M)

wP 2.2 : c`v_i wZb Aevi wfw

Z KwYKvmg~ni Aev

wPv Ki :
GKB c`v_K Kxfve KwVb _K Zij Ges Zij _K Mvmxq Aevq bqv hvq?
wZb Aevq KwYKvmg~n Kxfve Aevb Ki?
Kvb Aevq AYymg~n mePq KvQvKvwQ Aevq, KLb gvSvgvwS Aevq Ges KLb mePq `~i `~i
Aevb Ki?
KLb GKwU AYyi mv_ Aci AYyi AvKlY kw mePq ewk, KLb wKQzUv Kg Ges KLb GK`g _vK
bv ejjB Pj?
wZb Aevq KwYKvmg~ni MwZkxjZvi Aev evLv Ki|
Avgiv mKjB cvwbi wZb Aevi mv_ cwiwPZ; eid (KwVb), cvwb (Zij) I Rjxqev (Mvmxq)| wP Zvc
c`vb Gi wZb Aevi cwieZb `Lvbv njv:
Zvc

eid

Zvc

cvwb

Rjxqev

wP 2.3: Zvc c`vb c`v_i Aevi cwieZb

wPv Ki : Kxfve RjxqevK cvwbZ Ges cvwbK eid cwiYZ Kiv hvq? wWc wdR cvwb ivLj Zv
Kxfve eid cwiYZ nq?

17

imvqb

m` dzUvbv GKKvc Mig cvwbK Uwej ivLj Kx `LZ cve? Dci Rjxqevi KYv evZvm Qwoq
coQ| GK hw` AviI Zvc `qv nZv GK mgq KvcwU Lvwj nq hZ| wK hw` KvcwU ^vfvweK Aevq
iL w`Z Ze Zv axi axi Vvv nq hZ; RjxqevK Avi ewiq coZ `LZ bv|
KYvi MwZZ _K KYvmg~n (AYy) Kxfve KwVb, Zij I Mvmxq Aevq MwZkxj Aevq _vK Zv Rvbv hvq|
KwVb c`v_i wbw` AvKvi I AvqZb AvQ| kwkvjx AvKlY eji KviY KYvmg~n Lye KvQvKvwQ Aevb Ki
KuvcZ _vK|
Zij AvqZb cwieZb bv Ki h cv ivLv nq m cvi AvKvi aviY Ki| Pvc AvqZb ^ gvvq
msKvPbkxj| Zij c`v_i KYvi MwZ KwVb c`v_i Zzjbvq ewk| KYvmg~ni ga AvKlY ej KwVbi Pq
Kg m KviY KYvmg~n gvUvgywU `~iZ Aevb Ki|
wP 2.4: Kvc dzUvbv cvwb

Mvmxq c`v_ h cv ivLv nq Zvi cyivUvB `Lj Ki| KYvmg~ni ga AvKlY ej LyeB Kg, GK Abi KvQ
_K AbK `~i Aevb Ki| Mvmxq c`v_i KYvmg~n evavnxbfve PjvPj Ki| KYvmg~n wewfb w`K
Pjgvb Aevq Qwoq _vK| Pvc AvqZb AwaK gvvq msKvPbkxj|
hZB Zvc `qv nq KYvmg~n ZZ MwZkw ARb Ki Ges PjvPj eo hvq| Zij Aevq KYvmg~n `~i `~i
mi hvq| zUb Mvmxq KYvmg~n Ziji DcwiZj _K evBi ewiq hvq Ges BQvgZv wewfb w`K PjvPj
Kivi gZv h_ kw mq Ki|
MwZZZi wfwZ Zvckw eenvi viv c`v_K GK Aev _K Aci Aevq i~cvi Kiv me| KwVbK
Zvc w`q MjbvsK cQvj Zv Zij cwiYZ nq| ZijK Zvc w`q zUbvsK cQvj Zv Mvmxq Aevq
cwiYZ nq|

KwVb Aevq AvtAvYweK AvKlY mePq ewk _vK|

AvtAvYweK `~iZ mePq Kg _vK|
Zij Aevq AvtAvYweK AvKlY Zzjbvg~jKfve Kg
hvq; `~iZ eo hvq| Mvmxq Aevq AvtAvYweK AvKlY
ejybi fZii Mvmi KYvmg~n ejybi
fZii AveiYi mv_ av
v LZ _vK
Ges evBii w`K Vj `q|

GKeviB Kg _vK| `~iZ GZUvB eo hvq h KYvmg~n

BQvgZv Gw`K-Iw`K Nyi eovq I AvtAvYweK kw
K
AwZ
g Ki evBi Qwoq co|

GK Mvmi Pvc ej| Zvc evovj Pvc

AviI eo hve Kb evLv Ki|

dgv-3, imvqb-9g-10g

18

imvqb

2.3 evcb (Diffusion):

m` Zwi Avgvwbqv MvmRvii XvKbv mwiq hw` evqyc~Y GKwU MvmRvi ivL, `Le Dcii MvmRvi
Avgvwbqv Mvm evqyi mv_ wgk MQ| cgvY^i~c GKwU fRv jvj wjUgvm ccvi cek KivjB `Le Zv bxj
is aviY KiQ|
evqy
evqy I Avgvwbqv Mvmi wgkY
Avgvwbqv
Mvm

wP 2.5: Mvmi ga Mvm KYvi evcb

wbPi cixv
jv Kvm `jMZfve Ki

cixv1
1. GKwU U
wUDe wKQz Zij bxj/Kjgi Kvwj/Kcvi mvjdUi `eY bvI|
2. Wcvii mvnvh axi axi cvwb hvM Ki|
.3 cyivUv cvwb GKB is aviY KiZ KZUv mgq jvMj cheY Ki bvU Ki|
4. Gevi Aci GKwU U
wUDe Mig cvwbi weKvi ivL Ges 1I 2 bs cwKqvwU mb Kivi ci 3bs
cwKqvwU nZ KZ mgq jvMj Zv bvU Ki|

cvwb

bxj/Kjgi Kvwj/
Kcvi mvjdU cvwbi `eY

Zij bxj/Kjgi Kvwj/

Kcvi mvjdU `eY

wP 2.6: Ziji ga `eY KYvi evcb

cixv2
1. GKwU UwUDe GKwU cUvwmqvg cvigvvbUi wUK ivL| ZvZ cvwb hvM Ki|
2. cyivUv cvwb nvjKv ewb is aviY KiZ KZUv mgq jvMj bvU Ki|
3. Gevi Aci GKwU UwUDe Mig cvwbi weKvi ivL Ges 1 I 2 bs cwKqvwU mb nZ KZ mgq jvMj
Zv bvU Ki|| Nwo ai mgq bvI|
GB cixvwU Zzwg wPwb, Lvevi jeY w`qI KiZ cvi| hnZz iwOb bq, ^v` wbq Zv `LZ ne cvwbi mv_
wPwb ev jeYi KYvjv wgk MQ wK bv|

19

imvqb

cvwb
nvjKv e
wb iOi
cUvwmqvg cvigv
vbUi
`eY

cUvwmqvg cvigv
vbUi
wUK

wP 2.7: Ziji ga KwVb KYvi evcb

cixv 1I 2 bs-Gi Kx `Lj?Zvc c`vbi c~e mgq jMQ ewk Ges Zvc c`vbi ci mgq
jMQ Kg| KYvmg~n Qwoq covi nvi 2bs cixvi Zzjbvq 1bs cixvq ewk wQj| Avevi ^vfvweK cvwbi
Zzjbvq Mig cvwbZ KYvmg~n Qwoq covi nvi ewk| Avgiv hw` Mvmxq c`v_ (Avgvwbqv Mvmi)cixvwU
wbR nvZ KiZ cviZvg `LZvg 1g cixvwUi PqI KYv Qwoq covi nvi AbK ewk| Dcii
cixv
jv _K Zzwg Zvcgvvi mv_ evcbi nvii mK wbYq Ki|
wPv Ki :
Dcii cixvmg~ni KvbvwUZB Kvbv Pvc cqvM Kiv nqwb|
1. He,
H2c,wq
CO
Mvmiej|
CO2
Kvbv gvag KwVb, Zij ev Mvmxq ei ^Zt~Z I mgfve cwiev
nIqvi
vK2evcb
-Gi evcb mgq mePq ewk, H2
Dcii cixvmg~n Ges wbR`i Awf
Zvi AvjvK wbR wbR
Gi mePq Kg jvMe Kb? He -Gi
LvZvq evcbi wKQz eve D`vniY wjL|
Kx NUe ej Zvgvi aviYv?
2.4 wbtmiY (Effusion)
2. Zij I KwVbi Zvci cfve
GKwU wnwjqvg Mvm ev evqyfiv ejyb bvI| QvU GKUv wQ` Ki| Kx NUQ j Ki| wKQzYi gaB `Le
I MwZZ
i mK Kx
ejybwU Pzcm MQ| fe `LQ, Kb Ggb njv? Mvmi ev evqyi AYymg~n wQ`c_ ewiq coQ|
G wK Kvbv Pvc KvR KiQ?hw` Pvc w
qv Ki Ze Zv Mvmxq ei ^Zt~Z I mgfve cwiev
nIqvi K_v bq| wQ`c_ AYyi ^Zt~Z MwZK evav `q| wQ` hZ eo nZ _vK ^Zt~ZZv ZZ ewcZ
_vK| hLb m~Y Pvcgynq ZLb evcb i~cvwiZ nq|

wnwjqvgMvm fiv ejyb

wP 2.8: wnwjqvg Mvmfiv ejyb

wQ`

wnwjqvg Mvmi Pvc ejybi fZi Ges evwni mgvb bq| ejybi fZi Pvc ewk _vK| mi wQ`c_
Kvbv Mvmi AYymg~ni DPPvc _K wbPvc Aj ewiq Avmvi cwqvK wbtmiY ej|
D`vniY^i~c cvKwZK Mvm ev wg_b (CH4) MvmK AwaK Pvc cqvM Ki wm.Gb.wR (Compressed

20

imvqb

natural gas)Z cwiYZ Ki hvbevnbi Rvjvwb wnme eenvi Kiv nq| NievwoZ Rvjvwb wnme

eenvii Rb AwaK Pvc wg_b Ges widvBbvwi _K cv weDUb I cvcb Mvm wmwjvi, nvmcvZvj
eenvii Rb AwaK Pvc AwRb Mvm wmwjvi fi ivLv nq| Kvbvfve wmwjvimg~n wQ` nq Mj
`Lv hve mRvi Mvm ewiq AvmQ| hv _K wec`bK Aevi mw nZ cvi|
GKwU cvKv KuvVvj Nii GKwU K iL w`j Zvi M KuvVvji ZKi wQ`c_ ei nq wewfb K Qwoq
ci| ZKi wQ`c_ M ei nq Avmv wbtmiY Ges ei nIqvi ci wewfb K Qwoq civ evcb|
wPv Ki: KvbwU _K Mvm mePq ewk `yZ eie? wg_b Mvmi fi I NbZ mePq Kg, AwRb Mvmi
fi I NbZ Zvi Pq ewk| weDUb Mvmi mePq ewk| cvcb Mvmi fi I NbZ weDUbi Pq Kg|
evcb I wbtmiY ei fi Ges NbZi Dci wbfikxj| ewUi fi Ges NbZ hZ ewk ne evcb I
wbtmiYi nvi ZZ nvm cve|

kwYi KvR : evcb I wbtmYi wZKi w`K Kx wbR wbR LvZvq jL|

2.5 gvgi Rjb I c`v_i wZb Aev

gvgi
gvg hLb RjZ _vK ZLb c`v_i wZbwU AevB GKmv_ `Lv hvq| gvg MjZ i Kij Gi gai
ev
myZvwU Zv kvlY Ki bq| myZvi AMfvM gvg Mvmxq Aev cv nq| GK Avgiv gvgi ev ewj ZLb
evqyi DcwwZZ `nb nZ _vK| hZY myZvwU _vKe ZZY Zv RjZ _vKe| hnZz gvg GKwU
MwjZI
nvBWvKveb A_vr Re hM, chv evZvmi DcwwZZ gvgi `nbi dj Kveb-WvB-AvBW
gvg
Rjxqev Drcb nq|

gvg + O2(g)

CO2(g) + H2O(g) + Zvc + Avjv

2.6 Mjb I zUb: (Melting and Boiling)

c`v_i Mjb I zUb wbw` Pvc wbw` Zvcgvvq NU _vK|

KwVb
gvg

wP 2.9 : gvgi Rjb

cixv-1: c`v_i Mjb

1. wKQy gvg uov Ki GKwU Zvcmn KvPbj wbZ ne Ges GKwU KvwV w`q gvgjv Vj w`Z ne|
2. wPi gZv Ki hcvwZ I DcKiYjv mvRvZ ne| Mjb-wUDei mv_
_vgvwgUviwU BjvwK evi gvag AvUK ivLZ ne|
weKvi

3. A wkLvq axi axi Zvc w`Z ne Ges AbeiZ weKvii cvwbK bvovwb w`q bvoZ ne| KZ _vgvwgUvi
Mjb-wUDe
Zvcgvvq Zv MjZ i Ki Zv bvU wbZ ne| MjZ i Kij Zvc mwiq wbZ ne| GK wgwbU
ci
bvovwb
cvwb
KwVb
ci Zvcgvv bvU KiZ ne|
c`v_

5. cixvwU c_g _K kl ch Nwo ai 1 wgwbU ci ci mgq I Zvcgvv bvU KiZ ne|

wP 2.10 : KwVb c`v_i Mjb

6. Mvd ccvi X-A mgq I Y- A Zvcgvv ai eiLvwU (curve) GuK Zv _K Gi MjbvsK wbYq
KiZ ne|

21

imvqb

cixv-2 : c`v_i
zUb
1. wPi gZv hcvwZ I DcKiYjv mvRvZ ne| Lqvj ivLZ ne hvZ

_vgvwgUviwU cvwbi DcwiZji ek Dci _vK|

_vgvwgUvi

2. cvwb dzUZ i Kiv ch Zvc w`Z ne| A_vr hLb mRvi ey`ey` AvKvi
RjxqevvKvi ewiq hZ _vK ZLb Zvc `qv e KiZ ne|

dzU
cvwb

3. mevP Zvcgvv bvU KiZ ne|

Zvc

4. 1g _K kl ch Nwo ai 1 wgwbU ci ci Zvcgvv bvU Kie|

5. Mvdccvi eenvi Ki cixv-1-Gi gZv zUbi Zvcgvv wbYq Ki |

wP 2.11 : Ziji zUb

^vfvweK Pvc (1 atm) h Zvcgvvq Kvbv KwVb c`v_ Zij cwiYZ nq mB ZvcgvvK mB c`v_i
MjbvsK ej|
^vfvweK Pvc (1 atm) h Zvcgvvq Kvbv Zij c`v_ Mvmxq Aev cv nq mB ZvcgvvK mB
c`v_i zUbvsK ej|
F

(OC)

140
120

E-F- Rjxqev (Mvm)

100

D-E- cvwb dzUQ (Zij I Rjxqev)

E

80

C-D- cvwb (Zij)

60

B-C- eid MjQ (eid I cvwb)

40
20

A-B- eid (KwVb)

0
-20

wP : 2.12 Zvc c`vbi eiLv (heating curve)

wPv Ki: A-B ch Zvcgvv cwieZb njv, wK B-C ch njv bv| Avevi C-D ch Zvcgvv
cwieZb njv wK D-E ch njv bv| E-F ch Zvcgvv Avevi evoZ _vKj| Zvckw c`vb Kiv njv
wK Zvcgvv ew cj bv Kb? my Zvci K_v KLbv bQ wK?
c`v_i Aev cwieZbK wjLv hvq-

+ Zvc

+ Zvc

KwVb - Zvc Zij - Zvc

Mvm

Zvcgvv

mvaviY kxZjxKiYi eiLv

zUbvsK
MjbvsK

Zij + Mvm
Zij
KwVb +Zij
KwVb

mgq

mvaviY kxZjxKiYi eiLv

22

imvqb

cvR : GKBfve cvwbi kxZjxKiYi eiLvwU (cooling curve) c`kb Ki wewfb we`yZ
Gi Aev wek-lY Ki| Kvb Kvb Zvcgvvq Zvc c`vb KijI Zvcgvv cwieZb nq bv eYbv
Ki|
2.7 EacvZb :
wbPi wPwU j Ki :

+ Zvc
- Zvc

wPv Ki:
cvki wPi
Zvcxq I
kxZjxKiY
eiLv (curve)
Kgb nZ cvi?

wP 2.13: KwVb c`v_i EacvZb

Ggb wKQz c`v_i bvg jL hviv KwVb _K mivmwi Mvmxq Aev

cv nq Ges kxZjxKiY Mvmxq Aev _K KwVb i~cvwiZ nq|
bvc_vwjb, AvqvwWb, Kc~i, KwVb CO2 BZvw`|

eid
KwVb
Aev
Mvmxq
Aev

cixv : wPi gZv hcvwZ mvRvI| axi axi weKvii wbP Zvc
w`Z _vK|
Kx cwieZb `Lj LvZvq bvU Ki| GKB cwZZ bvc_vwjb,
Kc~iK Zvc w`q KwVb _K Mvm Ges Mvm _K KwVb
i~cvwiZ KiZ cvi|

KwVb
Aev
Zvc

wP 2.14 : Dvqx c`v_i EacvZb

Zvnj ejv hvq, hw` KwVb c`v_K Zvc w`j Zv mivmwi Mvm cwiYZ nq Ges Vvv Kij mivmwi
KwVb icvwiZ nq Ze c`v_i AevK EacvZb ej|
cvR : 1. `ywU cv cvkvcvwk Kc~i I eid iL bvovZ _vK| Kx cwieZb j KiQ Ges Kb
wek-lY Ki| `yw`b ci Kx Aev nq Ges Kx KviY nq evLv Ki|

23

imvqb

Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
.1 Kvc Mig Pv ivLj wbPi Kvb cwqvwU NU?

K. evxfeb

L. E
acvZb

M. evcb

N. wbtmiY

2. RjxqevK hLb Nbxfeb Kiv nq,ZLb KYvmg~ni

Kx NUe?

K. AvKvi msKywZ
P ne

L. jP vPj KiZ _vKe

M. GKB Ae
vb _K KuvcZ _vKe

N. cwicvk
wk wbMZ Kie

. wbPi Kvb wPwU E

3
acvZbi Rb chvR?

K.

L.

M.

N.

4. ARvbv KwVb e
Z -Gi Zvcxq eiLv

250

ARvbv e
Z-Gi
Zvcxq eiLv
C

154
54

H
A
1

F
G

mgq (wgwbU)

10

12

24

imvqb

Dcii wP nZ evSv hvq

i. Z e
wUi MjbvsK 54c
ii. Z e
wU Dvqx
iii.

A - B I C - D iLv e
wUi MjbvsK I zUbvsK eyvSq|

wbPi KvbwU mwVK?

K. i I ii

L. ii I iii

M. i I iii

N. i, ii I iii

mRbkxj ck:
.1

evwj I M-yKvR
AvqvwWb wgwk
Z Lv` jeY

K-cv

L-cv

K.

evcb KvK ej?

L.

ewW
Z evcb ev wbtmiYi KvbwU AvM NU?

M.

Zvcgvvevo
vZ _vKj DxcKi Kvb c`v_wU mevi AvM evxf~Z ne? KviY
evLv Ki|

N.

K-cv
i Dcv`vb I L-cv
i Dcv`vb
jvK c_KxKiY GKB c
wZi eenvi me wK
bv hywmn evLv Ki|

25

imvqb

2.
A

Zzjvq wm Nb nvBW&vRb
KvivBW

K.
L.
M.
N.

60 m.wg

40 m.wg

KwVb mv`v ejq

Zzjvq wm Nb
Avgwbqv

wbtmiY Kx?
GKB c`v_i MjbvsK I zUbvsK wfb Kb?
DxcKi cwqvwU Kvb aibi cwieZb evLv Ki|
Drcb mv`v auvqv A cvi KvQvKvwQ Drcb nIqvi hwK KviY evLv Ki|

dgv-4, imvqb-9g-10g

ZZxq Aavq

c`v_i MVb
cw_exZ hZ c`v_ AvQ meB AwZ z` KwYKv w`q Zwi| Giv GZB z` h AwZ DP gZvmb AYyexY
h
vivI Zv `Lv hvq bv| gwjK c`v_i z`Zg KwYKvi bvg cigvYy Ges hwMK c`v_i z`Zg KwYKvi
bvg AYy| cwZwU cigvYyiB wbR^ ewk iqQ| cavb ewk njv G`i wbR wbR cvigvYweK msLv|
cigvYy I AYyi AvcwK Ges cKZ fi iqQ| cvUb, BjKUb I wbDUb cigvYyi cavb KwYKv| cigvYyi
K` cvUb I wbDUb wbq MwVZ wbDwKqvmB Zvi cvq mKj fi enb Ki| cvUbi mgmsLK BjKUb
wbDwKqvmi Pviw`K wewfb Kc_ Nyi eovq| GKB gji Avevi GKvwaK fimsLvwewk cigvYy iqQ
hv`i AvBmvUvc ejv nq| gvbeRxeb wewfb G`i evenvi evcK|

GB Aavq cvV kl Avgiv

(1) cigvYy mK aviYvi weKvk eYbv KiZ cvie|
(2) gwjK I vqx KwYKvjvi ewk eYbv KiZ cvie|
(3) cvigvYweK msLv, fimsLv, AvcwK cvigvYweK fi evLv KiZ cvie|
(4) AvcwK cvigvYweK fi _K AvcwK AvYweK fi wnmve KiZ cvie|
(5) cigvYyi BjKUb, cvUb I wbDUb wnmve KiZ cvie|
(6) AvBmvUvci eenvi evLv KiZ cvie|
(7) cigvYyi MVb mK iv`vidvW I evi cigvYy gWji eYbv KiZ cvie|
(8) iv`vidvW I evi cigvYy gWji ga KvbwU ewk MnYhvM Zvi evLv w`Z cvie|
(9) Kc_ Ges Kc_i wewfb Dci cigvYyi BjKUbmg~nK webvm KiZ cvie|

27

imvqb

3.1 gj
bvBUvRb
Aw
Rb

md
d
ivm

Kveb

wnwjqvg

AvMb

Kvjwmqvg

gvMbwmqvg

mvjd
vi

QK 3.1 : wewfb gji bvg

Dci wKQz gji bvg `Iqv njv| G`i cigvYyi cZxK I cvigvYweK msLv jL

gji bvg

cZxK

cvigvYweK msLv

wbR Ki : gjmg~ni
BjKUb webvm Ki|

QK 3.2 : gji bvg, cZxK I cvigvYweK msLv

3.2 cigvYyi KwYKvmg~n

cigvYyZ cvUb, BjKUb I wbDUbmn wewfb KwYKv iqQ| GB 3wU cigvYyi vqx KwYKv| ^vfvweK
Aevq cigvYyi cvUb I BjKUb msLv mgvb _vK| wbDUb msLv KLbv mgvb Avevi KLbv ewk _vK|
wfb wfb gji cwZwU cigvYyB GKB ewki AwaKvix| cvUb I wbDUbi AvcwK fi mgvb, BjKUbi
1
AvcwK fi 1wU cvUb ev 1wU wbDUbi
fvMi mgvb| A_vr GZ Kg h Gi fi bB ejjB Pj|
1840
Ze cwZwU KwYKviB cKZ fi iqQ|

KwYKv
cvUb
wbDUb
BjKUb

cZxK

AvcwK fi

1
1
1840

AvcwK
Avavb
+1
0
-1

cKZ fi

cKZ Avavb

1.67 x 10 - 24 g

1.60 x 10 - 19

1.675 x 10

- 24

9.11x 10 - 28 g

Kzj^
0
- 1.60 x 10 - 19

Kzj^

QK 3.3: wewfb KwYKvi fi I Avavb

cigvYyi K` _vK wbDwKqvm| wbDwKqvm Aevb Ki cvUb I wbDUb| G`i mgwK wbDwKqb msLv
ej; hvK fimsLvI ejv nq|

28

imvqb

cigvYyi cvUb msLvK ejv nq cvigvYweK msLv hv GKwU cigvYyi wbR^ mv ev Zvi cwiPq|
wjw_qvg cigvYyi BjKUb/cvUb msLv 3, wbDUb msLv 4| wbDwKqvm abvZK Avavbwewk cvUb I Avavb
wbic wbDUb _vK| wbDwKqvmi evBi Pviw`K wewfb kwi BjKUbmg~n wbR^ kw Abyhvqx wewfb
Kc_ Aevb wbq NyiZ _vK|
wbP wjw_qvg (Li) cigvYywUi MVbwP `Iqv njv:
BjKUb
kw
i
wbDUb
wbDwKqvm
cvUb

wP 3.1: wjw_qvg cigvYyi MVb

gj

cvUb/BjKUb
msLv

wbDUb
msLv

B
N
Mg

5
7
12

6
7
12

QK 3.4: wewfb gji cvUb I wbDUb msLv

3.4 QKi Z_ _K wbDwKqvm cvUb I wbDUb Ges wewfb i BjKUb webvm Ki cigvYymg~ni MVb
wP Ab Ki (KvRwU `jMZfve Ki)|

3.3 cigvYy cwiwPwZ

cvUb msLv (cvigvYweK msLv) I wbDwKqb msLv (fimsLv)
mKj gjiB wbR^ cvUb msLv Ges wbDwKqb msLv AvQ| cvigvYweK msLvK Z viv I fimsLvK A
viv wPw
Z Kiv nq|
D`vniY wnme awi Avjywgwbqvgi (Al) cvUb msLv 13 Ges wbDwKqb msLv 27| wbDUb msLv ne 27(A)
-13(Z) = 14

mswfve GK wbgi~c cKvk Kiv nq

wbqwKqb f
/ i msLv I
27
13

cvUb/cvigvYwiK msLv (Z)

Al

gji cZxK

29

imvqb

chvq mviwYi c_g 10wU gji cigvYyi cvigvYweK msLv I fimsLv `qv AvQ| Zv _K BjKUb, cvUb I
wbDUb msLv wbYq Ki Ges G`i msw cKvk jL:

gji cvigvYweK
cZxK
msLv
(Z)

fi
msLv
(A)

cvUb
msLv

BjKUb
msLv

wbDUb
msLv
(A-Z )

1- 1=0

He

4- 2=2

Li

Be

11

12

14

16

19

Ne

10

20

msw
cKvk
1
1
4
2

KZUzKz eySj wbRK

cixv Ki

He

1. cvUb msLv ejZ

Kx evSvq evLv Ki|
2. wbDwKqb msLv I
fimsLv wK GK?
evLv Ki|
3. wbPi msKZ _K
cvigvYweK
msLv,
cvUb, BjKUb I
wbDUb msLv wbYq
Ki|
28
14

31
p, 178 O, 39
Si, 15
19 K ,

14
6

C, 64
29 Cu,

56
26

Fe

QK 3.5: wewfb cigvYyi msw cKvk

3.4 AvBmvUvc
wbPi QK nvBWvRbi wZb aibi cigvYyi MVb, cZxK, wbDUb msLv chvZvi kZKiv cwigvY `Iqv njv:

bvg

cigvYy wP

nvBWvRb
ev
cvwUqvg
wWDUwiqvg

cZxK
1
1

2
1

A_ev

wUwUqvg

msLv (A)

2
1

3
1

A_ev
3
1

wbDUb msLv

chvZvi kZKiv cwigvY

99.98

0.015

ZRwqZvi gvag
Drcb nq Ges cKwZZ Lye
mvgvb cwigvY cvIqv hvq

QK 3.6 : nvBWvRbi wZbwU vqx AvBmvUvc

30

imvqb

hw`I nvBWvRbi 7wU AvBmvUvc (1H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H, 7H) AvQ G`i ga wZbwU cKwZZ
cvIqv hvq| Aewk PviwU MelbvMvi msk-lY Kiv nq|
wPv Ki :
QKwUK wek-lY Ki Zzwg Kx eySj?
cwZwU cigvYyi cvUb I BjKUb msLv KZ? cwZwU cigvYyi fimsLv ev wbDwKqb msLv KZ?
fimsLv cwieZbi KviY Kx?
mewKQz wek-lY Ki Zzwg Kx wmv wbZ cvi?
wewfb fimsLvwewk GKB gji cigvYyK ciii AvBmvUvc ej| wbDUb msLvi wfbZvi KviY Zv
nq| GKB gji cigvYyi cvUb ev BjKUb msLv KLbv cwieZb nq bv|

3.5 AvcwK cvigvYweK fi

wZb aibi nvBWvRbi AvBmvUvci kZKiv chvZvi cwigvYK Mo Kij Gi fi cvIqv hvq 1.008|
GK Avgiv ejZ cvwi AvcwK cvigvYweK fi|
j Kij `Le, AbK cigvYyi cvigvYweK fi c~Y msLvq bv _K `kwgK fMvsk `Lv hvq| hgb,
Kvwibi AvcwK cvigvYweK fi 35.5| Kvwibi 2wU AvBmvUvc iqQ Ges chvZvi w`K _K 35Cl
I 37Cl -Gi kZKiv cwigvY h_v g 75% I 25% |
Kxfve Kvwibi AvcwK cvigvYweK fi wbYq Kiv nq Zv wbP `Lvbv njv:
35

Cl

fimsLv

35

kZKiv cwigvY

75

AvcwK
cvigvYweK fi

35 X

37

Cl

37
25

QK 3.7: Kvwibi AvcwK cvigvYweK fi

eZgvb mKj wevbx Kveb- 12 AvBmvUvci fii AskK cvigvYweK fii cgvY wnme MnY KiQb|
AvaywbK msvbymvi
gji GKwU cigvYyi fi
gji AvcwK cvigvYweK fi =

GKwU Kveb 12 AvBmvci fii

1
Ask
12

GB msv _K evLv Ki, AvcwK cvigvYweK fii Kb GKK _vK bv? Kb GK AvcwK fi
ejv nq?
Dj-L, chvq mviwYZ cigvYymg~ni h cvigvYweK fi `qv nqQ Zv mKjB AvcwK cvigvYweK

31

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fi| Kvbv cigvYyi AvBmvUvc bv _vKj mjvi AvcwK cvigvYweK fi I fimsLv mgvb nq|
Dcii m~ eenvi Ki Zvgiv cigvYy cvUb I wbDUbi Avmj fii (Mvg GKK) mgwK Kveb-12
AvBmvUvci fii Ask w`q fvM KijB mB cigvYyi AvcwK cvigvYweK fi wbYq KiZ cvi| Dj-L,
Kveb- 12 AvBmvUvci fii Aski fi njv 1.66X
10g .

KvR: A
l Gi cvUb msLv 13, Gi GKwU cigvYyi fi hw` 4.482X
10-23g
AvcwK cvigvYweK fi KZ?

3.6

nq Ze Gi

AvcwK cvigvYweK fi _K AvcwK AvYweK fi

Avgiv Rvwb, AwRbi AvcwK cvigvYweK fi 16
Zvnj AwRb AYyi (O) AvcwK AvYweK fi KZ ne?
GKwU AwRb AYy AwRbi 2wU cigvYy wbq MwVZ|
(O) Gi AvcwK AvYweK fi ne
162 = 32 [16 njv AwRbi AvcwK cvigvYweK fi Ges 2 njv cigvYyi msLv]|

GKB fve CO 2 , N 2 , H
Cl, H 2SO 4 BZvw`i AvcwK AvYweK fi wbYq Ki|
GwU kwYi KvR wnme wbR wbR LvZvq Ki|

wPv Ki : Kxfve m~q eenvi Ki GKwU cigvYyi fi I AYyi fi wbYq KiZ cvi| Dfq

Mvg GKK fi cvIqv hve|

3.7 ZRwq AvBmvUvc I Zv`i eenvi

e
p

1H
1

e
pn

2H
1
wP 3.2: nvBWvRbi wZbwU vqx AvBmvUvc

e
n
pn

3H
1

32
13

imvqb

C, 14 C, 87 Rb, 90 Sr, 115 In, 130 Te, 131 I,137 Cs,138 La,147 Sm,148 Sm,176 Lu,187 Re,186 Os, 222 Rn , 226 Ra ,

235

Th , 232 Th Ges

234

U _K 238 U ch
BZvw`|

Avgiv c~eB Dciv wZbwU AvBmvUvci K_v RbwQ| cKwZZ cvIqv hvq Ggb aibi e AvBmvUvc
AvQ hgb :
GQvovI wewfb eenvii Rb Kwg Dcvq e AvBmvUvc Zwi Kiv nq|
cvKwZK I Kwg Dcvq Zwi AvBmvUvci msLv 1300 Qvwoq MQ| G`i ga wKQz mywZ Ges ewki
fvM AwZ| AwZ AvBmvUvcjv wewfb aibi iwk hgb (-Avjdv, -weUv, -Mvgv) wewKiY K i
Ab gji AvBmvUvc cwiYZ nq| gji cigvYyi GB agK ZRwqZv ej| G aibi
AvBmvUvcjvK ZRwq AvBmvUvc ej| cKZc G mKj cigvYyi wbDwKqvm cwieZb NU| cigvYy
_K wbMZ iwkmg~n AwaK MwZmb| Mvgv () iwk Rxe
Kvli wZ mvab Ki| wbDKxq wewqvi gvag
Gme ZRwq AvBmvUvc Zwi Kiv nq|

ZRwq AvBmvUvci eenvi

1. wPwKrmv : G cavbZ `y aibi eenvi iqQ,
(K) Kvbv ivM ev ivMvv
vb wbYq
(L) ivM wbivgq
(i) `ni nvo eo hvIqv Ges Kv_vq, Kb e_v nQ Zv wbYqi Rb Tc-99m ev 99mTc (Isotope of
Technetium) BKkb w`j ek wKQz mgq ci c`vq `Lv hvq nvoi Kv_vq Kx aibi mgmv AvQ|
99m
Tc _K Mvgv iwk wbMZ nq| fi msLvi ci m viv AvBmvUvci gUvvej (metastable)
Aev cKvk Ki| 99mTc _K Mvgv iwk wbMZ nIqvi ci 99Tc fiwewk AvBmvUvc Drcb nq|
99m
99
( Tc Tc + )
153
89
Sm A_ev Sr eenvi Ki nvoi e_vi wPwKrmv Kiv nq|
(ii) wUDgvii DcwwZ wbYq I Zv wbivgq ZRwq AvBmvUvc eenvi Kiv nq| wbivgqi Rb
60
Co _K wbMZ Mvgv iwk wbc Ki Kvvi KvlKjvK asm Kiv nq|
131
(iii)
I, _vBiqW Mwi Kvl-Kjv e w cwZnZ Ki|
32
(iv) ii wjDKvwgqv ivMi wPwKrmvq P Gi dmdU eeZ nq|
(v) c-yUvwbqvg-238 nv U cBmgKvi emvZ eenvi Kiv nq|
AviI wewfb aibi Kvvi wbivgq 131Cs, 192Ir, 125I, 103Pd, 106Ru, eeZ nq|
2. Kwl : ZRwq iwk eenvi Ki Kwl bZzb bZzb DbZ gvbi exR Dveb Kiv nQ Ges Gi
gvag djbi gvbi DbwZ I cwigvY evovbv nQ| ZRwq 32P hy dmdU `eY Dw`i g~javivq m~wPZ
Kiv nq| MvBMvi KvDUvi eenvi Ki cyiv Dw` Gi PjvPj wPwZ Ki wevbxiv Kx Kkj
(mechanism) dmdivm eenvi Ki Dw` eo DV Zv RvbZ cvib|

33

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32

wP 3.3 : Dw` P eenvi

3. Lv` msiY : mKj cKvi kvK-mewR, dj mwVK msi Yi Afve ev ivbvcwqv mwVK bv nj wewfb
aibi wZKi evKUwiqvi Rb nq hv Avgv`i kixii Rb wZKi| wekl gZzi KviY ch
nZ
60
cvi| mvaviYZ Co _K h Mvgv iwk wbMZ nq Zv Gme wZKi evKUwiqvK gi dj| cvjwU dvgI
G iwk eenvi Kiv nq hLb Kvbv evKUwiqvRwbZ ivMi De NU| GKwU wbw` gvvi ZRwq iwk
cqvM Ki Lv` msiY Kiv nq| AwZwi ZRwq iwk eenvi Kiv ^vi Rb gvivZK wZKi|
Lv``e ZRwq iwk AekB cwiwgZ gvvq msiwZ vb cqvM KiZ ne| G ZRwq (Mvgv iwk)
m~hi Avjvi bvq wbivc`|
gZ evKUwiqv

