An Expository

Investigation into the

Effectiveness of Police
education

AEDT 4201 THESIS II

Robertson, James
3/24/2014

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Table of Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 2
Review of the Literature ............................................................................................................................... 4
Traditional Models of Police education .................................................................................................... 4
Newer training methods ........................................................................................................................... 7
Newer Theoretical Approaches .............................................................................................................. 10
Constructivism and Social Constructivism .......................................................................................... 10
Andragogy and adult learning theory ................................................................................................. 11
Experiential learning theory ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Communities of practice and situated learning theory ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Problem-based learning theory (PBL) .................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................................... 15
Literature Review: Summary .................................................................................................................. 15
Research Questions ................................................................................................................................ 16
Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 16
Findings ....................................................................................................................................................... 19
Finding #1 Traditional methods are not showing success ................................................................... 19
Finding #2 Newer Pedagogies are Showing Some Success .................................................................. 21
Finding #3 PBL is being used in combination with other pedagogies .................................................. 25
Finding #4 Digital technology is not yet a player in this field either in research or in instruction ...... 26
Finding #5 Systemic, organizational, and personal barriers to new programs .................................... 27
Summary of Findings............................................................................................................................... 28
Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 29
Recommendations .................................................................................................................................. 30
References and Works Cited ....................................................................................................................... 32


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Introduction

This research paper examines research and theory surrounding the use of PBL as a tool in
police education. This is a timely study and a study that is important. The modern day police
officer is expected to be a problem solver - a critical thinker whose responsibility is to keep
people safe both through the prevention of future crimes and through the response to current
infractions. Research from the past decade indicates that the current method of training police
personnel is flawed and is in need of an upgrade (Birzer, 2003; Cleveland, 2006; Croal, 2006;
McCoy, 2006). There is a disconnect between how officers are currently trained in academy
classrooms around the country and what is actually happening on the street (Shipton 2007;
Werth, 2009, 2011). This paper summarizes literature which identifies why the current
methodology is in need of revision and introduces a number of theories that are presented in the
literature as alternatives. The authors hypothesis is that if the education pedagogy is modified to
encourage learners to think critically then they will make better decisions in the field.
Research on the current method of training police officers is not perceived to encourage
officers to think critically; rather, it may produce an officer who struggles to determine what
information is relevant during a given situation (McCoy, 2006). Given the complexities of the
policing role, education which relies on knowledge transfer may not be present in the on-the-job
context. Officers need to be encouraged to think critically (Croal, 2006; Werth, 2011). Multiple
theorists (Birzer, 1999, 2003, Bradford & Pynes, 1999; Cleveland, 2006) argue that officers need
training that is directly applicable to the contexts and situations they experience on the job.
The literature review for this paper summarizes the issues reported in the research on the
current training methods used by police services in North America. In brief, the current methods
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reported in the literature rely on somewhat traditional, teacher-centered, lecture-based police
education classroom pedagogy that it is not seen to be adequate for the needs of the modern day
police officer (Cleveland and Saville, 2007; Cleveland, 2006; Vander Kooi, 2006). Next, the
review of the literature examines the results of a significant body of current research on
pedagogies that are new to the police education environment. Finally, the literature review
examines several theories and key theorists whose work forms the basis for new understandings
about training adults. Specifically, this paper summarizes the theories of Constructivism,
Andragogy or Adult Learning, Experiential Learning, Communities of Practice, and Problem-
Based Learning (PBL) as promising new pedagogies.
Next a theoretical framework is presented which summarizes these theories so as to
represent the lens through which the author evaluated the literature. The theoretical framework of
the pedagogies forms the basis for the detailed analysis of the research into newer methods of
training for policing. The research findings are a synthesis and analysis of where the field of
policing stands currently in terms of its adoption of these new pedagogies according to the
reported research.
The research questions guiding this investigation are:
1. What are the current pedagogies being utilized in police education?
2. How has success in these pedagogies been measured to date?
3. What are promising areas for further research in this area?
Following the reporting of the findings about promising pedagogies, the findings are
incorporated and consolidated into a model that also includes tools and affordances provided by
the emergence of digital technologies. These technologies include online and e-learning, virtual
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classrooms, digital simulations, and other technologies both synchronous and asynchronous
that can be utilized in the design of a digitally-enhanced police education curriculum.
Review of the Literature

This review of the literature shows that multiple researchers (Birzer, 2003; Birzer &
Tannehill, 2001; Bradford & Pynes, 1999; Cleveland & Saville, 2007; McCoy, 2006; Shipton,
2007, 2009; Weinblatt, 1999; Werth, 2011) find that traditional training for policing in multiple
jurisdictions has been in need of re-direction for decades. The need for critical decision-making
is one of several issues identified in the literature which point to the position that police
education techniques need to evolve toward more progressive police education models.
Traditional Models of Police Education