Mvgv iwk

wP 3.4: ZRwq iwk eenvi Ki Lv``e msiY

4. we`yr Drcv`b: AvBmvUvcmg~n qi mgq ev wbDwKq wewqvi mgq cPzi cwigvY Zvc Drcb Ki| GB
ZvckwK wewfb wWfvBm eenvi Ki we`yrkwZ i~cv
wiZ Kiv nq| cw_exi wewfb `k cvigvYweK Pzwj_K cPzi cwigvY we`yr Drcb Kiv nq wbDwKq wewqvi gvag|
GQvovI KxUcZ wbq
Y, wk, avZe cvZi cyiyZ cwigvc, ecv Ziji DPZv cwigvc, cvBc
jvBb wQ` A^lY, C- 14 viv dwmj gwgmn cw_exi hveZxq e, GgbwK cw_exi eqm wbaviY Kiv hvq|

ZRwq AvBmvUvc eenvii wZKi cfve :

ZRwq c`v_ _K wewfb aibi iwk wbMZ nq| GB c`v_mg~ni KvbvwUi mgq-Kvj (life time) Kg,
KvbvwUi ewk| ZRwqZv Kvvi nIqvi wekl GKwU KviY| mwVK gvvq eenvi bv Kij Zv KjvYKi bv
nq AKjvYi KviY nq `vuovq|
dgv-5, imvqb-9g-10g

34

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Kgv_ivwcZ ZRwq c`v_ eenvi nq| Kgv_ivwci dj gv_vi Pzj co hvq, ewg ewg fve nq| AbK
mgq Avgv`i Rb cqvRbxq evKUwiqvK gi dj|
wbDwKq wewqv nZ cv wbDwKq kw hgb we`yr Drcv`b eeZ nq Zgwb asmvZK KvRI eenvi nq|
wnivwmgv I bvMvmvwKZ wbw GUg evgvmn me aibi cvigvYweK evgvi kwi Drm wbDwKq wewqv|

3.8 cigvYyi gWj

3.8 (K) iv`vidvW cigvYy gWj: mi gWj
1911 wLv Avjdv KYv weQyiY cixvi wmv
i Dci wfw Ki iv`vidvW cigvYyi MVb mK GKwU
gWj c`vb Kib| Zv wbgi~c:
(1) cigvYyi K`j GKwU abvZK PvRwewk fvix e we`gvb| GB fvix eK cigvYyi K` ev
wbDwKqvm ejv nq| cigvYyi gvU AvqZbi Zzjbvq wbDwKqvmi AvqZb AwZ bMY| wbDwKqvm cigvYyi
mg abvZK PvR I cvq mg fi K`xf~Z|
(2) cigvYy we`yrwbic| AZGe wbDwKqvmi abvZK PvRhy cvUb msLvimgvb msLK FYvZK PvRhy
BjKUb cigvYyi wbDwKqvmK cwiewZ Ki ivL|
(3) miRMZi m~hi Pviw`K N~Yvqgvb Mnmg~ni gZv cigvYyi BjKUbjv wbDwKqvmi Pviw`K Aweivg
NyiQ| abvZK PvRwewk wbDwKqvm I FYvZK PvRwewk BjKUbmg~ni cviwiK wi e`ywZK
AvKlYRwbZ K`gyLx ej Ges N~Yvqgvb BjKUbi K`-ewng yLx ej cii mgvb|

wP 3.5: iv`vidvWi cigvYy gWj

`jMZfve KvR Ki : iv`vidvWi cigvYy gWji cwZwU cvebv fvjvfve wek-lY Ki Ges Gi ga
Kx Kx mxgveZv cj Zv wjL|
`jMZfve cvIqv mxgveZvjvi mv_ wbPi mxgveZvjv wgwjq `L:
mxgveZvmg~n njv :
1. migji Mnmg~n mvgwMKfve PvRwenxb A_P BjKUbmg~n FYvZK PvRhy|

35

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2. gvIqji Zvbymvi Kvbv PvRhy e ev KYv Kvbv evKvi c_ NyiZ _vKj Zv gvMZ kw
wewKiY Kie Ges Zvi AveZbPI axi axi KgZ _vKe| myZivs BjKUbmg~n gk kw nvivZ
nvivZ wbDwKqvm cek Kie| A_vr iv`vidvWi cigvYy gWj Abymvi cigvYy m~Yfve GKwU
Avqx Aev cv ne| A_P cigvYy nZ gvMZ kw wewKiY ev BjKUbi wbDwKqvm cek KLbB
NU bv|
3. cigvYyi eYvwj MVbi Kvbv myz evLv G gWj w`Z cvi bv|
4. AveZbkxj BjKUbi Kc_i AvKvi I AvKwZ m^ Kvbv aviYv iv`vidvWi gWj `qv nqwb|
5. GKvwaK BjKUbwewk cigvYyZ BjKUbjv wbDwKqvmK Kxfve cwigY Ki Zvi Kvbv Dj-L G
gWj bB|

e-

wP 3.6: AveZbkxj BjKUb Gi mve gvMZ kw wewKiY I wbDwKqvm cZb

3.8 (L) evi cigvYy gWj

cigvYyi MVb Ges GKB mv_ cvigvYweK eYvwj evLvi Rb bxjm evi (Neils Bohr)
1913 mvj Zuvi weLvZ cigvYy gWj cKvk Kib| G gWji ^xKvhmg~n njv:
1. cigvYyi wbDwKqvmK K` Ki evKvi c_ BjKUbmg~n NyiZ _vK|
2. wbDwKqvmi Pviw`K evKvi KZjv wi Kc_ AvQ hvZ Aevb wbq BjKUbmg~n NyiZ _vK|
GjvK kwi ev AiweU ejv nq| kwimg~nK KwZ msLv n -G i gvb Abymvi K, L, M, N
viv cKvk Kiv nq| c_g kwiK n = 1, (K kwi) 2q kwiK n = 2 (L kwi) Gfve n
-Gi gvb 3, 4, 5 BZvw` c~YmsLv gvb ew cZ _vK Ges kwimg~nK h_vg M, N, O viv
cKvk Kiv nq| GKwU wbw` kwi AevbKvj BjKUbmg~n kw kvlY A_ev wewKiY Ki bv|
3. hLb Kvbv BjKUb GKwU wbgZi Kc_ ev kwi hgb n = 1 _K DPZi Kc_ n = 2 Z
vbv
wiZ nq ZLb wbw` cwigvY kw kvlY Ki| Avevi hLb Kvbv DPZi kwi hgb n = 2
wiZ nq ZLb kw wewKiY Ki|
_K wbgZi Kc_ n = 1 -G vbv

36

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wewKwiZ kw

wewKwiZ I kvwlZ
kwK eYwj wnme
cvIqv hvq

kvwlZ kw

wP 3.7: evii cigvYy gWj I iLv-eYvwji Drm

evi cigvYy gWji mxgveZv:

evi cigvYy gWji hgb AbK mdjZv iqQ Zgwb Gi wKQz mxgveZvI AvQ| hgb,
1. evi cigvYy gWj nvBWvRb I nvBWvRb m`k GK BjKUbwewk Avqb hgb Avqbmg~ni eYvwj
evLv KiZ cvijI GKvwaK BjKUbwewk cigvYymg~ni eYvwj evLv KiZ cvi bv|
2. GK kwi nZ Aci kwi BjKUbi vbv
i NUj, evi cigvYy gWj Abymvi eYvwjZ GKwU
Ki iLv mw nIqvi K_v| wK
nvBWvRb I Abvb cigvYymg~ni Avqbi iLv-eYvwj AwaKZi m~
h
viv cixY Kij `Lv hvq, cwZwU iLv KqKwU m~ iLvq wef _vK|

3.9 kwi BjKUb webvm

evii cigvYy gWj _K Avgiv RbwQ h cigvYyi BjKUbmg~n Zv`i wbR wbR kw Abyhvqx wewfb
kwi Aevb Ki| wbDwKqvmi mePq KvQi kwiK 1g A_vr n = 1 ev K kj, 2q kwiK
n = 2 ev L kj n = 3 ev M kj BZvw` bvg AvLvwqZ Kiv nq| Gfve chvqg Q ch
cavb kwi
iqQ|
cwZwU cavb kwii mevP BjKUb aviYgZv 2n2 hLvb n = 1, 2, 3, 4 .... BZvw`| 2n2 m~vbymvi K kji BjKUb aviYgZv 2 x 12 = 2 wU
L kji BjKUb aviYgZv 2 x 22 = 4 wU
M kji BjKUb aviYgZv 2 x 32 = 18 wU
N kji BjKUb aviYgZv 2 x 42 = 32 wU BZvw`|
GB wbqg gb Pj| GB
1 _K 18 cvigvYweK msLvwewk gjmg~n A_vr nvBWvRb _K AvMb ch
gjmg~ni BjKUbK wewfb kwi Dcii aviYgZv Abymvi mvRvbv hvq| wbg kwi BjKUb viv
c~Y nj cieZx kwi BjKUb cek Ki|
wewfb cvigvYweK msLvwewk gji wewfb kwi BjKUbi eb:

37

imvqb

cvigvYweK
msLv
1
2
6
9
15
18

gj

H
eH
C
F
P
Ar

1
2
2
2
2
2

M
wbR Ki : 1 _K 18
cvigvYweK msLvwewk
gjmg~ni wPmn BjKUb
webvm Ki (QKijv ev`
w`q) |

4
7
5

8
8

QK 3.8: wewfb gji Kc_ ev kwi BjKUb webvm

cvigvYweK msLv 19 A_ev Zvi AwaK cvigvYweK msLvwewk gji cigvYyi BjKUb webvmi mgq ZZxq
kwi c~Y bv nq PZz_ kwi BjKUb cek Ki| kwi BjKUb webvmi aviYv w`q Gi
evLv `Iqv me bq| cwZwU kwi KZjv Dci _vK| Dci BjKUb webvmi gvag Gi
evLv `qv hvq|
cUvwmqvgi (K) cvigvYweK msLv 19 Kvjwmqvgi (Ca) 20| G`i BjKUb webvm wbgi~c
cvigvYweK
msLv

gj

19

AiweU ev cavb kwi

webvmi wP

20n
20p

20

Ca

2
20n
19p

QK 3.9: cigvYyi kwi BjKUb webvm

m~vbyhvqx 2n2 cUvwmqvgi M kj 9 wU Ges Kvjwmqvgi 10wU BjKUb _vKvi K_v wQj| Kb _vKj bv?
Gi Di Avgiv ejZ cvwi, cwZwU cavb kwi (orbit)
Avevi GK ev GKvwaK Dckwi (orbital)
wbq
MwVZ| PZz_ kwii Kvbv GKwU Dcii kw ZZxq kwii GKwU Dcii Zzjbvq Kg| G
DcijvK s, p, d, f BZvw` bvg AvLvwqZ Kiv nq| s Dcii mevP BjKUb aviYgZv 2, p
Dcii 6, d Dcii 10, f Dcii 14. BjKUbmg~ni mvaviY ag nQ Giv c_g wbg kwmb
Dci (orbital)
c~Y Ki Ges gv^q DP kwmb Dci Mgb Ki|

38

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K ev 1g kji Dci msLv 1wU hvK 1s ejv nq

1 w`q 1g cavb kwiK evSvb nq|
L ev 2q kji Dci msLv 2wU: 2s, 2p
M ev 3q kji Dci msLv 3wU: 3s, 3p, 3d
N ev 4_ kji Dci msLv 4wU: 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
cigvYyi BjKUb webvmi mgq BjKUbmg~n wewfb AiweUvj (Dckwi) Zv`i kwi wbgg _K DPg
Abymvi cek Ki| wwZkxjZv ARbi Rb c_g wbgkwi AiweUvj BjKUb Mgb Ki Ges AiweUvj c~Y
Ki; Gi ci gv^q DPkwi AiweUvj BjKUb viv c~Y nq| AiweUvjmg~ni kwg wbgi~c :
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s,3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p I 8s
GB bxwZ AbymiY Ki Avgiv K (19) Ges Sc (21) Gi BjKUb webvm `LvZ cvwi
K(19)

1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 0 4s1
6

1s 2 2s 2 2p 3s 2 3p 6 3d1 4s 2
Sc(21)
hnZz 4s AiweUvji kw 3d AiweUvji kwi Pq Kg, ZvB cUvwmqvgi mekl BjKUbwU 3d AiweUvj

bv cek Ki 4s AiweUvj vb wbqQ| Avevi vwqvgi ejvq 4s AiweUvj c~Y Ki cieZx DP

kwmb 3d AiweUvj mekl ev 21Zg BjKUbwU cek KiQ| Dcimg~ni kwi g gb ivLvi Rb
wbPi QKwUi mvnvh wbZ cvi|
wbR Ki : Dcii QKi mvnvh
wbq wbgv gjjvi
BjKUb webvm Ki
Ca 23V
35 Br
20

26

Fe 30 Zn

33

Ar

36

Kr 38 Sr

wP 3.8: AiweUvjmg~ni kwi g gb ivLvi QK

wekl Ki gb ivLe hLb BjKUb webvm wjLe ZLb cavb kwii mKj DciK cvkvcvwk wjLe

hgb: Sc (21)
Sc (21)

1s 2

2s 2 2p 6

M
3s 2 3p 6 3d1

1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d1 Gfve bq|

Zv bv nj BjKUb webvmi wP AuvKvi mgq fyj nIqvi mvebv _K hve|

N
4s 2

wjLe|

39

imvqb

BjKUb webvmi mvaviY wbqgi wKQz ewZg: mvaviYfve `Lv hvq h, mgkwmb AiweUvjmg~n Aac~Y
ev m~Yi~c c~Y nj m BjKUb webvm AwaKZi mywwZ ARb Ki| A_vr np3, nd 5, nd 10, nf 7, Ges nf14
mePq mywZ nq| Gi djB d10s1 Ges d5s1 BjKUb webvmwewk gj AwaKZi vqx nq|
GB wbqg AbymiY Ki vwgqvgi BjKUb webvm:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s

[wbR Ki : Kcvi (29

) ev 29Cu -Gi BjKUb webvm]

Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
1.

2.

wbPi Kvb AvBmvUvcwU wPwKrmv I Kwl Dfq eeZ nq?

K. 131 I

L. 125 I

M. 32 P

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Z GKwU gj hvi cvUb msLv 111 Ges wbDUb msLv 141 | KvbwU viv cigvYywUK cKvk Kiv hvq?
111
K. 14
1 Z

1
L. 14
Z
111

M. 252
Z
111

1
N. 1430
Z

3. X gjwUi AvcwK cvigvYweK fi KZ?

AvBmvUvc

chvZvi kZKiv cwigvY

146

25

154 X

75

[GLvb X cZxKx A_; cPwjZ Kvbv gji cZxK bq]

4.

K. 14
8

L. 150

M. 152

N. 153

56
Y
26

DxcK gjwUi
i. GKvwaK hvRbx we`gvb
ii. cvUb I wbDUb msLv wfb
iii. BjKUb webvm ^vfvweK wbqgi

40

imvqb

wbPi KvbwU mwVK?

K. i I ii

L. ii I iii

M. i I iii

N. i, ii I iii

mRbkxj ck:
1. GKwU gji cigvYyi gWj AuvKvi Rb ejv nj beg kwYi Qv dwi` wbPi wPwU Ab Kij|

BjKUb
+

K.

cvigvYweK msLv KvK ej?

L.

64
X
29

M.

dwi`i AuvKv gWjwU h cigvYy gWjK wb`k Ki Zv evLv Ki|

N.

AwZ gWj Abymvi cigvYyi vwqZ mK hwK gZvgZ `vI|

Ges3064Y cigvYy `yBwUi wbDwKqb msLv mgvb wK wbDUb msLv wfb evLv Ki|

2.
4W

12X

20Y

29Z

[GLvb W, X, Y Ges Z cZxKx A_; cPwjZ Kvbv gji cZxK bq]

K.

fimsLv Kx?

L.

3Li

M.

Kvb Kvb gji mekl i mgvbmsLK BjKUb we`gvb|

N.

Dcii GKwU gji BjKUb webvm ^vfvweK wbqg Kiv hvq bv- hywmn Dcvcb Ki|

I 11Na -Gi hvRbx GKB Kb evLv Ki|

PZz_ Aavq

chvq mviwY

chvq mviwY njv QKi gvag cKvwkZ ivmvqwbK gjmg~ni agi GKwU aviYvwP| 2012 mvj ch megvU
118wU gj kbv nqQ| cZK gji Gme aviYv Avjv`v Avjv`vfve Avq Kiv Ame| chvq mviwYZ
^ cwimi gjmg~nK Zv`i agi wfwZ fvM Kiv nqQ| chvq mviwY `LB Avgiv Kvbv GKwU
gji ivmvqwbK AvPiY mK aviYv KiZ cvwi| G Aavq chvq mviwYi mw _K i Ki eve Gi
eenvi I DcKvwiZvi AvjvPbv Kiv nqQ|

mvwi

10 11 12 13 14

15

16

17 18

Li

Be

Ne

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Ar

Ca

Sc

Ti

Cr

Mn

Fe

Rb

Sr

Zr

Nb

Mo

Tc

Ru

Rh

Cs

Ba

La

Hf

Ta

Re

Os

Fr

Ra

Ac

Rf

Db

Sg

Bh

Hs

He

Ni
wewfbCo gj

Cu

Zn

Ga

Ge

As

Se

Br

Kr

Pd

Ag

Cd

In

Sn

Sb

Te

Kr

Ir

Pt

Au

Hg

Tl

Pb

Bi

Po

At

Rn

Mt

Ds

Rg

Cn

Uut

Fl

Uup

Lv

Uus

Uuo

GB Aavq cvV kl Avgiv(1) chvq mviwY weKvki cUf~wg eYbv KiZ cvie|
(2) gji meewnt kwii BjKUb webvmi mv_ chvq mviwYi cavb Mycjvi mK wbYq
KiZ cvie (c_g 30wU gj)|
(3) GKwU gji chvq kbv KiZ cvie|
(4) chvq mviwYZ Kvbv gji Aevb Rb Gi fZ I ivmvqwbK ag mK aviYv KiZ cvie|
(5) gjmg~ni wekl bvgKiYi KviY ejZ cvie|
(6) chvq mviwYi iZ evLv KiZ cvie|
(7) chvq mviwYi GKB kwYi gj viv MwVZ hMi GKB aibi ag nvZ-Kjg KvRi gvag c`kb
KiZ cvie|
(8) cixYi mgq KvPi hcvwZi mwVK eenvi KiZ cvie|
(9) cixY KvR mZKZv Aej^b Kie|
(10) chvq mviwY AbymiY Ki gjmg~ni ag Abygvb AvMn c`kb Kie|
dgv-6, imvqb-9g-10g

42

imvqb

4.1 chvq mviwYi cUf~wg

chvq mviwY njv kZel ai msMnxZ wewfb ivmvqwbK aviYvi GK AweiYxq cwZdjb| gvbyl cvPxbKvj
_K wewfve c`v_ I Zv`i ag mK h mKj aviYv ARb KiwQj Zvi GKwU mwwjZ i~c `Iqvi
cPv wevbx`i wQj AvM _KB| hv cieZxZ gjmg~ni agwfwK kwYZ fvM KiZ mnvqZv KiQ
Z_v AvaywbK chvq mviwY Dcnvi w`qQ| jvfqwmq (Antoine Lavoisier) mec_g 1789 mvj fZ
Aevi Dci wfw Ki gjmg~nK wZb kwYZ wef Kib| cieZxZ 1864 mvj BsiR wevbx Rb
wbDjv (John A. R. Newlands) gjK Zv`i fi Abyhvqx mvwRq cwZ Ag gjmg~ni fZ I
ivmvqwbK ag wgj `LZ cvb| 1869 mvj ik wevbx gvwjd (Dmitri I. Mendeleev) Ges Rvgvb
wevbx jy_vi gqi (J. Lothar Meyer) c_K c_Kfve GKB agwewk wewfb gjK mgkwYfy Kivi
cqvm gjmg~ni GKwU ZvwjKv cKvk Kib| hv imvqb chvq mviwY (periodic table) bvg LvZ|
2012 mvj ch megvU 118 wU gj kbv nqQ| Za AvRvwZK imvqb I dwjZ imvqb msv
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry), 114wUK ^xKwZ w`qQ| GLvb Rb
ivLv fvjv h, msvwUK msc IUPAC ejv nq| msvwU AvRvwZKfve imvqb I dwjZ imvqbi
wewfb welqvw` hgb wewfb wbqgKvbyb, geagvb cwieZbi ev mwi KvbwU MnYxq Avi KvbwU eRbxq
Zvi `Lfvj BZvw`i wbqY Ki _vK| hvnvK, mekl ^xKZ 114 wU gji ga 112 wUi bvgKiY Kiv
nqQ| G`i ga 98 wU gj cKwZZ cvIqv hvq| evwK gjjv DbZgvbi cixvMvi Zwi Kiv me|
98 wU gji ga 84 wU gjK cv_wgK gj ejv nq Ges evwK 14 wU gj ZRwqZvi gvag Drcb
nq| gRvi evcvi njv, jvfqwmq gv 33wU gji GKwU QK Zwi KiwQjb| cieZxZ ik wevbx
gvwjd 67 wU gj wbq AvaywbK chvq mviwY ceZb Kib hvi ga 63 wU gj AweKZ nqwQj Ges
evwK 4wU gj ZLbI AweKZ nqwb wK cieZxZ AweKZ nqQ| Zvici 1900 mvji gaB chvq
mviwYZ AviI 30wU gj hy nq| Zvnj Avgiv eySjvg h chvq mviwYi gjmg~ni ewki fvMB Av`k
kZvxZ AvweZ nqwQj|

chvq mviwY
1
1

H1

gji cZxK

chvq msLv

18

Mc msLv

cvigvYweK msLv

13

14 15

16 17

gji bvg
cvigvYweK fi

88

10 11 12

4
5
6
7

Fl

Flerovium
289

wP 4.1 : chvq mviwYi wewfb gj

Lv

Livermovium
292

43

imvqb

4.2 chvq mviwYi ewk

fZ w`K weePbvq chvq mviwY njv ivmvqwbK gjmg~ni QK mwbek gv| cKZc, chvq mviwY
gjmg~ni agi aviYvwP| chvq mviwY Avwevii ci _K wewfb mgq Gi cwieZb I cwigvRb Kiv
nqQ| mekl chvq mviwYi h msiYwU IUPAC KZK MnxZ nqQ Zv wP-4.1 -G
`Lvbv njv|
GUvK AvaywbK chvq mviwY ejv nq| AvaywbK chvq mviwYi DjLhvM ewkjv wbi~c :

chvq mviwYZ 7wU chvq ev Avbyf~wgK mvwi (row) I 18 wU Myc ev Lvov (coulmn) iqQ|

cwZwU chvq evg w`K _K Mc- 1 wnme i Ki Myc- 18 ch weZ|

g~j chvq mviwYi wbP 2 wU Avbyf~wgK mvwi Ges 14wU Lvov wewk GKwU QvU QK c`wkZ nqQ|
GwUI g~j chvq mviwYi chvq- 6 I chvq- 7 -Gi Askwe kl|

chvq- 1 -G aygv `ywU gj iqQ, hviv Myc- 1 I Myc- 18 Z AewZ| GKBfve chvq- 2 I chvq- 3
G AvUwU Ki gj AvQ hviv Mc- 1 _K Mc- 3 Ges Mc- 13 _K Mc- 18 -Gi g a AewZ|

chvq-4 _K chvq-7 ch mejv chvqi cwZwU MycB gj viv c~Y|

chvq-4 I ch vq-5 GB chvq `ywUi 18wU Myc 18wU gj iqQ| A_vr cZK Myc GKwU Ki
gj vb `Lj Ki wbqQ|

chvq- 6 I chvq- 7 -Gi ewZg jYxq| Zv`i cZKi 18 wU Myc 32wU Ki gj
iqQ| G`i aygv Myc- 3 ZB 15 wU gji Aevb| evwK 17 wU Myc GKwU Ki gj
Aevb Ki| Gfve megvU 32 wU gj mwbewkZ nqQ|
Pj Gevi wbPi KvRwU mb Kwi| QKwUZ wewfb chvq mwbewkZ gji msLv Dj-L Ki| wewfb Myc
gji Aevb eySvevi Rb QK c` AvqZvKvi duvKv Nijv _K aygv cqvRbxq Nijv cwj w`q
fivU Ki| hw` c` AvqZvKvi Nijv cZK chvq AewZ me gjK c`kbi Rb chv bv nq, Zvnj
QKi wbP c` eo AvqZwUZ cqvRbgZ Ni GuK fivU Ki| KvRwU mb nj cv QKwU c` chvq
mviwY (wP 4.1) Gi mv_ Zzjbv Ki|
chvq

gvU
gji
msLv

Mc
1

IA

IIA

10

IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII VIII VIII

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

QK 4.1: chvq mviwYi wewfb gj

11 12
IB

IIB

13 14
IIIA IVA

15 16

17 18

VA VIA VIIA

44

gvawgK imvqb

Dcwiwj-wLZ ewkjv chvq mviwYi evwnK w`K j Kij `LZ cvB| Gevi gjmg~ni agi wfwZ
chvq mviwYK weePbv Kwi|

GKB chvq evgw`K _K Wvbw`K gjmg~ni ag cwiewZZ nq|

mvaviYfve gjmg~ni ag Zv`i Mci Dci wbfikxj| GKB Myci mKj gji fZ I ivmvqwbK
ag cvq GKB iKg|

mvaviYfve Kvbv gji mekl ii BjKUb msLv Zvi Mc msLvi mgvb|

Kvbv gji megvU Kc_ msLv Zvi chvq msLvi mgvb|

4.3 wewfb chvq m~

c_gw`K AvweZ gjmg~nK wevbxiv avZz I AavZz GB `yB kwYZ wef Kib| avZzmg~nK Avevi
Zyjbvg~jKfve Kg mwq avZz [mvbv, icv; hv`iK AwfRvZ avZz (noble metals) ej] Ges AwaK mwq
avZz [jvnv, `v; hv`iK wbK avZz (inferior metals) ej] wnme wef Kiv nq| Ebwesk kZvxi
iZ Wvbi cvigvYweK Z Dcvcbi ci imvqb PPvq evcK cwieZb Avm| 1829 mvj Rvgvb wevbx
R. Wwe-D. WveivBbvi cvigvYweK fii mv_ mwKZ Ki qx m~ (law of Triads) c`vb Kib|
qx m~: chvq mviwYi `ywU gji cvigvYweK fii Mo Ab GKwU gji GKwU gji cvigvYweK fii
cvq mgvb Ges gj wZbwUi ag GKBiKg| GB wZbwU gjK cvigvYweK fi Abymvi mvRvj c_g Ges
ZZxq gji fii Mo wZxq gji fii mgvb nq| gj wZbwUK WveivBbvi qx ej| hgb,
wjw_qvg (7) I cUvwmqvgi (39) cvigvYweK fii Mo mvwWqvgi (23) cvigvYweK fii cvq mgvb|
1864 mvj BsiR wevbx Rb wbDjv (John A. R. Newlands) gjK Zv`i fi Abyhvqx mvwRq cwZ
Ag gjmg~ni fZ I ivmvqwbK ag wgj `LZ cvb| Gi wfwZ wZwb AK Z cve Kib|
AK Z: gjjvK Zv`i cvigvYweK fi Abyhvqx mvRvj cwZ Ag gjmg~ni agi wgj `Lv hvq| hv
chvq mviwYi AK Z (law of octaves) bvg cwiwPZ|
ivwkqvb imvqbwe` wWwgwU gvwjd gjmg~ni ivmvqwbK ag wbq MelYv Ki 1869 mvj AvweZ
gjmg~ni cvigvYweK fii DPgvbymvi mvwRq `Lb GKB agwewk gjmg~n GKB Kjvg vb cvq|
Gi Dci wfw Ki wZwb chvq m~ cve Kib| chvq mviwY Dveb wewfb wevbxi Ae`vb _vKjI
Ae`vbi iZ weePbv Ki gvwjdK chvq mviwYi RbK ej|
gvwjdi chvq m~: hw` gjmg~nK geagvb cvigvYweK fi Abymvi mvRvbv nq, Ze Zv`i fZ I
ivmvqwbK agvewj chvqg AvewZZ nq|
1913 mvj wevbx nbwi gvmj cvigvYweK msLv Avwevii ci gvwjd Zvi chvq m~ mskvab Kib|
gvwjdi mskvwaZ chvq m~: gjmg~ni fZ I ivmvqwbK agvewj Zv`i cvigvYweK msLv Abyhvqx
chvqg AvewZZ nq|

imvqb

45

4.4 chvq mviwYi g~j wfw

wevbx gvwjd c_g AvaywbK chvq mviwYZ gjmg~ni cvigvYweK fii wfwZ mvRvbvi Pv Kib|
wK cvigvYweK fii wfwZ gjmg~ni webvm Kij wKQz wKQz ewZg j Kiv hvq| cUvwmqvg (K) I
AvMb (Ar) -G i Aevb D`vniY wnme weePbv Ki| cUvwmqvgi (K) cvigvYweK fi- 39 I AvMbi
(Ar) cvigvYweK fi njv- 40| hw` cvigvYweK fi Abymvi mvRvbv nq, Zvnj cUvwmqvgK AvMbi AvM
vb w`Z nq| m cUvwmqvgi Aevb nq Myc- 18 Z Ges Myc- 1-G vb cvq AvMb | eve fZ I
ivmvqwbK agvewji wePvi cUvwmqvgi mv_ Myc- 1-G Aew Z vi avZzjvi Ges AvMbi mv_ Mc- 18- Z
AewZ wbwq Mvmi mv`k cwijwZ nq| wK gjmg~nK cvigvYweK msLvi wfwZ mvRvj Gaibi
RwUjZvi Aemvb nq|
Avgiv ZZxq Aavq BjKUb I cvUb mK RbwQ| cvUb msLvKB cvigvYweK msLv ej| Avi Kvbv
gj hZwU BjKUb _vK wVK ZZwU cvUb _vK| Zvnj Kvbv gji BjKUb msLvKI Zvi cvigvYweK
msLv ejv hvq| hw`I BjKUb msLv cwieZbi mv_ cigvYyi cwieZb nq bv wK cvUb msLv cwieZb
cigvYyi cwieZb nq| chvq mviwYZ BjKUb webvmi Dci wfw KiB gjmg~ni fZ I ivmvqwbK
agvewj Zv`i cvigvYweK msLv Abyhvqx chvqg AvewZZ nq| Kvbv gji BjKUb webvmB g~jZ Zvi
ivmvqwbK agvewj wb`k Ki|
1869 mvj gvwjd AvaywbK chvq mviwYi ceZb Kib, hLb cvigvYweK msLv mK Kvbv aviYv wQj
bv| 1913 mvj wewUk wevbx nbwi gvmj cvigvYweK msLvi aviYv `b| cieZxZ gvwjd AvaywbK
chvq mviwYZ cvigvYweK msLvi aviYv eenvi Ki chvq m~i mskvwaZ i~c cKvk Kib| wevbx
gvwjdK AvaywbK chvq mviwY ceZYi mvb `Iqv nq| KviY Abygvb Kiv nq h, cvigvYweK msLv
mK Rvbv _vKj wevbx gvwjd Zuvi c` chvq m~ cvigvYweK fii cwieZ cvigvbweK msLvi K_vB
nqZv-ev ej Zb|

4.5 BjKUb webvm _K chvq mviwYZ gji Aevb wbYq

Dci Avgiv RbwQ h, BjKUb webvmB njv chvq mviwYi g~jwfw| Zvnj chvq mviwYZ Kvbv gji
Aevb Zvi BjKUb webvm _K eySv hvq| wbPi QK (QK- 4.2) KqKwU gji BjKUb webvm
wjwce Kiv njv| gjmg~ni wewfb i BjKUb webvm `Lvbv njv| Kvbv gji hZwU kwi
BjKUb web _vK, kwii m msLvB njv H gji chvq msLv| hgb nvBWvRb I wnwjqvgi
K_v weePbv Kiv hvK| G`i GKwU gv kwii BjKUb web _vK Ges chvq mviwYZ G`i
Aevb chvq- 1 -G | Abyi~cfve mvwWqvg _K AvMb ch gjmg~ni BjKUb wZbwU kwi web|
Zvnj mnRB ejv hvq h, Zv`i chvq msLv njv 3|
wKQy ewZg eZxZ, mvaviYfve meewnt kwi AewZ BjKUb msLvB Kvbv wbw` chvq D gji
Myc msLv ejv hvq| Zvnj Avgiv fe `Lj eySe h, 7wU chvqiB Myc- 1 Gi Dwj-wLZ wbqgwU chvR
ne| A_vr Myc- 1 -G AewZ gjmg~ni meewnt kwii BjKUb msLv njv 1, mRb wbqgvbymvi
Myc msLvI 1| Myc-2 -Gi GKBfve meewnt kwii BjKUb msLv w`qB mnRB Myc msLvi
aviYv cvIqv hvq| Abw`K BjKUb viv meewnt kwi c~Y gjmg~nK Myc- 18 -G vb cvq|

46

imvqb

18
He
2

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

B
2,3

C
2,4

N
2,5

O
2,6

F
2,7

Ne
2,8

Al
2,8,3

Si
2,8,4

P
2,8,5

S
2,8,6

Cl
2,8,7

Ar
2,8,8

Mg
2,8,2
Ca
2,8,8,2

Be
2,2

H
1
Na
2,8,1
K
2,8,8,1

Li
2,1

3
4

chvq

Myc

QK-4.2:wewfb gji BjKUb webvm

chvq-2 I chvq-3 -Gi

A_vr h mKj gji `yBwU I wZbwU kwi BjKUb web _vK Zv`i

meewnt kwii 3wU BjKUb _vKj Zv`iK Mc13 Z vb `Iqv nqQ| Kbbv chvq-2
I chvq-3 -Gi
Mc- 3 _K Myc-12 ch Kvbv gj DcwZ bB| Zvnj `yBwU I wZbwU kwi
BjKUb web Kvbv gji

, hw` meewnt kwii `ywUi ewk BjKUb _vK m

meewnt kwii DcwZ BjKUb msLvi mv_ `k ( 10) hvM Ki Mc msLv wbYq Kiv me|
chvq-4 _K chvq-7 ch h mKj gji BjKUb d cDi cek Ki Zv`i

d cDi
cekKZ BjKUb Ges mekl K
c_i BjKUb msLvi mgw Zvi Mc wb`k Ki| Ze chvq-6 Ges
chvq-7 -Gi h mKj gji mekl BjKUb f cDi cek Ki Zv`iK g~j chvq mviwYi wbP
c_Kfve Aevb `Iqv nq|
Qv
/Qv
xiv
5 Rb Ki `j fvM nq wbRiv kwYKemB wbPi QK (QK-4.3) c`KvRwU mb Ki|
D`vniY wnme QK bvBURb gjK `Lvbv nqQ|
gj

BjKUb webvm

chvq mviwYZ
Aevb
chvq- 2

++

Myc - 15

evLv
2wU kwi BjKUb web| AZGe chvq
msLv ne 2| meewnt kwi BjKUb
msLv njv 5wU, wK chvq msLv 2| AZGe Myc
msLv 5 bv nq, (5 + 10) = 15 ne|

Li
Al
Ne
Cl
QK-4.3:BjKUb webvm _K chvq mviwYZ gji Aevb wbYq

47

imvqb

4.6 gji chvqe ag

chvq mviwYZ h Kvbv GKwU chvqi w`K jKij `wL h, evg w`Ki gjjv mvaviYZ avZz g Zv
AcavZz Ges AavZzZ AvewZZ nq| 3q chvqi me evg mvwW
qvg iqQ, hv GKwU mwq avZz| Abw`K
Kvwib (W
vbw`K wZxq) GKwU mwq AavZz| G `y&Bqi gvS
vgvwSgjjvi ga avZz _K AavZzZ
i~cvii GKwU avivevwnKZv cwijw
Z nq| mvwW
qvg, gvMbwmqvg I Avjywgwbqvg avZe cKwZi| wmwjKb
GKwU AcavZz (hv avZz I AavZz D
fqi ewk enb Ki)| d
md
ivm, mvjd
vi I Kvwib Giv mevB AavZy I
G`i MjbvsK I zUbvsK Kg| h Kvbv Myc gjmg~ni fZ I ivmvqwbK ag axi axi Ges AbKUv
wbqwgZfve AvewZZ nq| hgb- Mc-1 -Gi vi avZzmg~n cZKB big, wbg MjbvsKwewk| G Myci
avZzmg~ni MjbvsK cvigvYweK msLv ewi mv_ mv_ Kg| chvq mviwYi evg w`K _K W
vb w`K A_vr
Myc-1 _K Myc-17 ch gjmg~ni MjbvsK I zUbvsK c_g ew cq (avZz ch) cieZxZ (AavZz
_K) nvm cvq| Gfve Myc-17 A_vr nvjvRbmg~ni MjbvsK I zUbvsK Myc-1 -Gi
vi avZzmg~ni
Zzjbvq AbK Kg nq| nvjvRbmg~ni
wewfb fZ ag GKB i~c avivevwnK cwieZb `Lv hvq|
hgbGme gji MjbvsK, zUbvsK I bNZ cvigvYweK msLv ew i mv_ mv_ evo
| GQvo
vI gjmg~ni
wKQz iZc~Y ewk hgb, cvigvYweK AvKvi, AvqwbKiY kw, Zwo
rF
YvZKZv, BjKUb Avmw BZvw` ag
chvq mviwYZ chvqg cwiewZZ nq| chvq mviwYi GKB chvqi evgw`K _K W
vbw`K cvigvYweK AvKvi
nvm cvq Ges Kvbv Mci cDi _K wbPi w`K cvigvYweK AvKvi ew cvq| cvigvYweK AvKvi eZxZ
Abvb agmg~n mvaviYfve (wKQz ewZgmn) chvq mviwYi GKB chvq evg w`K _K W
vb w`K cvigvYweK
msLv ewi mv_ ew cvq| A_vr Mc-1 -Gi
vi avZzmg~ni AvqwbKiY kw Kg Ges Mc- 17 -Gi
nvjvRbmg~ni AvqwbKiY kw ewk| GKBfve Kvbv GKwU Myci gjmg~ni cvigvYweK msLv ewi
mv_ D
agmg~n gv^q nvm cvq| G welq cieZx kwYZ AviI RvbZ cvie|

mvwW
qvg (Na)

wjw_qvg (Li)

evwgb (Br)

wbKj (Ni)

mwjwbqvg (Se)

cUvwmqvg (K)

wP4.2:wewfb gj

48

imvqb

4.7 wewfb kwYZ DcwZ gjmg~ni wekl bvg (vi avZz, grvi avZz, gy`v avZz,
nvjvRb, wbwq Mvm, Aevi gj)
vi avZz: chvq mviwYZ Myc- 1 -G AewZ gjmg~n hgb- Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs Ges Fr
vi avZz
(alkali metal) ejv nq| Giv cZKB cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki nvBW
vRb Mvm I
vi `eY Zwi Ki|
meewnt kwi AewZ GKgvBjKUbwU c`vb Ki AvqwbK hM (jeY) Zwi Ki|
grvi avZz : Myc- 2 -G AewZ Be _K i Ki Ra ch gjmg~nK gr
vi avZy ejv (alkaline
earth metal) nq| G`i ag AbKUv
vi avZzi gZvB| G`i A
vBW
mg~n cvwbZ
vixq `eY Zwi Ki|
GivI meewnt kwii 2 wU BjKUb c`vb Ki AvqwbK hM (jeY) Zwi Ki| GB gjmg~n wewfb
hM wnme gvwUZ _vK|
Aevi gj:chvq mviwYZ Myc- 3 _K Myc-11 ch Myc AewZ gjmg~n Aevi gj (transition
metal) wnme cwiwPZ| Aevi gjmg~ni wbR^ eY iqQ| Giv avZe c`v_ wnme cPzi eeZ nq|
meewnt kwii BjKUb c`vb Ki AvqwbK hM Zwi Ki| Kvbv chvqi Aev i gjmg~ni ga
evgw`Ki gj _K vWbw`Ki gj viv MwVZ hMi ewk AvqwbK _K mghvRxZ cwiewZZ nq|
gy`v avZy : chvq mviwYZ Myc 11 Z AewZ gjZvgv (Cu), icv (Ag) I mvbv (Au) G`i avZe
ewk hgb D
jZv we`gvb| wHZnvwmKfve Gme avZy viv gy`v Zwi Ki Zv`iK q-weq I Abvb

cqvRb wewbgqi gvag wnme eenvi Kiv nq| G`iK gy`v avZz (coinage metals) ejv nq|
cKZcGiv Aevi gj|
nvjvRb:Mc- 17 Z AewZ gj F, Cl, Br, I Ges At GB 5wU gjK GKnvjvRb (halogen)
ej| nvjvRb k
i A_ jeY MVbKvix (salt maker)| Giv meewnt kwi GKwU BjKUb MnYi
gvag nvjvBWAvqb Zwi Ki| nvjvRbmg~ni g~j Drm mvgyw`K jeY| Giv wbR wbRB BjKUb
fvMvfvwMi (electron sharing) gvag w-gj AYy Zwi Ki|
wbwq Mvm: chvq mviwYZ Myc- 18 Z AewZ gjmg~nK wbwq gj ej| G`i meewnt kwi
cqvRbxq msLK BjKUb viv c~Y _vKvq Giv BjKUb Av`vb-c`vb ev kqvii gvag hM MVb mvaviYZ
AvMn c`kb Ki bv| A_vr eb MVb ev ivmvqwbK wewqvi cwZ GB gjmg~n wbwq _vK|

4.8 chvq mviwYi myweav (Advantanges of Periodic Table)

imvqbkvAaqb I cqvMKvix`i Rb chvq mviwY GKwU Acwinvh nvwZqvi (tool)| AvaywbK chvq mviwY
eZxZ imvqb PPv me bq| Dci RbwQ h, G hver 118wU gj kbv nqQ| Pj cZKwU gji hw`
4wU fZ ag hgbMjbvsK, zUbvsK, NbZ I fZ Aev (KwVb, Zij I evqexq) Ges 4wU ivmvqwbK
ag hgbAw
Rb, cvwb, GwmWI
vii mv_ wewqv weePbv Ki| Zvnj
118wU gji Rb 4wU Ki
fZ I 4wU Ki ivmvqwbK ag wgj megvU 472wU ag gb ivLv KwVb bq wK?Avgiv GUvI Rvwb h, Kvbv

50

imvqb

GKwU KvPwUDe AvbygvwbK 2/3 Mvg Na2CO3 bvI| AZtci we cvwbZ mwU `exf~Z Ki Ges `eYi
ga axi axi jNy nvBWvKvwiK GwmW hvM Ki| cheY Ki Kvbv Mvm Drcb nq wK bv| Drcb MvmK
Rj KvwVi mvnvh kbv Ki| ivmvqwbK cixvi gvag kbv Kivi Rb Drcb MvmK euvKvbv KvPbji
mvnvh weKvi ivLv cwivi Pzbi cvwbZ cek KivI Ges cwieZb cheY Ki| GB cwieZbi KviY
evLv Kivi Pv Ki| Pzbi cvwbZ AwZwi Mvm cek Kivj Kx cwieZb nq Zv cheY Ki Ges KviY
evLv Kivi Pv Ki|
GKBfve KvPwUDe AvbygvwbK 2/3 Mvg K2CO3 wbq cixv Ki| cixv Ki wbPi Uwej c~Y Ki|
M-vm/UwUDe Na2CO3
hvMKZ Dcv`vb

M-vm/UwUDe K2CO3

mb cwieZb I msNwUZ ivmvqwbK mb cwieZb I msNwUZ ivmvqwbK ge

cwieZbi KviY
wewqv
cwieZbi KviY
wewqv

we
jeyi im/wmiKv/jNy
HCl
Rj KvwVK Drcb
Mvmi Dci ai
Drcb MvmK Pzbi
cvwbZ cek KivI
AwZwi
cwigvY
Drcb MvmK Pzbi
cvwbZ cek KivI

Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
1. chvq mviwYi mwZKvi g~j wfw Kx?
K. cvigvYweK msLv

L. cvigvYweK fi

M. AvcwK cvigvYweK fi

N. BjKUb webvm

2. A = 1s22s22p63s23p63d34s2; gjwU chvq mviwYi Kvb Mc AewZ?

K. Group-2

L. Group-5

M. Group-11

N. Group-13

51

imvqb

wbPi mviwY _K 3 I 4 bs cki Di `vI :

chvq mviwYi Kvbv GKwU Mci LwZ Ask
19K

X
Y
Z
[GLvb X, Y Ges Z cZxKx A_; cPwjZ Kvbv gji cZxK bq]

3. X gjwU chvq mviwYi Kvb chvqi?

K. 3q

L. 4_

M. 5g

N. 6

4. Dwj-wLZ gjjvii.

mekl i 1wU BjKUb AvQ

ii. cvigvYweK AvKvi gv^q nvm cvq

iii. mwqZv gv^q ew cvq
wbPi KvbwU mwVK?
K. i I ii

L. ii I iii

M. I iii

N. i, ii I iii

mRbkxj ck:
1.
F
Na

Mg

52

imvqb

DxcKi wPwU chvq mviwYi GKwU LwZ Ask

K. qx m~wU wjL|
L. ewiqvgK grvi avZz ejv nq Kb evLv Ki|
M. DxcKi Kvb gjwUi AvKvi mePq eo? evLv Ki|
N. DxcKi chvq I Mci c_g gj`ywU DP gvvq mwq njI mwqZvi KviY wfb hyw `vI|
2.
gj kwY

hvRZv ii BjKUb msLv

[GLvb A, B Ges D cZxKx A_; cPwjZ Kvbv gji cZxK bq]

K.

gy`v avZz Kx?

L.

He K Mc II -G ivLv nqwb Kb?

M.

B kwYi gji Drm evLv Ki|

N.

A I D kwYi gjjvi AvqwbKiY kwi Zzjbv Ki|

cg Aavq

ivmvqwbK eb
wbwq Mvmmg~n GK-cigvYyK Mvmi~c cKwZZ vqx, G Mvmjv eZxZ Ab gji cigvYymg~n
^vaxbfve cKwZZ weivR Ki bv| gwjK Mvmi AYymg~n mvaviYZ wcigvYyK hgb- O2, N2, F2, Cl2,
Br2 BZvw`| Avevi Kvbv Kvbv gji AYy `yBqi AwaK cigvYy wbq MwVZ nq| hgb O3, P4, S8 |
Avevi wfb wfb gji cigvYy wgj hM MVb Ki hgb NaCl, H2O, HCl, CH4 cfwZ| me AYyZB
cigvYymg~n GK wekl AvKlYkw viv cii Ave _vK, G kwK ebkw ej| mvaviYZ eb MVb
Kvj mKj cigvYyyB Zvi kl kwi wbKUeZx wbwq Mvmi BjKUb webvm jvf KiZ Pvq| avZz-AavZz
wgj mvaviYZ AvqwbK eb, AavZz-AavZz wgj mghvRx eb MVb Ki| avZe L avZe cigvYymg~n
avZe ebi gvag GK Abi mv_ Ave _vK| wZb cKvi eb m gj ev hMi Avjv`v Avjv`v
ewk iqQ|
oo
oo
o

xx
x
x

x
x

Na

x
x

o
o o

Cl

xx

o
oo
oo

xx

oo
oo
o

Na
xx

x
x

x o
o o

Cl
o
oo
oo

o o
o o

o o
o o

H
O

GB Aavq cvV kl Avgiv(1) hvRZv BjKUbi aviYv evLv KiZ cvie|

(2) wbwq Mvm-Gi wwZkxjZv evLv KiZ cvie|
(3) AK I `yB-Gi wbqgi aviYv evLv KiZ cvie|
(4) ivmvqwbK eb Ges Zv MVbi KviY evLv KiZ cvie|
(5) Avqb Kxfve Ges Kb mw nq Zv evLv KiZ cvie|
(6) AvqwbK eb MVbi cwqv eYbv KiZ cvie|
(7) mghvRx eb MVbi cwqv eYbv KiZ cvie|
(8) AvqwbK I mghvRx ebi mv_ MjbvsK, zUbvsK, `veZv, we`yr cwievwnZv Ges Kjvm MVbi
ag evLv KiZ cvie|
(9) avZe ebi aviYv evLv KiZ cvie|
(10) avZe ebi mvnvh avZzi we`yr cwievwnZv evLv KiZ cvie|
(11) vbxqfve mnRcvc `ei ga AvqwbK I mghvRx hM kbv KiZ cvie|

54

imvqb

5.1 hvRZv BjKUb

wKQz gji cZxK `Iqv njv, G`i cvigvYweK msLv wjL BjKUb webvm Ki Ges BjKUb webvmi wP
AuvK|
Li, Na, O, F
KvbwUi kl kwi KZwU Ki BjKUb AvQ wjL|
Kvbv gji mekl cavb kwii gvU BjKUb msLvK mB gji hvRb BjKUb ev hvRZv
BjKUb ej|
wbR Ki :
bvBUvRb I
Kvjwmqvgi
hvRZv
BjKUb msLv
KZwU ?

7n
7p

(gjmgyni c_g Kc_i `ywU BjKUbK eRvo Aevq `Lvbv njI cKZc Giv GKwU Dci Rvo Aevq)

wP 5.1: bvBUvRb I Kvjwmqvgi BjKUb webvm

5.2 wbwq Mvm Ges Gi wwZkxjZv

wbq Zvgiv Rvb chvq mviwYi '18' Myci gjmg~nK wbwq Mvm ejv nq|
GB Mci wnwjqvg, wbqb, AvMb I wcUbi BjKUb webvm Ki|
[ wPv Ki : BjKUb webvmi Kx wgj Ges Kx Awgj j KiQ?]
wbg wbwq Mvmmg~ni BjKUb webvm `Iqv njv :
He (2) : 1s2
Ne (10) : 1s2 2s2 2p6
Ar (18) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Kr (36): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
Xe (54) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p2 4p6 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6
Rn (86) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6 5d10 6s2 6p6

55

Dcii BjKUb webvm _K `Lv hvq, GKgv wnwjqvg Qvov Ab mKj wbwq gji hvRZv i 8wU
BjKUb iqQ| He -Gi cvigvYweK msLv 2| 1g cavb kwi GKwU gv Dci (s) _vKvq Gi hvRZv
i 2 wU BjKUb viv c~Y _vK, hv He -Gi Rb vqx webvm| He -Gi hvRZv i 2 Ges Abvb
wbwq Mvmi hvRZv i 8wU BjKUb wwZkxj Aev c`vb Ki| Gi~c BjKUb webvm cwieZb
AbvMnx nIqvi KviYB gjmg~n ivmvqwbKfve wbwq| Abw`K Abvb gjmg~ni meewnt i G
BjKUb webvm bv _vKvq G me gj wewfbfve G aibi AwaKZi vqx BjKUb webvm MVb AvMnx|

5.3 AK I `yB-Gi wbqg

Zvgiv c~e Li Ges Na -Gi BjKUb webvm KiQ|
Kxfve Li, He Gi BjKUb webvm Ges Na, Ne -Gi BjKUb webvm jvf Kie evLv Ki|
Abw`K AwRb I Kvwibi BjKUb webvm KiQ| Kvjwmqvgi BjKUb webvm Ki| wwZkxjZv
ARbi Rb G wZbwU gj Kvb wbwq gji BjKUb webvm jvf KiZ PvBe Ges Kxfve Kie
evLv Ki|
nvBWvRbi hvRZv i GKwU gv BjKUb iqQ| H cigvYy, hMi AYy MVbi mgq GwU Gi wbKUZg
wbwq Mvm wnwjqvgi BjKUb webvm jvf KiZ PvBe| GRb hM MVbi mgq nvBWvRb cigvYy GKwU
BjKUb MnY Ki (^Zg ) ev nvBWvRbi BjKUbwU Ab GKwU BjKUbi mv_ kqvi Ki|
myZivs Dcii evLv-weklY _K G wmv DcbxZ nIqv hvq h
wewfb gji cigvYymg~n wbR`i ga BjKUb Av`vbc `vb Ges kqvii gvag cigvYymg~ni kl
kwi 2 wU A_ev ewki fvM AvUwU BjKUbi webvm jvf Ki| Gfve He -Gi webvm jvf
KivK `yBGi (duplet or duet) wbqg Ges hvRZv i 8 wU BjKUb webvm jvf KivK AK
(octet) wbqg ej|

5.4 ivmvqwbK eb I ivmvqwbK eb MVbi KviY

Li, Na Ges Ca -Gi `LQ BjKUb eRb Ki hvRZv i Giv `yB-Gi ev AK bxwZ Abyhvqx
webvm jvf Ki| O, F cigvYy BjKUb MnY Ki hvRZv i AK webvm jvf Ki|
H2 Aby MVbKvj `ywU nvBWvRb cigvYy 1wU Ki BjKUb kqvi Ki|
GB fve wewfb gj BjKUb Av`vb-c`vb A_ev kqvii gvag eb MVb Ki|
Zvnj ivmvqwbK eb MVbi Rb wKQz cqvRbxq Z_ Avgv`i gb ivLZ ne
1. Kvbv gji kl kwii BjKUb A_vr hvRZv BjKUb eb MVb AskMnY Ki|
2. cwZwU cigvYyiB j _vK Zvi wbKUeZx wbwq gji BjKUb webvm jvf Kiv|
3. 1 _K 17 cvigvYweK msLvwewk gjmg~n eb MVb Kij Lye mnRB `yB-Gi (duplet) ev
AK (octet) wbqg gb Pj| ZZxq ii mevP BjKUb aviYgZv 18 nIqv mI wKQz gj

57

imvqb

wbR Ki :
gvMbwmqvg I AwRbi BjKUb webvmi wP GuK Kxfve `ywU cigvYy G`i wbKUeZx wbwq Mvm
wbqbi BjKUb webvm jvf Ki KvUvqb I Avbvqb cwiYZ ne `LvI|

5.6 AvqwbK eb
x
x

Li

He

x
x
x
x

x x
x
x
x

x
x

x
x x

x
x

Ne
x
x x

wP 5.2: wewfb cigvYyi BjKUb webvm

wjw_qvg Kxfve wnwjqvg Ges dvwib Kxfve wbqbi BjKUb webvm jvf Kie? wjw_qvg cigvYy hvRZv
ii GKwU BjKUb eRb Ki wnwjqvgi vqx `yB-Gi (duplet) Ges dvwib cigvYy hvRZv i GKwU
BjKUb MnY Ki wbqbi hvRZv ii vqx AK (octet) webvm jvf Kie|
`ywU cigvYy hLb KvQvKvwQ Avm ZLb wjw_qvg cigvYy Zvi hvRZv ii BjKUbwU dvwib cigvYyK `vb
Kie Ges dvwib mB `vbKZ BjKUbwU MnY Ki h_vg Li+ Avqb I F- Avqb cwiYZ ne| `ywU Avqb
hy nq LiF hM cwiYZ ne|
x
x

Li
x

Li+

wP 5.3: wjw_qvg dvivBW hM MVb cwqv|

wbR Ki :
GKBfve mvwWqvg I dvwib cigvYy mshvM mvwWqvg dvivBW (NaF) hMwUi MVbcwqv `LvI|
[`jMZfve Ki : gvMbwmqvg AvBW, Kvjwmqvg KvivBW Ges cUvwmqvg KvivBW hMmg~ni
MVbcwqv GuK `LvI Ges wbPi ckjvi Di `vI|
1. gvMbwmqvg AvBW eb MVbi mgq gvMbwmqvg I AwRb KZwU Ki BjKUb `vb Ges MnY Ki?
2. Mg, Mg2+ Avqb Ges O, O2- Avqb cwiYZ njv Kb?
3. Kvjwmqvg KvivBWi msKZ Kx?
dgv-8, imvqb-9g-10g

58

imvqb

Dcii mejv D`vniY chjvPbv Kij `Lv hvq avZzmg~n BjKUb eRb Ges AavZymg~n avZz KZK `vbKZ
BjKUb/BjKUbmg~n MnY Ki h_vg KvUvqb I Avbvqb cwiYZ nq| KvUvqb I Avbvqb KvQvKvwQ Gm
AvqwbK eb MVb Ki|
BjKUb Av`vb-c`vbi gvag MwVZ KvUvqb (abvZK Avqb) Ges Avbvqbmg~n (&FYvZK Avqb) h AvKlY
ej viv hMi AYyZ Ave _vK ZvK AvqwbK eb ej|
`ywU wfbagx cigvYyi gvag MwVZ nq AvqwbK hM|

wP 5.4: NaCl Gi AvqwbK eb MVb

Rvbv cqvRb AvqwbK eb mvaviYZ chvq mviwYi Mc 1 I 2 -G i avZz Ges Mc 16 I 17 -G i AavZzi ga

NU _vK| chvq mviwYi gvSvgvwS Aevb AewZ avZzmg~ni kl kwi AwaKmsLK BjKUb _vKvi
KviY, BjKUb `vb ev MnYi Rb AwaK kwi cqvRb nq hvi dj mvaviYZ Giv wZb ev Pvi msLK
BjKUb MnY ev eRb Drmvnx nq bv| Gi ga ewZg njv Al3+ Avqb| ZvI `Lv hvq Al me mgq wZbwU
BjKUb eRb Ki AvqwbK eb MVb Ki bv|
Dj-L h chvq mviwYi 1 _K 20 ch cvigvYweK msLvwewk gjmg~nB cKZfve eb MVbKvj `yB Gi
(duplet) I AK (octet) bxwZ AbymiY Ki|

5.7 mghvRx eb
nvBWvRb, Kveb, AwRb, bvBUvRb I dvwibi BjKUb webvmi wP AuvK|
G mKj gjB AavZz|
AavZz-AavZz e b MVb Kivi Kx NU? hw` GKwU nvBWvRb cigvYy Aci GKwU nvBWvRb cigvYyi
mv_ hy nq ZLb Kx NU?
G wnwjqvg cigvYyi vqx `yB-Gi web vm jvf Kivi Rb nvBWvRbi BjKUb MnY ev eRb me bq|
m cigvYyq cii BjKUb kqvi Ki wnwjqvgi vqx webvm jvf Kie|

H2 AYy

Kveb, bvBUvRb I dvwibi hvRZv i KZwU BjKUb AvQ?

59

imvqb

Kvebi 4 wU, bvBUvRbi 5 wU I dvwibi 7 wU

6n
6p

7n
7p

10n
9p

10n
10p

Kveb

bvBUvRb

dvwib

wbqb

wP 5.5: wewfb gji BjKUb webvm

AavZzi mv_ eb MVbi mgq wbqbi hvRZv ii vqx AK MVbi Rb A_ev wnwjqvgi vqx
BjKUb webvm MVbi Rb Kvebi 4 wU BjKUb MnY ev eRb cqvRb| bvBUvRbi 3 wU BjKUb MnY
ev 5 wU BjKUb eRb cqvRb| dvwibi 7 wU BjKUb eRb ev 1 wU BjKUb MnY cqvRb| AavZzmg~n
BjKUb MnY GKgv avZzi mv_ eb MVbi mgq| AavZz-AavZzi eb MVbi Kx NUe?
Kvbv gji c GZ AwaKmsLK BjKUb MnY ev eRb me bq| KviY Gi Rb AwaK cwigvY kw eq
KiZ nq hv h Kvbv gji gZvi evBi|
Kvwib AYy MVbi Kx NUe?
xx
xx
x
x x
x x

Ar

Cl
x x
x x

x
xx
xx

wP 5.6: AvMbi BjKUb webvm

Cl

x
xx

x
xx

x x
x x
x

Cl

xx
xx

x
x x
x x

x x
x x
x

Cl

xx
xx

x
x x
x x

wP 5.7: Cl2 AYyi eb MVb

`Lv hvQ Cl2 AYyi eb MVbi cwZwU cigvYyi hvRZv ii GKwU Ki BjKUb kqvi Ki Zvi
wbKUeZx wbwq Mvm AvMbi BjKUb webvm jvf Ki|
[wbR Ki : AwRb I dvwib AYyi eb MVbwP AsKb Ki| KvbwUi GKK Ges KvbwUi
web `Lv hvq evLv Ki|]
Dci AvjvwPZ meB gwjK AYy| AviI AbK gwjK AYy iqQ| wfb wfb AavZy cigvYy wgj hLb hM MVb
Ki ZLb Kx NU j Ki|
H2O, cvwbi GKwU AYy hv `yBwU nvBWvRb I GKwU AwRb cigvYy wbq MwVZ|
AwRbi cvigvYweK msLv 8, Gi BjKUb webvm: 2, 6| nvBWvRbi cviYweK msLv 1, Gi BjKUb
webvm 1| wbqbi BjKUb webvm jvfi Rb AwRbi meewnt i 2 wU BjKUb cqvRb| m

60

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KviY `yBwU nvBWvRb cigvYy GKwU Ki BjKUb AwRbi hvRZv ii `yBwU BjKUbi mv_ kqvi
Ki AwRb AK I nvBWvRb `yB-Gi webvm jvf Kie|

H
2H +

wP 5.8: H2O AYyi MVb

hvRZv ii BjKUb kqvii gvag mghvRx AYyi MVbi wP `Lvbv hvq|

gy-Rvo BjKUb

xx

+x

Cl
xx

xx
x
x

Cl
xx

x
x
eb-Rvo BjKUb

wP 5.9: hvRZv ii BjKUb kqvii gvag HCl AYyyi eb MVb

mghvRx ebi gvag MwVZ nq mghvRx hM Ges mghvRx AYyy| wbPi QK (QK 5.1) wKQz AYyyi msKZ
`Iqv njv| G`i eb MVbwP AsKb Ki (hvRZv ii BjKUb kqvii gvag)|

AYy

cigvYy msLv

wg_b
CH4

C+4H

Avgvwbqv
NH3

N+3H

Kveb -WvB-AvBW
CO2

eb MVb wP

C+2O

QK 5.1: mghvRx eb MVbi wP

61

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wPv Ki : H2O, NH3, CO2 Ges CH4 eb MVbi ci cwZwU AYyZ KZwU gy-Rvo BjKUb
iqQ Ges KZwU eb-Rvo BjKUb eb MVb AskMnY KiQ?
Dcii mejv D`vniY chvjvPbv Kij `Lv hvq mghvRx AYy MVbKvix cwZwU cigvYyB AavZz| nvBWvRb
Qvov me AavZz gjiB kl kwi wZbi AwaK BjKUb iqQ| `yB-Gi I AK wbqg Abymvi hM
`yB Gi MVb Kivi Rb BjKUb ZvM ev MnYi Rb hZUv kw cqvRb Zv Zv`i bB| dj wbR`i ga
Zviv BjKUb kqvi Ki|
mekl kwi vqx BjKU&b webvm jvfi Rb BjKUb kqvii gvag h eb MwVZ nq, ZvK
mghvRx eb ej|
jYxq mvaviYZ `ywU AavZe cigvYyi ga mghvRx eb NU _vK|
eb AskMnYKvix cigvYy mgmsLK BjKUb hvMvb w`q GK ev GKvwaK BjKUb hyMj mw Ki hv
Dfq cigvYy mgvbfve kqvi Ki|
mghvRx eb MwVZ gwjK AYyyK (hgb O2) mghvRx AYy Ges hMK mghvRx hM (hgb CO2 ) ej|
wKQz mghvRx AYy Kg Zvcgvvq Mvmxq Aevq _vK (CO2, CH4, NH3 BZvw`) wKQz Zij Aevq _vK
(H2O, C2H5OH ; B_vbj BZvw`) Ges wKQz KwVb Aevq _vK {mvjdvi (S8), AvqvwWb (I2) BZvw`}|
G`i AYymg~n `yej fvbWvi Iqvjm (van der Waals) kw viv Ave _vK hv Kg Zvcgvvq fO hvq|
CO2, CH4, NH3 BZvw`i AYymg~ni ga fvbWvi Iqvjm (van der Waals) kw bB ejjB Pj, hvi
dj Giv Mvmxq Aevq GKK AYy wnme Nyi eovq|

wP 5.10: meklkw ii BjKUb kqvii gvag CO2 AYy MVb

5.8 AvqwbK I mghvRx hMi ewk

MjbvsK I zUbvsK (`jMZ KvR) : cwZwU `j Lv`jeY (NaCl) I wPwb Avjv`v Avjv`v Zvcmn KvP bj wbq
Zvc w`Z _vK| cheYi djvdj bvU Ki| NaCl -Gi MjbvsK AbK ewk ej jveiUwiZ Zvi MjbvsK
wbYq mnR bv-I nZ cvi| wPwbi MjbvsK AbK Kg ej Zv wbYq mnR ne, Ze zUbvsK wbYq ek
KwVb KviY Mjbi ciB GwU ev`vwg _K Kvjv iO aviY Ki| hvK Avgiv Kvivgj ej _vwK| mnRcv
nj Lv`jeYi e`j mvwWqvg bvBUU wbq Zvgiv G cixvwU KiZ cvi, wPwbi e`j cvwb wbq zUbvsK
wbYq KiZ cvi, 2q Aavq h fve DcKiYjv mvwRqwQj mfve mvRvZ ne| wPwbi AvYweK msKZ :
C12H22O11|
wkv_xi KvR: cixY _K `Lv hvq AvqwbK hMmg~ni MjbvsK I zUbvsK DP Ges mghvRx
hMmg~ni MjbvsK I zUbvsK wbg KviY evLv Ki|

62

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[Z_: AvqwbK hMi AYyZ abvZK I F

YvZK cv v_Kvq G`i Av tAvYweK kw ewk nq| Aciw`K
mghvRx hMi AYy wbic nIqvq G`i AYymg~ni ga `yej fvbWvi Iqvjm AvKlYkw we`gvb _vK|]
`eYxqZv (`jMZ KvR):wbw` cwigvY cvwbZ Avjv`v Avjv`v fve Kvco
KvPv mvWv,mvwWqvg KvivBW I ZzuZ
hvM Ki Zv bvo
Z v_K, KvbwU wgwkZ njv, KvbwU njv bv Zv wjwce
Ki| Dj-L G mKj me hMB
AvqwbK| Avevi Avjv`v Avjv`v cvwbw` cwigvY cvwbZ mghvRx hM bvc_vwjb u(o
v),AvUv/gq`v,Zj I
wPwb cvwbZ wgwkZ Ki| cheYi d
jvd
j wjwce Ki|
G Zvgv`i gb GKwU ck AvmZ cvi ewkifvM AvqwbK hM cvwbZ `exf~Z nq,wKQznq bv Avevi
ewki fvM mghvRx hM cvwbZ `exf~Z nq bv,wKQznq Kb?
`eYxqZv cixv KiZ wMq `LQcvwbZ cvq mKj AvqwbK hMmg~n `exf~Z nq,hw`I cvwb GKwU mghvRx
hM,Aci w`K ewki fvM mghvRx hM cvwbZ `exf~Z nq bv wK wPwb,AvjKvnj mghvRx hM nIqv
mI `exf~Z nq| Gi KviY Kx? e
b MVbi ci cvwbi AYyZ Aw
Rb I nvBWvRb cigvYyi gaeZx
kqviKZ BjKUbK Dfq cigvYyi wbDwKqvm AvKlY Ki| GB AvKlY Kivi gZv nvBWvRbi Zzjbvq
Aw
Rbi ewk _vK (mghvRx e
b kqviKZ BjKUbK AvKlY Kivi gZvK Zwo
rF
YvZKZv ej)|
AvKlYi KviY e
bi kqviKZ BjKUbhyMj Aw
Rb cigvYyi wbDwKqvmi w`K vbv
wiZ nq| hvi
j Aw
d
Rb AvswkK F
YvZK cv
i Ges nvBWvRb AvswkK abvZK cv i mw nq| GB NUbvK
mghvRx hMi cvjvwiwU ejv nq| h mghvRx hM cvjvwiwUi mw nq ZvK cvjvi mghvRx hM ej|
2
2

wP5.11:cvwbi AYyZ cvjvwiwU

AvqwbK hM abvZK I F
YvZK cv _vK| AvqwbK hMi abvZK cv cvwbi F
YvZK Aw
Rb cv viv
AvKwlZ nq Ges AvqwbK hMi F
YvZK cv cvwbi abvZK nvBWvRb cv viv AvKwlZ nq| mghvRx
hMmg~ni ga hv`i cvjvwiwU iqQmjvI GKBfve AvKwlZ nq Ges cvwbZ `exf~Z nq|

wP5.12:cvwb AYy mshvwRZ

Na+ I Cl- Avqb

63

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we`yr cwievwnZv (`jMZ KvR): GKwU cv/weKvi Lv`jeYi `eY, Aci GKwU cv/weKvi wPwbi `eY wbq
BjKUvW wnme `ywU MvdvBU ` bvI| `qi mv_ Kcvi Zvi evUvwi, UP evj hy Ki|
MvdvBU
`
NaCl Gi
`eY

MvdvBU `
wPwbi
`eY

wP 5.13: `eYi we`yr cwievwnZv wbYq

cheY Ki Ges AvqwbK I mghvRx hMi we`yr cwievwnZvi cv_K wbYq Ki| MvdvBU `i cwieZ
avZe ` eenvi Kiv hvq| `eYi we`yr cwievnx I Acwievnx nIqvi KviY evLv Ki|
(Z_ : we`yr cwienYi Rb gy Avqb ev BjKUbi DcwwZ Ges Zv`i PjvPj cqvRb|)

Kjvm MVb :
[evwoi KvR: cZK c_K cv Lvevi jeY I wPwbi Avjv`v Avjv`v m `eY Zwi Ki ZvZ axi
axi Zvc cqvM Ki| `eYi AvqZb cv_wgK AvqZbi AaK cwigvY nj bvwgq Vvv nZ `vI| wKQz
mgq ci cvi Zjvq jeY I wPwbi `eY _K Rgv nIqv KwVb c`v_i AvKwZ cheY Ki| (Gjvi
AvKwZ cixv Ki Kxfve AbKjv cvkvcvwk Aevb Ki, Kb jeYi Kjvm MjvZ wPwbi Pq
AbK ewk Zvckwi cqvRb ne evLv Ki])
[kwYi KvR : GKBfve ZzuZi `eY Zwi Ki ZuzZi wUK Zwi Ki]

wP 5.14: mvwWqvg KvivBWi wUK Kjvm|

AviI wKQz AvqwbK hMi wUK Kjvm AvQ hgb gvMbwmqv (MgO), Avjywgbv (Al2O3) hv`i MjbvsK
AbK ewk, G`i fZ Aev 15000C Zvcgvvq AcwieZxZ _vK| mvaviYZ Kg Zvcgvvq AvqwbK hMmg~n
KwVb Aevq _vK| BjKUb PjvPj KiZ cvi bv ej G Aevq Giv we`yr cwienb KiZ cvi bv|
wbP wKQz mghvRx AYyi wUK Kjvmi wP `Iqv njv:

wP 5.15: evwj (SiO2) , nxiK I MvdvBUi Kjvm

64

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Kjvm Aevq mghvRx c`v_mg~nI DP MjbvsK I zUbvsKwewk|

wPv Ki : Kvebi `ywU i~cf`, nxiK we`yr Acwievnx wK MvdvBU we`yr cwievnx Kb ?
(Z_: nxiK cwZwU Kveb cigvYy PviwU Kveb cigvYyi mv_ Ges MvdvBU cwZwU Kveb cigvYy wZbwU Kveb
cigvYyi mv_ mghvRx eb MVb Ki|)

5.9 avZe eb
Zvgiv Kcvi Zvi, Avjywgwbqvg dqj, Avjywgwbqvgi Zwi `iRv-Rvbvjv, jvnv, wRsK avZzi cjchy
XDwUb, wewfb aibi KUv `L _vK| G`i cigvYyjv wK Ab Kvbv gji mv_ eb MVb Ki bv,
Avevi wbR`i ga wcigvYyK ev wcigvYyyK Aevq _vK bv| ^ ^ gji cigvYymg~n GK cvkvcvwk
Aevb Ki| c~eB j KiQ mKj avZziB kl kwi Kg msLK BjKUb _vK| chvq mviwYi GKB
chvqi Abvb gji Zzjbvq GB gjmg~ni BjKUb wbDwKqvm _K `~i _vKvi KviY wbDwKqvmi mv_
BjKUbi AvKlYej Kg _vK| ZvB avZe Kjvm GB BjKUbjv cigvYyi Kc_ _K ei nq mgM
avZeL gyfve PjvPj Ki| wegy BjKUbjv Kvbv wbw` cigvYyi Aaxb _vK bv| ei mgM avZe
Li nq hvq| BjKUb nvwiq avZzi cigvYyMyjv Avqb cwiYZ nq GK wgvwK Kjvm Aevb Ki|
GK BjKUb mvMi avZe Avqbjv wbgwZ AvQ ej gb Kiv nq| GB miYkxj BjKUbi KviY
avZeL DP Zvc I we`yr cwievwnZv, bgbxqZv, NvZmnZv cfwZ ewki mw nq|

wP 5.16: avZe Kjvm Avqb I BjKUb

avZe cigvYymg~n h AvKlYej viv ciii mv_ Ave _vK ZvK avZe eb ej |
avZzi we`yr cwievwnZvi KviY:
(-) Kv_vW

AvbvW (+)

wP 5.17: avZe Kjvm we`yr cwievwnZv |

me avZzB we`yr mycwievnx| hnZz avZe Kjvmi Afix BjKUbmg~n ^vaxbfve PjvPj Ki, mnZz
e`ywZK i cfve ev avZe LK evUvwii mv_ hy Ki eZbx c~Y Kij mnRB eZbxi FYvZK cv
_K gy BjKUbmg~n abvZK cvi w`K PjvPj Ki Ges GfveB we`yr cwienY Ki| Dcii wPwU
fvjvfve j KijB Zv Zvgiv eySZ cvie|

65

imvqb

cixv Ki: wKQz c`v_ hgb jvnv, Avjywgwbqvg, wRsK, avZe KUvi QvU XvKbv, cwji `yB cv mvc
Ki, ivevi, KvVi UzKiv, ivevi ev BZvw`i ga w`q we`yr cwievwnZv cixv Ki| mejvi ga AavZz
B -Gi vb wewfb c`v_ eenvi Ki| G`iK cwievnx I Acwievnx wnme c_K Ki|
evUvwi
A

vKvWvBj wKc
B

wP 5.18 : we`yr cwievwnZvi cixv|

Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
1.