One issue in the literature is the need to move from a teacher-centered police education
model to a newer model that is both learner-centered and problem based (Birzer & Tannehill,
2001; McCoy, 2006). There are several issues identified with the traditional teacher-centered
approach: passive learner responses; poor follow-through to the work situation; insufficient
transfer to problem solving and decision making; and lack of applicability of the training to the
complexity of societys problems in the 21
st
century.
In the past, police education programs were lecture-centered (Birzer & Tannehill, 2001;
Birzer, 2003; Shipton, 2007, 2009). Bradford and Pynes (1999) identified more than a decade
ago that,
The analysis of the curricula of basic training academies reveals that little has
changed since 1986. Less than 3% of basic training academy time of the curricula
examined is spent in cognitive and decision-making domain, and the remaining
time is spent in task-oriented activities. (p.288)
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Bradford and Pynes define these task-oriented skills as training that instructs the recruits in
basic repetitive skills and conditioned responses which do not promote critical thinking skills
(1999, p.288).
Weinblatt (1999) also finds that a lecture orientation in police education results in
passive learning responses, such as, yawns, glazed eyes and bored faces (p.84). Cleveland and
Saville (2007) state that police academies and training are rooted in obsolete and counter-
productive practices long ago abandoned by educators and other occupational and professional
communities (p.3). According to Birzer (2003) policing has changed in its delivery of service to
the community, but despite these changes police education has remained fairly uniform and
has not responded to these changes (p.29). The present emphasis in police education is on
behavioral and militaristic training (Birzer, 2003) and these training techniques do not give the
trainees experience in solving problems. The police instructor is lecturing and transmitting
knowledge without knowing if learning has occurred (Birzer & Tannehill, 2001).
While Birzer (2003) and Shipton (2007, 2009) focus on police education, Weinblatt
(1999) has similar findings with respect to research on RCMP cadet training. Grant and Mealy
(2010) also find that the lecture method is used in police education in Washington State.
Weinblatt (1999) finds that the problem with rote memorization teaching methods in RCMP
training is that understanding is not established. Grant and Mealy (2010) on the other hand state
that Lecture surely has its place as a valuable tool in training but hundreds and hundreds of
hours of lecture is nobodys idea of a good time (para 3). Cleveland (2006) argues that lecturing
has a place in police education because it allows the front-loading of content but unfortunately
too much of it shuts down learning (p.2). He finds also that lecturing is the default mode of
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teaching, but that new requirements for policing also require new methods. He states, Lecturing
too often fails to challenge learners to move into higher-order thinking levels (p.2) and
concludes that if policing wants to recruit and retain problem solving individuals, the traditional
lecture with overhead slides needs to be abandoned (Cleveland, 2006).
A secondary issue with the lecture or transfer of specific content information is that
police officers in real life encounter complex situations on the job that require more than content
knowledge to address (Bradford & Pynes, 1999). Although calls for police service since the
1960s increasingly involve personal and interpersonal issues, the methods for police education
have not changed to reflect an emphasis on problem solving (Bradford & Pynes, 1999). Lepinski
(2005) support a problem-solving focus stating, We are in a profession full of grays. Very little
of what we do is truly black or white. So, it is impossible to train on every situation an employee
might encounter and every variable for that situation (p.2). Weinblatt (1999) also reports that
police education at the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) academy had previously been
erroneously based on the activity and not the decision-making that should direct the officers
response.
In summary, multiple researchers have come to the conclusion that what is needed
instead of the lecture method is an approach to training police officers that involves more
problem-solving and critical thinking (Birzer, 2003; Birzer & Tannehill, 2001; Bradford &
Pynes, 1999; Cleveland & Saville, 2007; McCoy, 2006; Werth, 2011). New directions for police
education are identified in the literature: for example, Shipton (2007, 2009) states that police
agencies should consider more learner-centered approaches that involve self-directed learning.
Weinblatt (1999) suggests an adult learning model that creates a continuous learning approach to
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a changing world. These more learner-centered approaches are discussed more fully in the next
section of the review of the literature.
Newer Training Methods

This section of the literature review outlines some promising newer training methods that
have been identified in the literature: adult learning theory (Knowles, 1984); scenario-based
learning (Werth, 2011); and problem-based learning (Barrows, 1996). According to Shipton
(2009), A range of authors suggest police education should make greater use of adult learning
principles that encourage a learner-centered approach, promoting critical thinking skills within
authentic learning contexts related to their policing duties (p.2).
Ideas about how adults learn were pioneered by Knowles (1984) who states that adults
learning is focused on what they need to learn in order to be successful in their professional and
personal lives. Cleveland (2006) identifies that adults need to be able to apply their knowledge in
practical ways in order for it to make sense to them, and that they need to be engaged by the
learning process in order for learning to occur. He states, Whether experienced or
inexperienced, adult learners who attend training want to be dedicated participants rather than
just obedient observers and passive listeners (p.3). The RCMP (2013) website has a
methodology webpage which states, Today's (training) methods focus on adult learning.
Kappelman (2009) in a review of literature on law enforcement training finds that it is gradually
moving away from lecture-based models toward andragogical (or adult learning) approaches in
order to increase critical thinking, problem-solving, and applicability toward the role.
Adult learning approaches consider the previous experience of the learner. Adults who
undertake training mid-career or post-secondary education bring with them both knowledge and
experience. According to Kappelman (2009),
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It is only when andragogical curriculum is designed in such a way to allow the
adult learners to share how their learning aligns with or departs from the learning
objectives that deep understanding of curriculum learning objectives can take
place. (p.3)