2.

h AvKlYeji gvag AYyZ cigvYymg~n hy _vK ZvK Kx ej?

K. BjKUb Avmw

L. Zwor FYvZKZv

M. ivmvqwbK eb

N. fvbWvi Iqvjm ej

wbPi Kvb hMwU MVbKvj cwZwU cigvYyB wbqbi BjKUb webvm ARb Ki?
K. KF

L.

CaS

M. MgO

N.

NaCl

wbPi gjjvi BjKUwbK KvVvgvi AvjvK 3 I 4 bs cki Di `vI :

A
B

[GLvb A, B Ges D cZxKx A_; cPwjZ Kvbv gji cZxK bq]

dgv-9, imvqb-9g-10g

66

3.

4.

imvqb

D wPwZ gji Kvb hvRbxwU Ame?

K. 2

L.

M. 4

N.

K. iii

L.

ii I iii

M. i I iii

N.

i, ii I iii

B gjwU

i. `yB aibi eb MVb Ki

ii. A K BjKUb `vb Ki
iii. D Gi mv_ hy nq cvwbZ `exf~Z nq
wbPi KvbwU mwVK?

mRbkxj ck:
1.
gj

chvq

kwY

15

15

[GLvb A I B cZxKx A_; cPwjZ Kvbv gji cZxK bq]

K.

hvRZv BjKUb KvK ej?

L.

CaCl2 we`yr cwienb Ki Kb? evLv Ki

M.

A Gi KvivBW-G KZwU eb-Rvo BjKUb we`gvb? evLv Ki|

N.

BCl5 hMi wwZkxjZv evLvq AK wbqg Acv `yB-Gi wbqg AwaK KvhKix hywmn evLv `vI|

67

2.

wP-X

wP- Y

[GLvb X Ges Y cZxKx A_; cPwjZ Kvbv gji cZxK bq]

K. mghvRx eb KvK ej?

L.

Na Ges Na+ Avqbi AvKvii wfbZv `Lv hvq Kb?

M.

DxcKi XY hM Kvb aibi eb we`gvb? evLv Ki|

N.

X AvqwbK I mghvRx Dfq aibi hM MVb KijI Y KLbI mghvRx eb MVb Ki bv hywmn 4
evLv Ki|

l Aavq

gvji aviYv I ivmvqwbK MYbv

ivmvqwbK wewqv mb Kivi mgq Kx cwigvY ivmvqwbK c`v_ wewqK wnme eenvi Kib, Kx cwigvY
Drcv` I cvk Drcv` Ges Kx cwigvY AcqvRbxq c`v_ Drcb nq Zv imvqbwe`MYi wnmve Kiv cqvRb nq|
wekl Ki ivmvqwbK wk Avw_K weePbvq GB wnmve AZvekKxq| GRb ivmvqwbK wewqvq eeZ I
Drcb c`v_i AYyi msLv, AYyZ cigvYy I Avqbi msLv MYbv KiZ nq| AYy, cigvYy I Avqb GZ z` KYv
h G`iK Rvov, nvwj, WRb, kZ, nvRvi GgbwK KvwUZI MYbv Kiv me nq bv| imvqbwe`MY AYy,
cigvYy I Avqb MYbvi Rb GKwU enr msLv eenvi Kib| GB msLvi gvb 6.02 x 1023 | BUvwjqvb
wevbx AvgwWI AvfvMWvi (Amedeo Avogadro) bvg Abymvi GK AvfvMWv msLv ev AvfvMWv
aeK ej| 6.02 x 1023 msLK AYy, cigvYy ev Avqb aviYKvix c`v_i cwigvYK gvj ej| imvqb AYy
cigvYy wewqK, Drcv` BZvw` wnmve wbKvk Stoichiometry bvg cwiwPZ|

1 gvj mvwWqvg KvivBW=

1 nvwj Kjv = 4 wU

1 WRb wWg = 12 wU

6.02 x 1023 wU AYy

G Aavq cvV kl Avgiv

(1) gvji aviYv eenvi Ki mij MvwYwZK wnmve KiZ cvie|
(2) wbw` Nbgvvi `eY cZ KiZ cvie|
(3) gji cZxK, hMg~jKi msKZ I Gjvi hvRbx eenvi Ki hMi msKZ wjLZ cvie|
(4) c` Z_ I Dcv eenvi Ki hM DcwZ gji kZKiv mshywZ wbYq KiZ cvie|
(5) kZKiv mshywZ eenvi Ki ~j msKZ I AvYweK msKZ wbYq KiZ cvie|
(6) gj I hMg~jKi cZxK, msKZ I hvRbx eenvi Ki ivmvqwbK mgxKiY wjLZ Ges mgZvweavb
KiZ cvie|
(7) ivmvqwbK mgxKiYi gvwK Zvrch _K wewqK I Drcv`i fiwfwK MvwYwZK mgmv mgvavb KiZ cvie|
(8) ZuzZi Kjvm cvwbi kZKiv cwigvY wbYq KiZ cvie|
(9) wbw eenvi Ki ivmvqwbK `e cwigvc KiZ mg ne|

imvqb

69

6.1 gvj (Mole)

gvj kwU Rxewevb I imvqb wfb A_ eeZ nq| Rxewevb gvj viv jvgwewk z` cvY Ges imvqb
gvj k viv Kvbv ivmvqwbK c`v_i wbw` cwigvYK eySvbv nq| gvj njv ivmvqwbK c`v_ cwigvci
GKK| hgb, wWg ev Kjv MYbvi Rb nvwj I WRb GKK eenvi Kiv nq GKBfve ivmvqwbK c`v_i KYv
MYbvi Rb gvj GKK eenvi Kiv nq| D`vniY^ic GK gvj cvwb ejZ 6.02 x 1023 msLK cvwbi AYyK
eySvbv nq| wWg ev Kjvi GK WRb MYbvi gvag wnmve Kiv me njI GK gvjK MYbvi gvag wnmve
Kiv me bq| ivmvqwbK c`v_i GB cwigvYK fi wnme cwigvc Kiv nq| A_vr gvji mv_ fii GKK
Mvg/wgwjMvg -Gi m K iqQ| ivmvqwbK c`v_i cvigvYweK fi A_ev AvYweK fiK Mvg GKK cKvk
Kij h cwigvY cvIqv hvq ZvB mswk- c`v_i GK gvj|
Kvbv ivmvqwbK c`v_i h cwigvY AvfvMWv msLK (6.02 x 1023 ) AYy, cigvYy ev Avqb _vK ZvK
c`v_i gvj ej| msLvwU GZ eo h cw_exi mKj jvK GKmv_ MYbv i KijI Zv`i mviv Rxebi
MYbvi hvMdj GB msLvi mgvb nq bv| AvfvMWv msLvK 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
wnme cKvk Kiv hvq|
Kvebi cvigvYweK fi 12| A_vr GK gvj Kveb 6.02 x 1023 wU cigvYy _vK hvi fi 12 Mvg| cvwbi
AvYweK fi 18| A_vr GK gvj cvwbZ 6.02 x 1023 wU AYy _vK hvi fi 18 Mvg|
Abyicfve
1 gvj nvBWvRb cigvYy = 1.008 Mvg = 6.02 x 10 23 wU cigvYy|
1 gvj AwRb cigvYy = 16 Mvg = 6.02 x 10 23 wU cigvYy|
1 gvj AwRb AYy = 32 Mvg = 6.02 x 10 23 wU AYy|
1 gvj Kveb-WvB-A vBW = 44 Mvg = 6.02 x 10 23 wU AYy|

6.2 gvjvi AvqZb

GK gvj cwigvY c`v_i AvqZbK gvjvi AvqZb ej| KwVb, Zij Ges Mvmxq c`v_i gvjvi AvqZb
wewfb nq| KwVb I Zij c`v_i wewfb c`v_i GK gvji AvqZb wewfb nq| wK cgvY Aevq
wewfb Mvmxq c`v_i GK gvji AvqZb mgvb nq| c`v_i AvqZb Pvc I Zvcgvvi Dci wbfikxj|
Zvcgvv ew/nvm Kij c`v_i AvqZb ew/nvm cvq| Aciw`K Pvc ew Kij Mvmi AvqZb nvm cvq|
Zvcgvv I Pvc cwieZb Mvmxq c`v_i AvqZb AZwaK cwigvY cwiewZZ nq| ZvB Mvmxq c`v_i AvqZb
wnmve Kivi mgq Pvc I Zvcgvv Dj-L Kiv cqvRb| Zvgiv GLvb aygv cgvY Zvcgvv I Pvc Mvmxq
c`v_i gvjvi AvqZb wkLe| 25 oC Zvcgvv Ges 1 evqygjxq PvcK cgvY Zvcgvv I Pvc ej| cgvY
Aevq h Kvbv Mvmxq c`v_i gvjvi AvqZb 22.4 wjUvi|
1 gvj ev 44 Mvg Kveb-WvB-A vBWi AvqZb cgvY Aevq 22.4 wjUvi| GKBfve 1 gvj ev 32 Mvg
AwRbi AvqZb cgvY Aevq 22.4 wjUvi Ges 1 gvj ev 2 Mvg nvBWvRbi AvqZbI cgvY Aevq
22.4 wjUvi|

70

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18 Mvg H2O

100 Mvg CaCO3

56 Mvg CaO

46 Mvg CH3CH2O
H

2 Mvg H2

32 Mvg O2

wP 6.1 : GK gvj cwigvY wewfb c`v_i AvqZb

CaCO3, NaCl, H2SO4

KvR: GK Mvg wbwjwLZ Mvmxq c`v_i AYyi

msLv I cgvY Aevq AvqZb wnmve Ki|
H2, O2, CO2 I H2O(g)

KvR: wbwjwLZ c`v_i cwZwU AYyi fi

wnmve Ki|
H2O(l) , NaO
H, HCl (g)

KvR: wbwjwLZ c`v_jvi GK Mvg gvU

cigvYyi msLv wnmve Ki|
C(s) , KO
H, CH 4, O2

KvR: GK Mvg wbwjwLZ c`v_i AYyi

msLv wnmve Ki|

6.3 gvj Ges AvYweK msKZ

AvYweK msKZ _K GKwU gji wbw` msLK cigvYy Aci gji KZwU cigvYyi mv_ hy nq Zv Rvbv
hvq| hgb, CO2 AYy Kveb I AwRb gji cigvYyi mg^q MwVZ| Kvebi GKwU cigvYy AwRbi
`yBwU cigvYyi mv_ hy nq CO2 AYy MwVZ nq| gvji wnme, GK gvj Kveb cigvYy `yB gvj AwRb
cigvYyi mv_ hy nq GK gvj CO2 MVb Ki| Kvbv c`v_ hy gji fi _K gvjmsLv wnmve Ki
AvYweK msKZ wbYq Kiv hvq|
cixv Ki `Lv Mj, 3 Mvg Kveb 8 Mvg AwRbi mv_ hy nq Kveb-WvB-AvBW MVb Ki| MwVZ
AYyi AvYweK msKZ wbic wbYq Kiv hvq (AvYweK msKZ I yj msKZ Awfb nj)|
welqi bvg

Kveb

AwRb

gji cigvYyi fi

3 Mvg

8 Mvg

gvjmsLv = cigvYyi fi/ Mvg

cvigvYweK fi

3/12 =0.25

gvjmsLvi AbycvZ (c~Y msLvq)

8/16 =0.50
2

QK 6.1: gji cwigvY _K AvYweK msKZ wbYq

AvYweK msKZ

CO2

72

gji cZxK

imvqb

gji BjKUb webvm

mekl
Kc_i
BjKUb
msLv

mekl
Kc_i
eRvo
BjKUb
msLv

hvRZv

1H

1s1

3Li

1s22s1

4Be

1s22s2

4Be*

1s22s12px1

5B

1s22s22px1

5B*

1s22s12px12py1

6C

1s22s22px12py1

6C*

1s22s12px12py12pz1

7N

1s22s22px12py12pz1

11Na

1s22s22p63s1

15P

1s22s22p63s23px13py13pz1

15P*

1s22s22p63s13px13py13pz13d1

QK 6.4: gji BjKUb webvm Ges hvRZv

* wP viv gji DwRZ Aev cKvk Ki

KvR : wbwjwLZ gji BjKUb webvm Ki hvRZv mK gZvgZ `vI|

2He, 12Mg, 17Cl, 9F, 13Al, 19K, 10Ne, 16S

73

imvqb

6.6 hMg~jK (Radical)

hMg~jK nQ GKvwaK gji GKvwaK cigvYyi mg^q MwVZ GKwU cigvYyQ hv GKwU Avqbi (Single
ion)
bvq AvPiY Ki| hMg~jKmg~nK Avavbmn (Chager ) jLv nq| Giv abvZK ev FYvZK Avavbwewk
nZ cvi| hMg~jKmg~ni AvavbB Zv`i hvRZv|
hMg~jKi bvg

hMg~jKi msKZ

Avavb

hvRZv

Avgvwbqvg

NH4+

+1

dmdvwbqvg

PH4+

+1

nvBWvBW

OH-

-1

KvevbU

CO32-

-2

mvjdU

SO42-

-2

mvjdvBU

SO32-

-2

bvBUU

NO3-

-1

bvBUvBU

NO2-

-1

dmdU

PO43-

-3

QK 6.5: KqKwU hMg~jKi bvg, msKZ, Avavb I hvRZv

6.7 hMi msKZ

cZKwU gji hgb cZxK (Sym
bol
) _vK Zgb cZK hMi c_K msKZ (F
ula
orm
) _vK|
msKZ viv hMi AYyZ cigvYy ev Avqbi AbycvZ cKvk Ki| wbic cigvYy I Avavbwewk Avqb
(abvZK ev FYvZK) viv hMi AYy MwVZ nq| abvZK I FYvZK Avavbwewk Avqb viv hM MwVZ nj
Zviv Ggbfve hy nq hb hMi gvU Avavb k~b nq| hnZz abvZK I FYvZK Avqbi AvavbB Zv`i
hvRZv ev wecixZ Avqbi mv_ hy nIqvi gZv, ZvB GKwU GKK abvZK Avqb GKwU GKK FYvZK
Avqbi mv_ hy nq hM MVb Ki| `yBwU GKK abvZK Avqb GKwU w-FYvZK Avqbi mv_ hy nq|
GKwU w-abvZK Avqb `yBwU GKK FYvZK Avqbi mv_ hy nq| abvZK I FYvZK Avqb viv MwVZ
hMi msKZ jLvi mgq abvZK Ask c_g Ges FYvZK Ask ci jLv nq|

dgv-10, imvqb-9g-10g

74

imvqb

msKZ MVbi Rb cqvRbxq Avqbi msLv I

abvZK Avqb

FYvZK Avqb

I Zvi Avavb

I Zvi Avavb

abvZK

hMi gvU Avavb

hMi msKZ

hMi gvU
Avavb

FYvZK
Cu2+ , +2
Na+ , +1
Al3+ , +3

SO42- , -2
PO43- , -3
NO3- , -1

1
3
1

1
1
3

0
0
0

CuSO4
Na3PO4
Al(NO3)3

QK: 6.6: abvZK I FYvZK Avqb viv MwVZ KqKwU hMi msKZ|

KvR : kwYZ abvZK I FYvZK Avqb wbq `kwU msKZ wjL wkKK `LvI|
`ywU wbic cigvYyi gvag hM MVbi mgq mvaviYZ chvq mviwYi evg cvki gjK c_g jLv nq|
Zzjbvg~jKfve AwaK abvZK gjK c_g jLv nq| Kvbv gji hvRZv, Ab gji mv_ hy nIqvi
gZv cKvk Ki| GKwU gji hvRZvK Aci gji msLv wnme ai gji cigvYy msLvi AbycvZ
_K msKZ jLv nq|

gvbyli wP (`yB nvZ Lvjv Ges GK nvZ evav)

wP

wP 6.2 : hvRZvi mvnvh AYyi msKZi aviYv

msKZ MVbi Rb gji cqvRbxq cigvYyi

msLv I Zv`i AbycvZ
c_g gji
wZxq gji
AbycvZ
cigvYyi msLv cigvYyi msLv
1
1
1:1

hMi msKZ

c_g gj I
Zvi hvRZv

wZxq gj I
Zvi hvRZv

H, 1

Cl , 1

C,4

H, 1

1:4

CH4

C,4

O,2

1:2

CO2

N,5

O,2

2:5

N2O5

QK 6.7: `yBwU wbic cigvYy viv MwVZ KqKwU hMi msKZ

HCl

75

imvqb

6.8 gvjvi `eY

`e I `veK wgwkZ Ki `eY cZ Kiv nq| `eY cZ Kivi mgq wewfb Zij (cvwb, AvjKvnj, GwmW)
c`v_ eenvi Kiv hvq| GB Aavq `veK wnme kyay cvwb eenvi Ki `eY cZ Kiv wkLe| GB `eYK
Rjxq `eY (Aquous solution) ej| `veK h c`v_ `exf~Z Ki `eY cZ Kiv nq ZvK `e ej|
cwZ GKK AvqZb `eY wewfb cwigvY `e `exf~Z _vKj `eYi Nbgvv wewfb nq| `eYi Nbgvv cKvki
wewfb ixwZ iqQ| gvjvwiwU `eYi Nbgvv cKvki GKwU ixwZ|

`ei KYv

jNy `eY

Mvp `eY

wP 6.3 : wewfb Nbgvvi `eY

GK gvjvi `eYi , GK wjUvi `eY ev GK W.wg.3 `eY GK gvj cwigvY `e `exf~Z _vK| mwg
gvjvi (0.5 gvjvi) `eYi cwZ wjUvi 0.5 gvj cwigvY `e `exf~Z _vK| GK wjUvi `eY 2 gvj cwigvY
`e `exf~Z _vKj 2 gvjvi `eY ej| `eYi AvqZb Zvcgvvi Dci wbfikxj, `eYi gvjvwiwUK wbic
msvwqZ Kiv nq:
wbw` Zvcgvvq cwZ wjUvi `eY `exf~Z `ei gvjmsLvK `eYi gvjvwiwU ej| GK M viv cKvk Kiv nq|
wbw` Nbgvvi `eY cwZi Rb ewYZ avcjv AbymiY Kiv nq| c_g wbavwiZ gvci KvPcv ev Ab
Kvbv cv (Avav wjUvi, GK wjUvi, 2.5 wjUvi BZvw`) wbZ ne| h AvqZbi `eY cZ KiZ ne m
AvqZbi cv wbZ ne| cwZ wjUvi GK gvj wnmve wbavwiZ AvqZb wbw` Nbgvvi Rb `ei cwigvY
Mvg-GKK wnmve KiZ ne| wnmveKZ `ei cwigvYK wbwi mvnvh gc dvbji gvag wbavwiZ cv
bvI| dvbji Mvq jM _vKv `eK cvwZZ cvwb ev we cvwb w`q wbavwiZ cv vbvi Ki wKQz cwigvY
cvwb w`q SuvwKq `eY cZ Ki| AZtci cvwb w`q `eYi AvqZb wbavwiZ gvc ch c~Y Kij wbw`
Nbgvvi `eY cZ ne| hgb, Avav wjUvi 0.1 gvjvi Nbgvvi Na2CO3 `eY cZ Kivi Rb Avav
wjUvi AvqZbi cv 0.10.5 gvj ev 0.10.5106 Mvg Na2CO3 wbwi mvnvh gc Avav wjUvi
cv `eY cZ Kij Avav wjUvi 0.1 gvjvi Na2CO3 `eY cZ ne|

81

imvqb

GKwU wewqKi fi _K wewqvq AskMnYKvix Aci wewqKi fi wbYq: (5 Mvg gvMbwmqvg avZz KZ Mvg
AwRbi mv_ wewqv Ki?)
Dcii mgxKiY Abymvi,
48 Mvg gvMbwmqvg avZz wewqv Ki 32 Mvg AwRbi mv_

5 Mvg gvMbwmqvg avZz wewqv Ki 32 5 Mvg AwRbi mv_

48
= 3.33 Mvg AwRbi mv_|
GKwU wewqKi fi _K wewqvq Drcb Drcv`i fi wbYq: (2 Mvg gvMbwmqvg avZz _K KZ Mvg
gvMbwmqvg AvBW Drcb nq?)
wewqvi mgxKiY Abymvi,
48 Mvg gvMbwmqvg avZz _K gvMbwmqvg AvBW Drcb nq 80 Mvg

2 Mvg gvMbwmqvg avZz _K gvMbwmqvg AvBW Drcb nq 80 2 Mvg

48
= 3.33 Mvg
Ze kZ _vK h, 2 Mvg gvMbwmqvg avZzi mv_ wewqv Kivi Rb cqvRbxq cwigvY AwRb mieivn
KiZ ne|
Drcb Drcv`i fi _K GKwU wewqKi fi wbYq: (10 Mvg gvMbwmqvg AvBW Drcb KiZ KZ Mvg
AwRb cqvRb?)
wewqvi mgxKiY Abymvi,
80 Mvg gvMbwmqvg AvBW Drcb KiZ AwRb cqvRb 32 Mvg

10 Mvg gvMbwmqvg AvBW Drcb KiZ AwRb cqvRb 32 10 Mvg

80
= 4 Mvg
Ze kZ _vK h, 4 Mvg AwRbi mv_ wewqv Kivi Rb cqvRbxq cwigvY gvMbwmqvg avZz mieivn
KiZ ne|

6.16 wjwgwUs wewqK (Limiting Reactant)

ivmvqwbK wewqvq GKvwaK wewqK _vKj, wewqvq wewqK gc mieivn Kivi mgq Dfq/mKj wewqKK
cqvRb Abymvi mieivn Kiv me nq bv| Dcii wewqvq 2 cigvYy gvMbwmqvg avZzi mv_ wewqvi Rb 1
AYy AwRb Mvm cqvRb| GKBfve 4 cigvYy gvMbwmqvg avZzi mv_ wewqvi Rb 2 AYy AwRb Mvm
cqvRb| wK wewqvq 4 cigvYy gvMbwmqvg avZzi mv_ wewqvi Rb 4 AYy AwRb Mvm mieivn Kij
wewqv gvag 2 AYy AwRb Mvm Aewk _vKe| GB Aevq gvMbwmqvg avZzK wjwgwUs wewqK ej|
dgv-11, imvqb-9g-10g

82

imvqb

A_vr wewqvi mgq GKvwaK wewqKi ga h wewqK Aewk _vK bv ZvK wjwgwUs wewqK ej| wewqK
_K Drcv`i cwigvY wnmve Kivi mgq wjwgwUs wewqKi cwigvY _K wnmve Kiv nq|

=AwRb AYy
=avZe gvMbwmqvg

=gvMbwmqvg AvBW

wP 6.4 :wjwgwUs wewqKi aviYv

6.17 Drcv`i kZKiv cwigvY (Percentage of Yield)

ivmvqwbK wewqvi mgq h mKj wewqK eenvi Kiv nq Zvnv 100% we _vK bv| mePq we
ivmvqwbK c`v_K Avbvjvi (Analar) ej| Avbvjvi ivmvqwbK c`v_mg~n cvq 95.5% we nq,
G`iK MelYvi mgq wek-lYxq KvR eenvi Kiv nq| ivmvqwbK c`v_i weZv Zvi cwZ I
weKiY cwZi Dci wbfi Ki| wewqKmg~n 100% we bv nIqvq Drcv`i cwigvY wjwgwUs wewqK
_K wnmveKZ cwigvY _K Kg nq| Kx cwigvY Drcv` Kg cvIqv hvq Zv Drcv`i kZKiv cwigvYi
gvag cKvk Kiv nq|
wewqvq cv
Drcv`i cwigvY 100
Drcv`i kZKiv cwigvY =
wewqv _K wnmveKZ Drcv`i cwigvY
KvR : 80 Mvg CaCO3 K Zvc w`q 39 Mvg CaO cvIqv hvq| Drcv`i kZKiv cwigvY wnmve Ki|

6.18 ZuyZi Kjvm cvwbi kZKiv cwigvY wbYq

cqvRbxq DcKiY: ZuyZ, wbw, wmivwgK (cvmwjb) evwU, ZviRvwj, wc`x
v
, zwmej, UsR, I evbvi/
wwiU jv|
g~jbxwZ: ZuyZ (e-y-wfwU qj; CuSO4.5H2O), Kcvi mvjd
U I cuvP AYy cvwbi mg^q MwVZ| cvwbhy
wUKvKvi (`vbv`vi) Kcvi mvjd

Ui eY bxj| cvwbwenxb Kcvi mvjd

Ui (
CuSO4) eY mv`v| bxj eYi
Kcvi mvjd
UK D

Kij cvwb evxf~Z nq Ges mv`v eYi Kcvi mvjd

U cwiYZ nq| Zvc `Iqvi c~e
I ci Kcvi mvjd
Ui fi cwigvc Ki D
vc nvivbv cvwbi fi wbYq Ki ZuyZi Kjvm cvwbi kZKiv
cwigvY wbYq Kiv nq|

83

imvqb

CuSO4.5H2O

-5H2O

CuSO4

bxj eY

mv`v eY

1 gvj = 249.5 Mvg

1 gvj = 159.5 Mvg

Zxqfve 1 gvj (249.5 Mvg) cvwbhy bxj eYi Kcvi

mvjdUK D Kij 90 Mvg cvwb AcmvwiZ nq 159.5
Mvg cvwbwenxb mv`v eYi Kcvi mvjdU Drcb nq|
KvRi aviv: wbwi mvnvh AvbygvwbK 5 _K 7 Mvg
CuSO4.5H2O K cvmwjb evwUZ gc wbq wc`x
vi Dci iL Zvc `vI| Kcvi mvjdU mv`v bv nIqv
ch Zvc `vI| Kcvi mvjdUi eY mv`v nIqvi ci Zvc
`Iqv e Ki `Z Zvi fi wbYq Ki| fi `Z wbYq bv
Kij Zvc AcmviY Kivi ci cybivq cvwb kvlY Ki Kcvi
mvjdU bxj eY cwiYZ nq|
wnmve: cvmwjb zwmeji fi = a Mvg

CuSO4.5H2O mn cvmwjb zwmeji fi = b Mvg

wP 6.5 : ZuzZ _K Kjvm cvwb AcmviY

CuSO4.5H2O -Gi fi = (b-a) Mvg

Zvc `Iqvi ci CuSO4 mn cvmwjb zwmeji fi = c Mvg

CuSO4 -Gi fi = (c-a) Mvg

Dvc AcmvwiZ cvwbi fi = (b-a) - (c-a) Mvg
= (b-c) Mvg
(b-a) Mvg CuSO4.5H2O -Gi mv_ hy Kjvm cvwbi fi = (b-c) Mvg
100 Mvg CuSO4.5H2O -Gi mv_ hy Kjvm cvwbi fi =

(b-c) 100
(b-a)

Mvg

84

imvqb

Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
1. cgvY Aevq 2g nvBWvRb Mvmi AvqZb KZ?
K. 2.24 L
L. 11.2 L
M. 22.4 L

N. 44.8 L

2. wbPi KvbwU Kvjwmqvg dmdUi msKZ?

K. CaPO4
L. Ca(PO4)2
M. Ca2(PO4)3

N. Ca3(PO4)2

wbPi DxcKi AvjvK 3 I 4 bs cki Di `vI :

5 Mvg nvBWvRb MvmK 75 Mvg Kvwib Mvmi ga Pvjbv Kiv njv|

3. DxcK eeZ Kvwib cigvYyi msLv KZwU?
K. 1.27 10 24
L. 2.54 10 24
M. 6.02 10 23

N. 6.36 10 23

4. DxcKi wewqvq Aewk _vK

K. 1.44 gvj H2

L. 1.44 gvj Cl2

M. 2.89 gvj H2

N. 2.89 gvj Cl2

mRbkxj ck:
1.

4g
HCl

100 mL

4g
NaOH

85

imvqb

K.

gvj KvK ej?

L.

bvBUvRb cigvYyi hvRbx I hvRZv BjKUb wfb Kb? evLv Ki

M.

DxcKi `eYqK GK wgwkZ Kij h jeY cvIqv hvq Zvi mshyw wbYq Ki `LvI|

N.

DxcKi `eY `ywUi Nbgvv mgvb ne wKbv Zvi MvwYwZK hyw `vI|

2.

10 Mvg CaCO3 cZ Kivi j 4.4 Mvg Kveb-WvB-AvBW I 5 Mvg Kvjwmqvg AvBW

wgwkZ Kiv njv| wewqvq cZvwkZ Drcv` cvIqv Mj bv|

K.

ivmvqwbK mgxKiY KvK ej?

L.

Kveb-WvB-AvBWi gvjvi AvqZb evLv Ki|

M.

wewqvq KZ gvj Kveb WvB AvBW eenvi Kiv nqwQj Zv wbicY Ki `LvI|

N.

DxcKi wewqvq cZvwkZ Drcv`i cwigvY Kg nIqvi hwK evLv `vI|

mg Aavq

ivmvqwbK wewqv
cwiek h mKj Dcv`vb iqQ Zv cwZwbqZ cwiewZZ nQ| wewfb aibi cwieZb AvQ| KvbvwU fZ
cwieZb Ges KvbvwU ivmvqwbK cwieZb| mKj cwieZbi Kvbv bv Kvbv cfve iqQ| wekl Ki
ivmvqwbK cwieZbi DcKvix I wZKi Dfq w`K iqQ| ZvB ivmvqwbK cwieZbi cfve mK Avgv`i
mgK vb _vKv AZvekKxq| GB Aavq cvV Ki wewfb aibi cwieZb Ges Zvi cfve mK RvbZ
cvie|

KuvPv Avg

cvKv Avg

evbvi Rvjvwbi `nb

`ya

`wa

wewfb ivmvqwbK cwieZb

GB Aavq cvV kl Avgiv1. fZ cwieZb I ivmvqwbK wewqvi cv_K KiZ cvie|

2. c`v_i cwieZbK wek-lY Ki ivmvqwbK wewqv kbv KiZ cvie|
3. ivmvqwbK wewqvi kwYwefvM iW/bbiW, GKgyLx/DfgyLx, Zvc Drcv`x/Zvcnvix KiZ cvie Ges
wewqvi cKvi kbv KiZ cvie|
4. ivmvqwbK wewqvq Drcb c`v_i cwigvYK jv-kv Zwjqvii bxwZi AvjvK evLv KiZ cvie|
5. cwieZb wek-lY Ki RviY-weRviY wew qvi cKvi kbv KiZ cvie|
6. eve wewfb msNwUZ wewqv evLv KiZ cvie|
7. eve msNwUZ wZKi wewqvmg~n wbqY ev ivai Dcvq wbaviY KiZ cvie (jvnvi Zwi
wRwbmi gwiPvcov ivai h_vh_ Dcvq wbaviY KiZ cvie)|
8. ivmvqwbK wewqvi nvi evLv I mswk- nvii Zzjbv KiZ cvie|
9. wewfb c`v_ eenvi Ki wewqvi MwZeM ev nvi cixv I Zzjbv KiZ cvie|
10. `bw`b KvR avZe e eenvi mPZbZv c`kb Kie|
11. A-- vi ckgb wewqv Ges AatcY wewqv c`kb KiZ cvie|
12. cixvi mvnvh wewqvi nvii wfbZv c`kb KiZ cvie|

87

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7.1 c`v_i cwieZb

cwiek we`gvb c`v_jv evwnK Zvc, Pvc I Ab c`v_i msk cwiewZZ nq| GKwU ivmvqwbK c`v_ GK
ev GKvwaK gji mg^q MwVZ| we c`v_ gjmg~ni GKwU wbw` kZKiv mshywZ _vK| KLbv
KLbv cwieZbi mgq gjmg~ni kZKiv mshywZ AcwiewZZ iL ay c`v_i fZ Aevi cwieZb nq|
hgb, eidK evqyZ gy Aevq iL w`j cwiek _K Zvc kvlY Ki Zij cvwbZ cwiYZ nq Ges Zij
cvwbK 100oC Zvcgvvq D Kij Rjxqev Drcb nq| eid, Zij cvwb Ges Rjxqevi ivmvqwbK
msKZ H2O| cZKwU Dcv`vb nvBWvRb I AwRbi kZKiv mshywZ Awfb| c`v_i GB cwieZbK
fZ cwieZb ej|
H2O(s)

H2O(l)

H2O(g)

GKBfve gvg I MvjvK Zvc w`j GwU Mj Zij Aevq cwiYZ nq Ges Zvc mwiq wbj `Z KwVb c`v_
icvwiZ nq| KLbv KLbv GKwU c`v_ evwnK Zvc, Pvc I Ab c`v_i msk cwieZbi mgq c`v_
we`gvb gjmg~ni kZKiv mshywZi cwieZbi gvag bZzb c`v_ Drcb nq| bZzb c`v_wU c~e c`v_i gj
viv A_ev Kvbv gji wehvRbi gvag A_ev Kvbv gj mshvRbi gvag MwVZ nZ cvi| cwiewZZ
c`v_i fZ Aev c~e-c`v_ _K wfb ev c~e-c`v_i Abyic nZ cvi| bZzb hM Dcv`vb gj wfb
nIqvq gjmg~ni kZKiv mshywZi cwieZb nq| hgb, gvgi cavb Dcv`vb wewfb nvBWvKvebi wgkY|
gvg Rvjvj Zvi wKQz Ask ay fZ cwieZbi gvag Mj KwVb Aev _K Zij Aevq icvwiZ nq
Ges Vvv nq cybivq KwVb Aevq cwiYZ nq| GKBmv_ gvgi wKQy Ask AwRbi mv_ wewqv Ki
Kveb-WvB-AvBW I Rjxqev Drcb Ki| A_vr gvg Rvjvbvi mgq fZ cwieZb Ges ivmvqwbK wewqv
Dfq cwieZb msNwUZ nq| gvgK Rvjvj nvBWvKvebi Kveb I nvBWvRb evqyi AwRbi mv_ hy nq
Kveb-WvB-AvBW I Rjxqev Drcb Ki| gvg Rvjvj hnZz bZzb c`v_i mw nq ZvB GB cwieZb
GKwU ivmvqwbK cwieZb ev ivmvqwbK wewqv| ivmvqwbK cwieZb c`v_i cigvYymg~ni gaeZx eb fO
bZzb eb MwVZ nq| cigvYymg~ni gaeZx eb fvOv I bZzb eb MwVZ nIqvq Zvckwi cwieZb nq|
ivmvqwbK wewqvwU wbic:
CxHy +

(x+y
)O 2
2

xCO2 + yH2O + kw

cvKwZK Mvm ev wg_bK Rvjvj AwRbi mv_ wewqv Ki Kveb-WvB-AvBW I Rjxqev Drcb Ki|
GLvb ay ivmvqwbK cwieZb msNwUZ nq|
CH4(g)

2 O2(g)

CO2(g) +

2 H2O(g)

Pzbvcv_i (Kvjwmqvg KvebU; CaCO3) GwmWi mv_ wewqv Ki Kvjwmqvg KvivBW (CaCl2) KvebWvB-AvBW I cvwb Drcb Ki|
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)

CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) +

H2O(l)

88

imvqb

KvR : Dcii cwqvjvZ wewfb c`v_ gjmg~ni kZKiv mshywZi AvjvK cwieZb mK gZvgZ `vI|
fZ cwieZb cwiewZZ c`v_K mnR c~ei Aevq wdwiq bIqv hvq wK ivmvqwbK cwieZb cwiewZZ
c`v_K m~Yic c~ei Aevq wdwiq bIqv hvq bv|

7.2 ivmvqwbK cwieZb ev ivmvqwbK wewqvi kwYwefvM

ivmvqwbK wewqvq h c`v_ wbq Avi Kiv nq ZvK wewqK Ges h c`v_ Drcb nq ZvK Drcv` ej|
wewqK I Drcv`i fZ I ivmvqwbK ag wfb nq| GgbwK Zv`i fZ AevI wfb nZ cvi| wewqK
c`v_ _K BjKUb vbvwiZ nq A_ev wewqKi mv_ BjKUb hy nq ivmvqwbK wewqv mb nq|
ivmvqwbK wewqv mb nIqvi mgq wewqK c`v_ Drcv` cwiYZ nq, GKBmv_ Drcb c`v_ wewqK
icvwiZ nZ cvi| c`v_ we`gvb cigvYymg~ni gaeZx eb fvOv Ges bZzb eb MVbi gvag
ivmvqwbK wewqv mb nq| ivmvqwbK eb g~jZ GKcKvi kw| eb fvOv Ges bZzb eb MVb kwi
cwieZb nq, hv Zvc wnme Abyf~Z nq| ZvB ivmvqwbK wewqvq Zvci cwieZb nq| Kvbv wewqvq Zvc
Drcb nq Ges Kvbv wewqvq Zvc kvwlZ nq| ivmvqwbK wewqvK wbwjwLZ welqi Dci wfw Ki
kwYwefvM Kiv hvq|
1. wewqvi w`K (D
irection ofR
eaction

2. wewqvq Zvci cwieZb (Heat Change ofR

eaction
3. BjKUb vbvi (E
lectron rTansition

1. wewqvi w`K (Direction of Reaction): wewqvi w`Ki Dci wfw Ki ivmvqwbK wewqvK `yB
fvM fvM Kiv hvq
K. GKgyLx wewqv (Irrev
ersible R
eaction
): GKgyLx wewqvq aygv wewqK c`v_ ev c`v_mg~n
Drcb c`v_ cwiYZ nq| wewqvq Drcb GKvwaK Drcv`i ga h Kvbv GKwU Drcv`K wewqv gvag
_K AcmviY Kiv nj Drcb c`v_mg~n wewqv Ki wewqK cwiYZ nZ cvi bv| GKgyLx wewqvi
wewqK I Drcv`i ga GKgyLx Zxi wP ( ) eenvi Ki wewqvi mgxKiY Dcvcb Kiv nq|
Pzbvcv_i (Kvjwmqvg KvebU; CaCO3) K DPZvc D Kij Pzbvcv_i wehvwRZ nq Pzb (Kvjwmqvg
AvBW; CaO) I Kveb-WvB-AvBW Drcb Ki| Lvjv cv msNwUZ GB wewqv GKgyLx nq|
CaCO3(s)

CaO(s)

CO2(g)

(Lvjv cv)

wewqvq Drcb c`v_ KwVb Kvjwmqvg AvBW I Mvmxq Kveb-WvB-AvBW| Lvjv cv GB wewqv mb
Kiv nj Mvmxq Drcv` Kveb-WvB-AvBW wewqvcv _K AcmvwiZ nq| dj Kvjwmqvg AvBW (CaO)
I Kveb-WvB-AvBW wewqv Ki Kvjwmqvg KvebU (CaCO3) Drcb KiZ cvi bv; A_vr wecixZ
wewqv mb Ki bv|

89

imvqb

L. DfgyLx wewqv (R
ev
ersible eRaction
): DfgyLx wewqvq wewqK c`v_mg~n wewqv Ki Drcv`
cwiYZ nq, GKBmv_ Drcb c`v_mg~n wewqv Ki cybivq wewqK cwiYZ nq| Dfg~Lx wewqvq GKBmv_
`ywU wewqv Pjgvb _vK| GKwU wewqvq wewqKmg~n wewqv Ki Drcv` cwiYZ nq| GK myLgyLx wewqv
ej| AciwU wewqvq Drcb c`v_mg~n wewqv Ki wewqK cwiYZ nq| GK wecixZgyLx wewqv ej|
wecixZgyLx wewqvi g~j wewqvq Drcb c`v_ wewqK wnme wqv Ki| DfgyLx wewqvi
wewqK I Drcv`i ga DfgyLx Zxi wP (
) eenvi Ki wewqvi mgxKiY Dcvcb Kiv nq|
ARe GwmWi (H+) DcwwZZ B_vbj I Re GwmW wewqv Ki Gvi Drcb Ki| GwU GKwU DfgyLx
wewqv| GB weqvi Drcb Gvi fO B_vbj I Re GwmW cwiYZ nq|
CH3CH2OH + CH3COOH

O
CH3CH-O-C-CH3

H+

Avevi, Pzbvcv_ii Zvcxq wehvRb wewqvwU e cv msNwUZ nj wewqvwU DfgyLx nq|

CaCO3(s)

CaO(s)

CO2(g)

(e cv)

wewqvq Drcb c`v_ KwVb Kvjwmqvg AvBW I Mvmxq Kveb-WvB-AvBW| e cv GB wewqv mb Kiv
nj Kvjwmqvg AvBW (CaO) I Kveb-WvB-AvBW wewqv Ki Kvjwmqvg KvebU (CaCO3) Drcb
Ki wecixZ wewqv mb Ki| cKZc cvq mKj wewqvB Dchy kZ DfgyLx nq| Ze wKQz wewqvi
myLgyLx wewqvi Zzjbvq wecixZ wewqvi cwigvY GZB Kg _vK hb wewqvK GKgyLx gb nq|

2. wewqvq Zvci cwieZb (Heat Change of Reaction): Zvci cwieZbi Dci wfw Ki
ivmvqwbK wewqvK `yB fvM fvM Kiv nq| h_v
K. ZvcDrcv`x wewqv (E
xoth
ermic eRaction
): wewqK _K Drcv` Drcb nIqvi mgq
Zvckw Drcb nj ZvK ZvcDrcv`x wewqv ej| ZvcDrcv`x wewqvq wewqv mb nIqvi mv_ wewqv cv
I wewqv-`eY Mig nZ _vK| GB wewqvq Drcb ZvcK Drcv`i mv_ hvM w`q A_ev H wnme cKvk
Kiv nq| ZvcDrcv`x wewqvq H -Gi gvb FYvZK nq| hgb, Zvc, Pvc I cfveKi DcwwZZ
bvBUvRb I nvBWvRb wewqv Ki `yB gvj Avgvwbqv Drcb nIqvi mgq 92 wKjvRyj Zvc Drcb nq|
Fe
N2(g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3(g) + 29KJ
200-250 atm
o
450-550
C

A_ev,
Fe
N2(g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3(g) ; H = -9
2 KJ
200-25
0 atm
o
45
0-5
0
5
C

dgv-12, imvqb-9g-10g

90

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L. Zvcnvix wewqv (Endothermic Reaction): wewqK _K Drcv` Drcb nIqvi mgq Zvckw kvwlZ
nj ZvK Zvcnvix wewqv ej| Zvcnvix wewqvq wewqv mb nIqvi mv_ wewqvcv I wewqv-`eY kxZj
ev Vvv nZ _vK| GB wewqvq kvwlZ ZvcK Drcv`i mv_ weqvM w`q ev wewqKi mv_ hvM w`q A_ev
H wnme cKvk Kiv nq| Zvcnvix wewqvq H Gi gvb abvZK nq| hgb, Zvc, Pvc I cfveKi
DcwwZZ bvBUvRb I AwRb wewqv Ki `yB gvj bvBwUK AvBW Drcb nIqvi mgq 180 wKjvRyj
Zvc kvwlZ nq|
N2(g) + O2(g)

2NO(g) -

180 KJ

A_ev,
N2(g) + O2(g)

180 KJ

2NO(g)

A_ev,
N2(g) + O2(g)

2NO(g) ; H = 180 KJ

{ZvcDrcv`x Ges Zvcnvix wewqv mK Zvgiv cieZx Aavq (Ag Aavq; imvqb I kw) wevwiZ RvbZ
cvie}|

3. BjKUb vbvi (Electron Transition): BjKUb vbvii Dci wfw Ki ivmvqwbK

wewqvK cavbZ `yB fvM fvM Kiv nq| h_v

K. iW (Redox) wewqv: iW (R
edox ) kwU weRviY; R
eduction

-Gi R
ed Ges RviY;
Oxidation -Gi Ox wbq MwVZ| A_vr iW (R
edox ) A_ RviY-weRviY| RviY-weRviY wewqv BjKUb
vbvii gvag msNwUZ nq| GKwU wewqK _K RviY-weRviY wewqv mb nj wewqKi GKvwaK
gji ga BjKUb Av`vb-c`vb nq| `ywU wewqKi ga RviY-weRviY wewqv mb nj wewqK `yBwUi
ga BjKUb Av`vb-c`vb nq| GZ wewqKi RviY msLvi cwieZb nq|

RviY msLv (Oxidation Number): hM MVbi mgq Kvbv gj hZ msLK BjKUb eRb Ki
abvZK Avqb Drcb Ki A_ev hZ msLK BjKUb MnY Ki FYvZK Avqb Drcb Ki ZvK gji RviY
msLv ej| wbic ev gy gji RviY msLv k~b (0) aiv nq| BjKUb MnY Ki FYvZK Avqb cwiYZ
nj gji RviY msLvK FYvZK RviY msLv Ges BjKUb eRb Ki abvZK Avqb cwiYZ nj gji
RviY msLvK abvZK RviY msLv ej| avZzmg~ni RviY msLv mvaviYZ abvZK, AavZzmg~ni RviY msLv
FYvZK Ges hMg~jKi RviY msLv Zv`i Avavb Abymvi nq| wewfb hM GKB gji RviY msLv wewfb
nZ cvi| hgb, HCl AYyZ H -Gi RviY msLv +1 Ges H2 AYyZ H -Gi RviY msLv k~b (0)| FeSO4
AYyZ Fe -Gi RviY msLv +2 Ges gy Fe -G Fe Gi RviY msLv 0| GKBfve HCl AYyZ Cl Gi RviY
msLv -1 Ges Cl2 AYyZ Cl -Gi RviY msLv 0|
`jMZ KvR: RviY msLv I hvRbxi ga Zzjbv Ki|

91

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RviY msLv wbYq (Determination of oxidation number): gji RviY msLv g~jZ Zvi BjKUb
webvmi mv_ mwKZ| GKwU hM Kvbv gji RviY msLv hM we`gvb Abvb gji RviY msLvi
Dci wbfikxj| hM Kvbv GKwU gji RviY msLv wbYq Kivi Rb hM we`gvb Abvb gji cgvY
RviY msLv (Standard oxidation number) eenvi Kiv nq| wbi Uwej wKQz gji, Avqbi Ges
hMi cgvY RviY msLv `Iqv nj:
RviY msLvi wbqg
avZzmg~ni RviY msLv abvZK Ges AavZzmg~ni RviY
msLv FYvZK nq|
wbic cigvYy ev gy gji RviY msLv k~b nq|
wbic hM cigvYymg~ni gvU RviY msLv k~b nq|

hMi msKZ

gj I RviY msLv

NaCl

Na = +1
Cl = -1

Fe, H2

Fe = 0
H=0

Fe, H2

H2O H = +1, O = -2
gvU = 0
SO42- = -2
NH4+ = +1

Avavbwewk Avqb cigvYymg~ni gvU RviY msLv Avavb SO42msLvi mgvb nq|
NH4+
vi avZzmg~ni RviY msLv +1 nq|
grvi avZzmg~ni RviY msLv +2 nq|

KCl, K2CO3

K = +1

CaO, MgSO4

Ca = +2
Mg = +2

avZe nvjvBW nvjvRbi RviY msLv -1 nq|

MgCl2, LiCl

Cl = -1

AwaKvsk hM nvBWvRbi RviY msLv +1 wK avZe

nvBWvBW nvBWvRbi RviY msLv -1|

NH3
LiAlH4

H = +1
H = -1

AwaKvsk hM (AvBW) AwRbi RviY msLv -2

wK cviAvBW AwRbi RviY msLv -1 Ges
1
mycviAvBW AwRbi RviY msLv 2

K2O, CaO
K2O2, H2O2
NaO2, KO2

O = -2
O = -1
1
O=2

QK 7.1: wewfb hM cigvYyi RviY msLv

KMnO4 G Mn -Gi RviY msLv wbYq:

Mn -Gi RviY msLv = x (ai), K -Gi RviY msLv = +1 Ges O -Gi RviY msLv = -2|

hnZz KMnO4 wbic AYy, AZGe cigvYymg~ni gvU RviY msLv k~b nq|
myZivs (+1) + x + (-2) x4 = 0
+1 + x - 8 = 0
x7=0
x = 7, A_vr KMnO4 G Mn -Gi RviY msLv = +7
KvR : hM ev Avqbmg~ni wb `vMvwZ gji RviY msLv wbYq Ki:

MnO2, K2Cr2O7, NO3-, H2SO4, MnO4- , CuSO4, NaOH

92

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RviY-weRviY wewqvi mgq mvaviYZ GKwU wewqK BjKUb MnY Ki Ges Aci wewqK BjKUb eRb
Ki| h wewqK BjKUb MnY Ki ZvK RviK (Oxidant ) Ges h wewqK BjKUb eRb Ki ZvK
weRviK (Reductant ) ej| avZe wRsK (`v) Kcvi mvjdUi mv_ wewqv Ki wRsK mvjdU I Kcvi avZz
Drcb nq| GwU GKwU RviY-weRviY weqv| RviY-weRviY wewqvi `ywU Ask RviY I weRviY|
nZ

+ CuSO4

Z
nSO

n
Z

+ Cu2+

Z
n

+ Cu

wewqvi AvqwbK ic :
2+

+ Cu

1. RviY (Oxidation): RviY-weRviY wewqvi mgq wewqK _K BjKUb eRb ev AcmviY cwqvK
RviY ej| Dcii wewqvq wewqK Z
n -Gi RviY msLv k~b (0) Ges Drcv` Z
nSO 4 G Z
n -Gi RviY
msLv +2| A_vr wewqvq Z
n `ywU BjKUb AcmviY Ki RvwiZ nq Ges Z
nSO 4 -G cwiYZ nq| wewqvi
RviY AskK wbi mgxKiYi mvnvh Dcvcb Kiv nq|
n
Z

2e-

n
Z

2+

2. weRviY (Reduction): RviY-weRviY wewqvi mgq wewqK KZK BjKUb MnY cwqvK weRviY
ej| Dcii wewqvq wewqK CuSO4 G Cu -Gi RviY msLv +2 Ges Drcv` Cu -Gi RviY msLv k~b
(0)| A_vr wewqvq CuSO4 `ywU BjKUb MnY Ki weRvwiZ nq Ges Cu -G cwiYZ nq| wewqvi weRviY
AskK wbi mgxKiYi mvnvh Dcvcb Kiv nq|
Cu2+ + 2e-

Cu

wewqvq CuSO4 `ywU BjKUb MnY Ki weRvwiZ nq Ges Z

n K RvwiZ Ki; A_vr CuSO4 GB wewqvq
RviK c`v_| Abfve Z
n `ywU BjKUb c`vb Ki RvwiZ nq Ges CuSO4 K weRvwiZ Ki; A_vr Z
n
GB wewqvq weRviK c`v_| RviY-weRviY wewqvq RviK c`v_ hLb weRviK _K BjKUb MnY Ki
weRvwiZ nq, GKBmv_ weRviK c`v_ RviKK BjKUb c`vb Ki RvwiZ nq| A_vr RviY I weRviY
GKBmv_ NU|
RviY wewqv
nZ + CuSO4
weRviK
RviK

Z
nSO

+ Cu

weRviY wewqv

Dcii eYbvq RviY I weRviY wewqv ejv njI hnZz RviY ev weRviY GKwU c~Yv wewqvi AwaKvsk| ZvB
RviY wewqvK RviY Aa Ges weRviY wewqvK weRviY Aa wewqv ejv kq|
BjKUb vbvii gvag msNwUZ mKj wewqvB RviY-weRviY wewqvi Afy| BjKUb vbvii
gvag msNwUZ wewqvmg~n:

93

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ition Reaction
d
)
1. mshvRb wewqv (A
2. wehvRb wewqv (D
ecom
position Reaction )
3. cwZvcb wewqv (Substitution Reaction )
4. `nb wewqv (Com
ustion Reaction )
b
1. mshvRb wewqv (Addition Reaction): `yB ev ZZvwaK hM ev gj hy nq bZzb hM Drcb
nIqvi cwqvi bvg mshvRb wewqv| Avqib (n) KvivBW Kvwibi mv_ wewqv Ki Avqib (In ) KvivBW
Drcb Ki (mbvZb cwZZ Kvbv hMi mv_ Kvwibi ev FYvZK Aski mshvMK RviY ejv nq)|
2F
eCl

2(aq)

Cl2(g)

2F
eCl

3(aq)

nvBWvRb Mvm Kvwib Mvmi mv_ wewqv Ki nvBWvRbKvivBW Mvm Drcb Ki|
H2(g)

2HCl(g)

Cl2(g)

mshvRb wewqvq `yB ev ZZvwaK gwjK c`v_ hy nq bZzb hM Drcb nj, GK msk-lY (Sy
nth
esis
wewqv ej|

2. wehvRb wewqv (Decomposition Reaction): Kvbv hMK fq GKvwaK hM ev gj cwiYZ

Kivi cwqvi bvg wehvRb wewqv| dmdivm cUvKvivBWK Zvc D Kij dmdivm UvBKvivBW I
Kvwib Drcb nq| GwU GKwU DfgyLx wewqv (mbvZb cwZZ Kvbv hM _K Kvwib ev FYvZK Aski
AcmviYK weRviY ejv nq)|
PCl5(l)

PCl3(l)

Cl2(g)

cvwbZ Zwor Pvjbv Kij cvwb wehvwRZ nq nvBWvRb I AwRb Drcb Ki|
Zwor wek-Y
2H2O(l)
2H2(g) + O2(g)
3. cwZvcb wewqv (Substitution or Displacement Reaction): Kvbv hMi GKwU gj ev
hMg~jKK Aci Kvbv gj ev hMg~jK viv cwZvcb Ki bZzb hM Drcb Kivi cwqvi bvg
cwZvcb wewqv| mvaviYZ AwaK mwq gj ev g~jK viv Kg mwq gj ev g~jK cwZvwcZ nq| wRsK
mvjwdDwiK GwmWi mv_ wewqv Ki wRsK mvjdU I nvBWvRb Mvm Drcb Ki| wewqvq AwaK-mw q
wRsK avZz Kg-mw q nvBWvRbK cwZvcb Ki (mwqZvi Zzjbvi Rb LwbRm` (avZz-AavZz) Aa vq
`L, mbvZb cwZZ Kvbv hM _K nvBWvRb ev abvZK Aski AcmviYK RviY ejv nq)|
n
Z

(s)

H2SO4(aq)

Z
nSO

4(aq)

+ H2(g)

mvwWqvg avZz Kcvi mvjdUi mv_ wewqv Ki mvwWqvg mvjdU I avZe Kcvi Drcb Ki| wewqvq
mvwWqvg avZz Kcvi mvjdU _K Kcvi avZzK cwZvcb Ki|
2Na(s) +

CuSO4(aq)

Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(s)

94

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4. `nb wewqv (Combustion Reaction): Kvbv gjK ev hMK evqyi AwRbi DcwwZZ cywoq
Zvi Dcv`vb gji AvBW cwiYZ Kivi cwqvK `nb wewqv ej| `nb wewqvq mvaviYZ Zvc Drcb
nq| wg_b Mvm ev cvKwZK MvmK cywoq ev `nb Ki h Zvc cvIqv hvq Zv ivbvmn Abvb KvR eenvi
Kiv nq (mbvZb cwZZ Kvbv hMi mv_ AwRb ev FYvZK Aski mshvMK RviY ejv nq)|
CH4(g)

2O2(g)

CO2(g)

2H2O(g)

GKBfve Kveb, mvjdvi, nvBWvRb I gvMbwmqvgK `nb Kij Zv`i AvBW Drcb nq|
C(s)

O2(g)

CO2(g)

2S(s)

3O2(g)

2SO3(g)

2H2(g)

O2(g)

2H2O(g)

2Mg(s)

O2(g)

2MgO(s)

wP 7.1 : Rvjvwbi `nb

KvR : BjKUb vbvii gvag Dcii wewqvjvi

RviY-weRviY evLv Ki|
L. bb-iW (Non-Redox) wewqv: GK ev GKvwaK wewqK _K bZzb hM Drcb nIqvi mgq
wewqK we`gvb gjmg~ni ga BjKUb Av`vb-c`vb bv nj wewqvK bb-iW weqv ej| GB
wewqvq Kvbv wewqK cigvYyi RviY msLvi nvm-ew NU bv| BjKUb Av`vb-c`vb ev vbviwenxb
msNwUZ wewqvmg~n:
1. ckgb wewqv (Nutralisation Reaction)
2. AatcY wewqv (Precipitation Reaction)
1. ckgb wewqv (Nutralisation Reaction): GB wewqvK GwmW-vi wewqv ejv nq| GwmWi Rjxq
`eYi KqKwU wekl ewk _vK| hgb, GB `eY fRv jvj wjUgvm KvMR cek Kivj bxjeY cwiYZ
nq| `eYi pH 7 -Gi Kg _vK| Abyicfve vii Rjxq `eYi KqKwU wekl ewk _vK| hgb,
GB `eY fRv bxj wjUgvm KvMR cek Kivj jvjeY cwiYZ nq| `eYi pH 7 -Gi ewk _vK| GwmW I
vii Rjxq `eYK GK wgwkZ Kij jeY I cvwb Drcb nq|
GwmW

vi

jeY

cvwb

Rjxq `eY GwmW I vi wewqv Ki jeY I cvwb Drcb nIqvi mgq `eYi pH 7 -Gi wbKUeZx nq|
ckgb wewqv m~Y nj pH -Gi gvb 7 nq| wewqvi mgq GwmW `eY Zvi GwmW ag Ges vixq `eY Zvi
viag nvwiq ckwgZ nZ _vK| Rjxq `eY GwmW I vi wewqv Ki jeY I cvwb Drcb Kivi wewqvK
ckgb wewqv ej| mKj ckgb wewqv Zvc-Drcv`x nq| nvBWvKvwiK GwmW (HCl) I mvwWqvg
nvBWvvBW (NaOH) Rjxq `eY wewqv Ki mvwWqvg KvivBW (NaCl) I cvwb Drcb Ki| wewqv-cv
mvwWqvg KvivBW `exf~Z Aevq _vK|
HCl(aq)

NaOH(aq)

NaCl(aq) +

H2O(l)

95

imvqb

cKZc wewqvq GwmWi nvBWvRb Avqb (H+) I vii nvBWvwj Avqb (OH-) hy nq cvwb Drcb
Ki| mvwWqvg KvivBW Rjxq `eY mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) I KvivBW Avqb (Cl-) wnme _vK| Rjxq `eY
mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) I KvivBW Avqb (Cl-) wewqvq AskMnY Ki bv| G`iK `kK (Spectator) Avqb
ej| G wewqvq Kvbv BjKUbi vbvi NU bv|
HCl(aq)

Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

Na+(aq) +

+ NaOH(aq)

A_ev,
H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

Na+(aq) +

A_ev,
H+(aq)

+ OH (aq)

H2O(l)

2. AatcY wewqv (Precipitation Reaction): GKwU wbw` `veK `eYxq `ywU hMK wgwkZ Kivi
ci H `veK A`eYxq ev ^ `eYxq bZzb hM Drcb nj hMwU wewqvcvi Zj`k KwVb c`v_ wnme
Rgv nq| Drcb bZzb hM `veK `exf~Z bv nq KwVb c`v_ wnme Rgv nj ZvK Aatc ej| h
wewqvq Drcb hM Aatc wnme cvi Zj`k Rgv nq ZvK AatcY wewqv ej| AatcY
wewqvq AskMnYKvix wewqK `ywU mvaviYZ AvqwbK hM nq| GKwU wewqvq Drcb hM Aatc wnme
Rgv ne wK bv Zvnv wewqvq eeZ `veKi Dci wbfi Ki| Kvbv wewqvq Drcb hM cvwb `veK
Aatw njI Ab Kvbv `veK Aatw bv-I nZ cvi| AwaKvsk ivmvqwbK wewqv cvwb `veK mb
Kiv nq| ZvB Drcb hMi ga h Kvbv GKwU hM cvwbZ A`eYxq nj wewqvwUK AatcY wewqv
ej| G Aavq ay cvwb `veK mb ivmvqwbK wewqv AvjvPbv Kiv ne| ivmvqwbK mgxKiY Aatc
wnme Rgv nIqv Drcv`i mvgb c_g ebxi ga s jLv nq| AbK mgq AatcK cKvk Kivi Rb
ivmvqwbK mgxKiY Drcv`i mvgb wP eenvi Kiv nq| mvwWqvg KvivBW I wmjfvi bvBUU Rjxq `eY
wewqv Ki mvwWqvg bvBUUi Rjxq `eY I wmjfvi KvivBWi Aatc Drcb Ki|
NaCl(aq) +

AgNO3(aq)

NaNO3(aq)

AgCl(s)

A_ev,
NaCl(aq) +

AgNO3(aq)

NaNO3(aq)

AgCl

cKZc wewqvq wmjfvi bvBUUi wmjfvi Avqb (Ag+) I mvwWqvg KvivBWi, KvivBW Avqb (Cl-) hy
nq wmjfvi KvivBWi Aatc Drcb Ki| mvwWqvg bvBUU Rjxq `eY mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) I bvBUU
Avqb (NO3-) wnme _vK| Rjxq `eY mvwWqvg Avqb (Na+) I bvBUU Avqb (NO3-) wewqvq AskMnY
Ki bv| G`iK `kK (Spectator) Avqb ej| G wewqvq Kvbv BjKUbi vbvi NU bv|
NaCl(aq) +

AgNO3(aq)

Na+(aq) +

NO3-(aq) + AgCl(s)

A_ev,
Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

Na+(aq) +

NO3-(aq) + AgCl(s)

96

imvqb

A_ev,
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

AgCl(s)

AwaKvsk AatcY wewqv g~jZ w-cwZvcb (Double displacement) wewqv| GB wewqvq

mvwWqvg KvivBWi mvwWqvg Avqb viv wmjfvi bvBUUi wmjfvi AvqbK cwZvcb Ki, GKBmv_
wmjfvi bvBUUi wmjfvi Avqb viv mvwWqvg KvivBWi mvwWqvg Avqb cwZvwcZ nq|
w-cwZvcb wewqvq Drcb Dfq hM cvwbZ `eYxq nj, AatcY bv nIqvq Kvbv ivmvqwbK wewqv
mb nq bv| mvwWqvg KvivBW I cUvwmqvg bvBUU Rjxq `eY w-cwZvcb wewqv Ki Drcb mvwWqvg
bvBUUi I cUvwmqvg KvivBW DfqB Rjxq `eY `exf~Z Aevq _vK| dj `eY mKj Avqb `kK-Avqb
wnme _vK| A_vr Kvbv ivmvqwbK wewqv mb nq bv|
NaCl(aq) +

NaNO3(aq)

KNO3(aq)

KCl(aq)

A_ev,
Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

cvwbZ A`eYxq KqKwU hMi AvYweK msKZ:

BaSO4, PbSO4, AgI, CaSO4, BaCl2, CuS, PbS, PbI2

AwaKvsk AatcY wewqv bb-iW| Ze KLbv KLbv BjKUb vbvii gvag msNwUZ RviYweRviY (iW) wewqvq Drcb GKvwaK Drcv`i ga h Kvbv GKwU Drcv`K Aatc wnme cvIqv
hvq| GB cKwZi wewqv AatcYi Zzjbvq RviY-weRviY wewqv bvg AwaK cwiwPZ| hgb, vixq
wmjfvi bvBUU `eYK Ujb weKviK (Tollens reagent) ej| Ujb weKviK Rjxq `eY AvjwWnvBW kwYi
Re hMi mv_ wewqv Ki KwVb avZe wmjfvi Aatc wnme wewqvcvi Zj`k Rgv nq| GB
wewqvq wmjfvi bvBUUi wmjfvi Avqb (Ag+) GKwU BjKUb MnY Ki weRvwiZ nq Ges avZe wmjfvi wnme
Aatw nq|
Rjxq `eY wmjfvi bvBUU mvwWqvg nvBWvvBW ev Avgvwbqvg nvBWvvBWi mv_ wewqv Ki wmjfvi
nvBWvvBW Drcb Ki| Drcb wmjfvi nvBWvvBW wehvwRZ nq wmjfvi AvBW wnme Aatw nq|
AgNO3(aq)

NaOH(aq)

2AgOH(s)

Ag2O(s) +

AgOH(s)

HNO3(aq)

H2O(l)

wmjfvi AvBW Avgvwbqvi Rjxq `eY duvUvq duvUvq hvM Kij mKj Aatc `exf~Z nq Avgvwbqvhy
wmjfvi nvBWvvBWi `eY ev Ujb weKviK Drcb Ki|
Ag2O(s) + 4NH3 +

H2O(l)

2[Ag(NH3)2]+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

Ujb weKviKi wmjfvi Avqb (Ag+) AvjwWnvBWi mv_ wewqv Ki weRvwiZ nq Ges avZe wmjfvi wnme
Aatw nq| GKBmv_ AvjwWnvBW RvwiZ nq Re GwmW cwiYZ nq|

97

imvqb

CH3CHO + 2Ag+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

CH3COOH + 2Ag(s) + H2O(l)

KqKwU wekl wewqv: wKQz ivmvqwbK wewqv AvQ hv ewYZ kwYwefvMi AMZ bq|
1. Av`wek-lY ev cvwb wek-lY (Hydrolysis) wewqv: cvwbi AYyZ abvZK nvBWvRb Avqb (H+) I
FYvZK nvBWvwj Avqb (OH-) _vK| Kvbv hMi `yB Ask cvwbi wecixZ Avavbwewk `yB Aski mv_
hy nq bZzb hM Drcb Ki| GB wewqvK Av`weklY wewqv ej| Av`weklY wewqv, wc wZvcb
wewqvi Abyic (AatcY wewqvq AvjvwPZ)| Ze GB wewqvq cvwb AskMnY Kivq GK cvwb weklY
wewqv ej Ges wewqvq Kvbv BjKUbi vbvi NU bv| Avjywgwbqvg KvivBW cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki
Avjywgwbqvg nvBWvBW I nvBWvKvwiK GwmW Drcb Ki| GLvb Avjywgwbqvg KvivBWi Avjywgwbqvg
Avqb (Al3+) cvwbi nvBWvwj Avqbi (OH-) mv_ Ges KvivBW Avqb (Cl-) cvwbi nvBWvRb Avqbi (H+)
mv_ hy nq| wewqvq Drcb Avjywgwbqvg nvBWvBW cvwbZ A`eYxq, ZvB Drcv`wU Aatc wnme
wewqvcvi Zj`k Rgv nq|
AlCl3(s)

3H2O(l)

Al(OH)3(s) +

3HCl(aq)

GKBfve wmwjKb UUvKvivBW cvwbi DcwwZZ Av`wekwlZ nq wmwjKb nvBWvBW I nvBWvKvwiK

GwmW Drcb Ki|
SiCl4

4H2O

Si(OH)4

4HCl

2. cvwbhvRb (Hydration) wewqv: AvqwbK hM Kjvm (crystal lattice) MVbi mgq GK ev

GKvwaKmsLK cvwbi AYyi mv_ hy nq| GB wewqvK cvwbhvRb (hydration) wewqv ej| AvqwbK
hMi mv_ hy cvwbK Kjvm cvwb ev nvBWUW (hydrated) cvwb ej| wewqvq cvwbi AYy hy nIqvi
Rb wekl bvgKiY Kiv nqQ| GB wewqv mshvRb wewqvi Abyic, Ze mshvRb wewqvi bvq GB
wewqvq BjKUb vbvi NU bv|
+

6H2O

CaCl2.6H2O

MgCl2 +

7H2O

MgCl2.7H2O

CuSO4 +

5H2O

CuSO4.5H2O

CaCl2

3. mgvbyKiY (Isomerisation) wewqv: GKB AvYweK msKZwewk `ywU hMi ag wfb nj

Zv`iK ciii mgvby (Isomer) ej| hgb, C2H6O AvYweK msKZwewk `ywU hM
CH3-CH2-OH
bvg : B_vbj
fZ Aev : Zij
zUbvsK : 78 C
`veZv
: cvwbZ `eYxq

dgv-13, imvqb-9g-10g

CH3-O-CH3
bvg : WvB wg_vBj B_vi
fZ Aev : Mvmxq
zUbvsK : -24 C
`veZv
: cvwbZ ^ `eYxq

105

imvqb

2. Pb (NO3)2 + 2KI
Dcii wewqvi AvjvK wbPi QKwU c~iY Kiv njv [K = 39, I = 127]:
Dcv`vb

1g cv

2q cv

3q cv

4_ cv

0.2 M Pb (NO3)2 Gi AvqZb (mL)

cvwbi AvqZb (mL)
0.5 M KI Gi AvqZb (mL)
cwZwU cvi `eYi gvU AvqZb (mL)

1
4
1
6

2
3
1
6

3
2
1
6

4
1
1
6

K. Zvcvrcv`x wewqv KvK ej?

L. hvRbx I RviY msLv GK bq Kb? evLv Ki|
M. mviwYZ eeZ gvU KI Gi cwigvY KZ Mvg? wbYq Ki `LvI|
N.

Kvb cvi `eYwU AwaK njy` ne ej Zzwg gb Ki? hywmn evLv Ki|

eeZ gvU Aatc

AvqZb (mL)
10
njy`
10
4
-

Ag Aavq

imvqb I kw
ivmvqwbK eb g~jZ kwi Avavi| ivmvqwbK eb fvOv-Movi mv _ kw wbwnZ| cw_exZ hZ ivmvqwbK
cwieZb NU mKj B kwi icvi nq| GB cwieZbjvi ga hjv ^Zt~Zfve NU m
cwieZbi kwK KvR jvwMq Avgiv `bw`b KvR Kwi| cw_exZ GB kwi cwigvY mxwgZ hv w`b w`b Kg
AvmQ| ZvB Avgv`i weK kwi K_v wPv Kiv cqvRb| BZvga m~hK KvR jvwMq mvjvi cvbj Zwi
Ki evwZ Rvjvbi cwigvY ew Kivi Pv PjQ| Ab w`K DbZ `ki bvq cvigvYweK kwK eenvi
Kivi cPv Avgv`i `k i nqQ|

GB Aavq cvV kl Avgiv:

(1) ivmvqwbK cwieZbi mv_ kw Drcv`bi mK evLv KiZ cvie|
(2) kw Drcv`b Rvjvwbi weZvi iZ Abyaveb, cwiek myivq Gjvi eenvi mxwgZ ivLZ I
Dchy Rvjvwb wbevPb mPZbZvi cwiPq w`Z cvie|
(3) wbivcvi welqwU weePbvq iL ivmvqwbK wewqv-mswk - mgmv wPwZ Ki Zv Abymvbi
cwiKbv, evevqb Ges Gi KvhKvwiZv g~jvqb KiZ cvie|
(4) ivmvqwbK wewqv msMVb Ges kw Drcv`b ^Zt~Zfve I AvZwekvmi mv_ `vwqZkxj wmv
MnY mg ne|
(5) RviY-weRviY wew qvi BjKUbxq gZev` eenvi Ki Pj we`yZi aviYv evLv KiZ cvie|
(6) ivmvqwbK wewqvi gvag we`yr Drcv`b cwqv evLv KiZ cvie|
(7) we`yr eenvi Ki wewqv msMVb KiZ cvie|
(8) wewfb c`v_i Zwor wek-lY Drcvw`Z c`v_ Ges Gi evwYwRK eenvi mK gZvgZ w`Z cvie|
(9) Zwor ivmvqwbK Kvl I MvjfvwbK Kvli ga cv_K KiZ cvie|
(10) Zzjbvg~jK wek-lY Ki cvigvYweK we`yr Drcv`b mK gZvgZ w`Z cvie|
(11) Zvcnvix I ZvcDrcv`x wewqvi cixv KiZ cvie|
(12) ivmvqwbK `ei wZKi w`Kmg~n mK mPZbZv c`kb KiZ cvie|
(13) we Rvjvwb eenvi AvMn c`kb KiZ cvie|
(14) jeY `exf~Z I ivmvqwbK cwieZb nIqvi mgq Zvci cwieZb cixvi mvnvh `LvZ cvie|
(15) MvjfvwbK Kvli Zworvi MVb KiZ cvie|