Birzer (2003) discusses applications of andragogy to police education and says that training
programs should help police identify and respond to the problems of todays society. For
example, community-oriented policing (COP) is an operational priority but in order for trainees
to learn COP they need to be able to discuss critically within the classroom and debate various
approaches. Birzer also suggests that trainees would benefit from self-directed group discussions
that are facilitated by the instructor. He also views case studies and scenarios as beneficial
learning tools. He concludes that andragogy presents an opportunity to more appropriately
facilitate police subjects in a real and experiential manner (p.35).
In summary, andragogy or the application of adult learning principles to police education,
presents opportunities to make police education more learner-centered (Shipton, 2009); helps to
promote critical thinking skills (Shipton, 2009); and connects more closely to authentic
experience (Birzer, 2003). Weinblatt (1999) identifies another approach to police education that
shows promise; the use of scenarios, case studies, and role playing.
Scenarios and case studies both add authenticity to training situations and give adult
learners opportunities to discuss and debate potential outcomes. According to Birzer (2003)
instructors should facilitate group discussions that will allow for debate and critical discussion.
These could also include simulation exercises where police officers act as the participants in an
authentic situation. He also finds that lecture techniques will be less effective over time in
teaching problem-solving and conflict resolution. An example provided by Birzer is to ask the
police trainees to design, conduct, and analyze a survey of a neighborhood. In this authentic task
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the trainer acts as a facilitator, or guide through the learning process, as opposed to a knowledge
repository.
Weinblatt (1999) reports that RCMP trainers use multiple scenarios as a means of
simulating the circumstances of an officers busy shift. Werth (2011) suggests that standard
scenario training might be helpful at the application level but what is really needed is the
construction of skills and competencies across various scenarios in order to move beyond
application to higher learning skills.
A third approach to adult learning that is consistently reflected in the reviewed literature
is problem-based learning (PBL). Barrows (1996) states that PBL originated at McMaster
Universitys School of Medicine in the late 1960s. Its birth was triggered by the realization that
students in medical education were generally dissatisfied with the way they were being taught.
Students were disenchanted and bored with their medical education (p.4) as they felt there was
too much information to memorize and no experience in applying it (Barrows, 1996). Students
enjoyed the residency component most of their medical education due to its provision for their
interaction with patients and the chance to solve real problems (Barrows, 1996).
Barrows explains that the primary characteristics of the original PBL are: that the
learning is student centered; that it involves small group work where teachers act as facilitators
or guides; that students are presented with authentic problems in the form of a scenario or case
study where the problem is not always completely defined; and that students should have to seek
out the information they deem to be required in order to solve the problem as they see it
making the learning self-directed (Barrows, 1996).
In summary, the research on the use of PBL in police education appears to show that in
each study the researchers were focusing in on one aspect, or theory. As a result, these studies
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employ multiple newer pedagogies such as: constructivism, experiential learning, communities
of practice and inquiry-based learning such as PBL. These foundational learning theories form
the basis for the theoretical framework for this research study. As a result, the next section of
the review of the literature is an investigation of some of the key theoretical understandings of
these newer pedagogies.
Newer Theoretical Approaches

The newer pedagogies that are included in this section of the literature review include
multiple key theorists who are cited in the literature on police education and whose ideas will
help to build a theoretical framework. These theorists include:
Vygotsky (1980) Constructivism and Social Constructivism
Knowles (1984) Andragogy and Adult Learning Theory
Kolb (1984) Experiential Learning
Lave and Wenger (1991) Situated Learning and Communities of Practice
Savin-Baden (2007) Online Problem-Based Learning

Constructivism and social constructivism. Vygotsky died in 1934, but despite the age of
his ideas they have recently come to prominence in terms of influencing progressive learning
theories (Daniels, 2002). Perhaps his most influential contributions come from his theory of
constructivism. In constructivism, the learner builds new knowledge using his or her past
experience as the foundation and context for the application of the new knowledge being
presented (Vygotsky, 1980). This concept of knowledge construction spawned a key derivative
of constructivism, called social constructivism. Daniels (2002) noted that Vygotskys main focus
was the education of children, or pedagogy, and examined the role of a childs teacher in the
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learning process. He referred to the teacher, or the expert, as the more knowledgeable other
and introduced the notion of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1980) in
which the person with the knowledge acts as a guide with steadily decreasing influence on the
learner. This concept, now referred to as scaffolding, is one key principle to Vygotskys social
constructivist theory. Shipton (2009) refers to scaffolding and Vygotskys ZPD when describing
the role of the police trainer in a PBL environment. He writes The trainer will need to employ
scaffolding at times to reduce cognitive load and keep the novice learners on track, whilst at the
same time developing their self-directed learning (p.60). Shipton also emphasizes the need for
the police trainer to ask questions of the recruits that encourage them to think critically about
their responses in training in order to encourage elaboration of their understanding and assist in
the construction of learning (p.61). Vygotsky believed strongly that knowledge was constructed
through social interactions. Policing is a field where social interactions, both with police peers
and public, are commonplace (Shipton, 2009).