107

imvqb

1.1

ivmvqwbK kw

K. ebkw I ivmvqwbK wewqvq kwi cwieZb

Avgiv RbwQ h, Kvbv hM gjmg~n Zv`i ga cviwiK (mutual) kw viv hy _vK| gjmg~ni GK
Acii mv_ hy nIqvi kwB njv ivmvqwbK eb| ZvQvovI Kvbv c`v_i AYy ev Avqbmg~n GK Acii mv_
bvbv kwi mg^q MwVZ AvtAvYweK kw (intermolecular force) bvgK kwi gvag KvQvKvwQ _K
GKwU wbw` Aev, hgb KwVb, Zij ev evqexq Aevi mw Ki| Kvbv `ei AYy ev Avqbmg~ni ga
AvtAvYweK kw ewk nj KwVb, Kg nj Zij I AviI Kg nj- evqexq Aevi mw nq| Zvnj GKB `ei
Aevf` AvtAvYweK kw wfbZi nq| hgb eid, cvwb I Rjxqev njv cvwbi KwVb, Zij I evqexq
Aev| cvwbK Zvc (kw) w`j Rjxqevi mw nq, A_vr cvwb Zvc kvlY Ki Zij _K evqexq c`v_ cwiYZ
nq| Avevi cvwbK Vvv Kij, A_vr cvwb _K Zvc ei Ki wbj cvwb KwVb (eid) `e cwiYZ nq|
Abw`K, ivmvqwbK eb Zwii mv_I kw RwoZ| wfb hM AYymg~n wfb ebkw viv hy _vK| hw` wewqvq
Drcb hMi gvU kw wewqKmg~ni gvU kwi Pq Kg nq A_ev ewk nq Zvnj Kx nZ cvi Pj fe `Lv
hvK| Drcb hM gvU kwi cwigvY Kg nj wewqvi dj kwi De ne, Ges ewk nj kwi kvlY NUe|
gvUK_v, h Kvbv ivmvqwbK cwieZb Kgewk kwi De ev kvlY nq _vK, hw`I Zv memgqB Avgiv Abyfe
KiZ cvwi bv| Zvnj GUv h, `ei Aevi cwieZbi mv_ hgb kw RwoZ, ivmvqwbK wewqvq gvag
bZzb c`v_ cwiYZ nevi cwqvi mv_ Zgb kw RwoZ|

L. Zvc Drcv`x wewqv I Zvcnvix wewqv

Gevi Dcii AvjvwPZ welqe _K wewqvK Zvci wfwZ fvM Kwi| Zvci cwieZbi wfwZ ivmvqwbK
wewqv `yB cKvi, h_v : (1) ZvcDrcv`x I (2) Zvcnvix wewqv |

Zvc Drcv`x wewqv: h ivmvqwbK wewqvq Zvc Drcb nq ZvK Zvc Drcv`x wewqv ej| hgb: KvV, Kqjv ev Mvm
cvovj Zvc Drcb nq| KvV ev Kqjv g~jZ Kveb Ges Kvebi wewfb hM, hv `nbi gvag evqyi AwRbi mv_
wewqv Ki Kveb-WvB-AvBW (CO2) I Zvc Drcb Ki| Pzb cvwbZ w`j Zvc Drcb nq| Pzb njv Kvjwmqvg
AvBW (CaO), hv cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki Kvjwmqvg nvBWvBW; Ca(OH)2 I Zvc Drcb Ki|
C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + Zvc
CaO (s) + H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Zvc
Gevi Zvckw wbMZ nIqvi welqmg~n evLv Kiv hvK| c_g , wewqK Kveb I AwRbi ga gvU
wZ ivmvqwbK kw Drcvw`Z hM Kveb-WvB-AvBW ga wZ ivmvqwbK kwi Pq ewk| Abyicfve,
Drcv` Kvjwmqvg nvBWvBW-Gi ga wZ ivmvqwbK kw wewqK Kvjwmqvg AvBW I cvwbi ga gvU
wZ ivmvqwbK kwi Pq Kg| mnR ejv hvq, wewqKi ga wZ gvU ivmvqwbK kw bZzb hM MVb
eq nIqvi ci AwZwi Ask Zvc wnme ei nq, A_vr wbMZ Zvckw = Drcv` hMmg~ni gvU kw (E2)
wewqK hMmg~ni gvU kw (E1)|

108

imvqb

wewqv Zvc: Kvbv ivmvqwbK wewqvq cwiewZZ ZvcK wewqv Zvc ej|
`nb Zvc: GK gvj cwigvY c`v_K `nb Kij h Zvci Drcb nq ZvK `nb Zvc ej|

Zvc
ivmvqwbK c`v_

ivmvqwbK c`v_

Zvc

wP-8.1: Zvc-Drcv`x wewqv|

wP-8.2:Zvcnvix wewqv|

Zvcnvix wewqv: h ivmvqwbK wewqv msNwUZ nIqvi Rb Zvci kvlY NU, ZvK Zvcnvix wewqv ej|
ZvcDrcv`x wewqvi Avgiv mPivPi Zvci De cZfve Abyfe Kwi, wK Zvcnvix wewqv Lye
KgB Zvc kvlYi NUbv eySZ cvwi| Gevi Pj, Zvc kvlY nqQ Ggb NUbv eySevi Pv Kwi| 60
mwUMW Zvcgvvq AaK M-vm Mig cvwb AvQ| Gi ga GKUyKiv eid hvM Ki| wbqB Avgiv eySZ cvwi
h, wKQyYi gaB eidUzKivwU Mje, Avi mv_ mv_ cvwbi ZvcgvvI Kg hve| Gfve mPivPi Avgiv
cvbxqK Vvv KiZ eidUzKiv eenvi Ki _vwK| Avgiv Dci RbwQ h, cvwb _K kw ei Kij cvwb
Zij _K KwVb (eid) cwiYZ nq| Zvnj GUv h, MnxZ kw (Zvc) eidK diZ w`j KwVb eid
Zij cvwbZ cwiYZ ne| cKZc, M-vm ivLv eidUyKivwU Mig cvwb _K Zvc (kw) MnY Ki cvwbZ
cwiYZ nq| Zvi dj Mig cvwbi Zvcgvv Kg hvq| Zvnj eidUzKiv Zvi Pvicvk (cwiek) _K Zvc kvlY
Ki cvwbZ cwiYZ nq| Abyicfve ivmvqwbK wewqv msNwUZ nIqvi Rb Zvci kvlY nZ cvi| G
KLbv KLbv ivmvqwbK wewqv msNwUZ Kivi Rb eeZ cvi Mvq nvZ w`j Vvv Abyf~Z nq| Avevi
KLbv evwni _K Zvc `Iqv Qvov wewqvB nq bv| hgb: Lvevi mvWv I jeyi im ev wfbMvii wewqvi
mgq Zvci kvlY NU| Lvevi mvWv njv mvwWqvg-evB-Kve bU (NaHCO3)| Aciw`K jeyi im
mvBwUK GwmW I wfbMvi GwmwUK GwmW _vK| mvwWqvg-evB-Kve bU GwmWi mv_ wewqvq Kveb-WvBAvBW, jeY I cvwb Drcb Ki| wewqvwU msNwUZ nIqvi mgq `eY _K Zvc kvlY Ki, dj Avgiv
`eYwU Vvv nZ `wL|
NaHCO3(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) + Zvc (`eY _K kvwlZ)
CH3COONa+ (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)

A_ev
NaHCO3(aq) + H+(aq) (mvBwUK GwmW) + Zvc (`eY _K kvwlZ)

Na+-jeY (mvwWqvg mvBUU) (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)

imvqb

113

mvjdvi-I bvB UvRb gjhy hM _vK, Zvnj Rvjvwb cvovbvi mgq cwiek I ^vi Rb SuzwKc~Y
mvjdvi I bvBUvRbi wewfb AvBW Drcb nq| mvjdvi-WvB-A vBW evqyi Rjxqevi mv_ hy nq
mvjwdDwiK GwmW Zwi Ki, hv GwmWewi (acid rain) mw Ki| Avgiv wbqB eySZ cvwi h,
GwmWew cwieki MvQcvjv I RxeRi wUK _vKvi Rb Aivq| GQvovI hvbevnb _K wbMZ auvqvq
Kveb-g bv-A vBW, bvBUvm AvBW I AeeZ Mvmxq Rvjvwb (wg_b) evqyZ wgk m~hi Avjvi
DcwwZZ bvbv ivmvqwbK wewqvi gvag wewfb welv Mvmi auvqvi mw Ki| GK dUvKvwgKvj
auvqv (photochemical smog) ej| dUvKvwgKvj auvqvi Dcv`vb Mvmmg~n evqygji IRvb
(O3) ii gvivZK qmvab Ki| AZGe ^v I cwiek ivq we Rvjvwbi eenvi wbwZ
Kiv AZ Riwi|

8.6 ivmvqwbK kw eenvii bwZevPK cfve

Avgiv Dci `Ljvg h, ivmvqwbK kwi eenvi DchvMx Kivi g~jbxwZ g~jZ RvjvwbK evqyi mv_ cywoq
(RviY wewqv) Zvc Drcb Kiv| hw`I dzqj mj I Abvb wekl Ki wewfb Zwor ivmvqwbK Kvl I
wbDwKqvi wewqvq ivmvqwbK kw _K eenvihvM kwi Drcv`bi g~jbxwZ wfb| cKZc, wmsnfvM
kwB RvjvwbK cywoqB Drcv`b Kiv nq| GLb ck nQ nvRvi nvRvi Ub Rvjvwb cvovbvi dj D~Z
mgZyj cwigvY CO2 Mvm I Abvb Mvmmg~n wekl Ki CO, SO2, NO I auvqvi mv_ ei nIqv A`nbxq
Rvjvwb Kv_vq hvQ? wbqB Giv evZvmi mv_ wgk hvQ| Dj-L h, mvjvKmsk-lY wewqvq evqyZ wgk
hvIqv CO2 Mvm eeZ nq eU| wK `yfvMRbKfve GKw`K Avgiv Dw`Kyji wbab KiwQ, Abw`K
Avgv`i AZvaywbK Rxebeevi Pvwn`v gUvbvi Rb Rvjvwbi eenvi ew KiwQ| GZ Ki w`b w`b
evqygj CO2 -G i cwigvY A^vfvweKfve eo hvQ| hw`I CO2 evqyi Ab Dcv`vbi mv_ wewqv Ki
bv, Ze CO2 Mvmi Zvc aviYgZv ewk, A_vr CO2 Zvc kvlY Ki Zv ai ivLZ cvi (trapping of
heat) | Avevi CO2 Mvm IRb fvix nIqvq cw_exci KvQvKvwQ Aevb Ki| GZ Ki w`b w`b
cw_exi Zvcgvv eo hvQ, hvK ewkK Dvqb (global warming) ejv nq| CO2 Mvmi G aibi
Zvcgvv ewi NUbv wMb nvDR cfve (greenhouse effect) ej cwiwPZ Ges CO2 -K wMbnvDR Mvm
ejv nq| ewkK Dvqbi dj giAji eid Mj cvwbZ cwiYZ nq AbvKvwZ ebvi mw KiQ
(wP-8.8)| Ab w`K, Rvjvwb cvovbvi dj D~Z Abvb Mvmmg~n bvbviKg ivmvqwbK wewqv NwUq evqyK
`~wlZ KiQ Ges evqyZ wewfb Dcv`vbi fvimvg b Ki GwmWew I dUvKvwgKvj auvqvi mw KiQ|
ZvQvovI Gme Mvm IRvbii mv_ mivmwi wewqv Ki Gi cyiZ Kwgq w`Q ev IRvbi Zi
(hole) mw KiQ| Avmj IRvbi m~hi Avjvi QuvKwb wnme KvR Ki m~hi AvjvZ DcwZ
AwZewb iwk (ultraviolet ray) cw_exZ AvmZ evav c`vb Ki| cieZx kwYZ Avgiv G`i cfve Kx
Kx nZ cvi Zvi wevwiZ Rvbe|

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wP-8.8: KviLvbv _K Kveb-WvB-AvBWi wbtmiY (evg) I evqygji Zvcgvv ewi dj gi Aji

eid Mj cvwb nQ (Wvb)|

8.7 B_vbjK Rvjvwb wnme eenvi

B_vbj, hvi Aci bvg B_vBj AvjKvnj GwU GKwU `vn Zij ivmvqwbK c`v_| LwbR Rvjvwb hgb
Kivwmb, cUvj, wWRj cfwZi gZv B_vbjK cvovj Zvc Drcb nq| Zvnj LwbR Rvjvwbi gZv
B_vbjK Zvc Bwbi Rvjvwb wnme eenvi Ki KjKviLvbv, Mvwo, wegvb, RvnvR cfwZ Pvjvbv hZ
cvi| evwRj, Di AvgwiKvmn DbZ `kmg~n B_vbjK cUvwjqvg (LwbR Rvjvwb) -Gi mv_ wgwkZ Ki
Zvc Bwb eenvi Kiv nq| AvgwiKvi gvUvgywU me KviMvwo cUvji mv_ kZKiv 10 fvM B_vbjwgwkZ
Rvjvwb eenvi Ki ivvq PjvPj KiQ| evwRji miKvi LwbR Rvjvwbi mv_ kZKiv 25 fvM B_vjb wgwkZ
Ki eenvi Kiv evaZvg~jK KiQ| GQvovI AvaywbKKvji I cieZx cRbi eenvihvM kw Drcv`bi
chyw ej LvZ dyqj mj (fuel cell) -Gi Rvjvwb wnme AvjKvnj (wg_vbj I B_vbj) eeZ nQ|
wbqB GB ckUv gb RvMZ cvi, GZ me Rvjvwb _vKZ B_vbji eenvi `iKvi Kb? ejv nQ h, LwbR
Rvjvwbi gRy` GKmgq kl nq hve| Zvnj wPv Kiv cqvRb Avgiv Kxfve kwi Drcv`b Kie, Kxfve
hvbevnb ev KjKviLvbv Pvjve? GgZvevq hw` B_vjbK Rvjvwb wnme eenvi Kiv hvq, Zvnj AekB
LwbR Rvjvwbi gRy`i Dci Pvc Kg coe|
gRvi evcvi njv B_vbj njv GKwU Re ivmvqwbK hM, hv kZmvi RvZxq km `vbv hgb Avjy, fyv,
By cfwZ _K MvRb cwqvi (fermentation reaction) gvag Drcb Kiv hvq| GRb B_vbjK Re
Rvjvwb (bio-fuel) ejv nq| Aaybv bZzb chywi gvag mjyjvR (Dw`i `ni Dcv`vb) _K B_vbj
Drcv`b KivI me nqQ| Abw`K, KwlKvRi gvag km I Dw` Z_v B_vbji wbqwgZfve Drcv`b
wbwZ Kiv me| AZGe LwbR Rvjvwbi gZv B_vbj dzivevi fq bB| Zvnj, B_vbji evwYwRK Drcv`b I
weK Rvjvwb wnme eenvii chyw Dveb GKwU AZxe iZc~Y evcvi|

8.8 Zwor ivmvqwbK Kvl (Electrochemical Cell)

Dci Avgiv Rvbjvg h, RvjvwbK cywoq ivmvqwbK kwK ZvckwZ cwiYZ Ki wewfbfve KvR jvMvbv
hvq| GLvb Avgiv wkLe Kxfve ivmvqwbK kwK ZvckwZ icvwiZ bv Ki mivmwi we`yrkwZ cwiYZ
Kiv hvq I cvkvcvwk Kxfve we`yrkwK eenvi Ki ivmvqwbK wewqv mb Kiv hvq| Mvjfvwb (Luigi

115

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Galvani) I fvjUv (Alessandro Volta) c_g ivmvqwbK kwK we`yr kwZ icvwiZ KiZ mg

nqwQjb| Mvjfvwb 1780 wLv I fvjUv 1800 wLv Avjv`vfve cixvi gvag eySZ cvib h,
^Zt~Zfve NUv RviY-weRviY wew qvi (redox reaction) gvag we`yr Drcb Kiv me| g~jZ Zv`i
Avwevii djB AvR Avgiv evUvwi cqwQ| Zvnj, MvjfvwbK Kvl (Galvanic Cell) (hv fvjUvwqK Kvl
(Voltaic Cell) ejI cwiwPZ) njv GK aibi Zwor ivmvqwbK Kvl (electrochemical cell) hvi gvag

ivmvqwbK kw _K we`yrkw Zwi Kiv hvq| Aciw`K we`yrkw eenvi Ki Zwor ivmvqwbK Kvli
gvag ivmvqwbK wewqv msNwUZ Kiv hvq| GK Zwor wek-lY (electrolysis) ejv nq| h Kvl Zwor
wek-lY Kiv nq ZvK Zwor wek-l Kvl (electrolytic cell) ej| Zwor ivmvqwbK Kvl wewfb z`vsk,
hgb Zworvi (electrode), jeY- mZz (salt brige) I Zwor wek-l `eY wbq MwVZ| wb Zwor ivmvqwbK
Kvli wewfb welqi AvjvPbv Kiv njv|

8.9 we`yr cwievnx I Zworvi

cwievnx: h mKj c`v_i ga w`q we`yr cevwnZ nZ cvi, Zv`iK we`yr cwievnx (conductor) ej| Avi
hv`i ga w`q we`yr cevwnZ nZ cvi bv, Zv`iK Acwievnx (insulator) ej| avZz, Kveb, MvdvBU,
MwjZ jeY I GwmW, vi I jeYi `eY cfwZ we`yr cwievnx wnme KvR Ki| we`yr cwienbi Kkji
(mechanism) Dci wfw Ki cwievnxK `yBfvM fvM Kiv hvq| h_v:- (1) B jKUwbK (electronic) I (2)
Zwor wek-l (electrolytic) cwievnx| h mKj cwievnx BjKUb cevni gvag we`yr cevwnZ Ki ZvK
BjKUwbK cwievnx ej| hgb mKj avZz I MvdvBU| we`yrcevn hw` cwievnxi Avqb viv mvwaZ nq, Hme
cwievnxK Zwor wek-l cwievnx ej| hgb MwjZ jeY, GwmW, vi I jeYi `eY|
Zworvi: Zworvi njv avZe ev AavZe we`yr cwievnx c`v_| G`iK BjKUwbK cwievnx ejv nq| Zworvi
Zwor ivmvqwbK Kvli BjKUwbK cwievnx I `eYi (AvqwbK cwievnx) ga we`yrcevni hvMm~ iv
Ki| Zwor ivmvqwbK Kvl MVb `ywU Zworvi cqvRb| GKwUK AvbvW Zworvi Ges AciwUK Kv_vW
Zworvi ej|
AvbvW Zworvi 1. RviY wewqv mb nq
vbvwiZ nq|

2. `eYi Avbvqbi BjKUb avZe ` (AvbvW)

Kv_vW Zworvi 1. weRviY wewqv mb nq 2. `eYi KvUvqb KZK avZe ` (Kv_vW) _K

BjKUb MnY Ki|
Zwor wek-l Kvl AvbvW I Kv_vW Zworvi wnme avZe ` ev MvdvBU ` eenvi Kiv nq| GB Kvl
AvbvW I Kv_vW Zworvi wnme GKB avZe ` A_ev wfb avZe ` eenvi Kiv hvq| avZe ` aygv
BjKUb cwievnxi KvR Ki, Kvbv ivmvqwbK wewqvq AskMnY Ki bv| Zworwek-l Kvl eeZ evUvwii
abvZK cv h avZe `i mv_ hy Zv AvbvW wnme Ges FYvZK cv h avZe `i mv_ hy Zv
Kv_vW wnme KvR Ki|
MvjfvwbK Kvl AvbvW I Kv_vW Zworvi MVbi cwZ Zwor wek-l Kvl _K c_K| GKwU avZe

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`K H avZzi Zworwek-l `eYi ga vcb Ki Zworvi MVb Kiv nq| MvjfvwbK Kvli AvbvW I
Kv_vW wnme wfb avZe `K eenvi Kiv nq (GKB avZe `K wfb Nbgvvi Zwor wek-li ga
vcb Ki AvbvW I Kv_vW MVb Kiv hvq| GB mK cieZx kwYZ Rvbe)| MvjfvwbK Kvli
AvbvW I Kv_vW wbavwiZ nq avZzi mwqZv viv| Zworvi wnme eeZ avZe `qi ga AwaK mwq
avZz AvbvW Ges Kg mwq avZz Kv_vW wnme KvR Ki|

avZz/avZe Avqb Zworvi

wewfb cKvii Zworvi iqQ| Zba avZz/avZe Avqb Zworvi AbZg| Kvbv GKwU avZz hw` D avZzi
jeYi `eY Wyevbv _vK, Zvnj ZvK avZz/avZz Avqb Zworvi ej hgb: Kcvi avZzi ` ev avZe cvZ
Kcvi mvjdUi Rjxq `eY Wyevbv _vK, Zvnj ZvK Kcvi/Kcvi(II) ev Cu|Cu2+(aq) Zworvi ej|
Abyicfve, Ag|Ag+(aq) Ges Zn|Zn2+(aq) Dj-LhvM avZy/avZe Avqb Zworvii D`vniY|

Zworvi wewqv
Dci Avgiv avZz/avZe Avqb Zworvi mK RbwQ| Ag|Ag+(aq) ZworviwUi wewqvK Avgiv
wbgvfve wjLZ cvwi|
Ag+(aq) + e

Ag(s)

avZz/avZe Avqb Zworvi wewqv DfgyLx cKwZi nq _vK| A_vr Zworvi wewqvq avZe Ag (s) BjKUb
ZvM Ki Ag+(aq) Avqb cwiYZ nq `eY `exf~Z nq| Ab_vq `eYi Ag+ (aq) AvqbK hw` GKwU
BjKUb c`vb Kiv hvq, Zvnj Ag+ (aq) Avqb avZe Ag(s) G cwiYZ ne|
Zvnj Zworvi wewqv RviY ev weRviY wewqv| A_vr Kvbv GKwU Zworvi wewqvq BjKUbi Av`vb A_ev
c`vb NU| wK Avgiv Rvwb, RviY-weRviY hyMcr N U| hw` GKwU Zworvi BjKUb c`vb Ki (RviY)
Zvnj D BjKUbwU MnY Kivi Rb AviKwU Zworvii cqvRb bq wK? Avmj wVK ZvB| Zwor ivmvqwbK
wewqvq Rb `yBwU Zworvi _vK- K v_vW I AvbvW| Zwor ivmvqwbK wewqvq h Zworvi Zwor wek-l
c`v_K BjKUb c`vb Ki, ZvK Kv_vW ej| Avevi h Zworvi Zwor wek-l c`v_ _K BjKUb MnY
Ki ZvK AvbvW ej| Zworvi wewqv ^ZtZ nZ cvi| Ab_vq Zworvi we`yr cevni gvag
Zworvi wewqv mv`b Kiv hvq|
AvbvW wewqv : M M+ + e
Kv_vW wewqv : X + e X

8.10 MvjfvwbK Kvl

h Zwor ivmvqwbK Kvl Zworvi wewqv ^Zt~Zfve NU, A_vr wewqv msNUbi Rb evwni _K kwi
`iKvi nq bv Ges ivmvqwbK kw we`yrkwZ cwiYZ nq, ZvK MvjfvwbK Kvl ej| Wvwbqvj Kvl
(Daniel cell) GKwU MvjfvwbK Kvl Wvwbqvj Kvl Kv_vW wnme Cu|Cu2+(aq) avZz/avZe Avqb
Zworvi I AvbvW wnme Zn|Zn2+(aq) avZz/avZe Avqb Zworvi wbq MwVZ| wP 8.9-G W vwbqvj
Kvli MVb `Lvbv njv| Kv_vW wnme GKwU cv Kcvi ` Kcvi mvjdUi Rjxq `eY Wyevbv _vK|

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Ab cv AvbvW wnme wRsK ` wRsK mvjdUi Rjxq `eY Wyevbv _vK| cvqi `eYi ga mshvM
vcbi Rb wbwq Zwor wek-l (KCl) `eYc~Y U-AvKwZi wUDe `eYqi ga Wyevbv nq| Gevi hw`
Zvii mvnvh Zworvi `ywUK mshy Kiv nq, Zvnj wbgv RviY-weRviY wew qv ^Zt~Zfve NUe|
AvbvW wewqv : Zn (s) Zn2+ (aq) + 2e
Kv_vW wewqv : Cu2+ (aq) + 2e Cu (s)
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu (s)

A_vr Zn AvbvW wbR BjKUb Qo wehvwRZ (dissolution) nq `eY Zn2+(aq) Avqb wnme `exf~Z
ne| Aciw`K, `eY nZ Cu2+(aq) Avqb Kv_vW _K BjKUb MnY Ki avZe Cu wnme Kv_vW
Rgv ne| cKZc, AvbvW Drcb BjKUb Zvii gvag Kv_vW cuQ BjKUbi mgZv iv Ki|
Zvnj Zvi w`q Zworvi `ywUK mshy KijB AvbvW _K Kv_vW BjKUb cevni mw ne| BjKUb
cevn gvbB we`yrcevn| Zvnj Avgiv eySjvg, hw` Wvwbqvj Kvli evBii Zvii mv_ e`ywZK evj hy
Kiv nq, Zvnj evjwU Rj DVe| Gevi fe `L, Dj-wLZ we`yrcevn KZY Pje? ZvQvovI Kvl wewqv
kl fii w`K _K wRsK I Kcvi `i Aev Kx ne? wbRiv wPv Ki ei Ki I LvZvq jL|
e

wRsK (Zn)
AvbvW

K+

Cl

Kcvi (Cu)
Kv_vW

jeY mZz
(salt bridge)

ZnSO4 `eY

CuSO4 `eY

wP-8.9: MvjvfvwbK Kvl|

Pj Gevi jeY- mZzi Kvh I cqvRbxqZv weePbv Kwi| Avgiv `Ljvg h, AvbvW Zn2+(aq) Avqb Zwi
nq `eY hvq| Aciw`K, Kv_vW `eY _K Cu2+(aq) Avqb Cu wnme Rgv nq| Zvnj, AvbvW cv
Zn2+(aq) Avqbi AvwaK nq I Kv_vW cv Cu2+(aq) Avqbi NvUwZ nq| Avgiv Rvwb h, Kvbv GKwU
wekl Avqb (abvZK ev FYvZK) GKv _vKZ cvi bv| A_vr GKwU abvZK Avqb GKwU FYvZK Avqbi
DcwwZ Qvov Zwi nq bv| DvwUI wVK| myZivs AvbvW cv Drcb Zn2+(aq) Avqbi mgZyj cwigvY
FYvZK Avqbi (mvjdU Avqb) cqvRb ne| Abw`K, Kv_vW cvi `eY _K Cu2+(aq) Avqb Cu

145

imvqb

Kwl gvwU cwiPhvq: wewfb GjvKvi gvwU wewfb cKvi| Kvbv Kvbv GjvKvi gvwUi GwmwWwU AZwaK ev
pH gvb Kg nIqvq fvjv dmj Rbvq bv| GB gvwUZ Pzb hvM Kij gvwUi GwmwWwU nvm cvq| Pzb viRvZxq
c`v_, Gi ivmvqwbK bvg Kvjwmqvg AvBW| Pzb gvwUi AwZwi GwmW ckwgZ Ki dj gvwUi pH gvb ew
cvq| Avevi gvwU AwZwi vixq nj A_vr pH gvb Lye ewk nj GZ Avgvwbqvg mvjdU hvM Kiv nq|
GwmWagx Avgvwbqvg mvjdU AwZwi viK ckwgZ Ki gvwUi pH gvb nvm Ki|

jeY:
BZvgaB Zywg jeY mK RbQ| GwmW I vii wewqvq jeY I cvwb Drcb nq| jeYi GKwU Ask
GwmW _K Ges Aci Ask vi _K Avm| G Rb cwZwU jeY GKwU A-xq g~jK I GKwU vixq g~jK
_vK| mvaviYZ jeYmg~n ckg ev wbic| mgvb ZxeZvi GwmW I vii wewqvq Drcb jeY ckg Ze Zxe
GwmW I `yej vii jeY GwmwWK (FeCl3) Avevi `yej GwmW I Zxe vii jeY vixq (Na2CO3)|
jeYmg~n Rjxq `eY abvZK I FYvZK Avqb wewk- nq| Ze Kvbv Kvbv jeY cvwbZ `exf~Z nq bv|
GwmW I viagx jeY wewqv Ki ckg jeY Drcb Ki|
2F
Cl
e

3(aq)

+ 3N
a 2CO3(aq)

aCl(aq) + 3CO
N
6

2(g)

+F
e 2O3(s)

9.14 GwmWew
mvaviYZ ewi cvwb wKQzUv GwmwWK| Gi pH gvb 5.6, KviY ewi cvwbZ Kveb-WvB-A vBW Mvm I
bvBUvRb-WvB-A vBW Mvm `exf~Z _vK| RxeRMZi mKj m`m kvmwqvi mgq evqygj Kveb-WvBAvBW wbtmiY Ki| h Kvbv AwMKv, AvMqwMwii AMyrcvZi dj cKwZK fve evqygj Kveb-WvBAvBW Rgv nq| BUfvUv, KjKviLvbv I Mvwoi auvqv cwiek Kveb-WvB-A vBW Mvm wbtmiY Ki|
eRcvZi mgq evqygj bvBUvRb-WvB-A vBW Drcb nq| At`nb Bwb cUvwjqvg cvovbvi mgqI
bvBUvRb-WvB-A vBW Drcb nq Ges Zv evqygj gy nq|
Kveb-WvB-A

vBW I bvBUvRb-WvB-A

vBW evZvm DcwZ cvwbi mv_ wewqvq GwmW Drcb Ki|

CO2(g) + H2O(l)

H2CO3(aq)

2N
O

HN
O

2(g)

+ H2O(l)

2(aq)

+ HN
O

3(aq)

bvBUvm GwmW AZ Yvqx | GwU evZvmi AwRbi viv RvwiZ nq bvBwUK GwmW cwiYZ nq|
AvMqwMwii AMyrcvZi mgq mvjdvi-WvB-A vBW, bvBwUK AvBW Drcb nq| we`yrK`, BUfvUv,
KjKviLvbvi Rvjvwb Kqjv I cUvwjqvg mvjdvi/bvBUU hy nj evqygj mvjdvi-WvB-A vBW/bvBwUK
AvBW wegy nq| mvjdvi-WvB-A vBW evqygji cvwbi mv_ wewqvq mvjwdDivm GwmW Drcb Ki|
mvjdvi-WvB-A vBW evqygji AwRb I IRvbi mv_ wewqv Ki mvjdvi-U vB-A vBW Drcb Ki|
mvjdvi-U vB-A vBW evqygji cvwbi mv_ wewqvq mvjwdDwiK GwmW Drcb Ki|
SO2(g) + H2O(l)

H2SO3(aq)

SO3(g) + H2O(l)

H2SO4(aq)

dgv-19, imvqb-9g-10g

146

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Dchy GwmW
jv ewi cvwbi mv_ f~ccwZZ nq| GwmW
ewi dj Rjvkq I gvwUi
pH gvb 4 ev 4 -Gi
Pq Kg hvq| A_vr gvwU I cvwb GwmwW
K nq hvq| GZ RxeewPi evcK wZ nq| eRxe wejy
nq|
1. wkv_xi KvR
K.c_Kfve ewi iZ I kl cvwb msMn Ki|
L. pH ccvi eenvi Ki GB cvwbi pH gvb wbYq Ki|
M.cici KqK w`b cwqvwUi cybivewKi|
.NZvgvi gZvgZmn GKwU wicvU Zwi Ki wkKi wbKU Rgv `vI|
2. wkv_xi KvR
GwmW
ewi Drm weePbvq wbq evsjv`k uS
zwKc~Y KqKwU GjvKvi bvg wjL|
3. wkv_xi KvR
Dchy cvVweePbvq wbq GwmW
ew cwZivai Dcvq mK GKwU cwZe`b Dcvcb Ki| (Dj-L
mvjdvigy cUvwjqvg I Kqjv cvIqv hvq)

9.15 cvwb
wkv_xi KvR:
Kv_vq Kv_vq cvwb cvIqv hvq?[mvMi, cvnvo, AvKvk, cvZvj, b`x-bvjv mKj RvqMv fvebvq wb e|]
GK vb _K Ab vb Kxfve cvwb vbvwiZ nq?
Zzwg cvwb cvb Ki, Dw` Kxfve cvwb cvq?
Zvgvi kixi Nvg nq, Dw` wK Aby icfve cvwb ZvM Ki?
Dchy welqjv weePbvq wbq cw_exi cvwbi AveZbi GKwU P AsKb Ki|
cw_exZ gvU cvwbi cwigvYi cwieZb mK Zvgvi gZvgZ `vI|
cvwbPi GKwU Dj-LhvM Ask cvwb cw_ex c
i Dci w`q cevwnZ nq| GB cevn PjvKvj cvwb gvwUZ
DcwZ wewfb LwbR jeYi msk Avm| cvwbZ jeY `exf~Z nq| ewi cvwbZ DcwZ KvewbK GwmW
Pzbvcv_i; CaCO3, W
jvgvBU (CaCO3.MgCO3) mg wkjvi Dci w`q Mwoq hvIqvi mgq axi axi
wewqv Ki I G`i `exf~Z Ki|
H2O(l) + CO2(g)

H2CO3(aq)

CaCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq)

Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

MgCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq)

Mg(HCO3)2(aq)

Kvbv Kvbv wkjvZ wRcmvg (CaSO4.2H2O) ev Abv` CaSO4 _vK| Gjv cvwbZ ^gvvq `eYxq|
G Dcv`vbjv cvwbZ DcwZ _vKj cvwb Li nq| Avqib AvqbI Li cvwbi GKwU Dcv`vb|

147

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cvwbZ DcwZ Kvjwmqvg Avqb mvevbi mv_ wbic wewqv Ki|

R-COONa + H2O

mvevb
2R-COO- + Ca2+

w
qviU Avqb

R-COO- + Na+

R = CnH2n+1, hLvb

w
qviU Avqb

n = 12-18

(R-COO)2Ca

A`eYxq Kvjwmqvg w
qviU

mvevbi mvwW
qvg Avqb `eYxq mvwW
qvg KvebU Drcb Ki| mvwW
qvgi j mvevb cUvwmqvg _vKjI
mvevb GKB wewqv `q| Li cvwbi gvMbwmqvg ev Avqib mvevbi mv_ Abyic wewqv Ki| dj
Kvjwmqvg, gvMbwmqvg I Avqib avZzi evB-Kve bU, KvivBWI mvjdU jeY `exf~Z _vKj cvwbZ
mvevbi dbv Drcb nq bv|
cvwbZ avZzmg~ni evB-Kve bU jeY `exf~Z _vKj cvwbi LiZv Avqx aibi| cvwbK D
vc dzUvj cvwbi
Avqx LiZv `~i nq| Acic cvwbZ avZzmg~ni KvivBWev mvjdU jeY cvwbZ `exf~Z _vKj cvwbi
LiZv mnR `~ixf~Z Kiv hvq bv| cvwbi vqx LiZv `~i Kivi KqKwU cwZ njv:
1.mvW
v c wZ 2. cvigywUU c wZ 3.Avqb wewbgq iwRb c wZ BZvw`
g`y cvwbZ `exf~Z Kvjwmqvg, gvMbwmqvg, Avqib Avqb _vK bv| dj g`y cvwbZ mvevbi cPzi dbv nq|
mvaviYZ e Rjvkq hgb, cyKzi, W
vevi cvwb g`y nq| ewi cvwb Lye fvjv g`y cvwb| g`y cvwbZ Zvc w`j
Kvbv Zjvwb Rg bv|
wkv_xi KvR
Li cvwb eenvii myweav I Amyweavi Zzjbv Ki|
BwZ
Amyweav : KvcoKvPv - mvev bi dbv Drcb nq bv I Zjvwb co| eqjvi/Mig cvwbi cvBc 1.Zvc w`j
Zjvwb co; 2.cy iZ ew cvIqvq Zvc Kg/ewk cqvRb; 3.cy iZi cwieZbi KviY eqjvi ewW
i
mmviY|
myweav : `uvZ I nvo - Li cvwbi Dcv`vb|
wk Li cvwb eenvi S
uzwK I mve Avw_K wZ wek-lY Ki|
cyKzi, wUDeIqj Gic Abvb KqKwU Drm _K cvwb msMn Ki| AZtci GB cvwbZ mvevb
eenvi Ki nvZ ayq Drcb dbvi cwigvYi wfw
Z Li cvwb I g`y cvwb wPw Z Ki|

9.16 cvwb `~lY

eZgvb evsjv`k AwaKvsk gvbyl wUDeIqji cvwb cvb Ki| kni GjvKvq wmwU Kcvikb ev cimfv
f~Mf cvwb Zzj ev b`xi cvwb cwikvab Ki cvbxq Rj wnme cvBcjvBbi gvag mieivn Ki|
cvBcjvBb wUi KviY mieivn Kiv cvwbZ gqjv I bvbv ivMRxevYy _vK| knii jvKiv GB cvwb
fvjvgZv dzwUq ev DbZgvb wd
vii mvnvh gqjv I RxevYygy Ki cvb Ki|