Andragogy and adult learning. Knowles (1984) believes that adults learn differently from
children and therefore need to be taught differently. Knowles publishes six primary assumptions
about adult learning called Adult Learning Principles. The assumptions most relevant for
policing are as follows: 1) that adults bring life experience into the learning environment, 2) that
adults are self-directed and internally motivated, and 3) that adults need to use their experience to
create a context for the material they are learning (Knowles, 1984). Given that police officers are
all adult learners, Knowles principles are applicable to the training of police officers.

Experiential learning theory. Experiential learning is based on the premise that learning
occurs when the learner is directly exposed to the learning environment, and that students learn
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by doing (Kolb, 1984). Learning and development is based on personal and environmental
experiences, and that experience plays a central role in the learning process (Kolb, 1984). His
assumption is that students learn from experiences, and construct understanding during those
experiences (Kolb, 1984). Students experience AHA! moments as a result of reflecting on their
experiences. Kolb developed the Experiential Learning Model (ELM) (below). This model has
four stages that are sequential even though the learner can enter the model at any of the stages.

Kolb (1984)

It is interesting to note that Kolb makes no distinction about how the experience is created, and
notes that experiences may be constructed as an environment to apply a concept being learned, or
that experiences may be more spontaneous involving real-life, spontaneous encounters.

Communities of practice and situated learning theory. Lave & Wenger (1991) describe
situated learning as learning that occurs in the same context in which it will later be (or is
currently being) applied. They propose that learning is situated in a specific context that is
determined by the particular social and physical situation or environment in which it is
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experienced (Wenger, 1996). Similar to experiential learning, situated learning occurs when
learners can learn by doing, but builds on that idea by stating that learning occurs within a
community of like-minded learners with similar learning objectives. Within a community of
practice, community members learn by watching others, sharing ideas, and critically dialoging
while the community tries to solve a shared problem (Wenger, 1997). The life experiences of the
members of the community provide the basis for idea sharing and, in essence, allow the entire
group to learn from any one members experience (Lave and Wenger, 1991). Communities of
practice exist everywhere especially in policing, where officers of various rank and experience
work together towards the common goal of solving a problem such as catching a criminal or
preventing crime. An authentic example in policing may be senior officers who have better
knowledge of applicable laws who may work with lower rank officers who are more familiar
with the dynamic situations on the street.

Problem-based learning theory (PBL). PBL was originally developed by Howard Barrows
at McMaster University in the late 1960s as a response to the problem of his medical students
feeling frustrated at being presented with information but not being able to apply it (Savin-
Baden, 2007). Barrows (1996) noted that his students felt that the absence of any authentic
context caused the students to lack focus and led to problems with retention and performance. He
decided to build on some learning theories that promoted the creation of context to simulate the
experience and combined that with the ideas around group work and social learning. PBL is the
result. Barrows believes that a PBL environment should include 5 components:
1. Complex, real world situations that have no one right answer are the organizing focus
for learning.
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2. Students work in teams to confront the problem, to identify learning gaps, and to develop
viable solutions.
3. Students gain new information though self-directed learning.
4. Staff act as facilitators.
5. Problems lead to the development of clinical problem-solving capabilities.
Savin-Baden (2007) placed an emphasis on the role of the teacher as a guide, or facilitator,
who observes and intervenes when the learning direction may not be consistent with the learning
goals of the class (Savin-Baden, 2007). In a PBL environment, a complex, authentic (real-life)
problem is presented to the students and there are a myriad of ways the students may perceive
and approach the problem (Barrows, 1996). Solutions to the problem are therefore equally
diverse. The students learn by working with each other to solve problems they are likely to
encounter in the workplace or in everyday life. Similar to the medical field, police officers are
expected to be problem solvers, yet are not being allowed to develop the cognitive tools that will
allow them to think critically.
PBL as an innovative educational approach responds to some of the issues identified
earlier in this literature review with respect to lecture-based, traditional police education.
Barrows (1996) maintains, The (PBL) method is perceived as the solution to the many problems
in education, such as the current tendency to produce students who cannot think or solve
problems and who are bored with education (p.10). Based on the promise of PBL to build
problem-solving skills, multiple researchers consider how PBL might be applied to police
education (Cleveland & Saville, 2007; Shipton, 2009; Stargel, 2009).


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Literature Review: Summary

This review of the literature summarizes the issues identified with traditional
methods of police education and presents a summary of the arguments for the use of new
pedagogies in police education. The learning theorists who are the most prominent in the police
education research have been summarized. Based on this review of the literature, several
research questions were raised and these are explained in the section that follows.

Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework was developed to guide the research on the uses of the newer
pedagogies in policing. Each of the newer pedagogies were considered in the research analysis.

PBL
Adult
learning
theory
Adnragogy
Communities
of practice
Experiential
learning
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Research Questions

The research for this paper is guided by the following research questions:
1. What are the current pedagogies being utilized in police education?
2. How has success in these pedagogies been measured to date?
3. What are promising areas for further research in this area?
Methodology

Available research on the applications of newer pedagogies to policing is examined here
while also examining how the learning theories in the theoretical framework have been
connected to these training approaches. Specifically, this research study examines the literature
on how these theories are being used, or have been used, in various police education
environments. As this is a paper based solely on secondary research, it relies on the research and
findings in several scholarly research papers and articles.
In order to answer these research questions this paper follows a process of engaging in
secondary research. Through this process I created the following table which outlines the
researchers in this field as well as their particular research focus. For a more detailed research
table, please see Appendix A.

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Table 1.1 Research Table with Primary and Secondary Theoretical Focus
Study Primary Secondary Research Method Notes
Croal (2006) PBL
Adult Learning
Theory
(Andragogy)
Edmonton Police Service .
Used a community-based
action approach
through 2
surveys (pre
and post) and
focus groups
Werth
(2011) PBL
Kolb -
Experiential
Learning
Interviews with
trainers/facilitators and
supervisors. Students get
electronic survey
heavily reliant
on scenario-
based learning
McCoy
(2006)
Adult
Learning
Theory
(Andragogy) PBL
Surveys and interviews
with POST instructors
85 surveys and
21 interviews
Birzer
(2003)
Adult
Learning
Theory
(Andragogy)
Community of
Practice, and
also PBL
group work to create
surveys and evaluate
results
secondary
research
Cleveland &
Saville
(2007) PBL
Emotional
Intelligence,
some
Andragogy
surveys distributed - phone
interviews and focus
groups to obtain
qualitative data
research
project funded
by C.O.P.S. and
DOJ
Shipton
(2009) PBL
Constructivism
- Scaffolding
and ZPD secondary research (n/a)
Weinblatt
(1999) PBL
Kolb -
Experiential
Learning
interviews with
trainers/facilitators and
supervisors
heavily reliant
on scenario-
based learning


The bulk of the research material was located through database searches and guided by library
personnel at both UOIT and Fanshawe College. Through affiliations with both institutions, I was
able to access several books, journals, articles, and other scholarly works. Most of the research
18

documents were in electronic form, although some articles were not accessible by methods that
were free of cost and therefore were not utilized in this paper.
Another valuable source of information came through electronic and phone
communication with contacts who have expertise in this subject. These contacts were found
through networking opportunities as a result of joining the Police Society for Problem-Based
Learning (PSPBL) website as an online member. Although there was a cost to this membership it
has proven fruitful in terms of accessing scholarly papers and making useful contacts who have
expertise in the field of police education and specifically the research around police PBL.
Also very relevant and productive were the searches conducted via online search engines
such as Google Scholar. These searches often revealed sources and research work that was not
publicly available but could be acquired. Once acquired, many of these sources identified and
cited other primary works that helped to establish a fulsome body of peer-reviewed research.
Several key search words and phrases were used to collect and aggregate initial findings. Terms
such as Problem-based learning, police education, Andragogy, police teaching, PTO,
police education, Police PBL, and Police Recruit training.
The research used in this study included thesis publications, peer-reviewed articles, books
and websites. The primary research topic was police education, while a secondary topic emerged
in the form of Adult Learning Theory and Andragogy. Once acquired, documents were sorted by
whichever theories predominantly guided that particular research. Most documents fell into one
of the five theorists in the theoretical framework. Research papers were also sorted by separating
primary research studies from secondary research papers.
This paper defines primary research as new research that is done first-hand by a
researcher with a goal to answer a specific issue or research questions. Some examples of
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primary research encountered include questionnaires, surveys, or interviews with individuals or
small focus groups. Secondary research makes use of information previously researched for
other purposes and publicly available. This is also known as 'desk research'. Secondary research
includes published research reports in a library, surveys or the Internet. It can also include
scientific reports produced by medical councils, universities or government, for example, the
Community Oriented Police Services (COPS) within the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ).

Research articles and theses were initially scanned and skimmed with a focus initially on the
abstract and, if appropriate, the introduction and conclusion. If, after this preliminary scan, the
article appeared relevant to the topic of PBL in Police education and that it may contain
information relevant to this papers research questions, it was saved and legally printed.
Findings

There were several significant conclusions that were common and consistent across all of the
research studies. They are outlined in the five sections below.
Finding #1 Traditional Methods Are Not Showing Success

Traditional, teacher-centered pedagogy based on behaviorist learning theory is not preparing
officers for the job. Birzer and Tannehill (2001) identify that, Police academies place an
enormous emphasis on enforcement and the mechanical techniques of the job (p.236). They
speak to behavior techniques as constituting less than 10% of patrol activity. They state:

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The problem is that behavioral techniques do not account for the students past
experiences in solving problems. The police instructor who merely lectures and
pours knowledge into the trainee is nave to think that effective learning occurred
(p.237)