148

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evsjv`k b`x, Lvj-wej, cyKzi BZ vw` Rjvkqi cvwb bvbvfve `~wlZ nQ| Mnvwj eR I gjg~ ewi
cvwbZ ayq GB mKj Rjvkq coQ| nvmcvZvj-eR I ivwMi Kvco- Pvco avqvi gvag ev ewi cvwbZ
ayq cvwb `~wlZ nQ| wUc~Y bhvbi Zj PzBq cvwb `~wlZ nQ| Kwl eeZ mvi I KxUbvkK ewi
cvwbZ ayq gy Rjvkq coQ| Avgv`i `k wk-KviLvbv jv _K KvbviKg cwqvKiY QvovB wk
eR Rjvkq djv nQ| gv
vwbR, vwgqvg, KvW
wgqvg BZvw` `~lK c`v_i A
fy| fvwi avZzmg~n gvbe
`n Kv
vi mw Ki| eRi mvjwdDwiK GwmWcvwbi pH gvb nvm Ki| dj RjR Rxei eskwevi
KgZ _vK| cvwb gqjv nq I `yMQovq|
gvbyli KgKv
i dj wewfb cvKwZK `~lK c`v_ f~-Mf cvwb I f~-DcwiZ ji cvwb `~wlZ nQ| hgb,
AMfxi bjK~ci mvnvh AwZwi cvwb D
vjbi dj Ges AwZwi Lbbi dj f~-Mf cvwbZ AvmwbK
`~lY `Lv w`qQ| evsjv`ki AwaKvsk GjvKvi wUDeIqji cvwbZ MnYhvM gvvi ( 0.01 wg.Mv./wjUvi)
Pq AbK ewk cwigvY AvmwbK cvIqv hvQ| AvmwbK GKwU welv c`v_| `xNw`b AvmwbKhy cvwb cvb
Kij gZzI nZ cvi| nvZ-cv q Z mwi gvag GB msgYi cv_wgK jY cKvk cvq| eZgvb
Rb^v cKkj Awa`
i AvmwbK `~lYhy wUDeIqji gyL jvj is Ki w`qQ| AvmwbKhy cvwbZ
mP `qvi dj gy Rjvkqi cvwbI `~wlZ nQ| Lv`P AvmwbK hy nq hvQ|
wkv_xi KvR:
Zvgvi GjvKvi cvwb `~lYi KviY wbYq Ki GKwU cwZe`b Zwi Ki|

9.17 `~lY wbqY

Avgv`i `k eo kni eR kvabvMvii eev AvQ| hw`I Zv cqvRbi Zzjbvq AcZzj| cqtcYvjxi eR
Ges cPbkxj Mnvwj eR _K evqvMvm-we`y r Drcv`bi cvkvcvwk Remvi cvIqv hvq| G welq h_vh_
D`vM wbj cwiek I cvwb `~lY nvm cve| Mvgv
j Lvjv cvqLvbvi cwieZ wis jvwUb eev wbw
Z KiZ
ne| QvU QvU evqvMvm c-vU vcb Ki gvbyl I ccvwLi gjg~ I cPbkxj Mnvwj eR eenvi Ki
evqvMvm I Remvi cvIqv hve| hv Zvgv`i RvjvwbmsKU nvm I Kwl mvii LiP KgvZ mvnvh
Kie| evqvMvm c-vU me bv nj evwoi GK Kvbvq MZ Ki ZvZ AveRbv dje Ges cP Mj Remvi
wnme eenvi Kie|
cZK wkKviLvbvq eR cwikvabvMvi vcb evaZvg~jK| Kvbv AevZB wkKviLvbvi eR mivmwi
Dby Rjvkq djv hve bv| G welq Zvgiv mPZb _vKe| cwiek Awa`
iK Z_ w`q mnvqZv Kie|
gb ivLe evsjv`ki gZv `k msMwVZ RbmPZbZv I RbgZB cvwb `~lY ivai mePq KvhKi Dcvq|

9.18 cvwbi weZvi cixv

eY I M cheY: we cvwb eY, M
nxb ^QZij c`v_| GZ mvgvb cwigvY LwbR jeY `exf~Z _vK|
Kvbv LwbR jeY AwaKgvvq `exf~Z _vKj cvwb `~wlZ ejv hvq| mvaviY cheY cvwbZ McvIqv Mj
ev NvjvU `Lv Mj A_ev wd
vi ccvi QuvKv nj Zjvwb ev Aekl cvIqv Mj cvwb `~wlZ|
cvwbi Zvcgvv: MxKvj cvwbi Zvcgvv 30-350m KLbv Zv 400m nZ cvi| Kvbv KviY cvwbi

149

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Zvcgvv KqK wW
wM ewk nj Zvc`~lY nqQejv hvq| we`yrK`i h cvwZ VvvKivi cvwb ev eqjvii
Mig cvwb mivmwi Rjvkq gy Kiv nj cvwbi Zvc`~lY nq| _vgvwgUvi w`q cvwbi Zvcgvv wbYq Ki Zvc
`~lY kbv Kiv hvq|
cvwbi pH gvb: cvwbi pH gvb 4.5 _K Kg Ges 9.5 Acv ewk nj Zv Rxei Rb cvYbvkK| pH
ccvi ev pH wgUvi eenvi Ki pH gvb wbYq Kiv hvq|
weIwW (BOD; Biological Oxygen Demand): BOD gvb Re ivmvqwbK Aw
Rbi Pvwn`v| Kvbv
cvwbZ (BOD) gvb ewk nj Hcvwb `~wlZ| evqyi DcwwZZ cvwbZ DcwZ mKj Re eK fvOZ h
cwigvY Aw
Rb cqvRb Zv weIwW
| GKwU Rjvkqi cvwbZ Kx cwigvY Aw
Rb AvQZv gc wbZ ne|
AZci 100 wg.wj.AvqZbi GKwU evZj HRjvkqi cvwb w`q Ggbfve c~Y Ki evZji gyL eKiv nq
hvZ evZj Kvbv evqy bv _vK| evZjwUK 200m Zvcgvvq 24 N
v iL w`q Gi Aw
Rb cwigvc Kiv
nq| GB `yB gvbi cv_K _K (BOD) gvb Rvbv hvq|
wmIwW (COD; Chemical oxygen Demand): COD gvb ivmvqwbK Aw
Rb Pvwn`v| cvwbZ gvU
KZUzKz ivmvwbK `e AvQZvnv eyS
vbvi Rb (COD) gvb eenvi Kiv nq| weklfve b`x-bvjv-wS ji
cvwbZ Re `~lK (Organic Potutants) -Gi gvv gc cvwbi YvY wek-lY Kiv nq| cvwbi COD gvb
ewk nj cvwb`~lYi gvv ewk nq|
BOD I COD K wgwjMvg/wjUvi ev wcwcGg (ppm: Parts per million) GKK cKvk Kiv nq|
1 ppm =cwZ wjUvi `eY 1 wgwjMvg `e

9.19 cvwb weKiY

Kvwibkb: cvwbK RxevYygy Kivi mePq mnR Dcvq njv Kvwibkb| cvwbZ wbw` cwigvY we-wPs cvDW
vi
hvM Kij Drcb Kvwib RxevYyK RvwiZ Ki gi dj|
Ca(OCl)Cl + H2O

Ca(OH)2 + 2[Cl]

RxevYy + 2[Cl]

RvwiZ RxevYy

cvwbZ we-wPs cvDW

vi hvM Kivi ci QuK wbj cvwb cvbhvM nq|
dzUvbv: cvwbK AbY (15-20 wgwbU) ai dzUvj RxevYygy nq| Dj-L AvmwbKhy cvwbK dzUvj Zv
Aviv wZKi ne|
w_Zvbv: GK evjwZ cvwbZ 1 PvgP wdUwKwi (K2SO4Al2(SO4)3.24H2O) uov hvM Ki AvavN
v iL
w`j cvwbi mKj Ac`e w_wZq evjwZi Zjvq Rgv nq| Gfve cvwb _K A`eYxq `~lK `~i Kiv hvq|
QuvKb: eZgvb evRvi RxevYy, AvmwbK I Abvb `~lY gy KiZ mg wd
vi cvIqv hvq| GB wd
vi w`q
QuK wbq cvbhvM we cvwb cvIqv hvq|

150

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AvmvBbgU:
Zvgvi wbRi pH ccvi Zwi Ki|
iwOb kvK-mewR hgb, jvj kvK, jvj euvavKwc, weU BZvw` ev iwOb dzj hgb, iRev, jvj Mvjvc,
Wvwjqv Gi h Kvbv GKwU bvI| QvU QvU Ki KvUv| nvjKv AuvP fvc wm Ki| h iwOb wbhvm cvIqv
hve ZvZ GK UzKiv wdvi ccvi WzevI| evZvm iL wKq bvI| AZci wPKb wPKb Ki KU bvI|
Zwi njv Zvgvi wbRi pH ccvi| GB ccvi Rvbv pH gvb `eY Wzweq pH cwimii Kvjvi PvU Zwi
Ki| G fve Zvgvi c me meKqwU mewR ev dzj w`q pH ccvi Zwi Ki| mePq DrKwU
eenvii Rb wbevPb Ki|

Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
1. Pzbvcv_ii Dci jNy mvjwdDwiK GwmW hvM Kij wbPi Kvb hMwU Drcb ne?
K. CO2
L. H2
M. O2
2. wbPi KvbwU vi?
K. Kvgj cvbxq
M. wmiKv

N. SO2
L. jeyi im
N. KvcoKvPv mvWv

3. wbPi KvbwUi DcwwZi Rb Avgvwbqv Mvmi Rjxq `eY vi?

K. NH4+ Avqb
L. OH- Avqb
M. NH3

N. H2O

4. GKwU ARvbv avZzi mv_ bvBwUK GwmWi wewqvq eYnxb `eY Drcb nq| Drcb `eYwUZ mvwWqvg
nvBWvBW `eY hvM Kij mv`v eYi Aatc Drcb nq wK AwaK cwigvY mvwWqvg nvBWvBW `eY hvM
Kij Zv-I `exf~Z nq hvq| avZzwUK. Kcvi
L. Avqib
M. jW

N. wRsK

5. GKwU B_vbwqK GwmW `eYi pH -Gi gvb 4, pH -Gi gvb ew Kivi Rb GZ hvM KiZ ne
i. Avgvwbqv `eY

ii. Nb nvBWvKvwiK GwmW

iii. KwVb gvMbwmqvg KvebU

151

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wbPi KvbwU mwVK?

K. i I ii

L. i I iii

M. ii I iii

N. i, ii I iii

mRbkxj ck:
1.
X

NH4Cl

I
CaO

K. NO2 Mvmi eY Kx?

L. Pzbi cvwbi pH -Gi gvb 7 _K ewk bv Kg ne?evLv Ki|
M.

XMvmwUi Rjxq `eYi GKwU ivmvqwbK ag evLv Ki|

N.

Avqib jeYi Rjxq `eYi ga XMvm Pvjbv Kij Kx UNe?mgxKiYmn wjL|

2. U
UvBj wgj I W
vwqs wk, is I mvjwdDwiK GwmW
hy eR mivmwi wbKU Rjvkq djQ| dj H
mKj Rjvkq RjR cvYxi emevmi Abychy nq coQ|
K.

ZuZzj Kvb GwmW_vK?

L. D
xcKi Rjvkqi pH gvb mK Zvgvi aviYv e Ki|
M. U
UvBj wgj I vWwqs wki `~lY wbq
Y c-vU GwmW`~lY wbq
Y hwK civgk `vI|
N.

U
UvBj wgj I vWwqs wki Avkcvk GwmW
ewi mvebv wewqvmn wek-lY Ki|

`kg Aavq

LwbR m` avZz-AavZz
evsjv`ki bKvbv Rjvi `yMvcyi DcRjvi weRqcyi, Mvcvjcyi AbZg chUb K`| GLvb bqbvwfivg
jKi cvk mv`v gvwUi cvnvo `Lv hvq| KIwjb ev Avjywgwbqvg mg GB gvwU wmivwgK KviLvbvq eenZ
nq| iZ Pxb `ki jvKiv GB iKg gvwU eenvi KiZv ej GB gvwUK Pxbv gvwU ev Pvqbv K ejv nq|
mPivPi Kvjv ev a~mi Ges jvj gvwU `Lv hvq| cwZ gvwUi ewk wfb wfb| GB wfbZvi KviY gvwUZ
wewfb LwbRi DcwwZ|

weRqcyii mv`v gvwUi cvnvo

GB Aavqi cvV kl Avgiv(1) LwbR m`i aviYv eYbv KiZ cvie|

(2) wkjv, LwbR I AvKwiKi ga Zzjbv KiZ cvie|
(3) avZzmg~n wbvkbi Dchy Dcvq wbaviY KiZ cvie|
(4) avZzmsKi Zwii KviY evLv KiZ cvie|
(5) mvjdvii Drm Ges G`i KwZcq cqvRbxq hM cZi wewqv, ivmvqwbK agi eYbv Ges Mn,
wk I Kwl Zv eenvii iZ wek-lY KiZ cvie|
(6) LwbR `ei mmxgZv, h_vh_ eenvi I cybteenvii iZ wek-lY KiZ cvie|
(7) LwbR `ei eenvi mZKZv Ges msiY AvMn c`kb Kie|

153

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10.1 LwbR m`
cw_exi DcwifvMi gvwUi AveiY njv f~ZK| f~ZK DcwZ iZc~Y gjmg~ni kZKiv nvi cvB PvU
Dcvcb Kiv njv| PvUwU chvjvPbv Ki wbPi ckjvi Di `Iqvi Pv Ki|
Kvb `yBwU gj f~ZKi cavb Dcv`vb?
f~ZKi cavb Dcv`vb `yBwU avZz bv AavZz?
Avjywgwbqvg, Avqib, Kvjwmqvg, cUvwmqvg, mvwWqvg I
gvMbwmqvg avZzK cKwZZ gy Aevq cvIqv me wK
bv? Dii mc hyw `vI? [avZzmg~ni ivmvqwbK
mwqZv weePbv Kie|]

mvwWqvg
3%
cUvwmqvg
3%
Kvjwmqvg
4%
Avqib
5%
Avjywgwbqvg
8%
wmwjKb
27%

mvwWqvg I Kvjwmqvgi hMi bvg I msKZ jL,

hv`i cKwZZ cvIqv hvq|

gvMbwmqvg
2%
Abvb
2%
AwRb
46%

wP 10.1 : f~ZKi cavb cavb Dcv`vb

evwj (KvqvUR; wmwjKb WvB AvBW, SiO2), Lvevi jeY (mvwWqvg KvivBW ; NaCl) , Pzbvcv_i (Kvjwmqvg
KvebU; CaCO 3)| cKwZZ mwq avZzmg~ni hM cPzi cwigvY cvIqv hvq| Acic Kg mwq avZzi hM
Lye Kg cvIqv hvq| dj Kg mwq avZz hgb, wmjfvi (Ag), Kcvi (Cu) , wRsK (Z
n) , wUb (Sn) Ges jW
(P
) BZvw` g~jevb| wbwq avZz hgb ^YK (Au) cKwZZ gy Aevq cvIqv MjI Zv cvq weij| G
b
Rb ^Y AZ g~jevb| cKwZZ cvIqv hvq Ggb 98 wU gji Pvi fvMi wZb fvMB avZz| avZzi KZjv
PgrKvi ewk AvQ| h Rb avZzi eenvi GZ evcK| avZzi ewkmg~n njvK. NvZmnbxqZv (avZzK wcwUq h Kvb AvKvi `qv hvq)
L. bgbxqZv (avZzK wcwUq mi Zvi cwiYZ Kiv hvq)
M. DjZv (avZzi wekl `ywZ AvQ| Giv AvjvK weQziY Ki)
N. cwievwnZv (avZzmg~n Zvc I we`yr my-cwievnx)
O. avZe k (AvNvZ avZz Uzb Uzb k Ki)
P. MjbvsK I zUbvsK (avZz DP MjbvsK I zUbvsK wewk)
Q. NbZ (avZzmg~ni NbZ AvavZzi Zzjbvq ewk)|
cKwZZ avZzi gZ AavZzmg~nI hM wnme Aevb Ki| Ze Kvbv Kvbv AavZz hgb, mvjdvi gy gj
wnme cvIqv hvq|

10.2 wkjv (Rock)

AwaKvsk wkjv KZjv k KYvi wgkY mw nqQ| wewfb LwbR c`v_ wgwkZ nq GB KYvjv Zwi
nqQ| wkjv memgq GK iKg _vK bv| AvenvIqvi mv_ mv_ A_vr Zvcgvv, ew, Kzqvkv, So, evqy cevn
BZvw`i KviY wkjv qcv nq| Pzbvcv_i (Kvjwmqvg KvebU) ewi cvwbZ ayq mvMi hvq| mLvb
Zjvwb Rg Pzbv cv_i I ej cv_i mw nq| Zjvwb wewfb i Rgv nq| GRb wkjvZ wewfb i `Lv
dgv-20, imvqb-9g-10g

154

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hvq| wUjv ev ceZ QovZI Zzwg wewfb i `LZ cve| wmgU RvZxq c`v_ Kvjwmqvg KvebU z`
KYvjvK k Ki ai iL cv_i ev wkjvq cwiYZ Ki| GB wkjv cvjwjK wkjv| gZ mvgyw`K cevj ev
wSbyK-kvgyKi Lvmv ZjvwbZ Rg Pzbvcv_i cwiYZ nq| Kvbv Kvbv wkjv f~Mfi AbK Mfxi _vK|
f~Mfi DP Zvc wkjv Mj hvq| GB MwjZ AevK gvMgv ej| gvMgv Vvv nj cybivq KwVb wkjvq cwiYZ
nq| GB wkjvK AvMq wkjv ej| GB wkjvjvZ AbK mgq g~jevb LwbR m` cvIqv hvq| Avevi KLbv
Zv KejB ej cv_i|

10.3 `exf~Z Zjvwbi i mwi cixv

`yBwU 100 wg.wj. AvqZbi weKvi bvI| weKvi `ywUZ 70 wg.wj. cwigvY cvwb bvI| Gevi GKwU weKvi
cwivi evwj Ges AciwUZ GK gywV gvwU hvM Ki| `ywU weKvii wgkYK GKwU bvovwb KvwV w`q fvjfve
wgwkq `vI| bvovbv e Ki weKvi `yUv fvjvfve j Ki| weKvi `ywU cheYi wfwZ wPi
cvnvowUi MVb evLv Ki|

10.4 LwbR (Mineral)

g~jevb avZz I AavZzmg~n cw_exi me weivwRZ _vKjI f~c ev f~Mf Kvbv Kvbv wkjvZc cPzi cwigvY
hM A_ev gy gj wnme g~jevb avZz ev AavZz cvIqv hvq| GjvK LwbR ej| LwbR c`v_ wewfb A_
wewfb cKvii| gj I hM weePbvq LwbR c`v_ `yB cKvi| h_v : gwjK LwbR I hwMK LwbR|
wP 10.2 : wkjv MVbi cixv

i i web Pxbv gvwUi cvnvo

gwjK LwbR : ^Y, nxiv, MK, BZvw` c`v_K cKwZZ gwjK c`v_ i~c cvIqv hvq| G Rb Gjv
gwjK LwbR|
hwMK LwbR : gwjK LwbR ev` w`j evwK mKj LwbR hwMK LwbR| G`iK hM wnme cvIqv hvq|
fZ Aev weePbvq LwbR wZb cKvi| h_v, 1. KwVb LwbR, 2. Zij LwbR I 3. Mvmxq LwbR|
KwVb LwbR : KwVb Aevq cvIqv hvq| hgb, gvMbUvBU , evBU , mvjdvi ev MK BZvw`
Zij LwbR : gvKvwi ev cvi` , cUvwjqvg
Mvmxq LwbR : cvKwZK Mvm|

10.5 LwbR m`i Aevb (Position of mineral resources)

c~e f~MfK LwbR c`v_i Drm wnme Kbv Kiv nZv| wK G aviYvK Avi mwVK ejv hvQ bv|
bKvbvi weRq cyii mv`v gvwU ev KIwjb f~c wUjv i~c we`gvb| KevRvi mgy` DcK~ji evwj _K
wRiKb-wRiKvwbqvgi AvKwiK, iUvBj-UvBUvwbqvgi AvKwiK Ges gvbvRvBU-_vwiqvgi AvKwiK BZvw`
g~jevb LwbR AvniY Kiv nq| jvnv ev Avqibi LwbR-ngvUvBU, Avjywgwbqvgi LwbR-evBU ev Kqjvi
gZv LwbR f~ZK cvIqv hvq| Avevi AbK LwbR AvniYi Rb MZ Luyo f~ZKi AbK Mfxi hZ nq|

177

imvqb

ev KvidigK PZbvbvkK wnme Ges UUvKvivwg_bK (CCl4) WvBIqvk KiZ `veK wnme eenvi
Kiv nZv| Kvwibhy nvBWvKveb welv Ges welvZvi cwigvY wbfi Ki hM Kvwib msLvi Dci|
UUvKvivwg_b wMR I gqjvK mnR `exf~Z KiZ cvi|
fvOb ev wehvRb (Cracking):
eo nvBWvKveb AYyK fO AwaK eenvi DchvMx Zzjbvg~jK z` AYyZ cwiYZ KivK fvOb ej| fvOb
`yBfve mb Kiv nq| cfveKwenxb DP Zvc I Pvc, GK Zvcxq fvOb ej| cfveKmn wbg Zvc I Pvc
mb fvObK cfveKxq fvOb ej| fvOb cwqvq Kvbv GKK wewqv mb nq bv| wewqvq wKQz
w-e bhy nvBWvKvebmn, nvBWvKvebi wgkY Drcb nq| G cwqvi GKwU mve wewqv2C2H4 + C3H6 + C8H18
Bw_b
cvwcb
AKUb

C15H32

mvaviYfve fvOb wewqvK wbi~c Dcvcb Kiv hvq

`xN wkKj wewk AvjKb

z` wkKj wewk AvjKbi wgkY + z` wkKj wewk AvjwKbi wgkY

Zvcxq fvOb ev wehvRb: `xN wkKj wewk AvjKbK DP Pvc (70 evqyPvc) I Zvcgvvq (cvq 750 oC)
D Kij Kveb wkKji eb fO z` wkKj wewk AvjKb I AvjwKbi wgkY cvIqv hvq|
cfveKxq fvOb: fvOb wewqvi MwZ ew Kivi Rb cfveK eenvi Kiv nj GK cfveKxq wehvRb ej|
cfveK wnme mvaviYZ wRIjvBUm (Z
eolites)
, Avjywgwbqvg AvBW (Al2O3) ev wmwjKb WvB AvBW
(SiO2) eenvi Kiv nq| wRIjvBUm njv FYvZK Avavb wewk AvjywgbvwmwjKU (RwUj hM)| Bnv
Avjywgwbqvg, wmwjKb I AwRb cigvYy wewk enr jvwUm| cfveKi DcwwZZ AcvKZ Kg Zvcgvvq
(500oC) I Pvc DPZi AvjKbK fO z`Zi AvjKb (C5- C10) Zwi Kiv hvq| GB wewqvq kvLvhy
AvjKb Ges AvivgwUK nvBWvKveb (ebwRb) Drcb nq| cfveKi DcwwZZ GB wewqvq AvjwKb
wnme cavbZ Bw_b Mvm cvIqv hvq| enr wkKj hy AvjKbi Zzjbvq z` wkKj hy AvjKb Dg
Rvjvwb| ZvB fvOb ev wehvRb, cUvwjqvg wk GKwU Zvrchc~Y wewqv| GB wewqvi gvag wWRj
RvjvwbK cUvj RvjvwbZ cwiYZ Kiv QvovI AvjwKb I nvBWvRb Mvm cZ Kiv nq| cUvKwgKvj
wk AvjwKb _K AvjKvnjmn wewfb Re hM I c-vwK Zwi Kiv nq|
C18H38 C 6H14 + 6C2H4
C18H38 C 8H16 + C10H20 + H2

AvjKbi Abvb eenvi: AvjKbK wewfb Bwbi Rvjvwb, we`yr Drcv`b, wcwQjKviK Zj wnme
Ges ivmvqwbK wk Abvb ivmvqwbK `e cwZZ eenvi Kiv nq| GQvovI enr wkKj wewk AvjKbK
gvg (W
ax)
Zwii Rb I ivv cvKv Kivi Rb eenvi Kiv nq| AvjKb _K cZ Zij gvg Ges
KwVb gvg wbw` AbycvZ wgwkZ Kij c Gi bvq c`v_ cvIqv hvq, hv wewfb iKg gvwjk hgb: wfKm&
(vicks)
ZwiZ eeZ nq|

dgv-23, imvqb-9g-10g

178

imvqb

3. Am nvBWvKveb (AvjwKb I AvjKvBb):

Am nvBWvKvebi Kveb wkKj AZ GKwU w-eb A_ev w-eb _vK Ges Kvebi Aewk hvRZv
nvBWvRb viv c~Y nq| w-eb hy Am nvBWvKvebK AvjwKb Ges w-eb hy Am
nvBWvKvebK AvjKvBb ej|
K. AvjwKb (Alkene): AvjwKbi Kveb wkKj AZ `ywU Kveb cigvYyi ga w-eb _vK Ges Kvebi
Aewk hvRZv nvBWvRb viv c~Y nq| AvjwKb kwYi z`Zg I mij m`m Bw_b ev Bw_wjb (CH=CH)|
AvjwKb cwZ: AvjwKb kwYi mvgvb hM cKwZZ cvIqv hvq| cUvKwgKvj wk eeZ AwaKvsk
AvjwKb cUvwjqvg _K cv DPZi AvjKbi cfveKxq wehvRbi gvag cZ Kiv nq|
cUvwjqvgi AvswkK cvZb cv Kivwmbi Dcv`vb WvWKb (C12H26) K Avjywgwbqvg AvBW I
vwgqvg AvBWi DcwwZZ 500oC Zvcgvvq D Kij z` wkKj hy AvjKb I Bw_b Drcb nq|
C12H26
C12H26

500 oC
500 oC

C10H22

+ H 2C

C8H16

CH2

C4H8 + H2

B_vbjK Avjywgwbqvg AvBWi DcwwZZ D Kij ev mvjwdDwiK GwmW viv wbiw`Z Kij cvwb
AcmvwiZ nq Bw_wjb ev Bw_b Drcb Ki|
CH3CH2OH

H2SO4
-H2O

H2C

CH2

CH3CH2OH

Al2O3,
-H2O

H 2C

CH2

AvjwKbi fZ I ivmvqwbK ag: AvjKbi bvq AvjwKbmg~n `vn Ges Mvmxq, Zij I KwVb Aevq
_vK| AvjwKbi Zvrchc~Y ivmvqwbK ewki KviY G`iK cUvKwgKvj wk eenvi Kiv nq|
AvjwKb AYyZ Kveb-Kveb w-eb _vKvq Giv ivmvqwbKfve AZ mwq| KviY w-ebi c_g ebwU
kwkvjx njI wZxq ebwU Zzjbvg~jK `yej| `nb, mshvRb Ges cwjgviKiY AvjwKbi ewkc~Y
wewqv|
`nb: AvjwKb AwZwi AwRb ev evqyi mv_ wewqv Ki CO2(g) I H2O(g) Drcb Ki| GB wewqvq
chv cwigvY Zvckw Drcb nq| AvjwKb Kg `vn, KviY AvjwKb Kvebi kZKiv cwigvY AvjKbi
Zzjbvq Kg|

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO 2(g) + 2H 2O(g) + Zvckw

AvjwKbi mshvRb: AvjwKb AYyZ w-eb _vKvq Bnv mnR mshvRb ev hyZ wewqvq AskMnY Ki| GB
wewqvq AvjwKbi Kveb-Kveb w-eb fO GKK eb cwiYZ nq|
1. nvBWvRb mshvRb: avZe cfveKi (Ni) DcwwZZ 180-200oC Zvcgvvq AvjwKb nvBWvRbi

179

imvqb

mv_ wewqv Ki AvjKb Drcb Ki| GK cfveKxq nvBWvRbkb (Catalytic hydrogenetion) ej|
H2C

CH2(g) + H2(g)

180-200 oC
H3C
Ni

CH3(g)

Zij Dw ZjK (hvZ GKvwaK-e b _vK) GB wewqvi gvag AvswkK m Ki gvRvwib

(Margarine) cwiYZ Kiv nq| gvRvwib gvLb Zwi KiZ eeZ nq|
2. evwgb mshvRb: AvjwKb Kgjv-jvj e Yi evwgb Mvm ev evwgb cvwbi mv_ wewqvq 1,2WvBevgvAvjKb Drcb Ki| wewqvi dj evwgbi eY web nq| GB wewqvi gvag Am
nvBWvKvebK kbv Kiv nq|
H2C CH2(g)

Br2(g)

CH2Br-CH2Br(l)

3. AvjwKbi RviY: AvjwKb hgb, Bw_bK jNy Rjxq cUvwmqvg cvigvvbU viv RvwiZ Kij
Bw_wjb M-vBKj Drcb nq| GB wewqvq jNy Rjxq cUvwmqvg cvi gvvbUi Mvjvcx ev ewb eY web nq|
GB wewqvi gvag Am nvBWvKvebK kbv Kiv hvq|
H2C

CH2(g)

KMnO4 (aq)

H2O

CH2(OH)-CH2(OH)(l)

4. cvwb mshvRb: DP Zvc (300 oC), DP Pvc (60 evqyPvc) I dmdwiK GwmW cfveKi DcwwZZ
AvjwKb cvwb evi mv_ wewqv Ki AvjKvnj Drcb Ki|
300 oC, 60 atm
H2C

CH2(g) + H2O(g)

H3PO4

H3C

CH2OH(l)

Kvbv Kvbv `k hgb, evwRj AvjKvnjK cwiekeve Rvjvwb wnme Ges mKj `k cUvwjqvg
wk `veK wnme eenvi Kiv nq, ZvB GB wewqv AZ Zvrchc~Y| wk G wewqv jvfRbK bq ej
wk GB wewqvi gvag AvjKvnj cZ Kiv nq bv|

cwjgviKiY:
DP Zvc (200 oC) I DP Pvc (1000 evqyPvc) AmsL AvjwKb AYy ciii mv_ hy nq enr AvKwZi
AYy MVb Ki| GB wewqvq Drcb enr AYyK cwjgvi Ges wewqvK cwjgviKiY wewqv ej| h AmsL
wewqK AYy hy nq Zv`i cZKwU AYyK gbvgvi ej| mKj c-vwK `e I Kwg Z GB wewqvi gvag
Zwi Kiv nq| Bw_wjb AYy _K cv cwjgviK cwjw_b ej|
200 oC, 1000 atm
n H2C

CH2(g)

-CH2-CH2-

n(s)

L. AvjKvBb (Alkyne): AvjKvBbi Kveb wkKj AZ `ywU Kveb cigvYyi ga w-e b _vK Ges Kvebi
Aewk hvRZv nvBWvRb viv c~Y nq| AvjKvBb kwYi z`Zg I mij m`m B_vBb ev AvwmwUwjb (CH CH)|
AvjKvBb cwZ: cvKwZK Mvm ev wg_bK 1500 oC Zvcgvvq evqyi DcwwZZ `nb Kij B_vBb Drcb
nq| wg_bi AvswkK `nb _K GB wewqvi cqvRbxq Zvc cvIqv hvq| wewqvi mgq wg_b AYyZ eb

180

imvqb

fvOv-Movi gvag B_vBb Drcb nq|

2CH4(g) + 3/2O2(g) HC
2CH4(g) HC

CH(g) + 3H2O(g) + Zvc (AvswkK `nb)

CH(g) + 3H2(g)

wk Kvjwmqvg KvevBW _K B_vBb Mvm cZ Kiv nq| Kvjwmqvg KvevBW duvUvq duvUvq cvwb hvM
Kij B_vBb ev AvwmwUwjb Mvm Drcb nq|
CaC2(s)

HC

H2O(l)

CH(g)

AvjKvBbi fZ I ivmvqwbK ag : AvjKb I AvjwKbi bvq AvjKvBbmg~n Mvmxq, Zij I KwVb

Aevq _vK| `yB _K Pvi Kveb wewk AvjKvBb Mvmxq, cuvP _K GMvi Kveb wewk AvjKvBb Zij
Ges DPZi AvjKvBb KwVb Aevq _vK| AvjKvBb kwYi hMI ivmvqwbK wewqvi cwZ AZ mwq,
Ze AvjwKbi Zzjbvq mwqZv wKQzUv Kg| AvjKvBb nvBWvRb, evwgbi mv_ mshvRb wewqvq
AskMnY Ki| AvjwKb nvBWvRb, evwgbi mv_ mshvRb wewqvq GK AYy (nvBWvRb, evwgbi) hy
nq Kveb-Kveb GKK eb wewk hM Drcb Ki| Aciw`K AvjKvBb nvBWvRb, evwgbi mv_
mshvRb wewqvq c_g GK AYy hy nq Kveb-Kveb-eb wewk hM Ges cieZxZ Ab GK AYy
(nvBWvRb, evwgbi) hy nq GKK eb wewk hM Drcb Ki|
KvR : wbPi wewqvjvi ckevaK vb c~Y Ki|
HC

CH

HC

CH

H2
Br2

H2

Br2

AmZvi cixv (evwgb cvwb cixv):

evwgbK Re `veK ev cvwbZ `exf~Z Ki jvj/ev`vwg eYi `eY cZ Kiv nq| m I Am
nvBWvKvebi ga c_Kfve KqKduvUv evwgb `eY hvM Ki SuvKvZ nq| m nvBWvKveb jvj/ev`vwg
eYi evwgb `eYi mv_ wewqvq AskMnY Ki bv Ges `eYi jvj/ev`vwg eYi Kvbv cwieZb nq bv|
Aciw`K Am nvBWvKveb (AvjwKb ev AvjKvBb) jvj/ev`vwg eYi evwgb `eYi mv_ wewqvq
AskMnY Ki Kveb-Kveb w-eb A_ev w-eb evwgb AYy hy nq| dj evwgb `eYi jvj/ev`vwg eY
web nq| wewqvq evwgb `eYi eY cwieZb cheY Ki m I Am nvBWvKvebi ga cv_K
Kiv nq|
C2H6(g) + Br2(`eY) wewqv nq bv (`eYi eY cwieZb nq bv)
C2H4(g) + Br2(`eY) BrCH2-CH2Br(l) (`eYi eY cwieZb nq)
C2H2(g) + Br2(`eY) Br2CH-CHBr2(l) (`eYi eY cwieZb nq)

181

imvqb

GKBfve cUvwmqvg cvigvvbUi `eY eenvi Ki AmZvi cixv Kiv hvq|

11.5 cwjgvi: cKwZZ Avgiv `bw`b KvR h mKj `evw` eenvi Kwi Zvi ewki fvMB cwjgvi| `yB
aibi cwjgvi AvQ| cvKwZK cwjgvi I Kwg cwjgvi| cvKwZK cwjgvii ga Zzjv, ivevi, fvZ, cvwUb
Ges Kwg cwjgvii ga c-vwK `e, Zvgvi nvZi Kjg, cwjGvi Kvco BZvw`|
K. cwjgviKiY wewqv
GKB c`v_i AmsL AYy ev GKvwaK c`v_i AmsL AYy ciii mv_ hy nq enr AYy MVb Kivi cwqvK
cwjgviKiY ej| GB wewqvq Drcb enr AYyK cwjgvi Ges wewqK AmsL z` AYyi cZKwUK gbvgvi
ej|
-A
-A
-A
-A
-A
-A
-A
-A
-A
-B
-A
-B
-A
-B
-A
-B
-A
-B
cwjgvi hLvb gbvgvi = A

cwjgvi hLvb gbvgvi = A

-B

GKB wewqKi AmsL AYy hy nq cwjgvi MVb Kivi cwqvK hyZ cwjgviKiY (A
dition
Poly
merisation ) ej| hyZ cwjgviKiY mvaviYZ w-e b wewk AvjwKb AYy gbvgvi wnme wewqv
Ki| hyZ cwjgviKiY AmsL gbvgvi AYy hy nIqvi mgq Kvbv cKvi z` AYy AcmvwiZ nq bv|
n H2C

cwjgviKiY
CH
X

[ CH2 - CH ]

n, X=wewfb GKhvRx g~jK|

L. cwjgvii kwYwefvM: Drmi Dci wfw Ki cwjgvi `yB cKvi:

1. cvKwZK cwjgvi
cvKwZKfve AbK cwjgvi Drcb nq| hgb, Dw`i mjyjvR I vP `yUvB cwjgvi hv emsLK M-yKvR
AYy hy nq MwVZ nqQ| M-yKvRK g ev glc viv cKvk Kiv nj vP I mjyjvRi MVb - g-g-g-g-g-g-|
`LZ Dfqi MVb GK iKg njI Zv`i eb MVbi Kkj wfb| Gfve chvqg GKvwaK M-yKvR AYy hy
nq `xN wkKj Drcb Ki| cvwY`n mwZ kKiv, M-vBKvRbI M-yKvRi cwjgvi|
Zvgvi `ni Kvl Ges Kjv MVb Ki cvwUb| cvwUb AvgvBbv GwmWi cwjgvi| Bbmywjb bvgK cwjgvi
22 wU AvgvBbv GwmW _vK| ivevi bvgK MvQi Kl GKwU cvKwZK cwjgvi| Avgv`i `k cveZ PMvg,
KevRvi, nweM, wmjU I UvvBj Rjvq ivevi Pvl nQ| cvKwZK ivevii Pq eY ewk c-vwK wk
KviLvbvq msk-lY Kiv nQ|
2. Kwg cwjgvi ev c-vwK
k, nvjKv, mv Ges h Kvbv cQ`mB iOi cvIqv hvq| c-vwKK Mjvbv hvq Ges QvP Xj h Kvb
AvKvi `Iqv hvq| c-vwK kwU GmQ wMK k Plastikos _K Plastik
os A_ njv Mjvbv me|
AbKB cwiZ ejcbi c-vwK AskK Mwjq ccvi IqU Zwi Kib| GwU Kiv wec`RbK KviY,
c-vwK `eK cvovj ev Dvc Mjvbv nj AbK welv Mvm Drcb nq| Lvevi ivLvi cv, gvoK, ejcb,
Pqvi, Uwej, Mvwoi hvsk cvwbi UvsK, Mvgjv, evjwZ, gM BZvw` bvbvwea mvgMx cZ Kivi Rb c-vwK
`e eenvi Kiv nq|