Bradford and Pynes (1999) identify that the problem-solving requirements of community-
oriented policing necessitate extensive cognitive and reasoning aptitudes and effective
interpersonal skills and judgment. These characteristics do not appear to be given a high priority
in most training curricula (p.297). They further state that inexperienced police officers are being
thrust into an environment that requires them to use skills and knowledge not developed in
basic training (p.297). Birzer and Tannehill (2001) identify that this (traditional) type of training
environment is not conducive to participation on the part of the trainee or to the development of
thinking police officers who can make appropriate decisions (p.234). McCoy (2006) elaborates
stating, police education does little to promote the acquisition of essential non-technical
competencies such as problem solving, judgment, and leadership (p.79). McCoy further
informs, The philosophical foundations of law enforcement education and training have not
followed the shift to community policing. A shift in educational philosophy from a teacher-
centered approach to a learner-centered approach will be required to make this transition (p.79)
Cleveland and Saville (2006) add to that sentiment in even stronger wording, Traditional
mimetic, rigid and militaristic training serves only the interests of those committed to
marginalizing and confining policing agencies to reactive policing (p.29)
Despite many negative findings relating to the traditional approach, several researchers
acknowledge that there is a place for lecturing in the classroom. Cleveland (2006) identifies that
lecturing cannot be eliminated. It has its place in front-loading knowledge; but too much of it
shuts down learning (p.2). Cleveland concludes by stating that the continued use of outdated
21

teaching methods is similar to equipping new officers with obsolete equipment. Weinblatts
(1999) study of the RCMPs PBL-based cadet training program identifies that of the 900 hours
of cadet training, there are only four hours of lecture. Shipton (2009) cites Croals findings that
there is a need for the blended or hybrid PBL model and recommends some use of lectures,
web-based facilities and non-PBL tutorials to support a weekly PBL cycle (p.62). In summary,
while there are researchers who do not support the lecture model, others see it can be usedful
occasionally.

Finding #2 Newer Pedagogies are Showing Some Success

Uniformly, the research articles and studies examined demonstrated positive results when
officers and instructors are exposed to PBL-based training methods. These methods bear a
variety of names, but all equate to the same thing a new training philosophy with PBL at the
core. Some studies called it the PTO model (Police education Officer) as it replaces the former
Field Training Officer (FTO) model. Other studies called their training Police Officer Standards
Training (POST), and Croal (2006) refers to his study as being modeled after Ernest Stringers
community-based action research (p.38). In the studies where adult learning theory was a
component of their theoretical framework, they refer to Adult Learning Theory, Andragogy, and
PALS (Principles of Adult Learning Scale). Where experiential learning is a theoretical
underpinning, the researchers refer to their studies as being scenario-based, and use terms such
as role playing, tabletop exercises, and in-field studies.
The common thread throughout these studies is the positive impact that exposure to a
PBL environment has on the students. Shipton (2009) identifies that according to the students,
the research suggests that compared with traditional instruction, PBL is more nurturing and
22

enjoyable. (p.59) and it also assists students in retaining knowledge for longer periods. Lastly,
Shipton finds that students demonstrate better problem-solving skills and they generally
preferred using PBL. According to Shipton (2007) policing students exposed to PBL show an
increased willingness to participate in groups, and learn group dynamics.
Werths (2011) research exposed students to what he refers to as problem-based learning
exercises. Werths research is postulated on the premise of experiential learning and scenario
(which he also refers to as interactive) training. He states, Information provided by students
and staff suggests that the program is achieving its intended goals (p.337). He also postulates,
the return on investment is greater if students can simultaneously practice specific policing
competencies and general thinking skills (p.337), and concludes that students were showing
improvements in both communication skills and teamwork. Werth says that, "A majority of
students who completed the PBLE thought that the program helped them develop better
problem-solving, decision-making, communication and multi-tasking skills" (p.333). Students
also reported "that the program helped them learn new skills, retain information taught in a
classroom setting, and bridge the gap between knowledge of concepts and practical application
of those concepts in the field." (p.333) Lastly, Croals (2006) work with the Edmonton Police
Service finds that through learner-centered training, the learners feel more empowered,
respected and valued (p.69).
Similarly, Weinblatt (1999) indicates, the RCMP trainers go even further then individual
scenarios and link up multiple situations back to back just as a busy shift might be (p.89). In
fact, the cadet training programs final exams are all scenarios.

23

Lepinski (2005) reports, PBL is a perfect fit with law enforcement. I have never
witnessed such results from any other approach to learning as I have with PBL (p.2). Similarly,
Weinblatt reports that Field-based RCMP coaches (referred to as field training officers in the
U.S.) report that assessment scores have skyrocketed for constable graduates of the new training
model (p.85). Cleveland (2006) concludes that The PBL model is the exact process that law
enforcement officers use (naturally) every day to solve problems (p.5). Many law enforcement
agencies across the United States and Canada have transitioned to a problem-based learning
training model (Lepinski, 2005). Shipton (2009) studies the results of a pilot PBL program by the
Calgary Police Service. His study shows that, Recruits indicated improvements in written
exams and scenario assessments, with suggestions the PBL students were taking a more critical
approach to their learning (p.6). Despite the positive findings, Shipton (2009) maintains,
Literature relating to the use of PBL in police education is limited (p.6).
Several researchers offer support for the use of PBL in policing and explain how this
approach seems to work for adult learners and for police education. Weinblatt (1999) recognizes
that the medical and policing fields have significant similarities. His interview with Dr. Frum
Himelfarb who, at the time of the interview was the officer in charge of the Learning and
Development Branch for the RCMP, elaborates on this. Weinblatt quotes Himelfarb when she
proposes that Medicine is similar to police work in that both had been reactive but in recent
years have become proactive (p.87). She also claims, Both necessitate partnering with the
patient, or community, to come up with diagnosis and preventative measures. Both have some
activities involving emergency situations where life and death decisions must be made quickly
and accurately (p.87).
24

Cleveland (2006) expands on this idea about complexity when he states that every police
call is unique, and therefore requires a different response. He further states that in a PBL learning
environment, the learners, as responding officers, need to consider a variety of possible
solutions. Because the problems are not easily solved, they challenge the student and promote
critical thinking skills (2006, p.4). Grant and Mealy (2008) further claim, A typical call on
patrol requires simultaneous understanding and application of all these subjects. Now our
curriculum will mirror that reality (para 9).
Shipton (2007) also identifies the need for police officers to be critical thinkers, saying,
Police work is fraught with constant decision making, especially in Western countries where
tactical decision-making and discretion is delegated to the lowest ranks (p.1). He also maintains
that the police role is complex and critical, and requires problem solving skills that are best
acquired through independent learning (Shipton, 2007).
Weinblatt (1999) who conducted the majority of his research by evaluating the RCMP shift to a
PBL training model, notes the need for policing students to find answers on their own much as
they would have to on the street (p.84). Lepinski (2005) quotes Mike Mitchell, a former police
education officer as saying Simply responding to problems in modern police work isnt enough;
now the focus must be that of problem solvers, which is not only expected by the chiefs of today
but also demanded from the public that we serve(p.6).
Overall, the body of reported research and findings of PBL-based studies in police
environments is not backed up by empirical evidence but rather case studies, interviews, and
other qualitative data. In fact, as Cleveland and Saville (2007) point out, there is a double
standard when measuring the success of inquiry-based training programs as compared to
traditional programs in that there is an emphasis and expectation of statistical proof for PBLs
25

success, yet no such standard of evidence is required to justify the continued use of the
traditional models.

Finding #3 PBL is being used in combination with other pedagogies

As the following Venn diagram illustrates, none of the studies examined employed PBL theory
in isolation each study had a secondary learning theory underpinning the research. This
suggests that PBL, used in combination with other fundamental theories, shows some promise.

Figure 1.1 Other Learning Theories as Complimentary to PBL

26

Finding #4 Digital technology is not yet a player in this field either in research or in
instruction

Interestingly, despite the significant role digital technology (DT) plays in the day-to-day lives of
police and law enforcement, almost no DT is reported in use for police education. One exception
to this are the practical simulations intended to foster practical skills such as marksmanship, and
vehicle operations. The only agency that seems to be proactively using DT is RCMP, who have
been using WebCT since 2006 to provide certain courses to its officers however, despite the
proliferation of PBL principles in the RCMP classroom settings, PBL is not a component of the
curriculum in the online LMS. According to BusinessWire (2006) RCMP will be able to create
communities of practice (COPs) that enable personnel in the same specialty to know who's
online at any given instant and share information in chat and asynchronous discussion groups.
The article referenced that the majority of the WebCT courses are content-based, and do not
appear to support any online collaborative tools.
In summary, digital technology is not a player in the area of police education (either in
research or in instruction), and there is very little recognition of the affordances it provides. To
demonstrate this interesting finding, of the number of scholarly research studies and articles
reviewed in this paper; only one of the over 30 articles examined mentions of digital technology.
Despite the apparent exclusion of digital technology from police education research, there are
strong arguments for its use in this environment. Savin-Baden (2007) identifies that the potential
for PBL as an online learning tool is largely untapped by several industries who might benefit
from its use.
27


Finding #5 Systemic, organizational, and personal barriers to new programs

All of the studies that examined learning, and perception of learning, showed success and
positive results, yet despite the positive findings, there were also significant barriers identified.
These barriers relate primarily to a systemic preference to the traditional, teacher-focused
method of instruction. Croal (2006) finds there is still significant support within the Edmonton
Police Service for what he called the "paternalistic leadership model" (p.69). Shipton (2007)
finds that students exhibit some initial frustration and confusion in adapting to this learning
style (p.5). Birzer (2003) comments that, There will always be those police trainers who cling
to the notion that we should not tamper with what has worked in the past (p.31). McCoy (2006)
finds that, a common theme (among faculty) was the perception that the very nature of the
curriculum, the legal requirements, and the time allotted for instruction limited the instructional
methods that could be used. (p.83)
Cleveland and Saville (2007) recognize that much of the training received at the academy
can be undone as soon as the rookie officer gets into a cruiser with his or her coach, or mentor,
officer. They state the training officer turns to her in the patrol car and says the infamous words
repeated by police trainers everywhere: Forget what you just learned in the academythis is
where your learning really begins (p.5). The influence that senior officers have on younger
officers may taint their willingness to use and participate in training. This is an example of what
several researchers called the police subculture, or Blue Wall. Cleveland and Saville (2007)
capture the concept by stating police subculture is the basis for resistance to change (p.9)