182

imvqb

mKj c-vwK `e cwjgvi| imvqbwe`Mb cwjgvi hMi wKQz wekl ewk eYbv Kivi Rb c-vwK kwU
eenvi Kib| AmsL QvU QvU AYy GK hy nq cwjgvi MwVZ nq| GB QvU AYyK gbvgvi ejv nq|
ivmvqwbK c`v_ weklZ w-e b wewk AvjwKb, AvjwWnvBW, AvjKvnj, Avwgb, Re GwmWi
cwjgviKiY wewqvi gvag c-vwK cZ Kiv nq| c-vwK I Z Zwii Rb G mKj Dcv`vb cUvwjqvg
_K c_K Kiv nq A_ev cUvwjqvg Dcv`vb _K cZ Kiv nq|
wkv_xi KvR: gbvgvii msKZ _K hyZ cwjgvii msKZ wjL|
CH2=
CH-CH 3,
cvwcb

CH2=
CHCl,
wfbvBjKvivBW

CF 2=
CF

UUvdvivBw_b

cwjgvi cwZi c_g w`K 200 oC Zvcgvvq, 1200 evqyPvc mvgvb AwRbi DcwwZZ Bw_wjbi
cwjgvi cwjw_b cZ Kiv nq| GB cwjw_b AwaK cwigvY kvLvhy `xN Kveb wkKj _vK, GZ cwjgvii
NbZ I MjbvsK Kg Ges Kvgj cKwZi nq| GB cwjw_bK wbg NbZi cwjw_b (L
PE
D
;oLweDnsity
PolyE
thene ) ej| Rvgvb imvqbwe` Kvj wRMjvi (K
arl Z
iegler ) cfveKi DcwwZZ AbK Kg Zvc
I Pvc (60 oC, GK evqyPvc) Bw_wjbi cwjgvi cwjw_b cZ Kib| GB cwjw_b kvLvi msLv Kg _vK,
GZ cwjgvii NbZ, MjbvsK Zzjbvg~jKfve ewk nq| mvgvb kvLv hy _vKvq cwjw_bi `pZv ew cvq|
GK DP NbZi cwjw_b (HD
PE
;High D
ensityPolyE
thene
) ej|
GKvwaK wewqKi AmsL AYy hy nq cwjgvi MVb Kivi cwqvK Nbxfeb cwjgviKiY (Condensation
Poly
merisation ) ej| Nbxfeb cwjgviKiY mvaviYZ AvjwWnvBW, AvjKvnj, Avwgb I Re GwmWi
AYy gbvgvi wnme wewqv Ki| Nbxfeb cwjgviKiY AmsL gbvgvi AYy hy nIqvi mgq cvwb (H2O)
Kveb WvBAvBWi (CO2) bvq z` AYy AcmvwiZ nq| Kvbv wewqK `yB cv `yB aibi KvhKixg~jK
_vKj H wewqKi GKvwaK AYy hy nq G cwjgviKiY NU| ej eeZ Nbxfeb cwjgvii bvg bvBjb|
DP Zvc, DP Pvc cfveKi DcwwZZ AmsL WvBKvewwjK GwmW Ges WvBAvwgb AYy ciii mv_ hy
nq bvBjb Drcb Ki|
nHOOC-(CH2)4-COOH + nH2N
-(CH

H 2
2)6-N

{-OC-(CH 2)4-COHN
-(CH

H-} n
2)6-N

+ 2nH2O

cvKwZK cwjgvimg~n (vP, mjyjvR I cvwUb) Nbxfeb cwjgvii D`vniY| cvKwZK cwjgvi hgb,
mjyjvR, Dj, wm w`q myZv Zwi Kiv hvq wK vP I ivevi w`q myZv Zwi Kiv hvq bv| A_vr cvKwZK
cwjgvi `yB aibi| Kwg cwjgvi (bvBjb, cwjvi) w`q Kvco Zwi, iwk Ges `uvZi evk Zwi Kiv nq|

183

imvqb

cwjgvii bvg

gbvgvii msKZ

cwjgvii ag

eenvi

cwjw_b

CH2C
=H

mnR KvUv hvq bv,

c-vwK evM, c-vwK wkU

UKmB
cwjcvwcb

= H-CH
CH2C

mnR KvUv hvq bv,

c-vwK iwk, c-vwK

evZj,

UKmB
cwjwfbvBjKvivBW (PV
C )

= HCl
CH2C

k, KwVb Ges cwjw_bi cvwbi cvBc, we`yr Acwievnx

Zzjbvq Kg bgbxq
c`v_,

cwjUUvdvivBw_b
(PT
FE ) ev Udjb

CF2C
=F

bbwK I Zvcmn

bvBjb

HOOC-(CH2)x-COOH PKPK, UKmB, bgbxq

H 2
I H2-N(CH 2)x-N

bb wK cv,

Kwg Kvco, iwk, `uvZi

evk

QK 11.3: wewfb cwjgvii ag I eenvi

M. eenvi I ewki wfwZ c-vwKi cKvif`:

MVb I Zvcxq ewki wfwZ Kwg cwjgvi (c-vwK) `yB aibi| Gi ga GK aibi cwjgvi j^v mi
RU cvKvbv (cross links ) wkKj MVb Ki| G aibi cwjgvi wkKji Kvebmg~ni ga kwkvjx eb
MwVZ nq| wK cvkeZx wkKjmg~ni ga `yej AvKlY ej KvR Ki| GB wkKjjv GKwU AciwUi Ici
w`q AwZg KiZ cvi| dj G RvZxq cwjgviK mnR mmvwiZ, euvKvbv Ges Zvc cqvM Mjvbv hvq|
G aibi cwjgviK _vgvc-vwK ej| D`vniY: cwjw_b, cwjcwcwjb, PV
C BZvw`| _vgvc-vwKK evi evi
Mjvbv hvq Ges wewfb AvKwZi eZ cwiYZ Kiv hvq| wZxq aibi cwjgvi Kveb cigvYymg~n wkKji
ga mghvRx Ges GKB mv_ cvkeZx wkKji Kvebi mv_ `pfve nvBWvRb ebi gvag hy _vK|
G aibi cwjgvi _vgvmwUs| _vgvmwUs c-vwK, _vgvc-vwKi Pq k Ges Kg bgbxq| Zvc cqvM
Gjv Mjvi cwieZ Kqjvq cwiYZ nq| G Aevq Kveb wkKji m wjsK fO Mj cwjgvi wehvwRZ nq|
_vgvmwUs c-vwKK GKevi gv Mjvbv Ges AvKvi `Iqv hvq| mPivPi Kkb gvws Gi gvag GUv
Kiv nq| D`vniY: evKjvBU, dvBevi M-vm, Kwg iwRb Ges Bcvw M-y|
wkv_xi KvR: Zvgvi eenvh cwjgvimg~nK _vgvc-vwK I _vgvmwUs c-vwK wnme kwYwefvM Ki|
N. Kwg cwjgvi ev c-vwK RvZxq `ei myweav I Amyweav:
wZxq wekhyi ci _K mviv wek Kwg cwjgvi ev c-vwK RvZxq `ei eenvi Zvrchc~Yfve evoZ
_vK| gvbyli `bw`b KvR eeZ KvV, KvMR, M-vm I avZzi Zwi `ei RvqMvq c-vwKi `e vb Ki

184

imvqb

wbqQ| c-vwKi wewfb ewki KviY KvV I avZzi Zwi `ei cwieZ c-vwK`e eenvi ew
cqQ| c-vwK Kg g~j cvIqv hvq, q nq bv, ivmvqwbK c`v_i mv_ wewqv Ki bv, mnR is Kiv hvq,
we`yr Acwievnx, IRb nvv, mnR cwienbhvM, `xNvqx Ges AvenvIqv viv wZM nq bv|
c-vwK `ei AbK myweav _vKjI Gi wKQz AmyweavI iqQ| Kwg cwjgvi ev c-vwK eenvii cavb
mgmv Bnv wehvwRZ nq bv Ges cwiekK `~wlZ Ki| AwaKvsk cvKwZK Dcv`vb gvwUi evKUwiqv viv
wehvwRZ nq wK c-vwK `e evKUwiqv viv wehvwRZ nq bv| G Rb c-vwKK bb evqvwWMWej
(N
on-b
iod
egrad
ab
le
) c`v_ ej| AbK c-vwKK cywoq kl Kiv nq hvZ welv auvqv
(nvBWvRb KvivBW, AvjwWnvBW, nvBWvRb mvqvbvBW) Drcb nq| G mKj Mvm gvbyli kixi Kvvimn
wewfb ivMi mw Ki| eZgvb wevbxMY Kwg cwjgvi Zwi KiQb hv c_g m~hi AvjvZ wehvwRZ
(Photod
egrad
ab
le ) nq Ges cieZxZ cvKwZKfve evKUwiqv RxevYy viv wehvwRZ (B
iodegradable
)
nq| G`iK evqvcwjgvi ej| ewkifvM evqvcwjgvi fzv I Bz _K cZ Ki| GB cwjgvi RxevYy viv
wehvwRZ nZ 20 _K 30 eQi cqvRb| cwjB_vbj {-CH 2-CH(OH)-}n GK cKvi cwjgvi hvnv
nvmcvZvj eeZ nq Ges cvwbZ `exf~Z nq| cwjB_vbji cvwbZ `ebxqZv n Gi gvbi Dci wbfi Ki|
c-vwK cwjgvimg~nK h gbvgvi viv cZ Kiv nq Zvnv Rxevk Rvjvwb _K msMn Ki| GZ mxwgZ Rxevk
Rvjvwbi gRy` nvm cvq, Aciw`K eZgvb weki 4% Rxevk Rvjvwb w`q Drcvw`Z we`yr, c-vwK cwjgvi cZ
KiZ eenvi Kiv nq| AcqvRbxq c-vwK eenvi bv Ki Ges eeZ c-vwK cybeenvi (R
ecyling
) Ki
Rxevk Rvjvwbi Dci Pvc Kgvbv hvq| cwieki fvimvg iv_ Kwg Auvki Dci wbfikxjZv Kgvbv cqvRb|
Zzjv, Dj I cvUi Avuk QvovI cvKwZK Auvki eenvi evovbv hZ cvi| evsjv`ki gvwU Dei, GLvb Zzjv I
cvU Pvli cvkvcvwk gmZv Pvl Ki Kwg Auvki eenvi Kgvbv hvq| wdwjcvBb I B`vbwkqvq Avbvimi cvZv
Ges KjvMvQi Auvk _K DbZgvbi myZv Zwi Ki Kvco eybvbv nq|

11.6 nvBWvKveb _K AvjKvnj, AvjwWnvBW I Re GwmW cwZ

cUvwjqvgi cavb Dcv`vb nvBWvKveb (AvjKb, AvjwKb I AvjKvBb)| nvBWvKveb _K mKj kwYi
Re hM cZ Kiv nq| m nvBWvKveb ev AvjKb nvjvRbi mv_ wewqv Ki AvjKvBj nvjvBW
Drcb Ki| AvjwKb nvBWvRb evgvBWi mv_ wewqv Ki AvjKvBj evgvBW Drcb Ki| AvjKvBj
nvjvBW mvwWqvg nvBWvvBWi Rjxq `eYi mv_ wewqvq AvjKvnj cwiYZ nq| Drcb AvjKvnjK
kwkvjx RviK (K2Cr2O7 I H2SO4) viv RvwiZ Kij c_g AvjwWnvBW/wKUvb Ges cieZxZ Re
GwmW cwiYZ nq|
-CH 2-CH3 + B
R
r 2R
-CH 2-CH2B
r + HB
r
R= AvjKvBjg~jK
-CH =CH 2 + HB
R
r R
-CH 2-CH2B
r
=CH 3, C2H5-, C3H7- BZvw`
-CH 2-CH2B
R
r+N
aOH (aq) R
-CH 2CH2OH + N
aB
r
-CH 2CH2OH + [O] R
R
-CH 2-CHO
-CH 2CHO + [O] R
R
-CH 2-COOH

185

imvqb

?
?
?
?
KvR : AvjwKb
AvjKvBjnvjvBW
AvjKvnj
AvjwWnvBW / wKUvb
Re GwmW

GB cwZ QvovI nvBWvKveb _K AvjKvnj, AvjwWnvBW I Re GwmW cZ Kiv hvq| dmdwiK

GwmWi DcwwZZ AvjwKb 300 oC Zvcgvvq Ges 60 evqyPvc Rjxqevi (H2O) mv_ wewqv Ki
AvjKvnj Drcb Ki|
o
300 C, 60 atm

CH2(g) + H2O(g)

H2C

H3PO4

H3C

CH2OH(l)

2% gviwKDwiK mvjdU (HgSO4) Ges 20% mvjwdDwiK GwmWi (H2SO4) DcwwZZ AvjKvBb
(B_vBb) cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki AvjwWnvBW Drcb Ki| HgSO4 welv nIqvq wk Gi eenvi
wbirmvwnZ Kiv nq|
HgSO4, H2SO4
CH2(g) + H2O(g)

H2C

H3C

CHO(l)

cUvwjqvg _K cv AvjKbK DP Zvc I Pvc evqyi AwRb viv RvwiZ Kij B_vbwqK GwmW Drcb
nq|
CH3-CH3(g) + [O] CH3-COOH(l)
CH3-CH2-CH3(g) + [O] CH3-COOH(l)

11.7 AvjKvnj, AvjwWnvBW I Re GwmWi eenvi

AvjKvnj: wg_vbj welv ivmvqwbK c`v_| wg_vbj g~jZ Ab ivmvqwbK c`v_ cZ KiZ eeZ nq|
ivmvqwbK wk B_vbj _K B_vbwqK GwmW, wewfb Re GwmWi Gvi cZ Kiv nq| B_vbjK cavbZ
cviwdDg, KmgwU I Jla wk `veK wnme eenvi Ki| dvgvwmDwUKvj MWi B_vbjK Jla wk
Ges iKwUdvBW wwiUK nvwgI Jla eenvi Kiv nq| B_vbji 96% Rjxq `eYK iKwUdvBW wwiU
ej| h mKj Dcv`vb cvwbZ `eYxq bq Zv`iK B_vbj `exf~Z Ki eenvi Kiv hvq| cviwdDg wkI
B_vbji evcK eenvi iqQ| cviwdDg B_vbj eenvii c~e ZvK Mgy Kiv nq| Jla I Lv` wk
eZxZ Ab wk eeZ iKwUdvBW wwiU mvgvb wg_vbj hvM welv Ki eenvi Ki| GK gw_jUW
wwiU ej| KvV Ges avZzi Zwi Avmevec evwbk Kivi Rb gw_jUW wwiU eenvi Kiv nq| eZgvb
evwRj Rxevk Rvjvwbi cwieZ B_vbjK gUi Bwbi Rvjvwbic eenvi Kiv nQ| Mvmnvj (Gasohol)
GK cKvi Rvjvwb hLvb cUvji mv_ 10-20% B_vbj wgwkZ _vK|
9

CH3CH2OH(l) + 2 O 2(g) 2CO2(g) +6H2O(g) + Zvckw

vP (Pvj, Mg, Avjy I f~v) _K MuvRb (Fermentation) cwqvq AvjKvnj cZ Kiv nq| GQvov wPwb
wki DcRvZ Drcv` wPUvo _K GKB cwqvq AvjKvnj (B_vbj) cvIqv hvq| evsjv`ki `kbvq Ki
G Ki KvvwbZ B_vbj cZ Ki `ki Pvwn`v c~iY Kiv nq| AvjKvnjK Rvjvwb wnme eenvi
dgv-24, imvqb-9g-10g

186

imvqb

Kij GKw`K Rxevk Rvjvwbi Dci Pvc Kg Aciw`K cwiekK `~lYgy ivLv hvq|
AvjwWnvBW: wkKviLvbvq AvjwWnvBWi eenvi Zzjbvg~jKfve Kg| Ze Ab ivmvqwbK c`v_ cZ Kivi
Rb AvjwWnvBWi cPzi eenvi iqQ| wg_vbvj ev digvjwWnvBWi m (40%;AvqZb wnme, 37%;
fi wnme) Rjxq `eYK 100% digvwjb ej hvnv gZ cvYx msiY Kivi Rb eeZ nq|
AvjwWnvBW _K cwjgviKiY wewqvq c-vw
K `e Zwi niv nq| wb AvYweK fi wewkAvjwWnvBWi
(wg_vbvj; HCHO) Rjxq `eYK AwZ wbg Pvc D
Kij Wiwjb ( Derlin) bvgK k cwjgvi Drcb
nq| Wiwjb cwjgvi w`q Pqvi, WvBwbs Uwej, evjwZ BZvw` RvZxq `e Zwi Kiv nq hv c~e KvVI avZz
w`q Zwi Kiv nZ|
O
H
O C
H

n H-C-H(l)

n(s)

GLvb cwjgvi AYyZ gbvgvii msLv cuvP _K c

vk ch nZ cvi|
digvjwWnvBW (wg_vbvj) I BDwiqv _K Nbxfeb cwjgviKiY wewqvq BDwiqv-d igvjwWnvBW iwRb
(gjvgvBb cwjgvi) Drcb nq hv Mni c-U, M-vm, gM BZvw` Zwi KiZ eeZ nq| cvivjwWnvBW bvgK
Nygi J
la cZ KiZ AvwmUvjwWnvBW eenvi Kiv nq|
Re GwmW: Re GwmWmg~n ARe GwmWi Zzjbvq `yej| Re GwmW gvbyli Lv`vcvhvMx Dcv`vb| Avgiv
jeyi im (mvBwUK GwmW), ZuZzj (UviUvwiK GwmW), `wa (jvKwUK GwmW), Gi mv_ Re GwmWK Lvevi
wnme MnY Kwi| Re GwmWi evKUwiqv asm Kivi gZv _vKvq GK Lv` msiK ( Food
Preservative) wnme eenvi Kiv nq| B_vbwqK GwmWi 6-10% Rjxq `eYK wfbMvi ej hvnv mm& I
AvPvi msiYi Rb eeZ nq|
Re GwmW _KI cwjgviKiY wewqvq c-vw
K `e Zwi Kiv nq| cvU, kvUi KvcoZwi KiZ eeZ
Uwiwjb (cwjG
vi) bvgK ivmvqwbK Z AvjKvnj I Re GwmW _K Nbxfeb cwjgviKiY wewqvi gvag
cZ Kiv nq| GLvb Dj-L KvevnvBWW I Zj RvZxq cvKwZK cwjgvi AvjKvnj I Re GwmW _K
MwVZ nq| Ze cwjG
vi viv cZ Kvco
i Pvwn`v w`b w`b gv^q nvm cvQ|
n HO-CH2-CH2-OH + n HOOC

COOH

C O CH2-CH2

+ (2n-1) H2O
n

myMw(G
vi) RvZxq ivmvqwbK `e Zwi KiZ Re GwmW eeZ nq|

wkv_xi KvR :
cvKwZK Mvm, cUvwjqvg I Kqjv eenvii Kkj:
cvKwZK Mvm cUvwjqvg I Kqjvq AbK mvjdvi, bvBUvRb DcwZ _vK| evZvmi
Aw
Rbi mv_ Gjvi wewqvq Drcv` weePbvq wbe|

187

imvqb

cvKwZK Mvm cUwjqvg I Kqjv cvo

vj Kveb WvB A
vBW Mvm Drcb nq| GwU GKwU MxbnvDR Mvm|]
cwieki Dci c-vwK `ei cfve mwKZ Abymvb:
c-vw
K eR djvi RvqMv, c-vw
Ki cPbkxjZv, c-vw
K `e gvwUK XK ivLj GZ evqy I m~hvjvK
ceki myhvM, ei wkKowevi evav BZvw` weePbv Kie|

11.8 Re I ARe hMi cv_KKiY

G Aavq Zzwg h mKj hM mK Aaqb KiQ Zvi meB Re hM| Re hMmg~n mghvRx e
bi
gvag Ges ARe hMmg~n AvqwbK e
bi gvag MwVZ nq| Ze wKQz mghvRx hM _vK hviv AvqwbK
ewk
ARb Ki| GKBfve wKQz AvqwbK hM _vK hviv mghvRx ewk
ARb Ki|
wkv_xi KvR : Re hMi ms
v `vI|
wPv Ki : AvqwbK I mghvRx hMi cv_Ki wfw
Z wKfve Re I ARe hMi ga cv_K Kiv
hvq| KqKwU Re I ARe hM wbq MjbvsK wbYq Ki cv_K `LvI|

Abykxjbx
ewbevPwb ck:
1. cvKwZK Mvm kZKiv KZ fvM B_b _vK?
K. 3 fvM
M. 6 fvM

L. 4 fvM
N. 7 fvM

2. wbPi Kvb hMwU evwgb `eYi jvj eYK eYnxb KiZ cvi?
K. C3H8
L. C3H8O
M. C3H6O

N. C3H4

Dcii wewqv _K 3 I 4 bs cki Di `vI:

3. Y hMwUi bvg Kx?
K. 1, 1-WvBevgv cvcb
M. 1, 1, 2, 2-UUvevgv cvcb
4. D
xcKi X hMwUi. mshvRb wewqv `q
ii. c-vw
K ZwiZ eeZ nq
iii. Y Acv Kg mwq

L. 2, 2-WvBevgv cvcb
N. 1, 2-WvBevgvcvwcb

188

imvqb

wbPi KvbwU mwVK?

K. i I ii

L. ii I iii

M. i I iii

N. i, ii I iii

mRbkxj ck:
1. gvP-Ryb gv m evsjv`k msiYi Afve cPzi cwigvY Avjy bnq| Avjy _K wbPi wewqvq B_vbj
Drcb Kiv hvq|
GbRvBg (WvqvmUR I gvjUR)

v
P

GbRvBg (RvBgR)

M-yKvR

B_vbj

H2O
K. cUvwjqvgi cavb Dcv`vb Kx?
L. AvjKb Ac-v AvjwKb mwq Kb?evLv Ki|
M. Avjy _K wg_b cwZi eYbv `vI|
N. AwZwi AvjyK Rxevk Rvjvwbi weKwnme eenvii mvebv wek-lY Ki|
2. chvqg GKwU MvmK i _K iii wewqvi gvag wewfb c`v_ cwiYZ Kiv nq|
i. 2CH4
ii. HC
iii. nCH2

1500 C
HC

CH + H2

CH + HCl
CHCl

polymerization

CH2

CHCl

CH2- CH
Cl

K. nvBWvKveb KvK ej?

L.

ebwRb AvivgwUK nvBWvKveb Kb?

M. ii bs wewqvwU Kvb aibi wewqv?evLv Ki|

N. D
xcKi c_g wewqK MvmwU eenvi egyLxKiYi mvebv wek-lY Ki|

v`k Aavq

Avgv`i Rxeb imvqb

M-vm cwiviK

ewKs cvDWvi

jeb

UqjU cwiviK

Avg evsjv`k AZ Rbwcq dj| Kvjwmqvg KvevBW w`q cvKvbv nqQ ej A_ev wcRvfwUf `Iqv AvQ
ej gvbyl dj LZ fq cvQ| gvbyli aviYv gvQI dgvwjb, gvbyl hve Kv_vq! msiY ev cvKvbvi
Dcv`vbjv ivmvqwbK c`v_| Avgv`i `bw`b cqvRb eeZ mKj ivmvqwbK c`v_ wZKi bq| cwZw`b
imvqbi mv_ Nyg fv Avevi imvqb kl Ki NygvZ hvB| Avgv`i Lvevi, cmvab mvgMx, Lv` Drcv`b
eeZ mvi-KxUbvkK, cwi viK c`v_ BZvw` mKjB ivmvqwbK Dcv`vb| Avgv`i Rxeb imvqbi cfve
Dcjw Ki gvWvg gwi Kzwi (Madam Marei Curei) Gi imvqb bvej cyivi (Novel Prize)
ARbi 100 Zg eQi Dcj imvqb Ges dwjZ imvqbi AvRvwZK msv (IUPAC) 2011 mvjK imvqb
eQi wnme cvjb Ki| Gi cwZcv` welq wQj: imvqbB Avgv`i Rxeb Ges imvqbB Avgv`i fwelr|

ivmvqwbK mvi

KxUbvkK

dj

kvK mewR

wWUviRU cvKU

Kvgj cvwbq

wfbMvi

mvevb

G Aavq cvV kl Avgiv(1)

(2)
(3)

Mn eenvh KwZcq Lv` mvgMxi AvniY, ag I eenvii iZ wek-lY KiZ cvie|

Mn cmvab mvgMxi DchvwMZv wbaviY pH Gi iyZ eYbv KiZ cvie|
Mn eenvh cwiviK mvgMxi cwZ I cwivi Kivi Kkj evLv KiZ cvie|

(4)

Kwl Dchy hM eenvi Ki gvwUi pH gvb wbqY KiZ cvie|

(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)

Kwl`e cwqvKiYi Dcvq evLv KiZ cvie|

Kwl`e msiYi Dcvq evLv KiZ cvie|
ivmvqwbK eR mK Rb Gi wZKi cfve evLv KiZ cvie|
ivmvqwbK `e eenvi Ki mvevb cZ KiZ cvie|
gvwU, cvwb I evqy `~lY iva ivmvqwbK `ei h_vh_ eenvi welq Avvi mv_ ^Zt~Z gZvgZ w`Z
cvie|
^v mPZb `e eenvi AvMn c`kb Kie|
^vmZ Lv``e eenvi AvMn c`kb Kie|
we-wPs cvDWvii weib wqv c`kb KiZ cvie|
Lv` `e ewKs cvDWvii f~wgKv cixvi gvag `LvZ cvie|

(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)

190

imvqb

12.1 Mnvwji imvqb

jeYi gZ fvjvevmvi M Zzwg wbB bQ| myZivs Zzwg Rvb jeY Qvov Lv`mvgMx Kbv Kiv hvq bv| gvQgvsm BZvw` big I my^v`y Kivi Rb wmiKv (wfbMvi) eenvi Kiv nq| KK, iwU ev wcVv dvjvbvi Rb
ewKs cvDWvi eenvi Kiv nq| GKUz wiPdzW ev Zjv Lvevii ci Kvgjcvbxq bv njB bq|

1. Lv` jeY ev mvwWqvg KvivBW; NaCl

mvMii cvwbZ cPzi cwigvY Lv` jeY ev mvwWqvg KvivBW `exf~Z _vK| Avevi f~Mf LwbRi~c mvwWqvg
KvivBW chv cwigvY cvIqv hvq| Avgv`i `k mgy` DcK~ji jeYPvwlMY mgy`i cvwb _K jeY AvniY
Ki|

wkv_xi KvR:
GKwU cv Mvp Ki Lvevi jeYi `eY Zwi Ki| GKwU UZ Kvjv cwjw_b wewQq Gi Ici wKQzUv `eY
Xj `vI| UwUK mvivw`b iv` `vI| cwZw`b mKvj UZ wKQzUv `eY hvM Ki mviv w`b iv` `vI|
j ivLe hb GZ Kvb fve cvwb bv co| Gfve GK mvn cheY Ki|
cheYi wfwZ DcK~ji Pvwl`i jeY AvniYi Kkj mK Zvgvi aviYv evLv Ki|
GKwU AvZkx KuvP w`q jeYi GKwU `vbv cheY Ki| Gi eY I AvKvii weeiY `vI|
aCl )
GKwU cv fvKzqvg Bfvcvikb cwZZ (wk KviLvbvq cZ) cwikvwaZ jeY (we N
aCl)
elvKvj evZvm 2/3w`b iL
I Aci GKwU cv mvaviY jeY (CaCl 2, MgCl2 wgwkZ N
`vI| cheYi wfwZ jeYi cvwbMvmx ag evLv Ki|

mvwWqvg jeY Avgv`i kixii BjvjvBUi Pvwn`v c~iY Ki| Lvevi jeY QvovI mvwWqvg KvivBW wewfb
hM cwZZ, Jla wk, mvevb wk Ges e ib wk is cvKv Kivi Rb eeZ nq|

2. ewKs cvDWvi : NaHCO3

Zvgv`i ivbv Nii GKwU AwZ cqvRbxq Dcv`vb ewKs cvDWvi| KK ev wcVv dvjvbvi Rb mvaviYZ ewKs
cvDWvi eenvi Kiv nq| ewKs cvDWvi g~j Dcv`vb njv mvwWqvg nvBWvRb KvebU| Pzbv cv_i, Avgvwbqv
Mvm I Lvevi jeY eenvi Ki mvwWqvg nvBWvRb KvebU cZ Kiv nq|
mvwWqvg KvivBWi Nb m `eYK evBb ej| evBbK Avgvwbqv viv m Kiv nq| Kvjwmqvg
KvebUK (Pzbv cv_i) AwaK Zvcgvvq (600 oC) D Kij Pzb I Kveb WvB AvBW Drcb nq|
Avgvwbqv m evBbi ga Kveb WvB AvBW Mvm Pvjbv Kij wbgwjwLZ wewqvjv msMwVZ nq|
CaCO

CaO + CO 2(g)

Pzbv cv_i
Pzb Kveb WvB AvBW
Kveb WvB AvBW, Avgvwbqv I cvwbi wewqvq Drcb nq Avgvwbqvg nvBWvRb KvebU|

imvqb

191

CO2 + N
H

+ H2O

H
N

4HCO3

Avgvwbqvg nvBWvRb KvebU

Rjxq `eY Avgvwbqvg nvBWvRb KvebU mvwWqvg KvivBWi mv_ wewqvq mvwWqvg nvBWvRb KvebU
Ges Avgvwbqvg KvivBW Drcb nq|
H
N

4HCO3

+ N
aCl

aHCO
N

H
N

4Cl

mvwWqvg nvBWvRb KvebU

mvwWqvg nvBWvRb KvebU Kjvmi~c Aatw nq| KjvmK msMn Ki Kiv nq Ges evRvi RvZ
Kiv nq|
mvwWqvg nvBWvRb KvebU Kxfve KK dvjvq :
KKi gq`vi mv_ mvwWqvg nvBWvRb KvebU (ewKs cvDWvi) wgwkq Dvc `Iqv nq| Zvc mvwWqvg
nvBWvRb KvebU weqvwRZ nq mvwWqvg KvebU, Kveb WvB AvBW I cvwb Drcb nq| Kveb WvB AvBW
Mvm gq`vK dywjq w`q Do hvq|
2N
aHCO

a 2CO3
N

CO2(g) + H

2O

mvwWqvg KvebU
aHCO 3 e`nRg mgmvi mgvavb `q| e` nRg mgmvq cvKwjZ AwZwi
mvwWqvg nvBWvRb KvebU N
aHCO 3 GB GwmWK ckwgZ Ki|
nvBWvKvwiK GwmW HCl Drcb nq| N
aHCO
wkv_xi KvR : cZxK I msKZi mvnvh Dchy ckgb wewqvwU wjL| Dj-L N
AavZz GB `ywU Avqb weqvwRZ nq|

3 avZz

Ges

evwoZ ev eKvwiZ cvDiwU dvjvbvi Rb B bvgK QvK eenvi Kiv nq| G Rb c_g wPwbi Mig `eY
B gkvbv nq| GB wgkY w`q gq`v gL `jv Ki D vb ivLj gq`vi `jv dvjZ _vK| gq`vi GB
dvjvi KviY Bi ^evZ kmb| B evZvmi AwRbmn kmb wqv Kivi mgq Kveb WvB AvBW Mvm
Drcb Ki| hv cvDiwUK dvjvZ mvnvh Ki| cvDiwU cwiwgZ cwigvY dvjvi co Ifb ewKs Kiv nq|
Dvc B gi hvq dj iwUi dvjv e nq|

C6H12 O6 + 6O2

6CO2(g) + 6H

2O(l) +

Zvckw

M-yKvR
wkv_xi KvR: c_Kfve ewKs cvDWvi Ges Bi mv_ gq`v gL iL `vI| wKQz mgq co GB gq`v
w`q KK evbvI| Dfq KKi ga Zzjbv Ki| KK `yBwUZ cv_K `Lv Mj Gi KviY evLv Ki|

3. wmiKv ev wfbMvi
wmiKv ev wfbMvi njv B_vbwqK GwmWi 5-5.0% Rjxq `eY| B_vbwqK GwmW Rjxq `eY AvswkK
weqvwRZ nq| dj Rjxq `eY Lye Kg msLK nvBWvRb Avqb Drcb nq| Gi coI B_vbwqK GwmWi

192

imvqb

Rjxq `eYi pH gvb 7 Gi Kg|

CH3-COOH + H2O

CH3 COO- + H+

Lv` `e hgb AvPvi msiYi Rb wfbMvi ev wmiKv eenvi Kiv nq| AvPvi cP hvIqvi Rb `vqx
evKUwiqv| wfbMvii B_vbwqK GwmWi H+ Avqb evKUwiqvi cvwUb I dvUK Av`wek-wlZ Ki| dj
evKUwiqv gi hvq| GZ Ki AvPvi cPbi nvZ _K iv cvq| gvQ, gvsm gwibU (gvQ, gvsmK njy`,
gwiP w`q iL `qv) Kivi RbI wmiKv ev wfbMvi eenvi Kiv nq| GwU cvwUbK fO dj ej ivbv
big I my^v`y nq|
B_vbwqK GwmWi cwZ: cixvMvi B_vbjK mvjwdDwiK GwmWi DcwwZZ cUvwmqvg WvB vgU viv
RvwiZ Ki B_vbwqK GwmW Drcb Kiv nq|
CH3-CH2OH

[O]

CH3CHO + H2O

[O]

CH3-CHO

CH3COOH + H2O

wk B_vBb ev AvwmwUwjb _K we B_vbwqK GwmW msk-lY Kiv nq| cUvwjqvgi Zvc weqvRb
Drcb B_vBb MvmK 60 oC Zvcgvvq D Ki 2% gviwKDwiK mvjdU I 20% jNy mvjwdDwiK
GwmWi Rjxq `eY Pvjbv Kiv nq| dj B_vbvj Drcb nq| G HgSO4 I jNy H2SO4 cfveK i~c
KvR Ki|
20% H2SO4

HC

CH

2% HgSO4, 60

CH3CHO + H2O

B_vbvjK gvvbvm GwmUU cfveKi DcwwZZ 60 oC Zvcgvvq evZvmi AwRb viv RvwiZ Ki
B_vbwqK GwmW Drcv`b Kiv nq|
CH3

CHO

Mn2+,60

CH3COOH

Avgv`i `k 30/35 eQi AvMI Mvgi jvKiv LRyii im iv` w`q g wfbMvi Zwi Ki AvPvi
msiY KiZv|
wkv_xi KvR :
Zvgv`i evwoZ ev cwZekxMY Avi Kvb Kvb Dcv`vb eenvi Ki Lv` msiY Kib Zvi GKwU
ZvwjKv Zwi Ki| ZvwjKvi Dcv`vbMyjvi pH gvb wbYq Ki| GB Dcv`vbmg~ni msiY Kkj mK
Zvgvi aviYv evLv Ki|
4. Kvgj cvbxq
cvjvI, wewiqvbx LvIqvi ci Kvi bv Vvv Kvgj cvbxq cvb Kivi BQv nq! Kvgj cvbxq njv cvwbZ Kveb
WvB cvjvI, wewiqvbx LvIqvi ci Kvi bv Vvv Kvgj cvbxq cvb Kivi BQv nq| Kvgj cvbxq njv cvwbZ
Kveb-WvB-A vBWi `eY| GZ AwZwi cwigvY wPwb `exf~Z _vK| Abvb DcKiY wgwkq wWsKmi eY I
^v` cwieZb Kiv nq| Vvv Aevq I DP Pvc cvwbZ Kveb WvB AvBW Mvm `exf~Z Kiv nq| Zvc ew