28


Summary of Findings

Five key themes emerged in the research. They were:
1. There is a large body of evidence to indicate a shift in the field of police education from
traditional police education approaches to more progressive learning pedagogies based on
PBL and adult learning principles.
2. Newer pedagogies are showing some success (measured qualitatively). There is little
empirical (quantitative) evidence of the efficacy of the PBL-based training programs.
3. In most new programs, PBL is being used in combination with other pedagogies based on
emerging learning theories. This has resulted in a philosophical trend away from
traditional in favor of PBL alongside other progressive learning theories.
4. Digital technology is not a player in the area of police education (either in research or in
instruction), and there is very little recognition of the affordances that are made available
for use.
5. Systemic, organization and personal barriers to implementing newer forms of training
programs exist.

Research shows that all of these application are focusing in on PBL being complimented by
another learning theory rather than approaching PBL as part of a consolidated theory of multiple
newer pedagogies. No one researcher synthesizes the multiple theories very well. Each
researcher takes a different lens to applying PBL in police education.

29

Conclusion and Recommendations

This research study set out to respond to research questions about police education pedagogies
and it has. A review of the literature showed that there are some very exciting things happening
in the area of police education. It appears the literature is catching up with the practice. The
literature has shown that the expectations of police officers and of police services have increased
beyond traditional arrive-and-arrest teaching approaches, and yet the training methods still seem
to focus on practical skills. Behavioral and practical skills should no longer be the area of
emphasis when training new officers receive at the police academy.
Community Policing initiatives have pushed the industry into recognizing the value of
problem solving, and has given birth to the Problem Oriented Policing paradigm that guides most
police services. In response to this new paradigm, police services need to change the way they
train new officers. As officers encounter increasingly complex situations, they need to be
equipped with the cognitive skills to think critically and solve problems.
Progressive learning theories such as andragogy, social constructivism, experiential
learning, and communities of practice are slowly being recognized as foundations on which
trainers can develop new programs like the RCMPs Cadet Training Program and the US P.T.O.
and POST program. The one component each of these programs has is common is that they are
all anchored by a Problem-based learning pedagogical approach. Every case examined however,
included PBL in conjunction with some other progressive learning theory. Not surprisingly, these
new pedagogies have shown positive results in terms of knowledge building, learning,
participation, engagement and the overall development of higher order thinking skills.
Also of note was the finding that despite the growing body of research and the increased
dependence the policing has on digital technology as a practical law enforcement tool, very few
30

researchers advocate for its use in the area of officer training or workplace learning. There is still
a long way to go before the barriers to implementing this level of change can be overcome.
Barriers such as attitudes, organizational learning, and personal bias will need to be addressed
before true uptake of any new training pedagogy will occur.

Recommendations

An examination of the research on the topic of problem-based learning in policing reveals
several recommendations three that are worthy of note. The first is that there is ample evidence
that the problem-based learning pedagogy can be the core of any new training programs. The
main justification for this recommendation is that the research demonstrates that PBL-based
programs encourage recruits and trainees to think critically. It is an environment that promotes
problem solving through the use of what Bloom (1956) refers to as higher order thinking skills,
or HOTS. These higher order thinking skills, such as analysis, evaluation, and creation, are
needed constantly by officers during every shift. Werth (2011) writes, Students need the
opportunity to develop and practice analysis, synthesis, and evaluation skills as described by
Bloom (p.338). However, PBL alone may not be sufficient, as every study examined used PBL
in conjunction with some other learning theory. Given the range of learners and learning types, it
is recommended that a consolidation of these theories be studied. An example of this type of
theory consolidation might be a model built using a curriculum that incorporates learning
principles from andragogy, experiential learning, and PBL.
A second recommendation would be to begin incorporating digital technology in more
police education programs. Of all the police services referenced in this document, only the
RCMP appears to have expanded significantly into the online arena to offer course materials
31

(http://www.cpkn.ca/node/633). The Canadian Police Knowledge Network, CPKN, recently
released their National E-Learning Inventory. Only the Durham Regional Police Service has
attempted to incorporate PBL in their e-learning offerings (Sutcliffe, 2013). Given the ever-
increasing affordances and tools available through advances in digital technology, publicly-
funded police services should continue to research the potential of this rich and rewarding
learning environment.

More research is needed on police education. Cleveland and Saville (2007) capture this point
eloquently when they write, We are struck by the absence of rigorous evaluation data or
demands for it in regards to other police education programs (p.44). They also state that the
traditional training model, despite widespread adoption, has never been subject to rigorous
evaluation. Shipton (2011) notes that Research from the interpretive and critical perspectives
within police education programs worldwide has been limited (p.17). Croal (2006) echoes this
research gap when he writes, Further research into the strategic processes of
long-term implementation will be required if problem-based learning is fully adopted
within (recruit training) (p.84). Given that the genesis of these programs is still so recent, both
qualitative and quantitative follow-up evaluations are needed to assess the viability of PBL as an
appropriate learning tool for law enforcement.

32

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